Baroque painting two centuries of masterpieces from the era preceding the dawn of modern art (art eb by atölye.fresko

Two centuries of masterpieces

from the era preceding the

dawn of modern art *'

Boston Public Library

Digitized by the Internet Archive in

2012

http://www.archive.org/details/baroquepaintingtOOzuff

BAROQUE PAINTING

••

•

'/?-

BAROQUE PAINTING Two centuries of masterpieces

from the era preceding the

dawn of modern art

BARRON'S

JP BR

ND177 .P5813 1999* Editor:

Stefano Zuffi

lconographic research: Francesca Castria Texts by Francesca Castria

(the chapters on France

and Stefano

and Great Britain)

Zuffi

(the chapters on Spain, Italy, Flanders, Holland,

Germany, and Austria) English translation:

Mark Eaton,

Felicity

Lutz, Paul Metcalfe for Scriptum,

Rome

Front cover:

Frans Hals The Laughing Cavalier, detail

1624 on canvas, 32% x 26'/2 in. (83 x 67.3 cm)

oil

Wallace Collection, London

On the first pages: Anthony van Dvck Three Children of the detail,

Franchi Family,

1627

on canvas, x S9'/2 in. (219x 151 cm)

oil

86»/4

National Gallery,

London

Diego Velazquez Las Meninas,

1656 on canvas,

detail, oil

122 x 108% in. (310 x 276 cm) Prado, Madrid

Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin Girl tilth Racket

and

Shuttlecock,

detail, oil

(81

on canvas, 32 x x 65 cm)

Uffizi,

25'/2 in.

Florence

1999 by Electa, Milan,

Italy

Editori Associati

English version

1999 bv Barron's Educational Series, Inc.

part of this

without the written permission of the copyright owner. All inquiries should

be addressed to:

Barron's Educational Series, Inc. 2

50 Wireless Boulevard

Hauppauge, NY 11788 http: // www.barronseduc.com International Standard

Book Number: 0-7641-5214-9 Number: 99-735 31

Library of Congress Catalog

Printed

in Italv

987654321

;

//#*

^^H

VST* '

IP Ssssr:

:"W

six

t.J-a'^

and eighteenth

This volume presents the great adventure of Western painting in the seventeenth

and complex period

centuries through the phases oj a rich

standpoint as"Baroque."This adjective

when

it is

still

nhcd from the

cultural

to be understood here in the general sense as defining

rather than pinpointing the character of individual artists

vaguely negative connotation

that can he dc\<

and movements.

It is

an era

essential to dismiss the

attached to the word "baroque" in ordinary language and opinion,

used to indicate something excessive, exaggerated, or overpowering.

many

the contrary, the Baroque era wasjor

countries a period of splendor, "the golden century"

for culture and the economy. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries witnessed the formation

and consolidation of the strong and

clearly recognizable national identities underpinning the present

geopolitical configuration of Europe

and America.

Manyfundamental

breakthroughs in thought and science date back to these two centuries, especially

method

the concept of using a systematic

gain knowledge of the universe surrounding

us.

The almost

simultaneous invention of the telescope and the microscope symbolizes the desire to go beyond what can be seen with the naked eye, to use

new

tools to tackle a world that eludes the senses, but that can be

conquered by the mind.

As the"art of the humanists and

drawing upon

measures itself against the advances in science and in turn pushes

visible," painting

itself beyond the limits artists

of the consolidated rules and the harmonious canons of the Renaissance. While

had long endeavored

to establish the rules

art of extreme emotion, often inspired by the theater, the spectacle, but

of Shakespeare,

also ready to in

plumb

new

the depths of the

Baroque

human

step

beyond these limitations. An

strives for the

"wonder" of unexpected

soul as never before. As in the tragedies

Baroque painting magnificent and turbidfigures from the past become anguished

and unfailingly "modern" images

Maybe

and canons of beauty and elegance by

Baroque marked a courageous

classical antiquity, the

human feelings, fear, and

misery.

the greatest innovation of Baroque art lies not "inside"the painting

role assigned to the viewer.

From Caravaggio

itself,

but outside

on, the person looking at the painting was

in the

no longer

an extraneous "spectator" but an "eyewitness" present at the time and place of the events depicted.

The protagonists of this volume are among the greatest masters of art of all great figures, the seventeenth

and eighteenth

centuries boast a whole series

contributed toward forming the figurative climate the volume

made between

and

artistic culture

time, but alongside the

of impressive

artists

of their nations. For

who

this reason,

organized in terms of the national schools of the different countries, with a distinction the seventeenth

and eighteenth

England that we have included the first Royal Academy in London.) We thus seek

centuries. (It

artists

of the United

to facilitate a

only in the case of eighteenth-century States,

who

received their training at the

knowledge and understanding of painting

which the most extraordinary masterpieces are never the lone, isolated result of a sudden outburst of creative genius, but emerge from a

complex climate, from a historical and intellectual context, which

they then come to epitomize and symbolize. The

common

of Rome, the cultural exchanges, and the

of artists

travels

points of reference, including the great myth

and works of art, mark the constant new emotions and discoveries.

stimulating cross-fertilization in an era that continues to offer

ÂŁ Oh

<u 9^1 ^^3i 'fc

BHg.^^1

^BIWB

^^^^k Diego Velazquez Las Hilanderas (The Myth of Arachne), detail c.

1653

on canvas, 86V2X 116% in. (220 x 289 cm) oil

Prado, Madrid

W^<Z

the history of art and literature, the seventeenth

century

"Golden Cen-

for Spain el sigh de oro, the

tury" of cultural glory that makes the Spanish nation

an indispensable point of reference for any understanding of the anxieties, projects, unrest, and splendor

of this controversial and fascinating era.

so in Spain than anywhere else, the seventeenth

century was one of glaring contradictions, where apparently irreconcilable manifestations and

phenomena coex-

and indeed provided extraordinary inspiration for

isted,

poets and painters.

we observe

the historical situation,

the decline of the universal powers of the emperors of

Madrid this

is,

in fact, quite evident. In

turn of events,

order to understand

we must go back to the

century, and precisely to the year 1548. the great Charles

V won

mid-sixteenth

was then

a decisive victory in the

that

bloody

and exhausting war of religion against the German Protestant princes. Unimaginable wealth began to flow in

from the overseas colonies with the precious metals

from Central and South America

(like

the proverbial

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

gold of Peru). The proud crest chosen by Charles V

the

Columns of Hercules and the motto Plus Ultra had a very real significance. The image of the emperor and his artistic tastes were expressed to the highest degree by Titian,

pintor primero, in a series of masterpieces exe-

cuted during

a relationship lasting decades.

Exhausted by

a life

ical strain

of incredible physical and psycholog-

and by ruling for more than thirty years over

an empire "on which the sun never

set,"

ed to abdicate in 1556, and arranged such

way

empire

as to split the

trian" part, entrusted to his

Charles V decidhis succession in

effectively into an "Aus-

nephew Ferdinand, and

"Spanish" part (including the Italian colonies of Naples

and Milan

as well as all the

trusted to his son, Philip

(who died

II.

American possessions), enIt was the reign of Philip II

598) that began the historical phase char-

acterized by the gradual loss of power, introverted bureaucratic retrenchment, and the increasingly elephantine

and remote administrative management of a totter-

ing empire.

was to take centuries, right up to the wars in the American states, but the fall of

of independence

the Spanish empire, paradoxically accompanied and

most underscored by impressive architectectural tives, 10

al-

initia-

began during the second half of the sixteenth cen-

tury. This state of

pomp

and decline was to be portrayed

Opposite page: Francisco de Zurbaran St. Casilda c.

oil

1640 on canvas,

72V4 x 35'/2 in. (184 x90cm) Prado, Madrid

in masterly fashion

from

Greco

by the greatest painters

in Spanish art,

to Velazquez, and by the seventeenth-

century writers (Cervantes, Gongora, Tirso de Molina,

and Quevedo). There

—

the huge,

palace-museum-cemetery

came

model

the

painting

— and

between the gloomy sanctuary-

a striking parallel

growth of the Escorial

by Philip

built

II,

which be-

for architectural style, sculpture, and

most important mil-

the total failure of the

campaign launched by the emperor, namely, the

itary

foolhardy attempt to invade England with the Invencible

Armada, the slow, ostentatious

fleet

routed by the English

ships in 1588. For the first time since the heroic days of

the

performed by the Catholic King Ferdinand

feats

against the

Moors

Granada, proud Spain experienced

drastic, unmitigated military defeat.

The Spanish war ma-

which had fought back with pride

chine,

the Battle of

Lepanto, but could not quell the drive for independence in the

northern Netherlands, received a mortal wound.

While Spain gave Catholicism the impassioned soaring mysticism, and the organizational figures such as Ignatius of Loyola

and

St.

voice, the

commitment of

Theresa of Avila,

the psychological, military, and political scenario

was

changing, together with the course of art, as the sixteenth

century drew to

a close. The turning point in the field came mainly through the extraordinary creative vein of a painter of bizarre genius, Domenikos Theotokopoulos, known as El Greco. Born on the island

which he executed huge, magnificent paintings where

of Crete, then a Venetian possession, El Greco arrived in

the influence of the Italian masters gradually gives

Toledo

an astounding, remarkable, visionary

of painting

the age of thirty-six with a rich artistic experi-

Rome

way

oil

new

With

High Renaissance (Titian, Michelangelo, and Tintoretto). The works painted in

tional

dimension that more than makes up for the not so

masters

Italv,

little

warning of the violent passions,

and emotions that were to erupt

he settled

in Spain. El

temperament was torical

in contact

Italian

however, gave

feelings,

after

of the

in his paintings

Greco's high-strung, mystical

able to identify perfectly with the his-

and cultural context

which he found himself.

The intense, "extreme" emotions expressed by the painter were portrayed against the background of Castile, and reverberated with

still

greater intensity and conflict. El

Greco put himself forward his services to Philip

II,

Greco

1609 on canvas,

creativity.

with the great

ence gained in Venice and

Fray Hortensio Felix de Paravicino

as a painter-courtier, offered

and sought to enter the

artistic

Greco, Spanish painting entered

interna-

period of the sixteenth century. At the same

brilliant

time,

must be admitted

particular and fragile in

that El Greco's style

its

—

so very

intimate equilibrium, pushed

to the limit of artistic verve, but without falling into the

trap of absurdity or exaggeration followers.

The great painting of

mary point of reference

—had

el siglo

in Velazquez,

practically

de oro has

its

no pri-

an absolutely out-

standing figure and one of the seventeenth century's leading international artists. Unlike El Greco, the preco-

cious and highly cultivated talent of the master from Seville

soon

won

explicit

official

recognition.

workshop of the Escorial, but the sovereign's response was cool and the painter was relegated to the sidelines.

decades Velazquez was the court painter, but

His art was mainly devoted to the churches of Toledo, for

beginning and ending with the supply of works of

Philip IV

were not confined to

his ties

For with

a simple, cold relationship art.

44'/2 x (1

33%

in.

13 x 86 cm)

Museum Boston

of Fine Arts,

Diego Velazquez

Diego Velazquez Mercury ana Argus 1659 oil on canvas, 50 x 97% in. (127x 248 cm) Prado, Madrid

Pope Innocent X 1650 oil on canvas, 55 x 47'/4 in. (140 x 120 cm) Gallena Dona Pamphili,

Rome

Almost one century

later, this

meeting of personalities was

reminiscent of that between Charles V and Titian. In point

fact,

the

Velazquez.

latter

The

precise

stylistic

precursor of

rich flesh tones and colors and the broad

brushstrokes of the Venetian live again in the Spaniard's art, especially in the vibrant portraits

of the king and his

family, the courtiers^and the figures gravitating

royal palace. Velazquez

was

also influenced

around the

by the paintings

of Caravaggio, which he studied carefully during his two long stays in

Italy.

In the seventeenth century, Caravaggio 's

diagonal light and use of shading influenced the whole of

European painting, but Velazquez grasped the true import

Lombard

of the innovations put forward by the

and did not merely stop

painter

chiaroscuro effects. Perhaps no

other artist has ever succeeded in capturing with such lucidity the lyrical

and melancholic poetry, the daily hard-

ship and fleeting joys of a dust-laden, threadbare world,

poor but

vital,

imbued with humanity and

portrayer of the most sumptuous court also depicted the

the

century's

ragged poor, offering

truth.

attire,

superb

Velazquez

a parallel vision of

two opposite extremes untouched by

rhetoric or populism.

Directly or indirectly, Velazquez constituted the yardstick for

all

the Spanish painters of

sigh de oro, and above

all

Jusepe de Ribera

Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew 1630 oil on canvas, 92'/4 x 92'/4 in.

(234 x 234 cm) Prado, Madrid

for those of his

many

own

city.

The

Seville school

produced

of the leading masters, including Zurbaran,

Murillo, and Valdes Leal. This great Andalusian city

wealth of historical traditions in the architec-

ith its

tural

and

garded

must

intellectual fields

for this reason be re-

as the center of Spanish art in the seventeenth

century.

Its

rich and varied cultural

icant initiatives

life

on the part of the

included

which constituted the principal patrons of is

signif-

religious orders, local art.

very interesting to note the great differences in the

compositional and

which

stylistic

choices of Seville's painters,

evidence of an enormous variety of proposals

and solutions. Zurbaran

distinctively static, inter-

ested in almost sculptural figures, with a magnetic and

almost metaphysical appeal; Murillo, by contrast,

outpouring of affectionate, endearing devotion made

up of smiles, human warmth, and the

flashing eyes of

With

his frayed, dra-

urchins in need of redemption.

matic brushstrokes, Valdes Leal exemplifies the most

tormented aspect of verging

a mortifying religious sentiment,

times on the macabre and terrifying. The

Seville school also

produced Alonso Cano,

from Granada, who was involved

originally

works commis-

sioned by the conde-duque de Olivares and settled in

Madrid, where he became the closest

lower of Velazquez.

by Jusepe de Ribera,

and

assistant

important position

fol-

occupied

a painter of great international

renown, though he was stubbornly linked to Spain despite the fact that

he spent practically

Naples (which was, Spain's

most important colonies and the

life in

city

with the

population in seventeenth-century Europe)

largest

and was firmly rooted it

all his

should be remembered, one of

in the local school.

The

explic-

reference to Caravaggio, authoritatively emphasized

and developed by Ribera

terms of

element and straightforward realism, language" of seventeenth-century This

human "common

a strong is

the

Spanish painting.

especially true for paintings of religious sub-

jects, large

numbers of which were commissioned by

lifes

are a

moment

of solitude and contemplation, a high-

concentrated and fascinating synthesis.

its

most

direct and intense interpretive key.

The canvases by Zurbaran and

the specialist

Sanchez Cotan give an essential, "silent" interpretation of great rigor. Far

removed from the loud exultation of

other works from the same period, the Spanish

still

Hovering be-

tween dreams of glory and present-dav hardship, torn between the pride of being empire and the everyday

a subject

trials

of an intercontinental

of a sun-drenched and daz-

zled country, the Spaniard of the Baroque centurv expe-

whelmed by them

chapter.

domi-

nates seventeenth-century Spanish culture and constitutes

rienced the strongest contradictions.

merit a separate

theme of

desengano, or disillusionment, the sentiment that

The

still lifes

banal

plex canvases of the Spanish Baroque. These masterpieces give a terrible and fascinating insight into the

the Catholic world, both clergy and private collectors. rare but extraordinary

A few

some vegetables hanging against a black ground, become a window onto the absolute, opposite in thrust but no less significant than the more exuberant and comobjects,

could be over-

tragicomic fashion, like Cervantes

dream world. "Life desperate epic poem. Sev-

hero, or take refuge in mysticism or a is

dream"

the message of a

enteenth-century Spanish painting succeeded

moving image of dreams and

life,

in uivina a

of chimeras and

realitv.

Greco

glowing color, and

Domemkos Theotokopoulos (Crete,

works

1541 -Toledo, 1614)

the only

perspectives. This Venetian experience

a radical turning point in Spanish art,

with

to remain a key element in

and acted as a bridge between Renaissance and Baroque. His painting gradually took on visionary, fantastic overtones, with

painting bv breaking with the tired

all

together with a deep, intense,

Probablv trained by tbc Cretan painter

religious sentiment.

of icons Michcle Damaskinos, Domenikos

still

Theotokopoulos was referred to "master painter" in his homeland as

560. Shortly afterward he

Venice (the possession

as a as early

moved

Crete was a Venetian the time) and came into

isle ol at

contact with the leading artists of the High

Renaissance. Titian, Tintoretto, and Jacopo Bassano played a decisive role in forming

his style, lie

acquired

deling for rich and

National Gallery of Art in Washington,

medium-sized devotional works, and highly intense portraits, El Greco marked

his early

indicate

careful study of Tintoretto's elaborate

Around

was his work, tormented

572, while

young man, he arrived in Rome, ÂŤ here he studied the works of Michelangelo and enrolled at the Accademia di San Luca. In 577 he moved to Toledo, the city that was to become his adopted home. From this time on, his real name was definitively replaced by the nickname by which he became lamous and a

lh.it

recalled his distant but never forgotten

homeland.

In alternating altarpicces.

figures elongated

bevond the

limits of

verisimilitude, phosphorescent colors, and dizzying compositional layouts. In the closing

works painted in the seventeenth century, El Greco moved still further toward a visionary, in the

magical, and tautlv evocative stvle. his later

works, attention should

be-

to the extraordinary Laococin in the

Among drawn

in the artist's vast

output

or mythological subject.

Greco played

a crucial role in Spanish

worn-out models and opening up an era of courageous innovation. Despite the well-equipped workshop set up in Toledo with numerous assistants repetition of

and copyists,

years of the sixteenth

century and especially

work

a literary

Greco's stvle had

no followers, and thus was trulv unique in the panorama of European art on the threshold of the Baroque era. practically

Greco

Christ Driving the

Money

Changers from the Temple 1600 oil on canvas, 41% x 51 in. c.

(106.3 x 129.7 cm)

Greco

The

Spain

detail.

monumental

at is as a

bridge

experience ami beginning of his lite in Italian

Greco

St. Louis,

and Page

Italian training

oil

1586

46 x

canvas, 37'/2in.

(117x 95 cm) Louvre, Paris

The

tin-

works. At the

same time, the overpowering melancholy that envelops the figures,

the elongation of the

forms, and the atmosphere

physicality, attention

of bitter foreboding are characteristic of the

to descriptive detail (e.g.,

all

the breastplate painted

painter's

with almost

and are

features peculiar to his earliest

illusionistic

precision), and three-

dimensional energy

The abandoni

bod]

the

helangelo

Judgment

mature work, which aims at a complete autonomv o( form.

(tin- Last

thr Sistine

Chapel and the Rondanini w lni h Greco had

fieta),

derive from El Greco's

King of France,

ful

influence of thr late works

between the master's

powei

of Christ show

(iOOx 179 cm) rnnlo, MaJnJ

painting

forci

depi( tu'M ol anatomic

18 x 70'/2in.

This solemn,

expressivi

balanced In

1577 on canvas,

oil

of National Gallery, London

ami imaginative thrust are

Trinity

evidently studied during ili.

eai

spent

Rome.

Greco

The Miracle of

Christ

Healing the Blind

1570-1577 on canvas, 47 x 57'/2 in. (119.4X 146.1 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York oil

Repeated

in a

versions, this painter's

number is

one of the

most interesting

youthful compositions. Influenced by the Venetian style,

Italian

when

dates from the

period, the vcars

Greco was a "worthy follower* of Titian. In this II

described as ease,

however, he appears

to follow not so

much

tin-

teaching of Titian as the

"manner" of Tintoretto. li

Greco

This magnificent canvas

expressive distortion

El Espolio

marks the beginning

Adoration of the Shepherds

(The Disrobing of Christ)

of El Greco's

physiognomy, the compressed and suffocating

Toledo. 1

577-1579

oil 1 1

on canvas, 2V4 x 68

in.

(285 x 173 cm) Sacristy

Toledo

of the Cathedral,

work

was not only

turning point

in the

painter's career, but also a

very precise point ol

composition, and the violent colors constitute a

type of figurative art

where purely

oj the

from

transition

from

a concrete,

in.

volumetric style of painting to a fragmented, almost

Madrid

immaterial image conveyed by the ardent glow of a light

realistic

reference for Spanish art in

characters alternate with

The

subsequent centuries, from

visionary forms of

between two works of

expression.

El Greco's early maturity,

elongated anatomies, and

the Disrobing and the Burial

magical apparitions emerge.

Goya

to Picasso.

The

violent contrast

which bizarre

Greco

Burial of the

figures,

centurv. In the lower

Count

of Orgaz

portion of the painting, the count, clad in shining

armor,

1586-1588 on canvas, 181 x

141%

(460 x 360 cm)

laid to rest at a in

which

number of saints

in.

Santo Tome, Toledo

This

solemn funeral

oil

the painter's

greatest masterpiece and 16

his last

period, highlights the

1603-1607 oil on canvas, 126 x 70 3/4 (320 x 180 cm) Prado,

Count oj Orga/., and

this painting

one of the most striking works of the late sixteenth

participate. In the mystical

upper portion, the nude count presents himself

heaven before the luminous figure ol Christ

his judge.

Greco

Relations between

Martyrdom of

St.

Maurice

and the Theban Legion

Grei o

large

.ind Philip

The

were nol

easy.

sought

cess in official

commissions and

painter

ale

omposibons.

omplex wink, in ite the effort made to combine codified In

till-.

gestures ol

a classical

IS80 I5S2 oil on canvas,

particular to the hustling

workshop

tu recognize the

17b':x S'/2 in. (44Sx 301 cm)

but the kino did not

Nueros Museos,

emaciated, contorted,

El Escoruil

unreality ol the painter's

and liquid colors.

ol the

scoria],

greath appreciate the

i->

also possible

influence ol Titian's .

iddress o) Alfonso ith

glaucous

a".

Walos

light

Greco

soaring

1604-1614 oil

subjects

movement. The

the scene even

evocative and mvsterious.

The

possible parallel with

Tintoretto's

This characteristic

work

last

works

underscores the

of the painter's late period also

in.

(275 x 127 cm) Prado, Madrid

all

dark background renders

on canvas,

108'/4X 50

Greco

the figures to an upward,

Pentecost

one of his most

uninterrupted link with Venetian painting but also,

individual masterpieces.

on the part of

Inspired by the flames

emotional, spiritual, and

svmbolizing the descent

Greco, an

mystical attitude totally

the Holv Ghost on the

immersed

Virgin and the Apostles,

culture and devotion.

Spanish

Greco

Christ

oil

(275 x 127.. Madrid

altai pit cei

possible

inti n

religioiu

i.l

pat

in.

to be unaltt

iphit

nts

had appt ared

tli.it

onsolidated and

ibli

interpret!

the

wal

and

rethinJ i

iln tati

ni tin

.itlmlii

(

Counter-Reformation an extreme!) original (

>n<

again

to rii

all tin

ning

tin

il>

isive

(

that

|iuiiit

occurred

in Italian artistic

culture- in the

570s

heighl nl an Intense

the

d< bati

development

tin

mi euary

in \\

the

depic tlnii nl religious subjei

ts.

indispensable

involvement of the

faithful,

repeated]) urged as tin \

ital

objective ol

devotional paintings, can be-

obtained

many

different ways, as can be

seen From the- approaches adopted In Annibale Carracci and Caravaggio in

the closing years of

the sixteenth century.

For

his part,

chose

(,n

(

isionarv, evocative

approach

that

was

fascinating, unreal,

distorted.

and

Greco

most important part of his

St.

Jerome as a Cardinal

career

(Lehman

Collection),

Halfwav between and

characterized by

large-scale religious

1604-1605 oil on canvas, 34V4 x 42% in. (86.9 x 107.9 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art c.

compositions with many figures, El

Greco

repeatedly painted individual images or

NewYork

a portrait

a collector's piece, this

whole

series of half-length figures

against neutral grounds,

accentuating the solitude

and inner fervor of the

striking picture provides an

champions of the

excellent demonstration of

mortified in the flesh and

the painter's capacity for

extremely severe in their

concentration on a single

expressions.

figure.

faith,

Even though the

1^1 U

^r m

it 1

111\ \^^^^l ^a^^^^H El

Greco

Byzantine icons the painter

had admired and copied during his youth on Crete.

Crucifixion

^^^^^

1600 on canvas, 122% x 66!/2m. (312 x 169 cm)

Prado,

Oil

^^s.

fc?

career, now far removed from the influence of Italian classicism and made still freer bv the fame achieved

Madrid

The intense pathos of some religious paintings bv El Greco seems to

within an established

\ibrate within the canvases

stylistic

In the last period of his

oil

an agonizing tuning

framework, with all his financial problems and El

doubts resolved,

Greco

felt free

fork and reverberate out

express the mystical

toward

inspiration with

us.

These are works

"with no background," with all

the figures projected

into an empty, unreal

soul

which his was overflowing. This

great altarpiece presents a

wealth of fascinating detail,

space, with phosphorescent

such as the two angels

colors and frozen gestures,

collecting Christ's blood at

which constitute

the foot of the Cross.

kind of

grandiose reworking of the

Greco

Portrait of a Cardinal,

Don Fernando Nino de Guevara probably

1596

on canvas, x 67!4 in. (107.9 x 170.8 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, oil

42%

New York Though not very numerous,

as a

whole,

El Greco's portraits

constitute a very particular

progression. Trained

the

spectacular realism of Titian, the painter uses a free style of

brushwork

his portraits to suggest fluid

poses and

expressions. In this case,

example, the figure

for

displays such feverish haste that

conveys a

considerable sense of

The pose

anxietv.

nervous hands indicate expectation. traditional but the

There

also an

extraordinary glint of disdain behind the lenses of the

unusual spectacles,

while the

lips

pursed

mute rebuke.

appear to be

El St.

Greco

Bartholomew

the Apostle c. oil

Greco

Betrothal of the Virgin

1608-1614 on canvas, 43 ,/4 x 32% in. (HOx 83 cm) oil

Romanian Xational Museum of Art, Bucharest

Executed

in the last years

of the painter's

life, this

small to medium-sized

work

has the translucent

fragility

of a butterfly's

wings. The figures, slender to the point

of evanescence, are bv as tar

removed

now

as possible

from the full-bodied characters painted at the

beginning of El Greco's stav in Spain.

It is

illuminating to

compare

this wraith-like priest

with the powertul the Father of The

God

Trinitv.

Interest also attaches

to the depiction of the

room, where the perspective floor laid out in a classical grid contrasts

with the backdrop of fluttering drapes to

accentuate the ambiguity of the vision.

and gives

1610-1614 on canvas,

3814 x 3014

house

Ibledo

in.

Greco

are to

well preserved tin

impression

the omfortable abode prosperous citizen. In i

addition to

<>l

significant items

El Greco Museum,

painter's art collections

Toledo

(which are important

and Ins

disposal), the bouse <

ontains a

number

ol gi n

Greco himself, including one

from the it

his tastes

paintings by II

some

(97 x 77 cm)

know

assess the influi

the

best series of half-

length Apostles.

^ Greco

Baptism of Christ

1596 oil I

1600 on canvas,

56%

Yl짜i x

in.

144 ml) Prudo. Madrid II

Greco's favorite format

for large-scale is

a highly

compositions

elongated

rectangle with the heighl

measuring over twice the width. These unusual

proportions accentuate the tapering vertical impetus ol the figures

and make

possible to depict scenes <>n

two

levels,

one above the

other. In the lower portion,

which is often painted in darker shades, the figures have greater earthly corporeality. In the

upper

portion, reserved for

heavenly apparitions, die light

explodes to the point

where

Greco

Vision of

St.

John

dissolves the image.

This unfinished apocalyptic

arms toward an

one of the last and most mysterious

oppressive, harsh, dense

of El Greco's masterpieces.

threateningly.

scene

1610 1614 oil on canvas, 78Vi x 88'/2 in. (199.4 x 224.8 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art,

The

New York

nude

evangelist, situated

on the

left,

seems almost

terrified of the thronging

figures

and

raises his

sky that seems to

loom

Greco

Laocoon and

His

Sons

1608 oil on canvas, 56 x 76 in. (142 x 193 cm) C.

National Gallery of Art,

Washington

This

the only

composition on a mythological theme painted by El Greco and it

has very few possible

terms of comparison. The lomeric episode of Laocoon and his sons devoured by serpents, made famous by the I

discovery of the celebrated

group of was a theme

Hellenistic statues,

widely interpreted

in the

art of the late Renaissance.

El Greco's interpretation

decidedly unusual,

first

it makes absolutely no reference to the statues

because

(except perhaps

in the face

of Laocoon), and second

because the scene

set

the outskirts ofToledo

under

stormy

sky.

The

pale figures stand out in

the foreground with a

disquieting and yet fascinating sense of

ambiguity.

The

terrible

end

of Laocoon and his two sons

narrated by means

of photographic

stills

and

frozen gestures, making

them appear dramatic athletes of death. The figures are static but

rendered fluid by the glimmering, visionary brushstrokes and the

flowing shadows that herald the storm gathering in the sky.

Greco

View of Toledo 597 on canvas, 4734 x 42% in. (121.3 x 108.6cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, c.

Gothic spire of the

landscape in the

Cathedral dominating the

background of the grim Laocoon, El Greco interprets the backdrop of his adopted city in a violent manner,

wild countryside. While

the place

easily

oil

New York

once again distorts the image in a dramatic, expressive way.

The choice

of just a few colors

The only landscape painted by El Greco shows the unmistakable panorama of Toledo with the town walls (cigaraUes)

recognizable, the painter

and soaring

electrified by the

atmosphere

stormy

strips the

transforming the ancient

and beautiful historic center into the gloomy

announcement of impending disaster, which

landscape of any charm.

Spain's

confirmed bv the presence of a similar is

almost symbolic of

imminent

decline.

His Inst works are mainK bodtgdnes,

Diego Velazquez (Seville,

that

1599-Madrid. 1660)

still

very influential figure nt Seville,

known

theoretician, and

the cultural circles

man

of letters. Velazquez

owed Pacheco not only

his artistic training

hut also his taste for classical culture, and

even his wife. In 1618, already regarded an independent painter, although he \\ as onlv nineteen years ot age, he married

Juana Pacheco, the daughter of his mentor.

worked main!)

ol individual

and was thus obliged to take

into consideration Titian

and group portraits

figures, including not only the king

oiii

princes, but also the dwarfs and jesters.

sixteenth

naturalism was thus enriched by a new

of Honor)

contemporary manner. Caravaggio was a decisive influence, and his compositional layout of scenes and powerful interplay ol light and shade were

monumental dimension

an entire century and define the master's

"naturalistic,"

elements taken over directly In Velazquez. to Caravaggio indicates the painter's

precise orientation toward Italian art.

The

main turning point in his career came in 1623, when the conde-duque de Olivares, the powerful prime minister at the court of Philip to

IV,

summoned

his fellow Sevillian

Madrid to become the

king's official

initial

Caravaggesque

that enabled

him

to tackle vast scenes of a historical or literary

He made

his

inevitable first visit to Italy between 1629 and 1631 and his contact with the great examples of Renaissance art made his painting technique still more varied and flexible. On his return to Madrid, where he was now firmlv established as official painter to the Spanish court, Velazquez began to produce a large number of works ,

for the roval residences, and a

whole

painting like Las Mcninas (The Maids

style.

nature with great confidence and

perfect chromatic intuition.

and the

century portraits, lbs

Seller

This immediate and intelligent reference

as a painter, art

portraitist

of Senile), or religious subjects interpreted in a

fniry Eggs or TheWatei

Encouraged to paint since his childhood, Velazquez entered the workshop ol Herrera the Elder at the age ol ten. One year later, as proof of his precocious talent, lie was apprenticed to Francisco Pacheco, a

painter. Velazquez

genre scenes ol everyday life with life studies (for example, OldWoman

is,

series

sufficient in itsdl to

The work,

for Philip IV

carried out above

and

his family,

many of Velazquez's

remained in the

Prado.

epitomize all

why

explains

paintings have

Madrid and are now housed

The

painter's second visit

was made between 1649 and 1651 The most famous result of this, the portrait of Pope Innocent X, has remained in its original location, the Galleria Doria Pamphili in Rome. During these years, Velazquez carried out a kind of wonderful to Italy

and intense rereading of

his

own output

and, going further back, of the links

between the painting oi the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Following

example ofTitian, and exactly as Rembrandt was doing in tin- same period the

(but in a totalis different personal and social situation), Velazquez started to paint

with large, separate brushstrokes, thi< laden with material and charged with expressive intensity.

With

absolute

his

freedom of style, Velazquez

kl\

rightly

indicated as an artist of pivotal importance

Rediscovered b\ the

in the history ol art.

French painters ol the nineteenth century, and in particular by Manet, Velazquez also constitutes a precise point of reference for Picasso and the

movements

modern

art.

Diego Velazquez Surrender of Breda

1633

1635

on canvas, 120 34x 144!/2in. (307x 367 cm)

oil

Prado,

Madrid

This absolute masterpiece of historical painting

commemorates an episode in the war between Spain and Holland in 1625. The defeated Justin of Nassau symbolically consigns the

key of the fortress of Breda to the victor,

Ambrogio

Spinola. Against the

background of a desolate landscape marked by the

smoke of fires, the two meet in an

generals

atmosphere of calm and mutual respect. They have both dismounted and there is

no sense of

rhetoric.

Velazquez accentuates the

human element in Memorable

this episode.

gestures are thus absent in the

ranks of soldiers

and there

nothing

to distinguish the victor

from the vanquished. For soldiers, war is a

dirty,

fatiguing business with little room for heroics. The scene is given a very

theatrical setting with the

soldiers

on the

and

left

the large horse dominating the right-hand side.

two groups

The

are

symmetrically juxtaposed to leave the center of action free for the meeting

of the two generals, are

moved

slightly

who

out

of the foreground At .

this point,

with splendid

pictorial inventiveness,

Velazquez inserts the

mobile "screen"

of lances

raised high in silhouette

to separate the proscenium

Diego Velazquez

The Water

still

Seller of Seville

youth.

The

of Caravaggio

1618 1619 oil on canvas, 41% x 32>/4 in. (106 x 82 cm)

from the backdrop, where the landscape fades away

Wellington Museum, London

into the distance bathed

This

in a pale light.

subject repeated a

times by Velazquez

the best version of a

number

when

influence

ven

of realistic detail. While

Velazquez never painted authentic

"still liles,"

youth he was

strong, not onl) in the

in his

powerful contrast

particularly interested

ol light

and shade, but also in the choice ol an everyday

subject, taken direct!)

their shapes, colors,

from the

and materials to amazing

street,

and

the concrete evidence

depicting everyday

utensils,

el'iei t.

and investigated

Diego Velazquez

subjects within everyday

Diego Velazquez

Kitchen Interior with Christ

settings. In this spe<

St. Anthony the Abbot and St Paul the Hermit

the House of Martha

case, there

and Mary

as to

even

ific

doubt

whether the

1634 on canvas, 74 in. 101 (257 x 188 cm)

indow" in which the Gospel scene appears might actually be a paint in;; hanging in a kitchen where a young

*'w

1618 oil

on canvas,

23V2X 403/4in. (60 x 103.5 cm) \ational Gallcr\, London

cook

Unusual and somewhat mysterious, this painting

listening,

oil

PrjJo.

Madrid

with an

expression of annoyance, is

part of a tradition of

to the adyice and chiding

of an elderly

woman.

interpreting Gospel

Diego Velazquez

credible image of

strips the action of

The Scourging of Christ

a subject

from the Counter-Reformation catechism. The real subject

admonitory or didactic

of the painting

impassioned, emotive

1632 on canvas,

oil

65 x 81

Gallery,

London

Velazquez succeeds in

producing

Diego Velazquez Supper at Emmaus

human

Museum of Art,

Sew York

clearly

disciples,

when

on the two

reaction of the

their surprise

Christ reveals his

identity.

The white

tablecloth

gathers and reflects the

The reference

subject,

too, concentrates

(123x 132.5 cm)

Caravaggio,

same

recognizable. Velazquez,

1620 oil on canvas, 48'/2 x 52'/4 in. Metropolitan

various versions of the

light to suggest

who

painted

an easily

recognizable diagonal.

the

overtones to present it

on the plane of pure,

in.

(165x 206cm) \atwnal

a concrete

contemplation ot Christ's wounds bv a devout soul guided bv

his

guardian

angel, but the great

and

master's thrilling realism

any

participation.

Diego Velazquez Los Borrachos (The Topers

and concrete world of Velazquez, and show

or the Triumph of Bacchus)

his skill in depicting

1628-1629

contemporary scenes. The happy drinkers are

oil

on canvas,

65 x 88I/2

reminiscent of certain in.

international paintings of

(165 x 225 cm) Prado,

the Caravaggesque school,

Madrid

as well as

Dutch- Flemish

Diego Velazquez The Forge of Vulcan

1630 on canvas, 87% x 11414 in. (223 x 290 cm)

oil

Prado,

Madrid

Rome

Painted in

during

These two works mark

genre painting,

the beginning of the

regards subject matter. In

work continues

painter's artistic maturity,

Velazquez, however, there

curiously ambiguous

which coincided with

departure for

Italy

his

(1629).

Despite the presence ot divinities

and

literary

at least as

none of the detachment

and derision often glimpsed in

other painters of the

period.

empathy

the contrary, for people can

his first visit to Italy, this

the

blend of mythology- and rustic reality seen in Los Borrachos, it

Irom which

can be seen to have

developed, despite the

figures, the realistic

his

approach, the relish for

be seen

direct participation in

the peasants' faces

events, and the

the blacksmiths' rippling

know ledge

extraordinary credibility of

muscles. Be they kings or

antiquities can be seen in

the peasants surrounding

princes, peasants or jesters,

the choice of "classical"

Bacchus and the blacksmiths

Velazquez treats people

poses for the figures,

interrupted in their labors

with a sense of deep respect

which are

by Apollo belong to the rich

and preserves their

bv ancient sculptures.

on and in

in the smiles

dignity.

differences in format.

Evidence of the painter's ol

Roman

clearly inspired

Diego Velazquez

exi rational skill in

Portrait of Philip IV

rendering the sparkling rile

1631

1632

Is ol till (Mils

precious metals and of

on canvas, 76% x 43'/4 in.

oil

embroidered materials his detailed

(195x 110cm)

of garments. This

National Gallery, London

virtuosity

however,

is,

This spectacularly beautiful

never an end

painting recalls the

Observe the telling contrast between the

historical

models of

sixteenth-century has a

the uncertain expression

new sumptuous

of the king, whose face, still framed by beautiful blond locks, is beginning

quality. After his stay in Italy

in itself.

magnificent apparel and

full-

length portraits, but

and the broadening

show the

of his figurative horizons

of fatigue and worry.

European

reproduction

level,

signs

first

Velazquez displays an

Diego Velazquez Philip IV in

his sovereign recalls

Armor

celebrated cases of the past. Year after year

1625 oil

Velazquez portrayed

on canvas,

the physical changes

22'/2X 17*4 in. (57 x 44 cm) Prado,

work marks the

beginning of the long

dozens of portraits of Philip IV and members

series of portraits

of the royal family in

Velazquez painted of the

different situations and

This

long-lived king, at

whose

side practically his entire

career unfolded.

the king, almost

mirroring the passage of time. Velazquez painted

Madrid

The

many

formats. Here the king, little

more than an

adolescent, all

between the painter and

his slender,

his

blond

relationship established

captured

iri

fragility, in all

noble beauty.

Diego Velazquez Don

Luis

de Gongora

y Argote

1622 ml on canvas,

20 x 16'/4 in. (51 x 41 cm) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston In this striking, highly

concentrated and eloquent portrait, Velazquez captures

not only the features but also,

and above

the

all,

personality of the great writer.

Diego Velazquez Portrait of a Sculptor

1636 on canvas, 43 x 34V4 in. (109 x 87 cm) oil

PraJo,

Madrid

may be Juan Martinez Montanes, a good Baroque sculptor also

The

sitter

employed

court.

Diego Velazquez El

Bufon don Juan

de Austria c.

1632

on canvas, 823/4 x 48'/2 in.

characteristic

Prado,

Madrid

The paintings of court form a very

jesters

Diego Velazquez El

Bufon Juan de Calabazas

1639 on canvas, 41% x 32% in. (106 x 83 cm) c.

oil

Prado,

Madrid

royal family.

royal inventories

die rich

was

famous member of the "motlev crew" of dwarfs, actors, and locos (jesters and sitter

buffoons) surrounding the

colors

costume of gaudy

worn by

Diego Velazquez El

Bufon Pablo

the sitter

was given to him

1632.

because

1632

on canvas,

82V4 x 48>/2

for

centuries and imitated

by Goya and Manet

de Valladolid

oil

was to be admired

in.

(209 x 123 cm) Madrid

ol the evocative

between the black garments and the neutral ground. contrast

Prado,

This masterpiece of synthesis and simplicity

Such figures

had never been given so

much

On some

space before. occasions,

Velazquez painted them full

length in the same

pose and format king.

The nonchalant, conniving

The show that

painted by Velazquez.

oil

(210x 123cm)

group within

the series of portraits

the

others, as in this

case, the painter succeeds in communicating the humor, verve, and

grimaces of the

locos,

but always avoids pathos

or sentimentality.

Diego Velazquez Philip IV

1635

oil

on canvas, S

on Horseback

x 123'/2in.

(301 x 314 cm)

but while Titian's painting

die background of a vast,

conveys the dramatic

wide-open landscape.

atmosphere of the battle in dense undergrowth at

Charles

the collections of the kings

dusk, Velazquez's great

entrusted the

of Spain, and Velazquez

work

of the army to the

with Titian's Charles ji the Rjtilc of

(1548), one of the most prestigious

clearly Prado,

The

Madrid

history of the

equestrian portrait begins

Miihlberg

from

works held

draws inspiration model.

this historical

Like his ancestor, Philip IV

appears in profile

armor.

has the vast, clear

fought in

battle-

person. Philip IV

command

serenitv of a classic riding-

all-powerful conde-duque

school exercise, with the

de Olivares.

splendid steed controlled

by the expert rider against

Diego Velazquez

small

numbei of req

Coronation of the Virgin

foi

ligioui paintings,

>< »i

1642

1641

area "I

cm)

Later in Ins career,

Prince Baltasar Carlos

Huntsman

Cardinal Infante Fernando of Austria as a

Huntsman

1635

on canvas, 75V4 x 4S'/2 in. cm) and 75V4x 42 in. (191 x 107 cm), oil

(191 x 103

respectively PraJo.

Madrid

Velazquez took advantage of this "sporting"

theme

to paint

portraits of a less static and olhcial nature,

directly

inspired by the natural poses ot the figures portrayed.

." tivit)

lios<

«m

style ol

Qgjoui iMnks

illo

the

tame time sophistu ated

.in

,ii

<•

hom

tin

brutal

realism ol Ribera, the .i

rathei

and

dibit

and

his

of great

beauty. Velazquez keeps Ins

Madrid

VelacjiHv received

as a

.inn- his

paint, however, are

In- (lid

ImI.hu 14

distant

Diego Velazquez

and the gently

.in

,ii

Rowing

(176x1 Pro h,

traiture I"

/ml. and

on anvas, 69'/4x 5234 in nil

frozen immobilit) ol

dins not at

(

oni eal but

entuatea

ol the

(lis

tin-

mi h

psychology

Diego Velazquez

Woman

Young

Sewing

1641

oil

29!

on canvas, .

â&#x20AC;˘

IV/i

in.

(74 x 60 cm) National Galler) oj.in.

Washington

This

work marks

a briet

but splendid return to the youthful period ot the bodegones or genre

paintings,

when

the voung

Velazquez painted domestic scenes and episodes ot

everyday

lite.

In the years

of his maturity, and with a

technique very different

from

that used in the early

vears of his career,

Velazquez took a

momentary break trom official portraits

and again

tackled a genre subject:

an ordinary

girl

performing

an ordinary, everyday task.

The great immediacy of the work suggests a "snapshot." It may be interesting to see this charming work as part of a sequence stretching

from the Mary Magdalenes of Caravaggio and La Tour to Vermeer's Lacemakcr.

Diego Velazquez Lady with a Fan

1638 on canvas, 36'/2 x 27 in. (93 x 68.5 cm) oil

Wallace Collection, London

This enchanting work, a

splendid example

of balance between the perfect reproduction of

external appearance and an

impassioned representation of the "movements of the soul," effectively

summarizes Velazquez's principal gift as a portrait painter, namely, the ability

to identify with the subject, to capture his or

her personality, thoughts,

and

stirrings of the heart.

In this respect, Velazquez

can be classed with Titian

and Rembrandt

one

of the greatest portrait painters. In this

unforgettable portrait

of a ladv, the anxiety of a

moment

transmuted

into an extraordinarily realistic,

Diego Velazquez

Velazquez refuses to

Bufon don Sebastian de Morra ( 7 ) with a Pitcher 1644, oil on canvas, 41% x 1VA in.

indulge in any ironic

(106 x 84.5 (ini

their dignity and their acute and tortured intelligence.

rViKMi

York

underscoring

deformity

ol the

ol the hi/ones

but, instead, accentuates

psychological

interpretation.

Diego Velazquez Philip IV in

Pink

and

ollowing

ili<

development

"I the figure "I the

Silver

(made unmistakable by upturned moustai

1644 oil mi canvas, S2'/2 x 38% in. (133.5 x 98.5 cm) Fries Collection,

New

Diego Velazquez opposite page:

Menippus above:

Aesop c. 1639-1640 oil on canvas, 70'/2 x 37 in. (179x 94 cm) each Prado,

Madrid

Ideal portraits of ancient

philosophers and thinkers

portrayed as bizarre vagrants constitute a specific

genre

seventeenth-century

art,

and especially in Spanish

and Luca mention only

painting. Ribera

Giordano

(to

painters featured in this

volume) repeatedly tried their hands at this type of

subject.

While the other

painters emphasize the

crudest and most superficial aspect

realism with ill-concealed relish,

Velazquez always

strikes the higher note of

the

human element and

dignified poverty.

)ork

king

Velazquez

ived

Ins

this

supreme masterpiei <-, a work "l absolute beauty. The human aspei "I the sovereign seems to bi almosl ovei shadowed I

ndor of his

spli

ill.

oostumi

hi Âť), .it

lis

fevei iah

I. ii

pi!'

hi i

ÂŤ

nli

emerges from

wealth

"I a \i

transpan

1m redibl)

ml. i.

nil.

mali hleSS

lazqui

eng

lini<|uc,

kind "I spectai

in.. <

ulai

weave and

Wltll

> lai

laborate

ompi ilium m

nli

il..

eyelids

.mil

III

times

mbroidei

Diego Velazquez

etiquette by kicking an

Las Meninas

indifferent

(The Maids of Honor)

foreground .The apparently simple composition is seen

1656 on canvas, 125'/4 x 108% in. (318 x 276 cm)

dog

lying in the

more complex

as the

faces of the king and

queen

to be

oil

Prado,

are reflected in a mirror at

the back of the

Madrid

Velazquez has drawn us into a sophisticated

Spanish art was painted

an unpredictable reversal

late in Velazquez's career,

of space and situation. The

scene

second

visit

simultaneously spectators

and protagonists of the scene. Their reflection in the mirror presupposes (as in the precedent of

the Infanta Margherita in a

room

of the royal

whose decoration

minutely reproduced.

The

child,

in the

now

five,

stands

center of the

painting, a dressed-up doll

fussed over by

two very

1654 on canvas, SOVi x 39V4 in.

evidently in the genes of

oil

Spain's rulers

(128x 99.5 cm) Kunsthistorisches

Museum,

Diego Velazquez Prince Felice Prospero

on. This can be seen in

the portrait of the Infanta at

Vienna

from Charles

the age of eight. Here,

however, Velazquez shows

1659 on canvas, SOVi x 39V4 in. (128.5 x 99.5 cm)

oil

decade of his career, Velazquez

us an adorable

repeatedly painted the

father's beautiful fine

first-born daughter of

hair.

Philip IV, tracing the little

table to the left constitute

perhaps most moving of

one of the best examples

the painter's works.

of seventeenth-centurv

prince, the son of Philip

In the last

girl's

development through

her childhood into

kind

who

little girl

Kunsthistorisches

has inherited her

The flowers on

blond

the

This

still

while the sumptuous

Museum,

Vienna is

one of the

last

and

The

of perfect court automaton,

life,

surrounded by the mincing

garments are reminiscent

two, a weak, sickly child

affectations of the

of the portrait of Philip IV

who was

courtiers. Margherita ros\ features

were to turn

gradually into the

elongated, slightly equine

Pink and Silver

portraved

IV,

the age of

to die shortly

afterward, in 1661.

With

reproduced on the

truly touching delicacy

previous page.

and

sensitivity,

Velazquez

captures the frailtv of this small boy, lingering over his

precious toys and,

above

all, his

sad

little face.

Marriage Group) their

presence "outside" the painting, at our side.

Another audacious leap

on the

ladies-in-waiting,

self-portrait

evidently the focal

depicted in the act of

taken with the painter's

and

work

left,

point and driving force of

painting the

the

whole scene. A female dwarf to the right recalls

the portraits of the court

outer, before and behind,

and

a little

boy

disturbs the poise of royal

soon accompanied by the unpleasantly protruding lower jaw that was

van Eyck's Arnolfini

young

bufones

Aged Three

king and queen are

court, the maids

palace,

game,

depicts a recurrent

of honor attending upon

face of the Hapsburgs,

epitomizing the whole of

Italy. It

Diego Velazquez

then becomes clear that

This masterpiece

after his

The Infanta Margherita

room

this

itself.

point the mental

labyrinth of inner and

complete.

Diego Velazquez

The

The Infanta Margherita

dominated by the

Aged

magnificent

Eight

1659 oil

on canvas,

50 x 42 Kunstlr <s

Vienna

in. (1

became empress of Austria in 666 at the age of fifteen. The dazzling

charming child of three, then as a doll surrounded

the details of the setting

by courtly affectation, and

splendid shades ol hlue and

splendor of the dress and

now

absorbed into the shadowy background.

gold. This was a very

the stately severity ol the

become

work, sent to Leopold of Austria, the uncle and future husband

pose cannot conceal the

sitter's role

painting

completely

gown and

olficial

27 x 107 cm) .urn,

the

little girl,

who

the

as predestined to

an empress.

The

Infanta, portrayed by

dominates everything, and indeed, in this late work, one of the

Velazquez

last

incipient ugliness ol the

first as

painted by the master,

somehow

fade away,

Diego Velazquez

talent,

The Rokeby Venus

though

onsianiK admired

Italian art ol the lixt<

1650

on anvas, x 693/4 in.

paiiionate dedii ation

iplendjd

malt

nth I

oil

nli

In tins

thi

III.

M'.

,V(

l.l/(|l|. /

iki

ilt

48!/4

â&#x20AC;˘

177 cm)

Xational Gallery, Ion Jon

martei

abovi

Throughout V< lazqui /

own

(

his life, ultivati d hi

great indepi ndi at

ol hit

(Rubeni and all),

time

he itudii d

paintings

Renaissam

innovation!

and ol

(

I'.

in. >n.

to Ins

mbrandi

l<>

thi

olor,

thi

n h

lom

II'

and i

hii

"las.

laravaggio

Âť

become

Jusepe de Ribera

was taken

expressionism marked by intense religious

painting throughout the

Lo Spagnoletto

pathos, and a great interest in unusual

seventeenth century. The arrival of

physical traits and the psychological

Velazquez

1591 -Naples, 1652)

(Jativa,

still

further to

a \iolent

characterization of his figures. After

moved

initial

for the

development of local religious

training in Valencia, Ribera

painting and the Neapolitan school, and

together with his brother Jeronimo,

to color. This

one of the most interesting and original interpreters of the Caravaggesque style. The painter's once frequently used nickname "Lo Spagnoletto" (the Little

and by 1615 they were key members of the brilliant colony of Spanish painters in Rome's Via Margutta. His earliest works, immediately characterized by the influence of Caravaggio together with classical and Hellenistic art, date from this period. Ribera moved shortly afterward to Naples,

period

where he found the perfect cultural environment to develop his study of pictorial expression. With the unfailing

Spaniard) has

now

into disuse. Ribera

but

Italy,

patrons.

played

Duke

Naples,

was

almost completely

active mostly in

many paintings were for Spanish A particularly important role was

fallen

terms of Ribera 's career by the Osuna, the Spanish viceroy of

who summoned

the painter and

introduced him to Neapolitan painting, but

ommissioned important canvases homi town in Andalusia. Taking

lor his

Caravaggii

Ribera

urting point, i

model

that

to Italy

half of the

Naples, in 1630, encouraged

Ribera to adopt a

Ribera acts as a link between Spanish

first

less

harsh form of

chiaroscuro and pay greater attention

of lighter

marked the beginning of a which he gradually used a range tones that created sweeping

spatial effects,

and

combination of bright by a serious

colors. Despite being forced illness in

644 to paint

than in previous years, to

overcome produce a

more slowly Ribera managed far

his physical difficulties last

group of masterpieces.

Jusepe de Ribera Drunken

Silenus

1626 oil on canvas, 72% x 901/4 in.

(18Sx 229 cm) Gallena Nazionale

Capodimontc, \jplc\

This painting plays a kev role in Ribera 's career,

showing the development of elements drawn from Caravaggio in clearly

the direction of an

accentuated expressionism

pushed to the limits of

support of the viceroy and the Spanish

caricature. Practically

nobles, Ribera devoted himself totally

the light

He also produced works many Neapolitan churches

to his art.

the obese divinity,

lor the

emanates

(especially the Carthusian

monastery

of San Martino), and became the model

all

concentrated on

who

luminous aura.

Jusepe de Ribera Aesop

oil

anvat,

17 in.

(118 x 94 cm) iJnJ

Typil

a] ol

RJJx

id.

length

hall

poi traiti dI philosophi ind prophi

depicted as m dressed ("hen

mi n

ise

in tattered

slur

between die

ontrast

tools ol

higher learning,

su(

hunks and pa and the poverty

sir

appearani e

ol tin

.is

icken

figures.

he sheer volumi and widi spread distribution I

ol sui h

works

ol their

popularity with

evident

seventeenth century i

olln turs.

Jusepe de Ribera Clubfooted Boy

1642

on canvas, 64V2 x 37 in. (164x 94 cm) oil

Louvre, Paris

This painting, one of the master's most celebrated

works, constitutes an unquestionable milestone

genre

in the particular

that

took beggars and

the destitute as It

subjects.

its

young boy

depicts a

asking for alms. In addition to displaying the deformity

Jusepe de Ribera

of his clubfoot, he also

Jacob's

holds a piece of paper

1639

stating that

deaf and

oil

dumb. And vet he faces his grim plight with a beaming smile.

It is

difficult to

understand whether is

Dream

on canvas, x 87% in.

70'/2

(179x 233cm) PraJo,

Madrid

this

During the 1630s, Ribera

the result of a further

became

handicap, this time of a

painting

mental nature, or

agitated and expansiw

returning to a

consciously adopted expression.

executed

The

portrait

in a deliberately

less

approach. Here the painter oilers a pleasantly bucolic

rhetorical style, with the

interpretation of the vision

beggar seen from below and etched against the

of paradise revealed in

background of the skv

though

were

banner, the heraldic

emblem of a

dream

to Jacob,

certainly looks

a little hero, carrying his

crutch

inward-looking, intimate

tattered,

dusty, paradoxical nobility.

worn out

a figure

who

traveler than

from the Old

Testament. The painter barelv sketches the

"learning vision and fo<

uses on the sluml

figure of Jacob.

Jusepe de Ribera

(

Pieta

most intense religious

)ne ol the painter's

compositions,

this

work

1637

uav repeated

on cam a-., 104x 67 in. 70 cm

Formats to become almost

oil

â&#x20AC;˘

an obligator) model lor

the pathos-laden subject ot griet over the

Church

of the

different

Carthusian

Monaster] of San Marimo. Xaples

ol Christ. in

bod)

Ribera succeeds

keeping the spectator's

attention focused bv

Dumber

limiting the figures

and their gestures

minimum, and abandoning hi~. youthful exuberance to create a taut, emotional scene. The luminous bod) ol the (lead Christ, splendidh executed in terms ol anatomical to the hare

accuracy, ol the

John supports c Ihrist's head and shoulders, while St.

Mai -\ Magdalene devotedly kis-.es

the pierced feet. This

brightly

lit

foreground

itfa the darkness surrounding the Virgin Mar) and St. Joseph of Arimathea. i

OntraStS

the local point

group

as a

whole.

Jusepe de Ribera The Holy Family with Saints Anne and Catherine of Alexandria

1642 on canvas, 821/2 x 60 3/4 in. (209.6 x 154.3 cm)

oil

Metropolitan

Museum of Art,

NewYork

Toward the end of his career, Ribera 's

compositions became increasingly light and

serene. After 1640, he

painted a group of altarpieces and other religious scenes in which,

while never losing contact

with

reality,

he uses bright

colors differing greatly

from the earthy hues of his earlv works. This charming scene centers on the loving gesture of

St.

Catherine,

while Mary gazes intensely

toward the spectator in a flowing wave of primary colors (yellow, red, and blue).

may be

possible to

discern an echo of Raphael in

the interplay of looks

and gestures and the rotating relationship

among the figures. Instead, St. Anne and St. Joseph derive more directly from the Caravaggesque model.

The painting also contains a number of very precise still-life details,

workbasket

such

in the

the

bottom

right-hand corner (a

reference to the popular

iconography of Mansewing) and especially the truit basket carried

St.

Anne.

Jusepe Ribera Gypsy

Girl

1637 oil on canvas, 23'/4X 21Âť/2in. (59 x 54.5 cm)

A aitona! Galley, London Neapolitan genre painting is

greatly indebted to

who

Ribera,

laid the

foundations by providing expressive models for an

abundant output

common

folk, urchins,

and animated

women from

the city's alleys and the

countryside. At times these figures

were

with

recondite symbolic

also instilled

meaning. Ribera painted allegorical images ol the five

senses on various

occasions. However, the intellectual reference

remains

the background

and what shines through is

the attractiee

of the figures,

immediacy

who

are

nonchalantly realistic

and very present. The popularity of such works

with the collectors of the period also led, however, to the production of

Copies,

which were not

always of a very high standard and spread an

image of southern that

it is

Italy

difficult to alter.

Francisco

artist,

de Zurbaran (Fuente de Cantos,

artist

598-Madrid, 1664)

of great appeal, the painter of

images that have

penetrating spiritual

Zurbaran had

workshop

in Llerena

various monastic orders, interested in a

where he

style of painting that

built

reputation. His

well-deserved

own

specific style

became

of their faith emerged with great impact.

and Holy Virgins captured

friars, saints,

in significant

gestures and concentrated expressions.

The young

delivery of the twenty-one canvases for

course of in

career with

some

his life.

early

the provinces and a successful great

many commissions,

considerable

official

importance,

painter's

fame grew with the

the monastery of San Pablo in Seville. This group of works, now partially dispersed, constitutes an anthology of sculptural figures, of

dramatic and determined

were followed, from the middle of the century on, by a swift decline due to

champions of the

in taste, and then death in poverty and obscurity. From his youth on, Zurbaran belonged to the flourishing

always shunned dynamic compositions in

changes

Seville school, first as a pupil of Pedro Diaz deVillaneuva and thin, from 1617, as an independent painter. An immensely prolific

and the strength

conflict of the figures

images with sequences of

with Rembrandt as regards the highly

beginning

was simultaneously

evocative and dramatic, where the inner

evident as early as 1620: austere spiritual

impact, Zurbaran can even be compared significant

uninterrupted flow of commissions from

but sent most of his works to Seville,

faith. In his

narrative

pictures with various characters, Zurbaran favor of static scenes, in

which

spiritual

and deep emotion outweigh action and interlinking events. In 1629, the city corporation invited Zurbaran intensity

move

to Seville,

where he received an

While religious paintings thus remained Zurbaran s favorite, some innovations appeared after 1633, when he painted the Still Life now in Pasadena, a rare and striking example of genre painting that is almost metaphysical. In 1634, he moved to Madrid at Velazquez's invitation. There he worked for the court on paintings with secular themes for the royal palace of Buen Retiro.This experience ended quite soon, however, and after a few months Zurbaran returned to Seville to resume his customary impassioned production of religious works. Typical paintings are the

captivating (not to sav disquieting) images

of saintly girls or young

women,

dressed in

sumptuous garments, appearing surprised and almost dazed before the spectator. Around 1650, however, the robust and ascetic spirituality expressed by Zurbaran began to lose ground to the warmer and more familiar religious images produced by Murillo. The painter then looked for new markets elsewhere, including the colonies in Latin America. Exhausted, his creative vein practically dry, and irrevocably outmoded, Zurbaran moved to

Madrid

1658,

the age of sixty.

died, alone and forgotten, in 1664.

Francisco de Zurbaran

mystical vision, this

Apparition of

ol the

most dramatic

works

St.

the Apostle to

Peter

St.

Peter

Imbued with

1629

on canvas,

70'/2

x 87%

in.

(179 x 221 cm) Prado, Madrid

devotion

striking

combination

Zurbaran's powi I

>>i

intensity, the painter

succeeds

making

Catholicism, Mn\ based

places the viewer

light, this

almost forget the figure

Spanish

on the relationship between two static, by the

concent) ation hrough his use ol light and DU Itil

the intense

sculptural figures

one

seventeenth ecnturv art

Nolasco

oil

the whole

St.

Peter Nolasco and in

the

saint's position o! ecstatic

mock led work is

and terrible contemplation ol St

Peter nailed upside

of tangible realism and

one of the best examples

clow n to the cross.

Francisco de Zurbaran

Zurbaran's oeuvre.

tluir features. St.

Unfortunately, these

groups ol paintings have

clothes, with a large hat

been dispersed over the years and we no longer

and striking embroidered bag. Zurbaran has

have the impression of a

conferred

Margaret

St.

1640 on canvas, 72V4 x 351/2 in. (184 x 90 cm) c.

oil

niv stical

\ational Gallery, London

Margaret

in traveling

subtle

melancholy upon this motionless pilgrim,

procession ol

enchanting inhabitants

depicted

paradise, lining the aisles of

who

churches or the corridors

elegance, and he captures

perhaps the most

of convents,

her evocative gaze and

captivating part ol

format and often similar

sent", of paintings

female saints constitute

all

of identical in

possesses a natural

frozen gesture.

Francisco de Zurbaran St.

daughter of the governor of Toledo during the

Casilda

Moorish domination, who

1640 oil on canvas, 72'/4 x 351/2 in. (184 x 90 cm) c.

disobeyed her Saracen father and took food to the

Arabs' Christian prisoners.

Surprised bv the guards,

Thyssen- Bornemisza Collection,

she saw the loaves she was

Madrid

carrying

Zurbaran favored the image of this CastQian saint, rarelv

represented

outside Spain, and depicted

here in rich, fashionable attire.

The

saint

of noble family,

was

a girl

her skirt turn

miraculously into flowers.

The

figure

thus

endowed

with both tenderness and determination, and hence is

perfect subject lor this

painter's style.

the

Francisco de Zurbaran St.

bishop

1630 1634 an\as, oil OD 361/2 x 1 2% in.

nvi

>p>

Strength.

In this extremely balanced work, with its interplay ol

gildi

portray* d

monumental

Blaise

iii

iih

mmetry and

referent

vestments, modeled In the

light like

the precious

of a goldsmith,

(92.5 x 32.4 cm)

the saint's pointed beard

work

grips his crosier tightly. His

Romanian Satwnal Museum

body

of Art, Bucharest

his

the painting, the saintly

the beautiful face in profile.

Francisco de Zurbaran Bonaventura on His Deathbed

St.

crucial part in launching

the artist's career. As usual,

Zurbaran prefers

static

which give his paintings a claritv and resolution of great emotional impact.

Louvre, Paris

thus did not hesitate

to infringe the canons

work forms part

of perspective bv raising

of the cycle painted for the in Seville,

an unusual silhouette.

figures in frozen poses,

1629 oil on canvas, 98V2 x 88V2 in. (250 x 225 cm)

St.

Bonaventura

which plaved

and modifying the bier to

make

oi the

head to create

completely hidden dalmatic; all that tan

be seen are the hands and

College of

his

Despite the small size of

This

onsets the points

miter on

St. Blaise

saint's

immediately evident.

Francisco de Zurbaran with Vases

Life

Still

1633 oil

on canvas,

18 x 31

in.

(46 x 79 cm)

Aluscu J'Art de Catalunya,

Barcelona

Zurbaran splendid

rare but

still lifes

make

him one of the greatest specialists in this genre.

Spanish

can be divided into

still lifes

essentially

two schools: the richer and more "Baroque" style, of

Francisco de Zurbaran St.

Bonaventura Praying

Flemish origin, and the

1629 oil on canvas, 93% x 87'/2 in.

"minimalist," metaphysical,

(238 x 222 cm)

timeless style, which finds

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden

highest expression in

its

work of Sanchez Cotan and Zurbaran. A few items are arranged in a perfect sequence on a single plane.

the

Between them

magical, motionless

frozen in a kind of

giving

mystical nature of the

and episodes

making up

the

eliminated and everything is

an extremely original

figures

and color is established, as though surface,

game of chess, where human presence is

various religious orders

and succeeded

interpretation of the

a silent

relationship of volume,

in a

Zurbaran worked for

their history.

for the Franciscans of the

College ol he painted

St.

demanding i

le t.u

Bonaventura

ver\

figurative

Iding

somewhat

dreamlike timelcssness.

rati-

themes

Christian

iconography. Here

the successful juxtaposition ol the ecstatic saint,

listening raptlv to the

words

ol the angel,

and

the conversation between the cardinals and the other figures

on the

right.

Francisco de Zurbaran St. Jerome

Temptation of

1638-1639 oil on canvas,

section

of the altarpiece for the chapel of St.

Jerome

Jeromite Monastery,

Guadalupe

surrender to the music and

Francisco de Zurbaran

abandon

Ecstasy of

on the right, the exquisite group of temptresses, whose his studies;

instruments are depicted with great accuracy. The

background (a dark rock behind St. Jerome, the open sky behind the

St.

Francis

1639 oil on canvas, 63% x 54 in. (162 x 137 cm) National Gallery, London

The range of different

Zurbaran 's beautiful female saints appear to have

musicians) also contributes

gathered together as angel

this device,

musicians for this heavenly

succeeds in avoiding the

concert. The painting

confusion typical of

without Zurbaran, ready

crowded compositions and creates a work of great charm and rhythmic

as always to freeze the

elegance.

monumental, and almost

neatly divided into parts.

stark

the

left,

image of the

two the saint

fighting the temptation to

to this division. Thanks to

Zurbaran

interpretations of the ecstasy of St. Francis and

meditation on death would not be complete his

saint's

gesture and

endow

the figure with a powerful,

sculptural presence.

Noted bv intellectuals and COUTtil sumptuous style, Manic was

Juan Bautista

Maino

summoned

(Pastrana, Guadalajara,

Madrid, where be became the painter who most reiki ted

1580-

tbi'

Madrid, 1649)

early age

on the

Lombard painter, from an Maino was involved in the work

of a

gradually rediscovering this artist, a

now who ssas

bscorial. Critical studies are

celebrated painter

in his day,

hut w

overshadowed by other great masters of the golden age of Spanish painting. An essential element in his formation was Caravaggesejuc realism, which he probably encountered in Italy, both in Lombardy and later

a period ol study in Rome. In 1611 Maino was living in Toledo, where he took the vows ot the Dominican order. Very

during

solid forms, clearly defined by the light

and rich

in color,

predominate

in his

work.

to the court in

tastes of Philip IV. In bis offit

Juan Bautista Maino Reconquest of Bahia in Brazil

its,

pisodi ii.

I..

oil

154 (91

bringing Velazquez to 162} and introducing him at

di lin,

and

itino

ih.

..I

wounded

lymbolii

lidi

and

iiniing:

soldii

Ins

huge

ri< toi

am, is rlcbrates won on i

Inn

Fadrique de Toledo

..tin

(

anopy, the general shows

ers a tapesti

Philip

ili

pub

ii.

group

worn,

.n ili.

bj an

ouple, the

tin

bodies

pompous

lb.

n. ih.

fori

in this

ind tin llllllli III

(

.11 .IS

1. 1.

Ill

leresv,

juxtaposed to

neatly

..in.

painti

all.

sik h as the Surrender of

tory, standing

Breda, painted ten years

The scene

OlllllH nliiin

wnii h

Wrath, andWai In thi foreground to the Kit,

Velazquez's masterpiei es,

later.

owni d

onde duqui

Olivares and

ol a

work before

w reath

l.iunl

nous

1625. Runted for the Buen Ketiro palace, it proi idi a

wood example

.ii-

tol ions

small group of kneeling

Brazilian soil b\

elebratory

layei

ill.

cm)

Madrid

n.i.

Bl I<a\

\ I.

what

Maino

ight,

almost but

on canvas,

121% x

the

Madrid in court. As the mentor of this talented young painter from Seville, it was probabK Maim. who encouraged Velazquez to stud} Italian art, and Caravaggio in particular.

in tin

162

(

played a ke\ role

divided into two pai

depicts tin bistoi

ial

and ss lib the support of tile all powerful conde duque de >livares, he

Capat

The son

rich,

this

cue,

we have

4')

Juan Sanchez Cotan

Juan Sanchez Cot an

Still

(Orgaz, 156l-Granada,^1627)

24% x Highly individual and extremely interesting

both

artist

Sanchez Cotan greatest

work

and as a human being, one of the first and

still-life

painters.

that the bodegones

used for

still life

It is

due to

Spanish art) rapidly

reached a height perhaps only attained by Gova and, in the twentieth century, bv Picasso. Trained in the artistic circles all

in the

pure, intense, mystical spirituality of the late

sixteenth century, Sanchez Cotan

nearly always painted the a

same

subject:

few pieces of fruit or vegetables

inside a "box."

33Âť/2 in.

(63 x 85

Museo de

cm) Bellas Artes,

Granada

his

genre (the term

ofToledo, but steeped above

with Cardoon

Life

1600 oil on canvas, c.

The cardoon frequently recurs in the works of

Sanchez Cotan. It may have a hidden symbolic meaning (in

order to enjoy

must tackle

its

you

thorns), but *

the painter certainly exploits

its

compositional

value as a large

semicircular arch framed

a right angle.

~ Juan Sanchez Cotan Still

Life

with

Fruit

and Vegetables 1602

1603

on canvas, 27V4 x 38 in. (69.5 x 96.5 cm) oil

Jose LuisVarez Fisa Collection,

MuJriJ

This

one

ot the 11

"metaphysical heights

reached In the painter,

who

here sets "silent" fruit

and vegetables against his habitual black ground.

perfect composition, but

also

one

that

disquieting.

somewhat closer

examination, the hanging fruit

and vegetables begin

to look like anatomical

specimens, amputated pieces of nature.

Juan Sanchez Cotan Still

Life

1602 oil

on canvas,

26%

3 5

(68 x 89 cm) Prado, Madrid

This

richest

one of the painter's and most complex

compositions, with an unusual variety of objects,

and perhaps

this

wh\ he

signed

center.

The cardoon

right in the

reappears, hut

its

Kino

side in an unusual

position so as to describe a

sweeping upward curve embraces the other

that

items

Bartolome Esteban Murillo

Unfortunately,

many

female

city.

museums throughout

now

the world. His

works feature intense images of children playing, young beggars, and street urchins. While the influence of Ribera is earliest

leading figure in the "second generation"

of Sevillian artists, Murillo his gentle, religious

famous for

compositions that give

an image of him that

endearing, but

a taste for action, for

impassioned Virgins, and

genre

increasing frequency.

The

success of this easily understood and

pleasing

work was overwhelming.

Seville,

and the

activity of imitators

for a certain period. His

work

evident. In 1655, after a period of

undergone considerable

critical

assiduous study in Madrid, Murillo

reappraisal, largely based

In actual fact,

the master's oeuvre and career are far

more complex. After training in hometown, where he was noted for his ious talent, Murillo established his

own

studio

began to

!M9. A few

years later he

ommissions

scenes, and for descriptive detail. By

the contrast

introduced

still

greater freedom and

monumentalitv into

his

work. Beautiful

and

combined with what practically amounted to the mass production of devotional images, sometimes of inferior

his

too sweet.

1660,

copyists,

richer and

a little

Murillo opened an academy of fine arts in

1650 between the essential, austere paintings of Zurbaran and those of the younger, dynamic Murillo was already

perhaps

evident, so

saints,

enchanting angels began to appear with

of his cycles of

paintings have been dispersed and are

1618-1682)

(Seville,

trom the religious orders of the

quality, led to a decline in his reputation

has recently

his captivating

paintings of scenes and figures from

everyday

life.

Bartolome Esteban Murillo The Pool of Bethesda 1673

1671

oil

canvas,

9314 x 102 3/4in. (2 37 x

261 cm)

National Gallery, lonJon

This painting

great

<>t

breadth provides

spatial

an excellenl example of Murillo's familiarity with

complex compositions, where an effective and sophisticated expressive link is forged between the main figures anil the background. Two aspects

are particularly important to the painter: the

depiction of the miracle

and

narrative handling.

its

While emphasizing the monumental figure of Christ in contrast yvith the

withered limbs of the paralyzed man, Murillo finds the right tone

rhythm

for a

and

Rowing

narration.

Bartolome Esteban Murillo The Descent of the Virgin Mary to Reward St.

Ildephonsus

with a Chasuble

1650 on canvas, 121% x 98% in. (309 x 251 cm)

oil

Prado.

The

Madrid

spectacularly theatrical

nature of this composition,

worthy of

a miracle play and capable of rivaling Rubens's religious works,

makes

one

this altarpiece

of the greatest

achievements bv Murillo, then

still at

the beginning

The

ol his brilliant career.

contrast with the essential, ascetic compositions

Zurbaran shift in

two

evident.

The

the fortunes of the

Sevillian artists

corresponds to the change in taste halfwav through the seventeenth century,

when

the solemn

Carav aggesque rigor based

on clean-cut light and shade gave way to the desire for richer, colorful,

scenes.

and dynamic

Bartolome Esteban

The

Murillo

Children Eating Fruit

all

on scenes such

The

reproduced on these two

Little Fruit Sellers

ritical reappraisal

pages,

based above as

those

where the painter

demonstrates

endearing

1670 oil on canvas,

capacity to depict the

S6l4x 41

world around

Murillo prefers to presenl the situation with a delighttul ol detail, still- lite

abundance including striking

elements. These

canvases, intended as a

il4? x u)5 cm) and 5b - x 42 in. (143 x 106.5 cm),

protagonists ol a minor,

pair, were evidently aimed at aristocratic collectors, who would

everyday episode. Murillo 's

certainh not be troubled

voung beggars

bv the marginal details of

respectively

course very different from

poverty, but rather

Alte Pmakothek,

Velazquez's vagrants or

enjov the excellent

Ribera's Clubfooted hoy.

workmanship.

!4 in.

Munich

us,

arc

and the

(it

would

Bartolome Esteban

one: a young girl gazes

Murillo

out of the window,

Girl at

Window

the

1670 oil on canvas, 50 x 41% (127x 106 cm) Xatwnal Gallery of Art,

while her nurse looks fondly on. One could almost sav she is gazing

in.

Washington

out on

life,

emerging from

the protective shadows

of the house, and watching the world pass bv. Murillo

This

perhaps the freshest

or merelv

in the painter's entire

career,

one

expresses hitc.

The

that direct

all

his joie dc

subject,

also appears

avoids the picturesque

and most endearing work

which

elsewhere

the course of Spanish

painting,

an attractive

illustrative.

the contrary, he depicts

the feelings of the

women

two

with affectionate

sympathy, and invites us to contemplate the

girl's healthv,

beauty.

vouthlul

Bartolome Esteban

in ilu

Murillo

between Mother and Son .is told by Murillo. The work originally hung in the and

Madonna and

Child

1672 ml on canvas,

66 x 43

rtorj '4 art

afiiet

tion

ssea

private chapel of a noble

in.

(165.7 x 109.2 cm) Metropolitan

Museum of Art,

\'ew York

family from Madrid,

where

n was seen by Palomino, the scholarly author

work on seventeenth-century of a fundamental

Painted in the years of the master's in a freer

maturity

and brisker

manner than usual, this work adds another chapter

Bartolome Esteban

images. In actual

Murillo

are very interesting

Madonna and

Child

of transition regarding religious practices and

points of reference.

One

in.

century after the Council

(155 x 107 cm) Gallena Palatma, Palazzo Pitti,

thev

works

that also indicate a phase

1650-1660 oil on canvas, 61 x 42

fact,

of Trent, and hence

at a

certain distance from the

Bartolome Esteban

dispute over religious art

Murillo St. Thomas of Villanova and the Pauper

Florence

Murillo 's art found

its

best

between Catholics and

known (though perhaps

Protestants, Murillo offers

somewhat outmoded) form of expression in

a series of divine figures

religious scenes full of

popular appeal, with

sweetness and devotion,

none of the harshness

some of which were

of the early seventeenth

1668 on canvas, 86V2 x 58% in. (219.5 x 149.2 cm)

copied in small devotional

centurv.

Alle Pinakothek,

Munich

This significant

work

that have

immediate

oil

of the painter's late

maturity

based

on the unusual relationship between the severe figures in the

foreground,

constructed according to rigorously geometric

and the bustling background with its criteria,

Renaissance architecture 5(,

and dynamic figures.

Spanish painting,

who

described

"enchanting

in its

and sweetness."

beauty

Bartolome Esteban Murillo The

Flight into

Egypt

1645

oil

on canvas, x 6414 in.

82%

(210x 163 cm) Giillcrid Ji Palazzo

Bunco,

Genoa

The

flight into

Egypt, this

popular episode combining family

life

destinv,

and divine interpreted by

Murillo with his customary sweetness. While the

humble immediacy of the donkey and St. Joseph's traveling bag are

reminiscent of Flemish realism, the luminous group of the Madonna and Child is a highly characteristic feature of

Murillo's style.

The scene

unfolds before our eyes

with no obstacles or awkwardness. Murillo seeks and successfully

achieves simplicity, and this is

an effective narrative

lew equals in the European art of the

that has

period.

Juan de Valdes Leal Christ Carrying the Cross

1657-1660 on canvas, 82V4 x 63 in. (209 x 160 cm)

oil

Prado,

Madrid

With the dramatic involvement of a popular miracle play and in perfect

harmony with Spanish religious feeling, Valdes

Leal clearlv draws inspiration

from the

large,

sculptural groups carried in processions. Christ

seems to loom over us, crushed by the weight of the terrible, heavy cross,

whose rough wooden surface seems to emerge from the painting. The crown of thorns causes blood to run face.

Each

down

detail

Christ's

moves the long

faithful to pity: the

rope around the

condemned man's neck, the grief-stricken figures

on the left, even the gloomy landscape. Valdes Leal stands out in Spanish

seventeenth-century painting precisely by virtue

of his

bitter,

desperate

religious feeling. His best

works, of which

this

one, avoid the trap of facile

pathos and remain

among

the most striking in

Baroque

Juan de Valdes Leal (Seville,

sharp contrasts of light and shade, where

macabre and

imagine paintings further from the

can already glimpse his desire to

present the great

1622-1690)

its

moments

mysteries, and

its

of the

faith,

heroes in concrete

terms. He thus began to receive commissions from the monasteries and

realistic

Born in the same citv as Murillo and a near contemporary of his, Valdes Leal represents the opposite side of religious painting in

presence of Murillo. This was the coup

seventeenth-centurv Spain. While Murillo

de grace for the aging Zurbaran,

sunny, endearing, soft, and familiar,

Seville for

Madrid

who

left

1658. While Murillo

gloomy, funereal, dramatic, and burdened with violent passion. These

appears to be careful, sensitive, and precise

two contrasting sides of devotion and religious ceremonv still to

detail, Valdes Leal prefers a less

be found

outlines barely sketched in bv

Valdes Leal

are, so to speak, the

Andalusia today. Trained in the workshop of Antonio del Castillo in in

eal made his debut in the 1650s with paintings characterized by

Cordoba, \ aides 58

settled in Seville in 1657, despite the

in his

execution of figures and narrative

sophisticated image,

sometimes with the means of

broken brushstrokes. This choice of sides is also to be seen in his use of violent, clashing colors and his leaning toward the

terrifying.

graceful, sentimental

It is

hard to

manner of Murillo

than the terrible Hieroglyphics of the End of Life, the frightening images produced

1672 for the Charity Hospital in Seville, which are certainly his most celebrated in

works.

In general

terms, his career breaks

with the long series of Spanish painters

memories of Italian art. Even the almost obligatory reference influenced by

to Caravaggio

developed emphatically

on the brushwork rather than on the light, and with deliberately with stress fluid

laid

compositions.

art.

Juan de Valdes Leal Mary Magdalene i

1670

on 85 x 46

oil

(216 x

in. l

an) B

il'im

Villamanrlquc ndesa

Juan de Valdes Leal Time

Hieroglyphic of

Hieroglyphic of Death

1672 on canvas, 90V4 x 78% in. oil

(229 x 200 cm) each Charity Hospital, Seville

Constituting a macabre high point in Baroque painting, these

two

canvases are

unquestionably

among

the

most frightening paintings in the entire history

of art

The two works, known Postrimerias

or images

of the after-life, were inspired by the writings

of Juan Miguel de Manara

author of treatise

dramatic

on death.

— Alonso Cano (Granada. 1601-1667)

painter, sculptor, and architect oi remarkable talent, Cano was trained bv his father Miguel in his youth, and assisted him in

producing painted carved altarpieces.

He in

one of the most interesting

figures

seventeenth-century Spain, not onlv

bv virtue of his

activities as a multifaceted

but also because of the events of his complex and sometimes dramatic lite. His artist,

was completed in Seville, in the workshop of Francisco Pacheco, together training

with Velazquez,

Cano shared Italian art

his

near contemporary.

admiration for the

his friend's

of the Renaissance, though he

was not so concerned with the application of color and brushwork, but took a greater interest in the classical nude and anatomical drawings of great accuracy, which were also to prove useful for his highly esteemed

work

as a sculptor.

invitation,

On Velazquez's

moved

At the court of

Madrid

Philip IV

1637.

he distinguished

himself as Velazquez's assistant, as a restorer

of old paintings (including some masterpieces bv Titian, damaged in the at

the

Buen Retiro palace

in 1640),

fire

and

as a

painter of luminous religious compositions.

The theme of the male nude continued to predominate and Cano preferred such scenes as the Scourging of Christ, the

Deposition, the Pieta, and the Crucifixion, that

is,

even

subject that allowed

him

paint classical figures of Christ. His career as

court painter was dramatically

interrupted

when he was

from Madrid unjustly

—

after

forced to flee

being accused

—perhaps

of the murder of his second wife.

After a period spent in Valencia,

Cano

returned to Madrid, but he had bv now lost favor. In

1652, he returned to his

hometown and began

the great task of

decorating the facade of the cathedral, his

masterpiece

as a sculptor.

also

continued producing wooden sculptures

sometimes working together with Pedro de Mena many of which were painted. Cano

—

asked for permission to

become

a priest

with the Chapter of Granada, but his acceptance was delayed until

660 on

the pretext that he had difficulty learning

During this period he painted an impressive series of canvases with Stories of the Virgin for the niches in ecclesiastical Latin.

the choir of Granada cathedral, a task that

continued until 1664.

Alonso Cano The Dead

Christ Supported

by an Angel c. oil

1645 on canvas,

54 x 39!/4

in.

(137 x 100 cm)

Madrid

Prado,

Cano's serene compositions, devoid of the expressive excesses to

be found

and

other painters

the devotions of the

period, always remain

within the boundaries of an it

formal rigor, and

the emotions are restrained.

Juan Carreno de Miranda 1614-Madnd, 1685)

(Aviles,

I..

.11

Pedro

ill

lai

ill

iln

vas

initial |Âť

works

religious

ompleb

ii,

mast

ith

.in

shi

Villi

iU'

li'

train d ÂŤ

in.

and Bai

riod

(a field hi

abandon)

d),

Madrid school, when

painti

never n Bo joined

wa noticed

and invited to work on commission) ["hi contact with Velazquez marked a turning point in thi careei bj V< lazqui z

.I the

young Asturian

exampli

artist,

great mastei

of thi

importance in development, especially ol pivotal

work

trail

Charles

II,

regard to

his

During the

the court oi

relationship developed

between him and reminiscent

and Philip

n mained

his styli

painter.

years Carreno spent

and

king that was one between Velazquez the 1660s, Carreno was tin-

ol the

IV. In

given positions that bore increasing responsibility- In 1669, on the death ol Juan Baptista dt Ma/o, he was awarded the title of "painter to the king." Two years later

he was appointed "painter or

official portrait

ol the

chamber"

painter ol the royal

family. With his precise technique and unmitigated realism, Carreno painted the frail

Charles

on numerous occasions and

poses, giving an almost spectral

in different

image of the decline

ol the

Spanish

monarchy. Although he never attained the creative genius ol his master Velazquez,

Carreno

one of the most competent

portrait painters of seventeenth-century

Spain; though forced to paint his sitters in

severe official poses, he

conveying

Juan Carreno de Miranda The Founding of the Trinitarian Order

1666 on canvas, 24 x 86'/z in. (315 x 220 cm) oil 1

Louvre, Paris

Painted lor the Trinitarian

church of Pamplona, this is Carreno s masterpiece in the specific field

religious art.

Drawing

upon Flemish models, and in particular upon Rubens, Carreno creates a composition

(lowing

grandeur with an expertly handled group ol figures mining diagonally toward tlu

luminous celebration

oi the

lost.

The

brushstrokes and

tree

warm

vibrant colors are very different

from the studied,

detailed technique

adopted

capable ol

sense ol sickness and anxiety.

in his portraits

ol the rinal family.

wmmet

*&.

Orazio Gentileschi The Martyrs

and

Cecilia, Valerian,

Tiburtius, detail

1620 oil on canvas, 137', x 85 v. in. (350 x 218 cm) c.

Pinacoteca

di Brera,

Milan

•

.w*

Rome.

The short name of the Eternal City ennumber of projects, master-

capsulates a vast

and international

pieces, princely collections, artists

forming strands that interweave to

fash-

ion and disseminate the Baroque art of Europe as a whole.

Seventeenth-century

Italian painting ine\itablv gravitated

around what was happening culture, art,

and

religion.

Rome,

the true center of

Having aggressively recovered dire consequences (in-

from the Protestant schism and

its

cluding the humiliating Sack of

Rome

in 1527),

between

the end of the sixteenth and the height of the seventeenth century, the

home

of the papacy enjoyed a period of splen-

dor expressed through an unparalleled wave of urban

re-

From SixtusV

on,

construction and architectural renewal.

the popes vied with one another to associate their

names

a disconcertingly rich

human panorama

that offered

an unprecedented opportunity for meetings, exchanges of opinion, and parallel developments in style

when

ferment

this

drop of the great

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

especially

seen against the monumental back-

and the masterpieces of

classical ruins

Michelangelo and Raphael.

Without wishing to minimize the importance of the very lively local schools (if

confine ourselves to artists pre-

sented in this volume, suffice

mention the Genoa of

Strozzi or the Naples of masters like Mattia Preti and

Luca Giordano, places where Baroque flourished

in an in-

Rome

explains

what happened

ternational dimension),

century

came

from the new

religious orders

movement of evangelization

com-

now

that penetrat-

ed society and crossed the new continents. Light and shade. Baroque

Rome was

both shop window

Annibale Carracci The Butcher's Shop

and backroom, showcase and slum. Artists poured in from

1585 oil on canvas,

all

over Europe to settle in the

Few came with ments

city.

They

all

came

specific, prestigious contracts

in their pockets.

the support of the

Most of them

most firmlv

to learn.

or appoint-

work on national com-

relied for

established

And

Italian painting.

whole. In addition, there

this

holds true for Europe as

another factor that

may

ap-

pear insignificant, but should in fact be considered with a certain degree of attention.

Rome was

only marginally

af-

fected by the devastating outbreaks of the plague that

Church Collection,

was

time, the great patrician families indulged in patronage of

spearheading a

Oxford

from the regions of Lombardy, Ticino, Emilia, and so Some were adventurers seeking to make a fortune. It

and encapsulates much of the history of seventeenth-

missions

Christ

on).

clei

and heraldic crests with spectacular projects. At the same the arts (often benefiting from papal nepotism), and

49'/2x 104% in. (126 x 266 cm)

munities (the French, the Dutch, and the Flemish, and nu-

struck other cities (Milan and Venice in 1630, Naples in

1656) and led to drastic interruptions in the development of their art and art collections.

From

the closing years of the sixteenth through the

first

half of the seventeenth century (in strictly artistic terms,

from the

arrival of

ian journey),

Caravaggio to Velazquez's second

Rome was

Ital-

the scene of lively debate with a

constantly varying interplay of influences, trends, fashions, specialized treatises and, of course, great masterpieces.

With some

simplification,

possible to identifv three

main trends succeeding one another

in a sort of ideal relay

race of artistic styles: the naturalism of Caravaggio, the classicism of

Guido Reni and the Bolognese school, and

the Baroque proper of Bernini and Pietro da Cortona.

These three different

figurative

models were

also the

mainsprings of seventeenth-century European art as a

whole. In

chronological order, the

launched by Caravaggio tury. In the artistic

first

at the close

movement was

that

of the sixteenth cen-

preceding decades, the fervor of religious and

renewal triggered by the Counter-Reformation

had been partlv hampered bv the substantial mediocritv of

its predominantly "rearguard" artists who had grown up in awe of the great models of the High Renaissance. Trained

Guido Reni The

Dawn

Caravaggio Beheading of

(Aurora)

1612-1614 fresco, 110'4 x 275"2 (280 x 700 cm)

Palazzo Rospigliosi Pallavicini,

Rome

St.

John

the Baptist in.

1608, 142 x

oil

on canvas,

204%

in.

(361 x 520 cm) St. John's Cathedral, La Valletta (Malta)

Lombard school of

in the

ward

come

realism, Caravaggio put for-

completely different model, which was to be-

the

"common

European painting rejection. Firmly

language" of seventeenth-century

after

some

initial

anchored to

embarrassment and

reality,

even

crudest

its

and most down-to-earth aspects, Caravaggio's paintings are based

which was nearly always

light,

a shaft cut-

ting diagonally through the scene to highlight

some

fig-

ures and plunge the other areas into the darkest shadow.

Two

effects are thus obtained: a disconcertingly direct

and immediate realism, coupled with intense concentra-

on the main

tion

figures.

The adventurous

life

of Cara-

vaggio, sublime as an artist but violent and quarrelsome

man, enhances

as a

his

charisma

wild and solitary revolutionary.

working

Rome

an artistic outcast, a

What

certain

that

and producing masterpieces both of

genre painting for collectors and altarpieces for churchCaravaggio

es,

pact. at

made an immediate and widespread im-

When he died "as badly as he had lived" on the beach

Porto Ercole in 1610, the

ginning to ripen not only in

fruits

of his activity were be-

Rome

and Naples (where he

made two verv productive stays) but also in other Italian and foreign schools. In many cases, for example, by ,

Orazio Gentileschi or

works of Guido Reni,

in the early

the dramatically rough edges of Caravaggio's

toned

down by

work were

elegant execution.

Around 1620, however, the seemed to give way to a wholly

influence

of Caravaggio

different tendency, a con-

trolled, intellectual style of painting based

a painstak-

ing return to classical antiquities and celebrated Renais-

sance models. Promoted above

Bolognese school,

first

all

by painters of the

and foremost Annibale Carracci,

classicism established itself as a very characteristic trend in

seventeenth-century painting. Taken up and developed

also

by foreign masters (such

Nicolas Poussin),

classi-

cism was also the result of the spread of academies of painting and drawing,

whose

pupils received a complete

training that included not only the specific field of art,

but also and perhaps primarily a vast, general, eclectic Mattia Preti Sketch for fresco entitled "The Plague in Naples"

culture,

1656 on canvas,

and

oil

50%

x 30'/4

(129

in.

77 cm)

complex

which enabled them to interpret correctly even subjects drawn from Greco-Roman mythology

literature.

The

third important

movement was

the

extraordinarily theatrical and exuberant style of painting that can be regarded as authentic Baroque.

Promoted by

Galleria Nazionale di

Capodimonte, Naples

the religious orders and widely developed throughout

the

Catholic

colonies,

world,

including the

Latin

Baroque, however, originated

works commissioned by the that of a "total"

Jesuits.

The

American

Rome

initial

work of art capable of sweeping

idea

ry,

was

cal

the spec-

tator

away

ture,

and furnishings were thus supposed to work togeth-

er to

like a

whirlwind. Architecture, painting, sculp-

communicate

ideas that

cent, rich and emphatic.

were solemn and magnifi-

Such an ambitious objective

called for multifaceted personalities, for artists capable of

"directing" projects

crammed with special effects. The abmovement and not only in

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

solute genius of the Baroque

Rome

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; was Gian Lorenzo

Bernini, a versatile sculptor

and painter with many other

and Florence.

with

In the

second half of the seventeenth centu-

however, the effects of

tin-

increasingly difficult politi-

and economic situations began to

tell

Italian art.

Fewer great works were commissioned. The splendor of Rome began to wane and the cities and towns of the Renaissance grew visibly poorer. In some cases, and

the decline was quite dramatic.

Famous works of art be-

gan to be sold abroad, together with entire princely collections. After being for centuries the principal center of

production for European role

art, Italy slipped into a

stands fresco

updated on the

cycles executed in the mid-seventeenth century in

Rome

remnants of a glorious and increasingly distant

Pietro da Cortona, painter of the

marginal

from the middle of the seventeenth century on.

Next to him most spectacular

talents.

es-

pecially in regard to the small courts of northern Italy,

became

a place

where painters went not

latest

advances

in painting,

order to be

but to study the past.

Guercino The Return of the Prodigal Son

1619 on canvas, 42 x 56' 2 in. oil

(106.5 x 143.5 cm) Kunsthistorisches

Museum, Vienna

Annibale Carracci (Bologna, 1560-Rome. 1609)

cousin Ludovico, with collaborated on a

Above

all,

whom

number

he also

of earlv works.

Annibale and Ludovico shared

the desire for a return to "natural"

illustrious

member

of a family of

painters, Annibale Carracci plaved a crucial role in the transition

from the Mannerism

of the late Renaissance to tbc early Baroque. Together with his brother

Agostino and cousin Ludovico, he founded the Accademia dei Desiderou, the first well-

last air

himseli

work

academic approach was enriched through contact with the enormous repertoire of

of the greatest masterpieces of painting

Rome

the frescoed ceiling

of the gallerv in Palazzo Farnese, one

between the sixteenth and seventeenth

classical art. In

environment, surrounded bv stimuli and

intellectual

major public work, the Crucifixion for the church of Santa Maria della Carita in Bologna (1 583), exemplifies this approach.

points of reference

Annibale Carracci never

\nnibale

older

supple, delicate style, both classical and

young artists, providing a model for the programs of academies of fine arts that was

and quintessence of Annibale Carracci 's

Around 590 Annibale Carracci moved to Rome, where his

the right choice.

removed from prestigious but complex and intellectual Mannerism. Annibale's first

In the following vears, Annibale embarked on an impassioned studv of Correggio and Titian, curbed the impetuous energy of his early years, enriched his palette, and soltened his outlines. The result was a

structured form of cultural training for

painting, a pure and simple stvle far

up-to-date, which soon proved to be

centuries. Exhausted bv the physical and

an exhilarating

the highest levels

of the art of the dav, he broadened his

range of subjects considerably, and also

and died laid

the foundations for the specific

development of the His presence in

"ideal" landscape.

Rome was

of crucial

importance also for the establishment of an actual colonv of painters from Emilia, including Guido Reni.The culmination

Caravaggio.

energy expended on this work, fullv recovered 1609, one year before

Annibale Carracci

Not

Pieta

Crucifixion with the Virgin

poll inn

and Saints Bernardino, Francis, John, and Petronius

altarpiece

1583

left his

oil

1S99 1600 on canvas,

61'/2X

58%

oil

(

of the subject is softened In the supple, modulated Painted during the period artistic maturity, at

the same time as the frescoed ceiling in the

splendid

Rome,

work

demonstrates Annibale Carracci 's ability to select

elements from various artists

of the past and

blend them together in an original and highly

successful fashion.

While

the soft, delicate treatment

of drapery and flesh are reminiscent of Correggio, the poses of Christ and

Mary

are clearly

modeled

on Michelangelo's in

Pieta

the Vatican.

Annibale Carracci The Dead Christ

to a simple, everyday

language.

1590 oil on canvas, 27% x 35 (70.8 x 88.8 cm)

On many

occasions the painter

demonstrates

his

in.

extraordinarily refined style, his perfect technical

Staatsgalene, Stuttgart

Observation of Annibale Carracci

more dramatic

works gives an idea of the painter's

commitment to a human art,

direct and

capable of superseding the sophisticated, elitist

intellectualism of

Mannerism and returning

hutch

Santa \Liiui

della Carita, bologna

elegance ol the execution.

Galleria Farnese in

in.

(305 x 210 cm)

The dramatic nature

this

on canvas,

120x 82%

CapoJimontc, Naples

marks the

control, and his ability to

create

complex perspectives

and foreshortening. The ultimate goal is never the

mere

display of bravura,

however, but an immediately evocative depiction.

.ii

(

ai i.u

(

who

the

Renaissance

he looked

M illi .in "i one ii .inn

Bologna,

in cultural

and

III

the histoi I

bus,

till

Hi. ili I

tlÂť

hot

janu

.ili

in tin

itud) ol

ol paintii s

.in

1).

ili

and

the woi Id

llll.ll

bam d on

obsei ration ol

At the height of the late

period rich

dim

.iliu

t<>

style.

ibli

Independent

retui n to "natural"

first

udovit o's

igoroush prop

painting,

cousin

workshop iiÂŤ n

ili,

tones, this

In th

\niiikili

Gallcna Xationale

of his

frei

ovi

,il

in.

(156 x 149 cm) di

ten

altogethi

Raphael

poi craved

Annibale Carracci The c.

Flight into

Egypt

1603

on canvas, 48 x 90',i in. (122 x 230 cm) oil

Galleria Dorio Pamphih,

Rome All the elements are drawn from observation of the Roman campagna and the area of the Alban Hills:

splendid views of nature,

and

rolling countryside,

ancient ruins. At the same

time, the contemplative

atmosphere of the canvas and the relations between the figures and nature are intellectual in tone, and direct observation

through

filtered

classical culture.

Annibale Carracci Adonis Discovers Venus c.

oil

1595

on canvas,

85 Vix 963/4

in.

(217 x 246 cm) Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

After moving to

Rome

around 1 590, the painter adopted an "elevated" style, making his work both serene and rigorous. Increasingly frequent use

was made of mythological or literary subjects, highlv appreciated by aristocratic collectors,

which Annibale

Carracci faultlesslv

represented with a wealth of precise references to the poetic sources. As this

masterpiece effectively demonstrates, thev are often exquisitely executed

works and indispensable points of reference for the

development of classicism in painting. Adopting a form of academic eclecticism, Annibale

Carracci once again draws

upon and develops the stvlistic

elements of

Renaissance painting,

blending

Roman

with Greco-

sculpture and

classical art in general.

However, the primarv point of reference remains

sixteenth-centurv Venetian art

and Titian

in particular,

especially regarding the

nude set background of a

radiant female against the

dense, natural landscape.

Annibaie Carracci Homage to Diana 1602

from the In scoes

detail in tin

(

..ill.

l.i

orating the Gall*

,n in

in sr

Rome

irduOUl task of

ili-i

.11

Palazzo larnese,

onstitutrd

tin

climax of Annibaie (

,ii i.

I. ill

was

so phvsuallv and creatively

demanding that it r*hamfrfd him. The great stenographic hall,

frescoed

tin

the turn of

nturv, simultaneously

marks the

final stage of

the Italian Kenaissani r

and the triumphal birth of classicism, one of the

major movements

of European Baroque. It

also

important not to

underestimate the role played by this

work

authentic training ground for various artists, almost all

from the region of who were

Emilia,

summoned

by Annibaie

Carracci to

assist in

executing the frescoes. After various experiments and

changes of plan, the painter decided to simulate

sumptuous princely gallery with paintings framed by carved decorations and stuccos.

The

largest

painting, The Triumph of

Bacchus and Ariadne, in the center

set

of the ceiling,

with other mythological scenes arranged along the walls. The result is a memorable masterpiece in which the numerous and

explicit figurative allusions

(to Raphael, Michelangelo,

ancient art, and so on)

blend in a flowing,

luminous, idealized Painted

at a

time

style.

when

Caravaggio's career in

Rome

was

at its

height,

the frescoes strike us as the antithesis of chiaroscuro realism.

should be

remembered, however, that after their respective work in Palazzo

Farnese and the

Contarelli Chapel in the

church of San Luigi dei Francesi, Annibaie Carracci and Caravaggio were both i

ommi-Moned

work on

the Cerasi Chapel in the

church of Santa Maria del Popolo, where the former painted the .issumpnon

and the

over the altar

latter the

flanking canvases

two \\

ith

the Martyrdom of St. Peter and the Conversion

of St. Paul.

Caravaggio

handling of light and emotion.

Michelangelo Merisi 1

(Milan,

571 -Porto

Ercole,

1610)

590, at an age

to short, calamitous, and adventurous life forms the dramatic setting for the work artist

who

did

than any other to influence the

painters generally

Rome. The

earlv vears

moved

were grim,

fraught with poverty and illness.

name

Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in Milan

a celebrated

model

for

painting.

still-life

earlv religious paintings (such as

the Rest on the Flight into Egypt in the

workshops of established painters, Caravaggio found it difficult

make

in the

The

assistant in the

for himself. This period

Galleria Doria Pamphili in still

Rome) were

influenced by the naturalism of the

Lombard

school, but there was to be

death, Caravaggio

Rome

was forced to

1606, thus beginning

flee

from

human

odyssev during which he produced masterpieces that were to become points of reference for European painting as a

whole. After an

initial stay in

Naples,

Caravaggio went to Malta, where he was

admitted into the Order of the Knights of St. John. This glory was, however,

development of seventeenth-centurv

saw the production of

painting by introducing a realism and use

paintings heralding an authentic revolution

paintings for the church of San Luigi

of light and shade that were to be followed

in the history ol art.

dei Francesi in

come. Most probablv born in Milan (his nickname being derived from the Marchese di Caravaggio, for

brought the

emerge from the dark background

Caravaggio prepared to

whom

and strolling musi< ians into painting. works, characterized bv a light

to create an unprecedented, strong,

but, alter a series of adventures, he died

neutral

works painted in Rome between 600 and 1606 triggered widespread heated debate; some of them were refused by clients shocked by their excessively brutal realism. Found guilty ot murder and sentenced to

for centuries to

the painter's father

worked

as an

administrator), Caravaggio received his

from Simone Pctcrzano, but above all he studied w ith keen intelligence the work of Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, and the sixteenth-ccnturv masters from Brescia. This gave him a very strong leaning toward training

when

Around

chose independence, Caravaggio

of Caravaggio, the

endow them with an independent dignity as artistic subjects. The Basket of Fruit

realism that was expressed through his

little

Caravaggio

world of the

Roman

ambiguous voung

"hustlers," street lads,

milestones in

the birth o details

objects

ting.

are exec uted i

w ith

descriptive

the gi

further breakthrough. In the

Rome

( 1

600), Caravaggio

new and

highly dramatic

interpretation of altar painting.

expressive impact.

The

monumental

The

figures

great religious 1

and various

flowi

and Caravaggio

The

offered a radically

cardsharps, gypsies, prostitutes,

alleys

care,

some memorable

short-lived. He was imprisoned on Malta but succeeded in escaping, first to Sicily and then once more to Naples (1609-1 6 10). Trusting that papal pardon would be forthcoming, sail

tor

Rome,

of malaria on the sun-drenched beach of Porto Ercole.

Caravaggio

Basket of Fruit

The Cardsharps

1597 1598 on canvas, 18 x 2514 in. (46 x 64.5 cm)

594

oil

J7 x 51!

Cardinal Del this

Monte gave life

Borromeo, Archbishop ol Milan and renowned art Collector. It marks the

In bi

genre, and

between

in l.\

still-life

paii ni

oldi

ol thi

poised .n

in]. In

imitation of reality and

winning

sweeping poetry. Federico

Ins bai k.

Borromeo wished to accompany this work with another basket of

Fruit,

.iris

ard

lip

bom

behind

Abovi and beyond

moralizing

implications, the painting

but

provides

he himself wrote, "since none could match the

â&#x20AC;˘

nli in

powei

beauty of this one and its incomparable excellence, it

meticulous

rth

pisode draw on the itreel by th

to Cardinal Federico

beginning of the

Musetu

\tt

extraordinary canvas

9 cm)

Pmacoteca Ambrosianu, Milan

immediai

(

ar.iwiggio's

observation, his

ability to

has remained alone."

memorable '.I

aptun

(

llu

ol the scene,

the mobility ol the gestures

and expressions, and the narrative force ol the details

of the clothes and the

gaming

Caravaggio

The Young Bacchus

Boy with

1595-1596 oil on canvas, 3V/2X 33 /2in. (95 x 85 cm)

1593-1594 oil

Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

Galleria Borghese,

a Basket of Fruit

on canvas, 2V/2 x 26V4 in. (70 x 67 cm)

Rome

tab]

Caravaggio

left,

The Music

the corporeal realm ot the

Party

which contrasts with

other vouths.The

159S on canvas, 34V5 x 45 : in. (87.9 x IIS. 9 cm)

less

than

perfect state ot preservation

oil

makes

W^a

impossible to read

Metropolitan

the score, which

Museum of Art,

NewYork

risible in

perfectly

other works.

Caravaggio evidently loved music. Musical instruments

Works such

as this

continue

ot excellent

Cara\ aggio's alleged (but

never proven)

proved possible to organize

homosexuality to the

concerts of the music in

recondite religious

Caravaggio's paintings.

significance of his paintings.

Most of the pieces

In this apparentlv realistic

sixteenth-century motets

questions, ranging from

-4

^^mv*

workmanship

and very precise scores are to be found in manv of his early paintings; it has even

to pose a variety ot

fev.

W , i

are late

presence of a winged figure

and madrigals for various voices and lute

(An angel? Cupid?) to the

accompaniment

scene,

certainly note the

i^^r

^ t\

Caravaggio The Fortune

Teller

1593 oil on canvas, 39 x 511/2 in. (99 x 131 cm)

Louvre, Pans

This

one of the

first

and most appealing of Caravaggio's Roman works.

The

painter again draws

from evervdav from the character^ encountered in the streets. Here a smiling gypsy girl reads the palm of a voting dandy and slips a ring from his finger. The circumstances in which the work was painted are described as follows bv inspiration life,

a writer of the period:

"He summoned a gypsv girl who happened to be passing in the street and

portrayed her

in the act

of telling someone's fortune ....

painted

voung man resting his gloved hand on his sword and stretching his bare hand a

out to the gypsv, holding

who

and looking

it.

And in these two figures, Mkhelc unquestionably captured the truth."

Caravaggio transforms the realism of the

Lombard

school into a dazzling whirl

of characters, situations,

and ph

Another

version ol this subjl

Museum

W/M

Caravaggio

The Conversion of Mary Magdalene

Rest During the Flight

Christ Child firmly clasped

into Egypt

by the tired and lining

1595-1596 on canvas,

soloist of die heavenly

5 3'/2X 65V2in. (135.5 x 166.5 cm)

looseh swathed

1597 1598

on canvas, 38!/2 x 52'/4 in.

oil

(97.8 x 132.7

cm)

Detroit Institute of Arts,

Detroit

lullabv for the beautiful

Virgin Mary. The virtuoso

oil

Galleria

on lustra

Dona Pamphih, Rome instills

die sunset

with an unforgettable

Urged on by Martha, the blooming Mary Magdalene prepares to renounce

quality, as

worldly vanities, while the

though the ÂŤhole of nature

lighl

though time

nuling

still,

itself

slender youth, in a

from

his hips,

presenting

strong contrast with

the rustic

St.

Joseph

and die donkey peeping dirough the foliage. Ew rj element is executed widi

were holding its breath to music of the

painstaking care and

painstaking depiction of

listen to the

the mirror, jewelry, and

angel violinist,

after another, while

painter lingers over a

other feminine items. truth

)i\ine

white

tunic that seems about to slip

Caravaggio

discovers one

new

detail

never

Dtment and human

losing contact with the

meet

figures.

in a

heavenly

Caravaggio St.

but the clerics found the

Matthew and the Angel

oil 1

saint's

expression too crude

and refused to accept

1602

it.

Before beginning a new-

canvas,

1614x76%

version of the altarpiece

in.

( 1

(295 x 195 cm)

602 ), Caravaggio

executed the two side paintings,

The Martyrdom of

St.

which constitute

an epoch-making turning

Matthew

point in the historv of art.

1599-1600 oil

With tremendous

on canvas,

force,

he draws the spectator into

127'/4X 135 in. (323 x 343 cm)

The Calling of

the episode as

Matthew

St.

it is

actuallv

happening,

when

reached

dramatic climax.

its

The Martyrdom

has

a brutal

1599-1600

execution, with the killer

on canvas, 126 3/4X 133% in. (322 x 340 cm)

bursting into the church to

oil

strike

Contarelli Chapel, Church of

San Luigi

dei Francesi,

down

the saint during

the celebration of mass.

Rome

Caravaggio interprets the scene as an episode of violent crime, with the saint

The long and complex contractual negotiations for the decoration of the

Contarelli Chapel in the

church of the French

communitv

Rome came

to an end with the decision to engage Caravaggio to

execute three paintings: the altarpiece depicting

Matthew writing the Gospel, flanked bv two St.

works showing the key

moments

in the life

of the evangelist. Caravaggio

produced of

his first version

Matlheii

and

the Angel,

attempting to defend himself while the space

rent bv the figures of the killer

and of the choirbov

fleeing in terror.

Much

calmer but bv no means evocative

less

the scene of the

Calling. Christ enters a

guardhouse with soldiers and tax collectors seated on benches. Followed bv a shaft ot light,

raises His

arm

and points to the dumbfounded Matthew,

who his

responds bv placing hand on his breast.

Caravaggio

Christ Taken Prisoner

Martyrdom of

on canvas,

(133.5 x I69.S an)

60 1600 on (dii\as, 90'/ix 69 in

National Gallerj

(230*

oil

66M

in.

oil

of Ireland,

Dublin

This

(

one

nl the

most

erasi

(

cm) each

I7S

bapel,

hurch of

(

mi, i Maria del Popolo,

recent .mil interesting

additions to the catalog

unfold

of Caravaggio 's works.

s.ilitinli

Discovered

training labon

the

possession ol the |esuit

order

Petel

onversion of St Paul

(

1602

Dublin, the work

had previously been regarded as hist and was known only through old copies. The dramatic night

both cases,

I'cti

sil< I

whole

(

.mil

-.oil, il

lili

nailed upside

mi On (loss the

.mil

Inn

Howe

thi

daw

(inti.li

ol the prei ioui

figurative tradition,

Caravaggio does DOl ondi Mill tile rxn lit (

.Ik

scene broken by the metallic glint of armor

but rather undersi ores the

highlights the painter's

with the rope that marks

convey gesture, physiognomy, flashes

two the back and arm, while the apostle

ability to

of anguish, terror, excitement, and brutality.

|i.iinliil

aspect ol

task

them on

looks around,

lost

and

abandoned, with no comfort from above. An equally is

new

given ol

interpretation

tin

conversion

whose lall plan- not on the road Damascus but in the

ol St

Paul,

darkness

ol a stable

takes to

Caravaggio Sacrifice of Isaac c. oil

1603 on canvas,

41 x

5 3'/4 in.

(104 x 135.nn Galleria Jegli

One

ol the

Uffi/.i,

Florence

very few works

by Caravaggio set

in the

countryside, this painting

was produced for Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, when the artist was enjoying great popularity with the

Roman

aristocracy.

Despite the identity of his client,

to play

Caravaggio refused

down

the "terrible"

elements of the scene, especially the

whimpering

figure of Isaac, held

down

Abraham, who became a model for the firmly by

portraits of bald-headed,

bearded old men that were to appear frequently in Baroque painting. The angel seen in profile

is,

bv contrast, a tribute to classical sculpture.

Caravaggio Judith

and Holofernes

1599 oil on canvas, 57 x 76% in. (145 x 195 cm) c.

Galleria Sazionale d'Arte Antica,

Rome

This work forms part of a

group

clearlv identifiable

painted for Cardinal Del

Monte, dramatic scenes depicted

in a clear,

steadv

almost

light to obtain

sculptural effects. The theme of decapitation

reappears almost obsessively in Caravaggio's painting, and

was to take

a strikinsjlv

autobiographical significance

when

fugitive artist

the

was

sentenced to capital

punishment

1606.

Caravaggio Catherine

St.

modi

of Alexandria

oil

598

599

on canvas,

68 x

S2'/4 in.

(173x

cm)

Homemlsza Collection, Madrid

i"i

thi

iggio used bio

stupendous heroine,

frowning oppositi is

typi<

when tin-

appeal

Ullll

tli' s

as the

on the rhi worV

jmliili

pag "I thi

ill

siu

tin i

ill.

fai

.ami

isslul devil

dressing her

in a

cecuted

blouse, ÂŤ

Contarelli Chapel, "

shai ply itli

hit itli

tones prevaili

tli'

he del itli

ted

exta

air!

through

mil

paintings in the

ÂŤ

cri

tin

lla

..:;'.

mai tyrdom, broken

anil

white

onl

I.,

..in.

an aln

tarl

Caravaggio David and Goliath C.

1597-1598

on canvas, 4314 x 35% in. oil

(HOx Prado,

cm)

Madrid

Alone and

silent in the

moonlight, David leans over the fallen body of the slain giant.

Caravaggio

chooses neither the

moment

of triumph nor

the instant in which David hurls the stone sling,

from

his

but prefers to reflect

upon what comes after, upon the moment when the explosion of violence has just ended and silence falls

around the scene

of death.

Caravaggio The Madonna

ordinary dress, ami

holding the

1604 1606 ml mi canvas, 102!4 x 59 in. (260 x ISOcm) C.

Church

pinned up and an

dai k haii

of Loreto

w c

nli

Christ

is (

ul<

lining maternal

uiiliili in

.mil

(

linn In tin

presenting lagged,

pathetic, elderly, Kneeling of Sant'Agostino,

pilgrims.

Rome

These two

wayfarers

who

have

finally

An extraordinary

reached their destination

masterpiece of religious

are unforgettable ligures.

work was

painting, this

longer possessing even

originally produi ed lor tin-

the strength lo rejoice,

altar dedicated to the

they kneel there, with

House

lory

Loreto, thus

dirty leet, speechless

explaining the prominent

before the Christ Child.

doorway of the house in Nazareth in which Mary

Very seldom has religious

stands. This

Madonna

comes from

the ranks of

painting been so powerful

and,

the

same time,

evocatively sweet and

the people. She wears her

serene.

Caravaggio

never ceased to studv and

St.

John the Baptist

1602 oil on canvas,

51V2X 38%

in.

(131 x 98.6 cm) Capitoline Museum,

This

work

joyful,

Rome

constitutes a

almost Dionysian

interlude in Caravaggio's painting. In his

most

successful period, the artist

hand at the great models of the past. The Hellenistic sculptures and the powerful nudes of Michelangelo on the try his

ceiling of the Sistine

Chapel are the

historical

forerunners of this striking youth, captured by the artist in a twisted, athletic

pose.

Caravaggio The Supper

Emmaus

1601

oil

5S'/2X 7714 X

(I tl

Caravaggio Madonna of the

1606 1607 on canvas, 145 x 98 in. (364 x 249 cm) Museum,

Vienna

high!) expressive

period

onJon

Rosary li.l'.l

prei

work

artist's first

Naples,

was

i"<i

.ii

oil

from the

.mi

National Gallery, 1

Kunsthistorisches

in.

196,

I'll ini

l .

oi tin

d on

and

table

the roast chicken served as tin

imstii

distrai

in this

seem do not the viewer's

attention from

tin

expression

motion

that

painted tor a church

greets the revelation of

belonging to the

Christ's identity.

Dominican order. The theme is rather complex,

depth

representing the

placed on

with

ol tin

tin-

(

Note tin omposihon on

disciple

the- left

this side ol

intercession ol the Iriars,

the table, the disciple

through the prayer of the

the right beside

Rosary, between the

(clearly inllucnc ed

people and the Madonna.

Leonardo)

(

)n the far left

the

patron, his eves Mashing,

turned toward the viewer, A large red drape frames the composition.

Once

it,

sitting

Christ l>\

behind

with the host behind Him.

The shadows figures

cast by the onto the back wall

room emphasize the arrangement. of the

again Caravaggio turns a

complex doctrinal subject into a vision of powerful

human emotion.

Caravaggio The Seven Works of Mercy

1606-1607 on canvas,

oil

1S3'/2X 10214

in.

(390 x 260 cm) Pio Monte della Misericordia, Naples

Painted during

Caravaggio 's in

first stay-

Naples, this

work

brilliant solution to a

complex problem. With great intuitive insight, the

painter uses an ordinary

evening

at a

crossroads

in the Spanish quarter of

Naples

as a setting for all

the figures and episodes that

symbolize the works

of mercy: giving food to the

hungry and drink

to the thirsty, assisting

pilgrims, visiting those in prison, clothing the naked,

tending the sick, and

burying the dead. As though leaning from

balcony, a smiling Virgin

Mary, on the wings of two acrobatic angels, observes

the scene.

Guido Reni

resulting

(Bologna, 1575-1642)

Pupil and follower ofAnnibale Carracd,

model student expert

Rem

ol the

in classical art

Carracd Academy, and Raphael, Guido

seventeenth-centun European art. For nearK three centuries, his pure,

adamantine

style, perfectly

poised between

ol greal interest

Rome. The

an outstanding master ol

works

demonstrated Guido Reni's critical acumen ami artistic talent, and brought him to the attention of collet tors and patrons. On the death ol Annibale Carracd 1609), Guido Reni became the leading exponent of classicism and ol the Bolognese school in fresco of The

Dawn

1622-1625

tin

on canvas, 81 x 117 in. (206 x 297 cm)

work

lor the Farnese family

and

solemn token

The

great altarpieces painted for churches in

Bologna, most of which are

now

exhibited

mark

The a

moved

Rome

(light, color,

expression,

draftsmanship, and composition). Until the

around the year 1600.

This marked the beginning of a trulv exciting decade. Reni

elements

1630s, Guido Reni remained faithful to a rich stylistic

went from Annibale

model

energy. Then, in the

full

last

of color and

few years of his

became attenuated and

Carracd 's Farnese Gallerv to the chapels

life, his

with canvases by Caravaggio, seeking

evanescent, and he used a limited range of

stylistic

apparently verv different

two approaches. The

point of contact between the

painting

almost transparent colors,

in yvhich

and melancholy are mingled.

beautv

who,

balls.

number of golden

Atalanta stops to pick

them up and thus

loses

young man.

stylistic

device in which

the gleaming bodies of

set in contrasting

lemale vanity,

to adopt a sophisticated

on ideas, formal control of the emotions, and perfect balance between all the

painting. After training in Bologna,

drops

the race, overtaken by the

the

most intense European

[ippomem

trusting

dynamic interpretation,

again seen as one of the

n the

but Reni instead chooses

the apotheosis of a style of painting based

ene depii i

subject lends itself to

boring and monotonous. A more balanced critical view now prevails, and Guido Reni figures in seventeenth-centurv

tw<

Atalanta and the wily I

"coldness" led to his being considered

the city's Pinacoteca Nazionale,

quick-footed and invincible

Palazzo Rospigliosi constitutes the ideal

continuation ofAnnibale Carracci's

race

lnown

ol eai th

oil

Capodimontc, Naples

was regarded

an absolute model. In the

background and sky. The

(Aurora) in

ol the painter's love for classical art.

against the blue

GaUeria Nazionale

formal precision and expressive density, twentieth century, however, Reni's alleged

Guido Reni Atalanta and Hippomenes

two adversaries

are

poses

In this

work

of studied classicism, the idea of movement is

conveyed only by the

fluttering mantles.

Guido Reni Crucifixion of St. Peter

1604-1 60S oil

on canvas,

20 x 69

in.

(305 x 175 cm) Pinacoteca Vaticana,

Rome

Painted immediately after Caravaggio's version, tins great altarpiece illustrates the relationship between

Guido Reni and the Lombard master in the earlv seventeenth century.

Guido Reni Slaughter of the Innocents

1611-1612 on canvas,

oil

105'/2X 67 in. (268 x 170 cm) Pinacoteca Nazionale,

Bologna

The harrowing scene of the slaughter of the innocents is

translated into cadences

that possess a splendid theatrical

rhythm, and even

the background suggests a stage set. Reni displays a

spectacular control of the

composition through the close ties figures.

between

the

all

left,

the

soldier with his raised

knife and the screaming

mother fleeing with her child form an eloquent group. The extended links between the figures stretch over practically the entire surface of the painting.

Guido Reni

The Abduction of Helen

music of Baroque melodramas, which were often based on figures or episodes from classical

1631 oil

on canvas,

99V2X

can almost hear the

104'/4 in.

(253 x 265 cm)

poetry.

The

in a finely

Louvre, Pans

balanced

all

own, even the Moorish page with a monkey on a leash. But the charm of the

the slightlv exaggerated

its

gestures can be traced

back to the expressive

various leading figures,

repertoire of classicism.

beginning with the

The one exception

enchanting heroine

the

delightful

the

Cupid standing

alone on the right,

who

rhvthm, giving the

center of the group,

spectator time to enjoy

harmonized and enhanced

gives the viewer an

magnificently executed

each detail without losing

bv their relation to

amiable, understanding

scene and evidently

track of what

others.

theatrical in inspiration.

Each figure possesses and

This

storv unfolds

the colors gleam, and

expresses a noble beautv of

work

another

happening.

blue ol

all

the

The transparent the skv makes

look.

Guido Reni David with the Head

b( ginning ol the seventeenth nliirv K<

of Goliath

dei

ill.

60S oil on canvas,

tnflueni

his ax

lim the

incesi

end hen. With

similai ities

ademii trai Hales an eXtTl mi

Caravaggin's vibrant use

Rem

b.il.nii

86'/2X 57

(220 x loin

re,

light (see the Dai id

and Goliath

the Pi ad<

.mil at

+ 5 cm)

almost

entuatea the direct, tactile realism

possibility of directly

comparing not only

the

style but also the subject of this

work with

by Caravaggio

and the descriptive

the painting

ol a

)a\

ill,

plumed

who hat,

is is

wearing ol

the

young

regard to the important

the table in Caravaggio's

relationship

between the

painters, in

Rome,

soldiers seated

Calling of in the

St.

Matthew

pila .iii l

church of San Luigi

ali

olumn and I

sh.ipes \

IiihIi h

a six l.u

n iaxed,

i.u id's

pusi expresses

ompi

ised

.il

asllal

and even

also

reminiscent ol that

details

particularly interesting in

two

"in i

geometm

pensivi expression

d and

ompotition, (rami

the

Paris

the surfai es, the bodies,

The

in.

ademii ism,

(ioliath's

|ai

head seems almost pacified nimed and si i. ii. In i

from the

tragii

of death painted

igi

l>\

iggio.

Guido Reni Moses and the Gathering of the

Manna

1614 1615 oil on canvas, 1 10V4 x 67 in. (280 x 170 cm) Cathedral, Ravenna

Rome

witnessed the most

important developments in Reni's career,

but

must not overlook the many imposing altarpieces he executed

in the

region

where he was born. Bologna and other major cities in

Emilia-Romagna

boast celebrated religious paintings bv this leading local artist,

Guido Reni Samson

Victorious

1611-1612 oil on canvas, 102V4 x 87 3/4 in. (260 x 223 cm) Pinacoteca Nazionale

who

also

executed important works in small provincial towns.

Thanks to this activity, which was made even

more extensive bv the work of pupils and followers, after Carracci,

Reni represented

a figure

of continuity in Emilian religious art. His

compositions are always

solemn and eloquent, and the leading characters are in full

view and

easily

recognizable from a distance, while

on closer

examination we can enjoy the rich descriptive detail.

Guercino

Giovan Francesco Barbieri (Cento, Ferrara, 1591 -Bologna, 1666)

The works produced in Guercino's long career mav appear contradictory. At one end,

dinal Serra (the papal legate in

Ferrara),

have a style of painting

full of

dramatic impetus and chiaroscuro;

the

other, smooth, precise images ot perfect classicism. In actual fact, over

decades

Guercino painted

a series

1642, Guercino left his hometown and moved to Bologna, where he became the new leader of the local school. This marked in

works characterized by intense personality and crude drama, very diflerent from the work executed in Emilia at the time. In 1621 he was called to Rome by Pope Gregory XV. This began a period of reflection in which Guercino progressively attenuated his use of chiaroscuro, but

without abandoning daring compositions, unusual perspectives, and dynamic

another step toward the controlled, noble classicism and intelligently academic approach that were to characterize all the works produced in the master's last years.

Guercino Ermmia Finding the

Wounded

1618

Tancred

1619

on canvas, 57 x 75!/2 (145 x 187<m) oil

Gallerla

in.

Dona Pamphih, Rome

Guercino was brought up on the poems written by Ariosto and Tasso for

Among

of prolific activity, Guercino effectively

gestures. This

summarizes the genera] developments in taste and the predominant trends in seventeenth-century Italian art. According to tradition, Guercino was practically

artist's career, a crucial

classicism but also the

of Tasso 's Jerusalem Delivered

self-taught, trained through his admiration

affecting

stands out for

for Ludovico Carracci.The early works,

to the "ideal" painting of the Bolognese

beauty, an interlude of

On his return to Cento in 1623, Guercino was already an established master. His very active workshop produced altarpieces and religious paintings for towns large and small in such quantities

amorous passion

painted for his

hometown

or places in

the surrounding area, are characterized

bv strong chiaroscuro, sharp contrasts, and broad vigorous brushwork, only superficially similar to Caravaggio and

from the Noted by

the central period of the

phase

are to

the Estc family. early

the

works characterized

understand not only the progressive

by strong chromatic

development of his own

contrasts, this illustration

all

art in

style

toward

more general shift Rome, from Caravaggio

school.

actually developed directly

as to establish

Ferrara school and Titian.

traditions.

consolidated iconographic the death of

Guido Reni

its

intense

in the

middle of the tragic

The wounded hero

tale. still

wears part of his armor, and the metal contrasts effectively with Erminia's soft

garments.

Guercino Martyrdom of 1618

Peter

St.

If>l9

oil Oil

am.is,

126x 76

In.

193 cm) rd//i

i.i

use,

MoJena

V'.tm painted during the lust intern ul

ti\

.ii

.ilt.

tin-

tins great

pie< c

demonsb

qualit)

wort

ill

at tin-

Ins career,

ill

(nu

inn's

beginning Talons

starting point sixteenth 1

ntui

(will 1

Venetian painting

documented

ollc< lions

ill

till-

family) and his

the

ste

own

ute

observation of altarpia ei the vicinity ol Cento,

Guercino developed

profoundly original style of painting only apparently linked to Caravaggio.

With convincing popular realism, Guercino depicts

scenes as though they were episodes in a story his

recounted

The

broad

dialect,

characters' gestures

are exaggerated and their faces are

extremely

expressive. Nonetheless,

the composition

carefully studied and

the figures arranged in a

rhombus around

void.

a central

Guercino St.

William of Aquitame

Takes the Habit

1620 cm canvas,

oil

134M

91W

(341 x 232

in.

cm)

VinacoUca Yu/iona/e, Bologna Originally painted lor the church ol San Gregorio in

Bologna,

this great

painting marks (Juercino's

spectacular entry into the

Bolognese school. Aware of the importance attached to this work, the painter

worked on its composition at length, making repeated sketches and drawings to achieve a result that

highlv original and effective.

The

entire scene

revolves around the figure

of the saint,

who

puts on

the white Carthusian habit

over his shining armor.

The

interplav of gestures

(various figures are

pointing toward the center of the scene) creates a

concentric vortex

underscored bv the verv strong changes in color from the darkest areas to the friar in white on the extreme right. According to contemporaries, the unveiling of the altarpiece in the

church was

a stirring

event, as the great mass of

colors

works

made

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

all

the other

including an

important altarpiece by Ludovico Carracci look

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

pale bv comparison.

Guercino St.

Romuald

1640 oil Oil

1641 i

contrasts ol his youth

and introducing sobei restrained, noble gestures. This radiant work,

.una-.,

115 x 72'/2in. (292 x 184 cm)

dominated by the light spreading out around the white habit ol

Pinacoteca Comunale, St.

Ravenna

During the last few decades of his career, Guercino moved w itli increasing determination

toward pure classicism, eliminating the chiaroscuro

Romuald, defended

by an angel against the snares of the devil, was

one

of the last painted

workshop at Cento. Guercino moved to Bologna on the death of Guido Reni in 1642. in

the

Guercino The Risen to Mary

Christ

Appears

Guercino maintains and shade, with

on canvas,

strong

moving from

left

to right,

but the gestures are

Pinacoteca Comunale, Cento is

diagonal shaft of light

102V4 x 70'/2 in. (260 x 179 cm)

This

the

years of classicism.

a sharp contrast of light

1629 oil

Rome, but before

first

one of the many

more in

lar

restrained than those

works executed before

paintings by Guercino

1620. The somewhat rare

that are

subject

still

in his

hometown. The work is

ol the

of transition

period

the artist's

Medole, in the province ol Mantua.

career, alter the hectic earl)

drawn from was also

interpreted bv Titian

very significant

example

tradition and

phase and the

an altarpiece

staj

Orazio Gentileschi Danae

Orazio Gentileschi (Pisa,

1563-London, 1639)

on canvas, 64'/i x 90 in. (163.5 x 228.5 cm) Cleveland Museum of Art,

central figure in an important family

same generation

as Caravaggio,

but his

career took a decidedly different course.

The

pupil and assistant of an uncle

was a

1621

oil

of artists, Orazio Gentileschi belonged to the

a favorite subject

with both collectors and painters.

The

was

recounts

how

Zeus came to Danae in the form of a shower of gold This was one of the many stratagems devised by the father of the gods in the

Cleveland

who

course of his countless

Once

imposing collection of the Doria princes in Genoa, this painting is one of the rare

amorous conquests. The eloquent gestures of Danae and Cupid are framed by a

underwent a sudden change. Combining his own markedly Tuscan and classical training

exceptions of a

we seem

mythological subject

coins jingling as they

with Caravaggesque realism, he painted a

among

Gentileschi 's

pour down and the rustle

mature works, which were predominantly religious. The episode is drawn from Ovid's Metamorphoses and

of the draperies. The light

painter, in the first

decade of the

seventeenth century', steeped in the

artistic

atmosphere of Rome, Orazio Gentileschi "discovered" Caravaggio, and his

series of

important altarpieces

work

in the

Marches region, where he moved in 1612. In 1621 he moved to Genoa, where his career rapidly advanced. Aristocratic patrons

appreciated the painter's particularly refined style.

Turin, Paris, and

London were the

stages in his career as a court painter and intelligent

mediator between the demands of

Orazio Gentileschi Rest

on the

Despite the humble intimacy of this family scene, the

Flight

into Egypt, after

1626

on canvas, 5444 x

noble patrons and the "modernity" of a

oil

realism that was fiery, immediate, and

(139x 217cm)

impassioned, but never brutal or vulgar.

Kunsthistorisches

artist

85'/2 in.

maintains an air of

elegant

composure together

with unmistakable graphic

Museum, lenna I

and chromatic sophistication.

in the

rich, "sonorous" setting;

to hear the

superbly handled, with a

gleaming sheet juxtaposed to the dark background.

Orazio Gentileschi The Annunciation 1623 ml on canvas, I12'/2X 77'/4in.

(286 x |96(iiii Gallerla Sabauda, Turin (

)i,i/h.

(

lentili

masterpiece and a mi tnorable work oi I

tiropi

Baroque painting

in general, this

Annunciation was an

immediate success. After the original version

church of San Siro Genoa, the painter made the copy reproduced here lor the in

lor the It is

House of

a very effei

Savoy.

tiv<

compromise between

the

realism of Caravaggio

(from

whom

Gentileschi

takes the precise diagonal

and the chromatic effect of the large red curtain with deep shaft of light

folds at the top)

and the

tastes of international

collectors, oriented

toward

richer compositions with

more sumptuous

colors.

Apart from this successful "commercial" aspect, Gentileschi indicates clearly

and poetically

possible direction for the

development of painting after 1620. In a smoother style, the painting

unfolds

slowly and gently through

an elegant series of

compositional crossreferences, such as the use

of white. The dove representing the Holy Spirit, the lily of the

archangel, and the chaste,

immaculate sheet on the Virgin's bed thus combine to symbolize purity.

Bernardo Strozzi

(Genoa, 1581-Venice, 1644)

Christ

Mourning over the Dead

'lu- leading figure in tin- Genoese school, Bernardo Stm//i was trained in the early Baroque style of painting then currenl in Genoa, but the crucial influence on lii>

1617

1615

style 1

came through contact with

lemish painters,

first

Genoa during

who was

the earlv decades of the

'>ii

anvas,

39 x 49Âť/2 in. (99 x [25.5 cm) mid Ligustica

the great

Rubens, and then,

over a longer period, van Dyck,

oil

Ji Belle

In j, Genoa

highlv convincing

example of the

rich use

seventeenth century. Strozzi uses broad

of paint, thickly applied

Bernardo Strozzi

brushstrokes laden with paint and his relish

but perfectly controlled,

St.

for the physical

medium

clearly Flemish in origin.

of painting

While devoting

himself primarily to religious works (he was a Capuchin friar), Strozzi also produced impressive portraits, still lifes, and genre paintings with figures drawn from evervdav life. In the 1620s, he was

unquestionably the point of reference for

Genoese

artists

and patrons, and

his

which characterizes the best works by Bernardo Strozzi, w lio was influenced bv the

technique of the Flemish

oil

John the Baptist

1620 on canvas,

1615

Vix

61 Vi

in.

(105. 5x 155.5

cm)

Accademia Ligustiea

di Belle

painters. Arti,

For

Genoa all its

apparent

simplicity, this splendid

long series of works also includes frescoes

painting encapsulates many-

for aristocratic villas. In 1630, after a bitter

features of Bernardo

disagreement with the Capuchin Order, Strozzi left

Genoa

for Venice,

where

he was soon to become the leading figure on the local art scene.

Strozzi 's style: a vibrantly effective use of light,

dense

colors, and great sensitivity to the handling of the different surfaces.

Bernardo Strozzi Madonna and Child with St John c, â&#x20AC;˘

ill

I6?0 on i

62'/4X 49! n, (I58x 26 (in I

As this splendid work amply demonstrate*, Bernardo Strozzi u.is an excellent painter of litis,

even though

devoted

Ins

net giea

rarely to this spei

genre.

Rubens,

still

onh

ifil

Caravaggio and

ike

preferred to

h<-

include an abundance descriptive

compositions with It

figures.

not infrequently

'letail in his

tin-

case that objects and fruit are not merely

background

elements, but have such a sharply defined, tangible

presence that they

steal the

scene and overturn

tin

compositional hierarchy.

For

all

their

charm, the

figures of the

Child, and

St.

Madonna, John

virtually pale into

insignificance beside the

exuberance and masterly execution of the basket of and the Virgin's sewing basket. The Child fruit

thus placed at the center of the

two diagonal

lines that

cross the entire painting.

Bernardo Strozzi St.

with Antwerp, which took

Augustine Washing

mil i.i,

shape

the

presence of Rubins and van Dyck in Genoa, th<-

the Feet of Christ

1629 on canvas, 122x 78 3/4 in. (310 x 200(n.i

school

Baroque painting

oil

Accademia Ligustica

in Liguria also

encompassed

the interpretation of Ji Belle

Am, Genoa

Caravaggcsquc realism put forward bv Orazio Gentileschi, links with

an- u> understand the

origin and development of

drawing, and

Bernardo Strozzi 's

the dramatic eloquence

essential to

art,

remember

it is

the

intense artistic and cultural life

Genoa

in the early

seventeenth century, with its

profusion of ideas and

stimuli. In addition to the

very solid traditional links

Bernardo Strozzi Miracle of

St.

Diego

In his

large religious canvases,

1625 oil on canvas, 98!/2 x 67 in. (250 x 170 cm)

Strozzi always starts a solid

from

compositional

structure based on the

Church of the Santissima Annunziata, Levanlo

both the Genoese

concrete presence of architectural elements in powerful relief or objects fully

and

realistically

Around these

period and the subsequent

depicted.

Venetian phase, Bernardo

fixed points he then

Strozzi 's acti\ity can be

arranges the gestures

divided into two main

and actions of the

figures,

frescoes for aristocratic

which recall the fullblooded physicality

patrons, and religious

of Rubens.

areas: paintings

and

works, especially

compositions for the

Capuchin Order.

of Alcantara

altarpieces and

the noble style ofTuscan ties

with

of seventeenth-century

Lombard

painters. All

these elements can be

traced in the

work of

Bernardo Strozzi, and are skilfully blended to create his own independent style.

Bernardo Strozzi St.

Cecilia

oil

1625

68 x

4H'/z in.

(173 x 123 cm) Nelson- Atkins

Kaasat

Museum

<>/

Art,

Bernardo Strozzi

precedents (Aertsen,

Adoration of the Shepherds

The Cook

Beuckelaer, and others).

1616-1618 on canvas,

1625

(97.8 x 139.4 cm) Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore

Galleria di Palazzo Rosso,

38'/2X 55

This

oil

in.

work

which Bernardo Strozzi develops his

own

particular

some

and

style,

significant

Flemish masters, he

reproduces the feathers, the metal objects, and the

unquestionably the

This

best

known

Strozzi

spirit

innovations. Like the

Genoa

another

quintessential

terms of

however, Strozzi displays

on canvas, 6914 x 72% in. (176x 185 cm)

oil

of Bernardo

works, and acts

different surfaces with

painstaking care pushed as

bridge between Italian

to the

extreme of trompe

poetical vein while

combining various trends in Baroque painting. On

and Flemish

a foundation of solid

seventeenth-centurv

presence, whose smiling

naturalism (see the

humanity sparkles amid the flames and utensils

of the gnarled peasant on

Dutch and Flemish painting, and the Genoese cook can be compared

the right), Strozzi applies

with various northern

intensely lifelike portrait

color in thick, broad

brushstrokes to create an

explosion of tactile delight.

art.

scenes were very

Kitchen

common

l'oeil,

but his attention

focused, above girl,

all,

on the

an attractive, living

of this well-run kitchen.

Bernardo Strozzi Joseph Explains the Dreams

oil

in.

(182 x 112 cm) Pallm

(,enoa

Pietro da Cortona Pietro Berrettini

1596-Rome, 1669)

(Cortona, Arezzo,

eclectic artist, master architect of Baroque Rome, and imaginative painter, Pietro da Cortona provides the most brilliant and sumptuous examples of the

most

theatrical

and rhetorical style of

painting in seventeenth-centurv Europe.

His abundant output of altarpieces, works for princelv collectors,

and vast cvcles of

frescoes, both religious and secular, always

executed and never lacking in make Pietro da Cortona a

skilfullv

inspiration,

fundamental point of stvlistic reference. He also completes the trio of major artistic trends characterizing seventeenth-centurv art:

the naturalism of Caravaggio, the

academic classicism of Carracci and Reni, and the High Baroque of Bernini and Pietro da Cortona. Initiallv trained in Tuscanv, Pietro da

Rome

Cortona moved to

sixteen and immediatelv

the age of

came

into contact

with Gianlorenzo Bernini, his near

contemporarv and an

artist

endowed with

equallv precocious talent. Both artists were

noted bv the Barberini pope, Urban

who was

VIII,

to plav an instrumental role in

furthering their careers and

summoned them his familv's

work

who

side

by side

magnificent palazzo.

From

the 1620s on, Pietro da Cortona began to receive commissions

from

aristocratic

patrons, and he distinguished himself

and inventive painter of frescoes. noble approach of the Bolognese school,

as a deft

Taking

as his starting point the

classical

frequent choice of mvthological

in his

or literarv subjects, he added greater

movement bv including dvnamic elements. The stately, idealized approach of the academic painters

richness, color, and lively,

thus transformed into a festive, animated

stvle

with clearlv theatrical overtones. is the decoration

The culmination of this

of the banquet hall of Palazzo Barberini in

Rome

(which

now

houses the Galleria

Nazionale d'Arte Antica), a vast allegorical

composition begun in

1633 and completed

1639. This spectacular, radiant fresco

with

its

wealth of svmbolic figures and

virtuoso foreshortening

da Cortona the

title

won

Pietro

of "prince"

of the Accademia di San Luca, an

acknowledgment of his position artistic

as an

point of reference for the whole

Rome. With

his

productive workshop,

Pietro da Cortona obtained another highlv prestigious commission in Florence,

where

he was called to decorate the reception

rooms of Palazzo

Rome,

Pitti. In his last

vears in

Pietro da Cortona continued to

produce frescoes (for Palazzo Pamphili and the Chiesa Nuova), although the actual execution was bv now largelv left to his pupils. Among his architectural works, attention should be drawn to the delightful reconstruction of the church of Santa Maria della Pace, with a semicircular portico on the facade, which is framed bv a suitablv remodeled urban setting.

Pietro da Cortona Madonna and Saints

of Baroque altarpieces.

emblems of

Pietro da Cortona depicts

orders to which the family

1626-1628

profusion of gilded

vestments, bright colors,

on canvas, ll(H4x 67 in. (280 x 170 cm)

smiles, and gestures of

devotion in constant

on the cope of the pope

motion and bathed

St.

diffuse light. Etrusca, Cortona

This

in a

The painting

Knights of

St.

Stephen), the Knights

of Malta (symbolized by

Calatrava

Order (with

James the Great behind John the figure of St.

Baptist).

the

Pietro da Cortona The Finding of Romulus and Remus 1643 oil on canvas, 98% x 104'/4 in. (251 x 265 cm)

founding of the Eternal City

were bv

particularly relished

elitist

collectors in search

of confirmation of the nobilitv of their dynasties

and of new masterpieces for their family collections.

Pietro da Cortona willingly

Louvre, Paris

work of the

earlv maturity

proudly belonged: the

Stephen (whose cross appears

oil

Museo Jell'Accademia

the chivalrous

also contains a

the figure of their patron

artist's

sophisticated and difficult

saint,

dynastic "riddle." Produced

sumptuous example

lor the Passerini family,

of the ostentatious richness

subtlv introduces the

plaved his part, painting

drawn from

John the Baptist, and the cloak bearing the unmistakable cross in

Subjects

the center), and the

connected with the

Roman

antiquity and the

numerous

historical legends

radiant and vividly colored

episodes of ancient history

with a tone of self-indulgent theatrical verve.

Pietro da Cortona The Rape of the Sabine

taste of

Women

the seventeenth century

To the

1627-1629 oil on canvas, 110'/2X

167%

Roman

collectors

after the first quarter of

carefully balanced,

rigorous approach of the classical painters in.

Pinacoteca Capitolina,

Guido Reni and Nicolas Poussin) (especially

(280.5 x 426 cm)

Rome

Pietro da Cortona adds

The Roman career of Pietro da Cortona was

theatrical expressiveness.

dynamic form of

furthered bv the support

The

of the Sacchetti family,

one of the most important

by their exaggeratedly

seventeenth -centurv

twisted poses and bold

patrician houses. This

gestures.

canvas also results from

references to works such

the Sacchetti family's

as Apollo

patronage of the Tuscan

the Abduction of Persephone clearly display the artist's

painter,

and more

figures are seen

mid-action, animated

The obvious and Daphne and

with Gianlorenzo

generally indicates the new-

links

trends emerging in the

Bernini.

Pietro da Cortona The Triumph of Divine Providence

1639

1633 fresco

Pah//o Bjrbinni, Rome

Cortona 's work

Pietro da

lor the Barberini pope,

Urban VIII, marks the climax of

career and

his

the period of closest

contact with Gianlorenzo Bernini. The two masters worked together on the

construction and

decoration of the

sumptuous palace oi this powerful family, which now houses the Galleria Nazionale d Arte Antica. Fortv years alter the

decoration ol Palazzo Farnese h\ Annibale Carracci, Pietro da

Cortona puts forward a new model ol aristocratic decoration. The calm and sophisticated sequence of classical subjects gives

wa)

to violent and highly

animated, whirling

movement. The central is open to the skv and

area

great clouds support

groups

bathed

in a

airborne figures gilded light

downward from

spreading

above. Pietro da Cortona takes

up and develops the

foundations

laid

over

century earlier by

domes

Correggio

the

he painted

Parma,

and translorms the fresco of the main reception hall into an extraordinarily rich

spectacle that astounds the

him

spectator and sweeps

awaj

in a

whirl of

movement,

which

all

sense of a focal point lost.

The exuberance of his

imagination oversteps

all

boundaries; thus, alongside the religious theme, ample

space

also

found for

celebration of the

Barberini family,

represented by the heraldic

emblem

of three bees with

open wings.

Domenico

Fetti

(Rome, 1589-Venke, 1623) This singular

who worked in Mantua Gonzaga court tor whole ol his career, is --till

artist,

as painter to the

practically the

undergoing

With

his late

process ol critical reappraisal.

Renaissance training,

Domenico Fetti found himseli in a somewhat unusual position. While Mantua a long and illustrious and cultural tradition, on the eve

could boast

artistic ol the

seventeenth century, the ancient state ol the

Gonzaga family appeared

to be drastically impoverished,

occupied a marginal position historical

and both

and economic terms. And

vet.

there was no lack of opportunity for

encounters

the highest level. In fact, at

the beginning of the seventeenth centurv,

Rubens drew family tor a tact that

a salarv

number

from the Gonzaga

of vears, despite the

he worked mainly

Rome.

Fetti

independently developed an unusual and of his own, which is a blend and ideas from different sources. His direct relations with Rubens, and his taste for Dutch and Flemish painting in general, led him to adopt thick, rich brushstrokes, which can be clearly brilliant style

of influences

seen in the highly inventive series ot small

and medium-sized paintings of Apostles, or the delightful little images of his

New

Testament Parables, interpreted

almost as genre scenes. In

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

his larger

works including altarpieces, the frescoes in Mantua cathedral, and the enormous lunette with the Miracle of the Loaves

and in

Fishes,

Mantua

now

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

in the Palazzo

Ducale

the compositions are

complex, dynamic, and dramatic. Fetti remains best known, however, for his contemplative, solitary figures lost in ecstasy, in

concentrated thought, or

in a

dream world. Such images won immediate success, to such a degree that the painter

took to repeating them

in a

number of

versions. Fetti spent the last years of his

where he was instrumental in leading local painting to break awav from the worn-out late-Renaissance life in

Venice,

move in the direction new Baroque models.

tradition and

of the

Domenico

Fetti

or Melancholy

1620

oil

1622

69 x

Gallenc

Jell'

'rail

(

This painting has

come

to epitomize Fetti's

work,

and various copies were h\ the artist bimsell

and turned out by his workshop. It is an attractive combination of the concrete, contemplative

girl

ins,

iii

oil.

III S

inn

theme. The

the

mind known the "melancholy humor" Renaissance medico

01 the state of

philosophical doctrine. Fetti

provides a crisp

Baroque reworking of

ni.

and

iv art,

diffi

I'.

nil.

given

rent

)a\

,111

n\i

appealing and

treatment. ids attire and pose are

11iKii1.il

a voung swordsman and are

with plumed hats and pulled sleeves in

Caravaggio's tailing Matthew .The

oj St

very

reminiscent of the soldiers

reference to Caravaggio,

however,

by others, including Durer

casual, even

famous engraving.

In qui ni

i.n id

sim

subject already depicted

in a

idem

those ol

figurative transposition

interpretations. Fetti oilers

III

variety of

\\ llll

ol thi

inn'.

1 1

references to the

in fact

CSS

figuri

tiit

Inch

v\ (

this

ions

in vai

tors ol the pel iod,

sophisticated intellectual

image

epeated

ol its S1K

III

and

omi

realistic

also

iii

tangibility of the shapely,

\ccademia,Venice 1

allegorical

anvas,

50'/2in.

(175 x 128 cm)

in.

(179 X 140 cm)

made

oil

on canvas,

70V2X

Fetti

David

Meditation

diluted by a

impudent,

approach, undoubtedly deriving from Fetti's direct contact with Rubens 's

works

Mantua.

Domenico

Fetti Hero and Leander

1622-1623 on wood, I6V2X 37% in. (42 x 96 cm)

oil

Kunsthistonsches .Museum,

Vienna

The mythological scenes and

illustrations of

New

Testament parables, mainly painted for the Gonzaga family, and, already in the

seventeenth century, unfortunately scattered over hall

of Europe in various

prim

civ collections, arc

characterized by a brilliant

freedom

ol expression

and

very vigorous execution.

The stormy,

rapid

brushwork creates highly imaginative effects that are

dramatic and attractive.

Mattia Preti (Taverna Calabra. near Catanzaro, 1613-

La Valletta. Malta, 1699)

The ol

thinl centennial ol the death

Mattia Preti (which occurred quite

by chance from

a cul inflicted

barber

early in 1699) has led to fresh attention

being Focused on this singular protagonist of southern Italian painting in the midseventeenth century. This original and, in his

own

difficult to

way, unconventional master fit

into the

framework

risjid

of a particular school, even though he can be generallv associated with the broad radius of Neapolitan painting, or with the

Caravaggesque tradition. After receiving initial

training in the tamilv

workshop

moved work with

Calabria, Mattia Preti

verv voung age to

his

Rome

at a

brother

Gregorio. His brilliant talent and unusuallv

extroverted personality soon led to his

being noted in the artistic and aristocratic circles of the Eternal City.

made

quickly

way up the ladder of success. In 1642, aged onlv twentv-nine, he was admitted to the Order of the Knights of Malta, an honor Caravaggio had won his

almost fortv years Caravaggio

earlier. In fact,

throughout the oeuvre of painter,

who

it is

influence that dominates this

Calabrian

adopted the Lombard

master's direct realism and handling

of light. However, in the mid-seventeenth centurv, Mattia Preti "laced" the harsh, naturalistic stvle of Caravaggio with a

series of other stimuli. In the frescoes for

the choir of the church of Sant' Andrea

dellaValle in

Rome, he was

influenced

bv the classicism of the Bolognese school

and the theatrical Baroque stvle ol Pietro da Cortona and created dynamic,

monumental compositions. Attracted bv the colors of the sixteenth- centurv Venetian masters, Mattia Preti journeyed to the north of Italy. In 1653 he was in Modena, where he frescoed the apse and dome of the church of San Biagio. At the same time, he never lost contact with his hometown in Calabria, where he periodically sent canvases. The churches of Taverna thus offer a rich gallerv of the painter's works. In 1656 (the vear of a terrible outbreak of the plague he moved to Naples. This stay was not long (it came to an end in 1660), but certainly decisive, since it coincided with the central and most active period of his career. During his )

five-vear spell in Naples, Mattia Preti all his major works, which reveal extraordinary imaginative flair and skill in execution. Bv combining Caravaggesque tenebrism and the sumptuous richness of sixteenth-century

painted practically

painters such as Titian and Paolo Veronese in a truly

unusual but unquestionably effective

way, Mattia Preti brought about a turning

point for the Neapolitan school, which

abandoned the crude and brutal realism of Ribera to move toward the fluid eclectic compositions of Luca Giordano. In 66 he was summoned to Malta to become the 1

official

painter ol the Order. Apart from a

few trips to Taverna, Mattia Preti never again

left

the island,

where he spent nearly works to decorate

forty vears produ< ing

churches and private n sidences.

Mattia Preti

The heroine,

Sophonisba Receives

to her husband to the

the Poison

death, dominates this melodramatic composition, where the

oil

influence of the Neapolitan

1670 on canvas, 78 x 68V2 in. (198 x 174 cm) Music Lyons

des

Beaux

Arts,

faithful

combined

school

with

sumptuousness

that

recalls sixteenth-ccnturv

Venetian painting.

Mattia Preti John the Baptist Appearing Before Herod 1665 on canvas, 35'/2 x 74% in.

Mattia Preti

oil

John the Baptist Rebukes

(90 x 190

Herod

cm)

Private collection,

1662-1666 on canvas,

\enYork

oil

Once

again, Mattia Preti

draws

his initial inspiration

trom Caravaggio, but then

55 x 79'/2 in. (140 x 202 cm)

Museo de

Bellas Artes, Seville

proceeds bv independently blending themes from his

This the

considerable figurative

another version of

same

subject.

The

culture with a delight in

canvas was painted during

descriptive detail, as

the long years in the

exemplified bv the objects

portraved in perspective the background.

memorable

effect

created bv the statuesque

pose of the

saint,

whose

dvnamic, athletic body swathed in light contrasts

service of the Knights of

Malta, whose patron saint was John the Baptist.

Movement

conferred

on Caravaggesque compositional structures

brilliant

emotional

handling.

with the indolent pose of

Herod and the scandalized amazement of the women. 105

Luca Giordano 1634-1705)

(Naples.

Luca Giordano's proverbial speed of adaptation has sometimes led to this

important painter,

kev figure

of transition, being seen as sideshow freak. This that gives

in a

period

kind of

a serious

mistake

insight into the trulv pivotal

role plaved bv

Luca Giordano not onlv

the painting of his

hometown,

but,

generally speaking, in the renewal of Italian

from the mid-seventeenth century to As a bov, he was trained in Naples in the workshop of the aging Jusepe de Ribera, from whom art,

the eve of the eighteenth centurv.

he acquired a taste for naturalism distantly derived from Caravaggio, but interpreted with almost brutal realism. In 1652 he

manv

on the

first ot his

stav in

Rome, which was

indispensable

for seventeenth-centurv artists, he

to Florence and Venice. a

left

journevs. After a

went on

thus developed

broad, rich, and up-to-date culture.

practiced his art bv imitating masters of the past, with results that

were sometimes

so surprising that thev deceived experts for centuries. Attracted bv the spectacular vein

of Pietro da Cortona, and fascinated bv the Venetian tradition to which Mattia Preti

was

also

drawn, Luca Giordano abandoned

his original lighter,

chiaroscuro for

brilliant,

work of a

and dvnamic nature.

Tried and tested in the numerous paintings produced for churches, Luca Giordano's new stvle of painting, a happv blend of various experiences, was a resounding success during his second journev to Florence and Venice (1665â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1667), when his relationship with the local schools was reversed. First he had traveled to learn; now he was a master to be admired and imitated. Bv alternating periods of work

Naples with journevs to other cities, Luca Giordano extended his influence over an increasinglv large radius. In 1682, he painted one of his masterpieces, the luminous frescoed gallerv of the Palazzo Medici Riccardi in Florence, a surprising work, especiallv in view of its location in in

â&#x20AC;&#x17E;,

what had been the residence of Lorenzo il Magnifico. Luca Giordano broke with the canons of classical art to paint free

background of skv, almost foreshadowing eighteenth-centurv painting. Having become an important figure for figures against a

princely patrons and collectors in most

of Europe, in 1682 he

moved

to Madrid,

where he worked for almost a decade. At the age of nearlv seventv, he returned to Naples, where he succeeded in producing one

last

radiant masterpiece,

the Triumph ofJudith, a fresco executed in 1 704 on the vault of the Tesoro Chapel in the

Carthusian Monastery

of San Martino.

Luca Giordano Triumph of Judith

1703-1704 fresco Tesoro Chapel, Carthusian

Monastery of San Martino, Xaples

Luca Giordano Perseus Fighting Against

oil

in.

(285 x 366 cm) \atwnal Gallery, London

Armed

with the terrible

severed head of Medusa,

whose gaze turns her enemies to stone, Perseus bursts onto the scene as a

dvnamic champion

intensely powerful whirl

of dizzying

movement

and flashing

light.

Among

the Doctors

1670 oil on canvas, 34% x 53V4in. (88 x 135 cm) c.

1680 on canvas,

112>/4X 144

Luca Giordano Jesus

Phmeus and His Companions

Gallena h'azwnale d'Ane Antica,

This

Rome

work

important example of Luca Giordano's chameleon-like

style.

The painter covers

the

composition with a sort of haze that blurs the outlines and features, but allows sudden flashes

of color to emerge and suggests a vast, indistinct spatial

dimension.

107

Andrea Pozzo 1642-Vienna, 1709)

(Trento,

With

the superb and highly imaginative

of perspective

lor (he

\.ivt

works executed

spaces ol churches

Rome

Andrea Pozzo marks a phase oJ scenographic development in Baroque art, understood in this case as a moving and convincing affirmation ot belief in the Catholic laith and its heroes. Painter, architect, scenographer, and supplier of designs lor sculptures and ornamentation, Father Pozzo was an extremely active, versatile artist ol great importance in the development of Baroque religious art in and Vienna, the

Jesuit

the Catholic countries.

received his

early training in northern Italy, and

journeys to study

made

Milan. Genoa,

and Venice. Andrea Pozzo assimilated the best elements of Counter-Reformation figurative culture, and put his early training to good use during a long stay in Turin and Piedmont. In response to the requirements of the Jesuit Order, he produced a significant

number of altarpieces, many

for

provincial towns, and successfully tried his

hand at perspective frescoes in the church ot San Francesco Saverio (or Chiesa delle Missioni) in Mondovi. He moved to Rome,

where the

his career

work on

reached

its

climax vvith

the Chiesa del Gesii, including

the astonishing polychromatic altar of

precious materials, devoted to

St. Ignatius.

Andrea Pozzo thus took over the legacy of Bernini bv continuing the idea of a "total

work of art." His absolute masterpiece

the ceiling of the church of Sant'Ignazio, a

memorable work of great importance

development of painting, and Germany, where Andrea Pozzo is a well-known figure. In 1703 he moved to Vienna, where he for the future

especially in Austria

continued to work for the Jesuits (producing frescoes in the college of the Order and in the old university building,

and restructuring the inside of the church), but also for the counts of Liechtenstein ^ and for other patrons.

Andrea Pozzo The Glory of

St.

In this virtuoso

Ignatius

of Loyola

Andrea Pozzo

work,

reflects

the architecture of the

church

1691-1694

in illusionistic

architectural elements

frescoed ceiling

Church of Sant'Ignazio, Rome

upward

that project

into

an open sky thronged

Built by the Jesuits as their second church in Rome

The work

after the historic Chiesa

rigorous iconographic

del Gesu, the church

design vvith allegorical

ol Sant Ignazio is

one

of the most interesting late

seventecnth-centurv

buildings in the

city. Its

very pleasing architecture is

set

within the brilliantly

renovated surrounding

urban

fabric.

The huge

d ceiling of the nave

greatlv alters

perception

our

with countless figures. is

based on a

figures and details

corresponding to precise doctrinal requirements.

What

really counts,

however, effect of

the ov erall

what

unquestionably one of the most spectacular inventions

High Baroque

European art.

109

IP nV

*jjsr^rl>

'<U W

:<& Jan Bruegel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens Allegory of Sight, detail

1618 oil on wood, 25Vix 43 in. (65 Prado, Madrid

109 cm)

ÂŤ* v*

* ***

•r

& 1

KHH

*%ttflPi[-

I 1

'Hi

;

The

second half of the sixteenth century was a

difficult

lands.

(which

and turbulent period

in the

Nether-

Flanders and the northern provinces

became Holland) repeatedly ex-

later

perienced cruel wars, revolts, and attempts to gain inde-

pendence from Spanish domination. These

and

bitter

dramatic events culminated in the repression of the Duke of Alba, plenipotentiary of Spain. The decapitation of the counts of

Egmont and Homes,

lion, in the

Grande Place

the leaders of the rebel-

tion in Delft of William of Orange, Silent,

stadt holder

and the assassina-

in Brussels,

known

as William the

of Holland, were the most famous

episodes at that time. These were terrible scenes, but

they were played out against a backdrop of flourishing

economic expansion.

In fact, thanks to their well -orga-

nized ports and their advanced nautical and commercial

development, the coastal quicker and

cities

efficient in

on the North Sea were

understanding the extraor-

dinarv potential of the overseas routes. During the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Antwerp was

probablv the wealthiest center in Europe, and the quavs of the port on the River Scheldt must have been a cos-

mopolitan and exotic picture of ceaseless

activity.

other northern ports (Rotterdam and, above

Soon,

all,

Am-

sterdam) joined Antwerp in competitive trade on seas

throughout the world. Rather than the Spanish ports,

Antwerp was the main place where colonial merchandise was distributed and traded. Many of the city's inhabitants had lucrative opportunities for making money, and they formed the nucleus of the very solid middle class that was to become the chief market for seventeenth-centurv Flemish art. Antwerp was an international, extremely cultured, open, and tolerant

city,

gual publishing industry, but

linked to Catholicism, and

with

major multilin-

remained tenaciouslv

became an outpost of

the

Counter-Reformation against the rebel United Provinces (future Holland) that

embraced the

Calvinist faith. In

Jacob Jordaens

Antwerp, around the imposing late-Gothic cathedral,

Double Portrait c. 1620 on wood,

surmounted bv Rombout Keldermans's imaginative, soaring spire, rose the large monasterial complexes of

oil

48'/2 x 36'/2 in.

(123 x 93 cm)

various religious orders, including the powerful Jesuits.

Museum

The dashed hopes of independence

Boston

of Fine Arts,

pened

in the

economic development 112

(unlike

what hap-

northern provinces), did not jeopardize

Antwerp and Flanders during Though the old historic centers

the seventeenth century.

Rubens

Peter Paul

Jan Bruegel's Family

1613-1616 oil on canvas, 49 x 37' in. (124.5 x 95 cm) >

Courtauld Institute Galleries,

London

Bruges and Ghent went into economic and commerdecline,

cial

Antwerp and

Brussels enjoyed a period of

extraordinary expansion, which was also reflected in the varied, ingenious, and novel civic architecture, in

the houses)

which

pediments on the facades of

traditional elements (like the

were designed with

a decorative flair that

typically Baroque. It is

important to take into consideration

and cultural context

Antwerp's

art

this historical

order to understand the spread of

and the close network of international re-

lations established

to the

artists

and collectors that gave

rise

most magnificent and extraordinary school of

painting in seventeenth-century Europe. Certainly Flemish

painting during the second half of the sixteenth cen-

tury had seen the disillusioned style of Pieter Bruegel, heir to Bosch's dense

moral

allegories, but

been particularly impressed. By contrast,

had not

the last

decades of the sixteenth century, the Antwerp school

proposed decisive innovations. Taking Gospel subjects

their starting point (such as the episode of Christ in the

house of Martha and Mary or various miracles per-

some

formed

in public),

teriors,

market scenes, and

from everyday

life,

artists

began to paint kitchen

realistic

in-

compositions drawn

with realism and an abundance of

Peter Paul Rubens Triptych of the Descent

from the Cross

1612-1614 on wood,

oil

165'/4 x 122 in. (420 x 310 cm) (central panel with The Descent from

the Cross); 165>/4 x 59

in.

(420 x 150 cm) each (side panels with The Visitation and The Presentation at the Temple) Cathedral of Our Lady,

Antwerp

113

Anthony van Dyck Alessandro Giustiniani Dressed as a Senator

(?)

1621-1623 oil on canvas,

78%

45%

in.

(200 x 116 cm) Gemaldegalene, Berlin

circumstantial detail. Soon religious painting was super-

seded by the splendid period of genre painting and life,

mainly aimed

Antwerp there was

still

the bourgeois market. However, in

also a constant

and increased demand

sumptuous Madonnas

for spectacular altarpieces,

rising

to heaven, rejoicing angels, or gesticulating martyred saints,

images that the Catholic Counter- Reformation

used to combat the severe intellectual Christology of the Protestant Reformation. In this artistic

ferment, which was also nourished by the

flow of Italian paintings on the burgeoning antique mar-

were no

ket, there

was needed was and became

truly outstanding artists,

and what

who dominated

the scene

a personality

point of reference. At the beginning of the

seventeenth century

was played, to overwhelm-

this role

ing effect, by Peter Paul Rubens. After a long period of training, culminating in a lengthy stay in Italy in the

service of the

Antwerp

Duke

He was immediately imposing

of Mantua, Rubens returned to

in 1609, to find a very stimulating situation.

given the commission to paint the

altars in the cathedral, an

enormous

task that

brought him extraordinary acclaim. Rubens assimilated the influences gleaned

from

his study of ancient art

the European Renaissance, and developed

extremely individual of "Baroque."

was

style that full, rich,

became

them

and

into an

the quintessence

generous, expressing the

joy of painting and of seeing color on the canvas. Hence,

Rubens was

particularly in

compositions and,

later,

demand

for vast religious

paintings celebrating illustrious

personages, but he also liked to try his hand varied subjects and formats. in his pictorial style,

titude to his work.

at the

most

imitated Titian not only

but also in his overt commercial

displayed his wealth by constructing an impressive ianate palace

for visitors to

and

at-

Rubens soon became very rich and

atelier,

one of the greatest

Ital-

attractions

Antwerp. He was surrounded by

crowd

of pupils, assistants, and artists of various kinds. Rubens (like

some

The

engravings, statues, and tapestries

sports personalities today) was "big business."

drawings were skillful

assistants

made from

covered by copyright, and played

the

role

his

most

of specialists and

worked alongside the master on the more complex compositions. Numbering over a hundred workers, around 620, Rubens's atelier was extremely productive and exported works throughout Europe. Inevitably, all the most 1

114

all

Jacob Jordaens Offering to Ceres

1620 on canvas, 65 x 44 in. (165 x 112 cm) Prado, Madrid c.

oil

important

artists

Jan Bruegel,

were attracted to

known

of flowers and

this hive

of activity.

added the

as Velvet Bruegel,

details

Frans Snyders specialized in depict-

fruit;

ing animals; the very

young van Dyck soon became an

outstanding portraitist; and Jacob Jordaens was the master's alter

ego

with figures, on

in the large paintings

mythological, allegorical, or religious subjects.

Between 1620 and 1640, Rubens was probably the artist influential and most in demand in Europe.

who was most

As had happened

in the case of Titian (a

permanent point

of historic reference), his art set him above the often dra-

matic wars and conflicts that ravaged the principal

Courts vied for ingly.

states.

and Rubens traveled

will-

Madrid are only some of the stages journev, but his heart was always in Antwerp.

London,

his

his presence,

Paris,

Rubens could speak

five

manner and

peccable

languages fluently, he had an im-

a natural elegance that

had been

further refined by having spent time at court, and his skill

diplomacy was generally admired. All things

considered, as well as being an extraordinary painter,

he became a social role model that was the opposite of that put

forward by the unfortunate

artistes

maudits like

Caravaggio and, in his old age, Rembrandt. In his free

and profitable relations with royalty and the court,

Rubens

reminiscent of the great masters of the Italian

Renaissance, while his expansive, sensual paintings flood-

ed collections throughout Europe.

princely collec-

tion could be said to be truly complete without

Rubens, or by

Rubens

his school.

works by

workshop produced

most of seventeenth-century Flemish

painting,

and

it is

not merelv by chance that after the master's death a curtain

seems to have come down over Antwerp and Flem-

ish art.

His taste for spectacle and for exuberant richness

was assimilated by

his

pupils and assistants, and

was

adapted to various needs. Anthony van Dyck, an outstanding international portraitist, taking the master's style as his starting point,

ceptional

model

bv achieving

independently arrived

an ex-

for the celebratory, aristocratic portrait

a balance

between the

stately air of the per-

sonages and the brilliantly natural rendering of faces, expressions, attitudes, and fleeting smiles. Jan Bruegel (son

of the great Pieter Bruegel and

known

in Italy as Velvet

Bruegel) in his youth was predominantly a meticulous landscapist.

Then,

first

meet the demand of

Italian

patrons and later thanks to Rubens's encouragement, he

Rubens The Head of Cyrus Taken to Queen Tomyris

Peter Paul

c. oil

1622-1623 on canvas,

became famous

one of the greatest flower painters of

and differences between these two schools

in the

Netherlands. In both cases the development of art was

compositions, but also in depicting every single petal

supported by a very extensive market consisting of an

time, since he was skillful in handling very

and painstakinglv. To

conclude

80'/6x 141 in. (204.5 x 358 cm) Museum of Fine Arts,

lovingly

Boston

been underestimated and too often seen

overview, Jacob Jordaens was

painter

who

this

variety as an artist capable of tackling the subjects with

humor and

brief

has perhaps as

"shadow," whereas he should be considered in

Rubens 's

all his

rich

most diverse

tenderness.

The success of the Antwerp school was indissolubly connected with Rubens s workshop, and after the master's death (closely followed by that of van Dyck) the seventeenth-century Flemish school as a whole began to wane and was superseded by the Dutch school. However,

116

larities

complex

all

it is

important to take into account the simi-

emerging

social class: the bourgeoisie of

entrepreneurs that formed the capitalism. This

was so to

Rubens and van Dyck,

first

a lesser

merchants and

nucleus of

modern

extent in the case of

since they usually

worked

for the

aristocracy and the reigning families. But the abundant

output of genre,

still-life,

Flanders, and even

and landscape paintings

so in Holland,

was evidently

destined for the middle class in the wealthiest

cities.

Nearly always, these works were not executed "on commission," namely, as a result of a precise, detailed request, and with a contract

between the

artist

and the

buyer, but were put on a market that was not unlike the

Anthony van Dyck Bettina Balbi Durazzo "The Golden Lady" 1621-1622 oil on canvas,

85%

x 571

in.

(218 x 146 cm) Private collection,

one today, involving

art dealers

and auctions.

Thus, the figure of the art dealer and antique dealer be-

gan to emerge, since they had become indispensable these

new

we have

circumstances. Yet again

Titian, since

was

this great

Venetian master

the foundations for the profession of the dealer,

intermediary between the

as an

In seventeenth-century

owners played painters.

artist

go back to

who who

laid

act-

and the buyer.

Flanders and Holland, gallery

major role

in the careers

of certain

For instance, Hendrick van Uylemburch,

Rembrandt to Amsterdam and put him under contract. The seventeenth-century gallery owners gauged the tastes of the public and succompetent

ceeded,

art dealer, invited

at least partially, in piloting significant

the choices

made by

changes

collectors, influencing the develop-

ments of whole schools, and putting important works of art

circulation. Seventeenth-century Flemish art

therefore to be

remembered not only

works by great masters, but

market

that

for the splendid

also for developing an art

was completely new with respect to the

previous century.

Genoa

red-tinged mountains were his

Jan Bruegel the Elder (Brussels,

first

These were nearly always small works, painted on copper, and executed subjects.

precision.

The small works

which

pupil, of the great

Bruegel paints countless objects or

Pieter Bruegel the Elder

(who died before

kinds of animals verge on pure virtuosity.

all

Jan was one year old), the future leading

This aptitude for painstaking execution,

exponent of the first period of still life Europe was raised bv his grandmother, Maria Bessemers a painter of

which

together with his

brother, Pieter the Younger,

who

also

showed and considerable independence the rather

(which

in art at

Breugel went to Naples in

589, Jan

began an intense five-vear period of work and study in Italv. He spent most of the time in Rome, where he became one of the leading

members

of the increasingly large

colony of northern

artists.

painter friend Paul Brill

views of the ancient of Jan Bruegel

He and

his

drew numerous

monuments

(the study

exceptional drawings

and thev are proving to be a valuable source of information on the former appearance of ruins that have since been altered or destroyed), and he successfully tried his hand at the independent genre of landscape. Stormv seas, Alpine views with rustic hermits, or relatively recent

all

the continents

and of

This very unusual

work

of extremely fine

being the reference

executed the figures and Jan Bruegel was

"encyclopedic" genre of the

to the garden of Eden.

particularly admired bv Cardinal Borromeo, and the painter gave

which were

his

being noted bv Cardinal

Federico Borromeo, a great connoisseur of first

to appreciate

Jan Bruegel began to paint bunches of cut flow ers and in a verv short space of time became a true still life,

specialist in this field. In

590, where he

x 10.2 cm)

painting belongs to the

the emerging genre of

the end of the sixteenth century.

in. (7. 2

Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan

the representatives

Rottenhammer. The German painter

the arts and one of the

After a stav in Cologne in

on copper,

Bx 4

draftsmanship was

brother Pieter followed),

himself the international developments

animals and exotic beasts,

1605 oil

precision, the pretext

order to discover for

his

Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest

observations. Domestic

are depicted with

specialty. After

surprising decision to abandon his father's style

whole universe

this surprisingly fresh

in particular, the flowers,

and to trayel

seen in the religious and allegorical works

great talent

He made

work

of scientific and natural

painted in tandem with Hans

almost miniaturistic, can also be

responsible for the naturalistic details and,

an early age.

1620 on wood, 20% x 32% in. (52 x 83.5 cm)

Jan Bruegel Mouse with Roses

Repeatedly depicted bv Bruegel and his school,

trained as a painter. Jan Bruegel

to contain within a single

Original Sin

oil

The son, though not the

considerable talent

Baroque. The aim was

The c.

with tvpicallv Flemish meticulous

568-Antwerp, 1625)

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Jan Bruegel

595, Cardinal

Borromeo invited him to Milan and became his patron, a relationship that continued even after the painter's return to Antwerp, when it developed into a regular

correspondence. Jan Bruegel painted a considerable number of works for the cardinal,

which are

still

housed

in the

Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in Milan, founded

bv Federico Borromeo

1618. During the

years he spent in Antwerp, the

demand

for

Bruegel 's work from collectors throughout

Europe increased. He therefore set up a large studio in which his son Jan the Younger was also an apprentice. Around 161 5, Rubens invited Bruegel to join his workshop as his specialized assistant.

all

the species,

him

as a gift.

Jan Bruegel Small Bunch of Flowers

1607 on wood, 20 x 15% in. (51 x 40 cm)

oil

Kunsihistonsches Museum,

Vienna

Jan Bruegel's fame rests

above all on his extraordinary skill

depicting and arranging luxuriant bunches of

Bowers, sometimes accompanied by other unusual items, such as coins, insects, jewels, and

so on. In the letters he

wrote from Antwerp and Brussels, Bruegel underlines the great effort

took to compose these bunches that often it

contained dozens of different kinds of flowers. In fact,

he was

the habit

of painting flowers from life;

therefore he had to

wait for the various species

bloom, and sometimes months apart. However, thanks to his good relations with the ruling Archduchess of the to

the\ flowered

Netherlands, he had access to the royal greenhouses,

where valuable botanical were cultivated,

grafts

including the

first tulips.

119

â&#x20AC;˘

Jan Bruegel Hearing, Touch, Taste

1618 on wood, 25'/2x42in. (65 x 107 cm) Prado, Madrid oil

The extraordinary

Jan Bruegel

allegories of the five

senses constitute the

most

celebrated cvcle of

1618

paintings by Bruegel,

who was known as Velvet

in Italv

Bruegel because

of his almost illusionistic

Smell

tactile,

oil

on wood,

25'/2

x 42

(65 x 107 Prado,

in.

cm)

Madrid

rendering of

the most varied surfaces.

The sense of smell

Bruegel executed the

allegories of the senses

when he was working with Rubens, and some wire painted

in direct

collaboration with

Rubens

traditionally symbolized

a flowering garden to convey the idea of countless scents and perfumes. In this case, too, it is important to

who was

stress Bruegel's ability

responsible for the figures.

to be both analytic and

This cycle

synthetic.

himself,

Baroque

tvpicallv

in its translation

succeeds

bringing together

in a single, unitary,

of concepts into images through an overabundance

Coherent context

of detail.

of details, each of which

myriad is

depicted with painstaking care.

,JM

.,* Jan Bruegel Jesus

and the

on the Sea

father, Pieter

painting grandiose, storm)

of Galilee

scenes,

1595 oil oil

sometimes using

the pretext of mythological

topper,

or religious subjei

10'/4X IP/4 in. (26 x 35 cm)

lands) apes. Perhaps

between the sleeping Christ and the agitated

influenced b) themes

disciples in the boat with

st\les of the

nKli

the Gospels, and

depicts the contrast

Bruegel

frequently painted

and

\Mm*\

Sea of Galilee, described

During the time he in Italy,

Here he draws inspiration from the storm on the

Pinacotcca Ambrosiana, Milan

spent

Bruegel the

Elder, Jan Bruegel liked

Disciples

High

St.

Peter

the helm.

Renaissance or hv his

if A

v " ;

HrPj^yti

Iril jfc

ÂŁfe

JBCV

{'K^ 3r&

Jan Bruegel Vase of Flowers with Jewel, Coins,

and

Shells

1606 oil on copper,

Jan Bruegel

25!/2X

Ceres with the Allegories of the Four Elements

173/4 in.

(65 x 45

cm)

Pmacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan

1605 on copper,

Federico Borromeo's

oil

10'/4X

written 14-1/4 in.

comments on

Bruegel 's paintings and

(26 x 36 cm)

their high price are very

Pmacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan

Concerning bunch ol

interesting.

Here, too, Bruegel has

left

a picture of a

the execution of the figures

flowers, the cardinal notes,

to a diflerent artist and he

"he painted a diamond in

has concentrated

on the

the lower portion of the

images of nature. The

picture.

support he frequently

it,

When we

realized

noticed

what we

chooses, a smooth copper

were supposed to

plate, offers the

understand: the painter

opportunity to use

wanted to indicate

particularly bright colors

value of his

and create effects.

clear,

enameled

diat the

work equalled

that of the precious stone,

and that

the price

paid the artist."

121

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Peter Paul Rubens (Siegen,

577-Antwerp, 1640)

inevitable points of reference for a

northern

artist,

but in

Italy

he added

Raphael, Michelangelo, Correggio,

most important Rubens also studied classical antiquities. He was extremely interested in Caravaggio's work and became one of the first to admire him. He entered the service of the Duke of Mantua and stayed in Italy until 1608, making frequent trips from Genoa to Rome. His Italian journey was marked by memorable works, including a group of altarpieces that Tintoretto, Leonardo, and,

Germany, where his father a wealthy man from Antwerp who had embraced the Calvinist religion had gone into exile, Rubens acquired the first Born

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

rudiments of art in Cologne, but his real training took place in Antwerp. In 598, 1

the age of nineteen, he joined the Guild

St.

Luke, the corporation of painters in

Antwerp.

Two

years later he

For a gifted painter

Rome

left for Italy.

Rubens, going to

600 marked

all,

the great Titian.

this was confirmed by the grandiose works executed for the cathedral. The triptych of the Descent from the Cross, one of the most moving works in religious Baroque painting, is the synthesis of all his

point that led to the rapid development

permanently in Antwerp, but he sent works to patrons who were increasingly high-ranking. Then, from 1620 on, he traveled to the great European capitals. In Paris he executed the spectacular series of canvases for Marie de' Medici and Henry IV, twenty-one vast compositions

of his career. After his marriage to the

now

and

early training, but also the key turning

beautiful Isabella Brandt, his fine

house

Rubens extended

Antwerp by converting

into an Italianate palace and studio, with a

allow us to follow the different stages in

garden containing elegant pavilions. Thanks to the patronage of the grand dukes of the Netherlands, Rubens s commissions

in the

Louvre. Then he visited

Holland, Madrid, and London between

1627 and 1630. During this period, Europe was being devastated by the Thirty Years' War, and Rubens drew up a well-thought-out peace plan. He was nowone of the most famous men in Europe.

the development of an individual style,

increased and he extended his workshop to

After the death of Isabella Brandt, he

a decisive turning point in his career.

based on figures that

over a hundred

married Helene Fourment and painted

During the early

Rubens studied

use of rich colors, in which he was clearly

influenced by the Venetian school. In 1608,

Rubens s atelier was the largest "mine" of Baroque art; all the most famous Flemish artists went through the experience of working there. During the second decade of the seventeenth century, he was living

Venice and

the year

years,

art history voraciously.

traditional

followed the

method of copying the old

masters to learn their

style,

and Holbein,

Lucas van Leyden, and Durer were the

his

fill

the space and the

mother died and Rubens

Italy to

return to Antwerp.

became the leading painter

hastily left

very soon

in the

country

assistants.

several delightful portraits of her.

Rubens

became very wealthy

of his

as the result

highly successful career.

Peter Paul Rubens Juno and Argos 1610

1611

oil oil

canvas,

98 x 116'/2in. (249 x 296 cm) WalhaJ

Hicham Museum,

Cologne

Rulnns's

grc.it feeling !"i

narrative and his extremely sensual Style achieve-

expression

full

in his highly

imaginative- and spectacular

secular paintings.

Here the

artist takes as his starting

point an episode from

Ovid's Metamorphoses (Jupiter's love for the

nymph

Io) and sumptuously depicts the macahre, pathetic subject

of the killing of the mythical herdsman Argos,

who

has one hundred eyes

good

so that he can keep

watch over the herd in his keeping. After he has been decapitated by the wily Mercury, Juno

commemorates

the faithful

Argos by symbolically placing his eyes in the

peacock's

tail.

Peter Paul Rubens Self-Portrait with Isabella

Brandt Under a

Honeysuckle Bower

1609-1610 on canvas, 70 x S6V4 in. (178 x 143 cm) oil

Alte Pmakothek, Self-satisfied this

Munich

and confident,

how Rubens

himself with his

paints

first

wife,

Isabella Brandt, in this

superb canvas celebrating their marriage.

With

hand resting on the hilt of his sword, Rubens appears as a refined gentleman in his his left

earlv prime.

looks

impeccably genteel and wealthy enough to be able to afford the extravagance

of the gaudy orange stockings enveloping his

shapely calves.

A work

an obviously successful

man, charmingly accompanied by a woman ol enviable beautv,

Rubens

self-portrait can

be compared with similar pictures bv other leading

seventeenth-centurv painters, including,

first

and foremost, Rembrandt.

Peter Paul Rubens The Judgment of Pans 1605 on canvas, -Sin. (91 x 114 cm) Prado. Madrid

oil

earlv

work, painted

during his wars in Italy, this can be considered one of the

artist's first pictures

of a subject he was

extremely tond

of,

the

shapely female nude. This is

famous episode, which Mercury presents

a very

the three goddesses

from left to Minerva, Venus, and

(respectively, right,

Juno to Paris for him to choose the most beautiful. The golden apple that will indicate the winner glitters )

at the

center of the

composition, but a

little

cupid bearing a crown can already be seen hovering

Peter Paul Rubens

o\er Venus 's head. The

composition, with the

Madonna

figures set in a semicircle

Worshipped by Angels

backdrop of a luminous landscape, is still inspired by the canons of against the

of the Vallicella

1608 on slate, 67V4 x 98 Vi in. (425 x 250 cm) Church of Santa Maria Vallicella, Rome oil

the Italian tradition.

Rubens painted the same subject seyeral times.

The execution of the works for the high

altar

proved to be particularly complicated. Finally, after various attempts and

reworkings, Rubens chose a deliberately archaic

approach and painted choir of worshipping

angels supporting and

crowning an oval frame containing the

and Child

Madonna

in fixed, frontal

poses, like an icon.

Peter Paul Rubens Adoration of the Shepherds

1608 oil

on canvas,

118 x 75*4 in. (300 x 192 cm) Pinacoteca Comunale, Fcrmo

Peter Paul Rubens St

Gregory the Great with

Rome, Rubens many sketches for

in Yallicella,

painted

Saints Domitilla, Maurus,

the various sections of the

and Papianus

composition.

1606 oil on canvas, 57'/2

x46%

He was

broad planes of color

Confraternity ot the

and drapery.

Oratorians, the order

evidently ayvare of

founded by

establishing himself in

This little-known

Rome

altarpiece

with

a pivotal

work

St. Philip

the history of painting.

fascinating

work

Hence, the large

painted by Rubens

preparatory studies for the

It is

two

between evocative

Gemaldegaleric, Berlin

While engaged in the important work of

most

side

wings of the

triptych are to be

altar in

considered independent

Maria

compositions,

which

Neri.

perhaps the

in.

(146 x 119 cm)

the chu

Rubens experiments with sumptuous settings and

Executed for the church of San Filippo Neri in Fermo, this canvas confirms Rubens's contact with the

in Italy,

beautifully poised

Caravaggesque light and echoes ol the style of Correggio.

Peter Paul Rubens Maria Serra Pallavicmo

1606 oil

tain. is,

95 x 55 in. (241 x 140 can) National

Kingston Lacj

Trust,

(Dorset)

Rubens 's female

portraits,

particularly in his youth earl) maturity, are

an<.\

striking in their stately,

detached magnificence. This large canvas was

executed during one of the painter's

to Genoa,

isits

the fundamental prelude to the later arrival ol

\an Dvxk. Rubens loved

Genoa; he w

as laseinated

by the urban fabric of the Strada Nuova, designed

bv Galcazzo Alessi,

and by the luxurious lifestyle

of the great

aristocratic families.

Rubens executed memorable works

for

the churches and princely collections ol the city,

some while he was

there

and others that were however, not

remained the

later

from Antwerp;

sent

all

monumental

the figure,

them

Genoa. Here

who

size of

virtually

overpowered by the sumptuous, glittering gown and enormous lace ruff,

offset by the

strange, almost caricatural,

small parrot clinging to the back of the chair.

125

Peter Paul Rubens Equestrian Portrait of Giovanni Carlo Doria

1606 on canvas, 104!4 x 74 in.

oil

(265 x

188cmi

Gallena Xazionale della

Liguna (Palazzo Spmola),

Genoa

great collector and earlv

conoisscur of the art of the period,

whose

were ahead

intuitions

time,

of his

Prince Doria succeeded in

amassing an incredible

collection of paintings that

included major works by Caravaggio, Gentileschi, Vouet, and leading early

Baroque

artists.

The most

outstanding work, and one that in a sense synthesizes

the whole collection, this life-size

equestrian

portrait bv Rubens. This

picture stvlc,

impetuous

almost verging on

the exaggerated in the

long-haired

little

dog

attempting to imitate the horse's gait.

Rubens 's

handling of the

composition it is

masterlv;

dominated bv

a perfect

diagonal that starts from the horse's

tail, in

the

bottom right-hand corner, and moves upward to the dark foliage of the tree, top

left.

Peter Paul Rubens Portrait of Jan

Vermoelen

1616 on wood, 50 x 38!/4 in.

oil

(Mix. 97cm) Pi <

im e of I \a lucnstein

olfactions,

Vaduz

Composed and the VOUng man

serious,

looks

suspiciously askance at

the viewer. Even the

composition, with the character standing slightly to the right, as though

he had just gotten up

from the

chair, creates

an unsettled feeling.

Peter Paul Rubens

against an architectural

Portrait of Brigida Spinola

background

Dorla

The

right.

1606 on canvas, 59% x 39 in. (152 x 99 cm)

that disappears

perspective toward the resulting effect

that the figure

seen

oil

from below, like a large flower opening out into the

National Gallery of An, Washington

enormous

corolla of

the starched collar; the

head and elaborately This

another portrait

painted in

curled hair appear to be

Genoa and

resting

And

further evidence of

Rubens's compositional skill.

all

four sides; today the figure

â&#x20AC;&#x201D; term â&#x20AC;&#x201D; is

seen

to use a cinematic

in "a

middle-

distance shot,"

a three-quarter

despite the satin

sumptuous

gleaming

Rubens

still

in the light,

succeeds

capturing a spark of

humanity, an embarrassed

from the

knees up. The noblewoman is in

a ruffled tray.

dazzling magnificence,

Perhaps, in the past,

the painting was cut on

yet, despite all this

blush, a flash of

psychological insight.

pose

127

Peter Paul Rubens The Lion Hunt 1616 on wood, 98 x 147*4 in. (249 x 375.5 cm) oil

Alte Pinakothek.

Painted lor

Munich

Duke

Maximilian of Bavaria, the panel lias remained in the collections ot the

court of Munich. Rubens inexhaustible love of

life

and curiositv lor ever\ aspect ol the world led

him

to look for exotic

subjects, unusual themes,

singular characters, and

animals from other continents, a task

much

made

easier by the

continual arrival of ships full

of wonders from

everv corner of the world in the

port of Antwerp.

master from Antwerp anticipated In this search, the

modern attitudes. His work would be an important source of inspiration for nineteenth-

century painting: the

reworking of this painting bv Delacroix is a perfect example.

Peter Paul Rubens

masterfully controlled bv

The Rape of the Daughters

the artist.

of Leucippus

of the great examples of

The

result

one

the pictorial representation

1618 on wood, 87'/2 x 82V4 in. (222 x 209 cm)

of mythological subjects,

oil

interpreted not in terms

of intellectual elegance but

This episode, drawn from

wave of forms and colors. The voluptuous nudes of the girls tend to

Theocritus, represents the

fill

abduction of the

reflecting the sunlight.

as a sensual

Ake Pmakothek, Munich

Castor and Pollux;

Peter Paul Rubens Battle and Death of Deems

Mus

girls if

Rubens

the

identification of the subject is

correct, then this

the surrounding space,

the

plavs with the

gleam of

reflections: the

the silk and of the blond

only painting depicting this

hair of the girl

still

particular scene of the

on the ground

shows

King

reminiscent of sixteenth-

deed of

1616 on canvas, 204'4 in. 1 Wi x (288 x 519 cm)

story.

a rather sinister

force to the scene, while

Collection of the Prince

expression. However, the

the Dioscuri are verv

of Liechtenstein. Vaduz

illustration of the

verv scene Irom the cycle

devoted to episodes from the

of the

lile

Roman

consul

Decius Mus. This evele, kept

Vaduz,

Rubens in

s first

die held ol

one of works painting from is

great

small cupid on the

centurv Venetian painting.

love and violence; the

oil

left

has

theme

much overshadowed

The horses add an animal

similar to classical

prototypes.

the

ba-.is

bv the imposing

of the observation that

composition and the opulent brush work.

the

Rubens presents the enormous group composed of the girls,

horses are of different

two men do not seem

to be twins and that the

colors,

the

divine twins, the horses,

has recently been

suggested that the

title

should be changed from

iurccs.

and the cupids

as a single

The Rape

of the

Daughters

quivering unit. Everything

oj Leucippus to die

turns, perfectly balanced,

frequent The Rape of the

like a colossal

mechanism

Sahincs.

129

Peter Paul Rubens The Head of Medusa c.

oil

1617-1618 on canvas,

27 x

seems to have the power t<> turn hi-r enemies to stone i

46'/2 in.

(68.5 x 118 cm) Kunsthistonsches Museum,

Vienna

Ins terrifying \li

sue

(

1612-1614

on canvas, 82 l/4X 11)3/4

in.

allegorv

on the theme of

that witnessed the birth of

the world, the four

crocodile and the tigress

scientific

method, knowledge was mostlv

svmbolizing the continents

women

quavside in the port of

fascinating images. Thus,

embraced bv the images of the main rivers: on the left, Europe with the bearded Danube; in the

Antwerp, this painting is an exemplarv Baroque

on Rubens's canvas,

center, black Africa with

must certainlv have been

imparted through svmbols,

an astonishing sight on the

emblems, complex and

as the

as well

animals, plants, and

are

die lertile Nile

crowned

painting gives us an idea ol

with

the particular tastes of

Jan Bruegel.

certain collectors.

It is

rather gruesome, not onlv

with ears of corn; on the right, in the foreground, Asia with the muscular

exotic animals like the

,,l

the

relished depicting, perhaps

archaeological references that indicate the parts of

.nisi

Rubens sa

writhing around the head

geographv. In the centurv

suckling her voung, which

oil

Enriched bv Rubens

and

Monstrous, vet fascinating, the head of Medusa still

direct observation of

additional reptiles that

csstul

because of the serpents

Peter Paul Rubens The Four Continents

but also

(part of the classical myth),

Ganges; and, in the background, America with the Amazon.

to havi

tin- assistant

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Peter Paul Rubens The Tempest

1624 on wood, 57 3/4 x 82!4 in. (147 x 209 cm)

oil

Museum,

Kunsthistorisches

Vienna

This extraordinary landscape, in which a violent tempest

and the sky

abating

changing

from dark stormy shades to the colors of the

rainbow,

inspired by the

myth of the

visit

of Jupiter

and Mercury, disguised

simple wayfarers, to the elderly couple

Philemon

and Baucis. Moved by the

welcome they have two gods (seen on the right) save

received, the

old people's

the

home from

the

storm, which has caused considerable damage. In the

bottom left-hand portion of the picture, a

woman

and

babv are attempting to to safety, a in the

cow

flee

trapped

branches swept along

by the flood waters, and

man fast.

attempting to hold

The landscape thus

acquires a "romantic"

atmosphere, enhanced by the dramatic tones of the

background.

Peter Paul Rubens Isabella c.

oil

painted

the time

of the wedding,

Brandt

Fate held great happiness in store lor

Rubens, and

marriage to Isabella

woman

unusual intelligence and contributed to

this.

This

unforgettable portrait,

Peter Paul Rubens

enveloped

Miracles of

gold vestments. Standing

St.

Ignatius

between

1612-1620 oil on canvas, 1S7V4X 108V4 in. (400 x 275 cm)

sumptuous

a red curtain

and

the imposing architecture

sketched

the

background, raises his

Chiesa del Gesu,

St. Ignatius

arms

in a gesture

of invocation, but also as

Genoa Rubens sent this canvas from Antwerp for a side

though to protect himself from the group of people pleading for divine

altar in the beautiful

intervention. There

church in Genoa, where he had previously painted a

sharp contrast between the

Circumcision for the high altar.

brilliant

evidence

convulsed group on the left,

with muscular figures

attempting to restrain a

of the evolution ol the

madwoman, and

master's religious painting.

grandiose, spectacular

luminous portrayal of mother, in the center, wearing an attractive

compositions, Rubens

velvet

Always inclined toward

ol St.

Ignatiu

.under

the quiet, a

gown and surrounded by delightful children.

Rubens and

between was

Isabella

undoubtedly both sensual and intellectual. His wife's death from the plague, in 1626, was the only real tragedy

doubtless

his

loving understanding, and the relationship

spirit,

most

subsequent portraits of first wife also express a

Gallcrw Jegli Ujpzi, Florence

Brandt, a

to marital bliss, but the

on canvas,

33% x 24Âť/2in. (86 x 62 cm)

his

magnificent tribute

1625

life.

the painter's

Peter Paul Rubens Martyrdom of St. Livinus 1633 oil

'Âťii

anvas,

!79>/4X n6'/2in. (455 x 347 cm) Musees Royaux Jes Beaux\ri\, H/ii

In-

religious equivalent

of The Rape

of the

Daughters

of Leucippus, this painting of tin atrocious

martyrdom also

the saint

inters on a whirling

movement, dominated by the large rearing horse.

The scene acquires

the

atmosphere of a danse macabre, performed by uglv actors \\ host fa< es are almost caricatures.

The

horrifying focal point

of the composition

the

tongue that has been torn out with large pincers and presented as a trophy of bleeding saint's

flesh to an

eager dog.

133

Peter Paul Rubens The Straw Hat

rent h title (Chapeau Je potl

has

become Chupeau

paille).

1630 on wood, 31 x 2 in. (79 x 55 cm)

this,

oil

the portrait palpitates

with the feeling emanating

National Gallery, lonJon

The

Quite apart from

traditional title ot diis

magnificent work, certainly

from the girl's expression, and it is animated by the shadow cast b\ the brim of the hat, and the contrast

between the light blue of ground and the warm,

one of the most intriguing

the

seventeenth-centurv

hazv red of the sleeves.

portraits, does not

Titian's influence can

correspond to the subject.

seen in the extraordinary

The

hat the

wearing

voung

girl is

certainly not

made of straw, and the mistake mav be the result of a copying error or a

immediacy of full

The

this figure

warmth and

girl is

life.

probably Suzanne

Fourment, the sister of Rubens's second wife.

misunderstanding of the

Peter Paul Rubens

Helene Fourment

sixteen-year-old Helene

her

Wedding Gown

married Rubens, who was then fifty- three. This was an injection of youth and vitality for Rubens during

1630-1631 oil on wood,

53%

64'/2X

in.

the

(163.6 x 136.5 cm)

Ahe

Pinakothek, Munich

Brandt left Rubens widower when he was

Isabella a

nearly

fifty

and he began to

frequent a distant relative

of his

first

wife. She

was

fair-haired, shapely girl,

perhaps not as intelligent as Isabella,

Rubens. In 1630,

but certainly

very pretty and very attractive to a sensual

man

last

ten years of his

life

and work. The portrait of Helene in her wedding gown exudes tenderness and cheerfulness. The girl, with her rosv cheeks and blond bangs, looks happy but almost intimidated, and she is leaning slightly toward the left, as though she is trying to be selfpossessed and not finding it

easy.

Peter Paul Rubens

early

Angelica and the Hermit

who was

1630 oil on wood, 17 x 25 in. (43 x 66 cm) Kunsthistorisches Museum,

works by Rembrandt,

greatly

already then

admired by

men

Vienna

of culture like Constantijn

Huygens. Rubens's admiration for Titian

also

evident here (he studied the mythological

masterpieces in the King

This small, but very beautiful, late

work

depicts

of Spain's collections). In

an episode from Orlando

fact,

Furioso: the sleeping

that he

Angelica

carried to an

from Titian not only for

demon

the beautiful reclining girl,

island bv a

conjured up by a hermit's

magic

art.

The

painting

so exquisitely refined that it

reminiscent of the

who

Rubens himself stated drew inspiration

almost completely

nude, but also in his use ol thick paint

and dense,

resonant color.

135

Peter Paul Rubens The Garden of Love 1638

on canvas, 78 x 111 : in. (198 x 283 cm) oil

PrdJo.

late

MjJnJ work

of vibrant

freshness, tlu^

is a

convincing expression of Rubens 's great

joie Jc

vine even toward the end

of his

life.

The work

an allegorical rendering of the Castle of Steen,

the environs ot Antwerp, the

sumptuous summer

residence of the painter his family. The nohleman on the extreme

and

left is a self-portrait.

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137

Anthony van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599-London, 1641)

great specialist in Baroque portraiture,

Dyck

van

one

ol the

most refined

painters ol the early seventeenth century.

real child prodigy,

he began painting

a pupil ol the famous Hendrick van Balen, but in 161 5, when he was only sixteen, he opened his own independent workshop. The great Rubens soon noted the voung man's talent and his alreadv evident success with local collectors. As soon as he became

\er\ early age as

at a

Antwerp

artist

member

ot the painters' guild,

joined Rubens

van

Dvck

studio not as a pupil,

but as the master's assistant. Rubens and

van Dvck worked together, side bv side, on some works, then the older master

began to realize that the voung artist might become a dangerous rival and he

encouraged him to specialize in portraiture. However, van Dvck also continued painting mythological subjects, altarpieces, and religious and literarv works all his lite. From 1620 on, his fame as a portraitist quickly spread throughout Europe. In 1621, after a brief journev to England, van Dvck moved to Italv and chose to settle in Genoa; he was to stav there until the end of 1626. During his long and prolific Italian period, van Dvck also visited Venice,

Rome, and Palermo

remained Genoa, which had a flourishing colonv of Flemish painters and maintained close links with Rubens s workshop. Van Dvck's direct observation of Titian's works was to be pivotal in his development, and he clearlv drew inspiration from him. During the years he spent in Genoa, van Dvck painted the portraits of members of the Genoese aristocracy. Decrepit old men and tender children, voung noblewomen and haughtv noblemen, all sat before the easel of the for studv purposes, but his base

master,

who

usuallv painted the face

and hands from life, and completed the elaborate garments and details of the setting in his studio. Van Dyck worked at a

dizzving pace and consequently earned

of money.

a great deal

Antwerp (he was

When

still

he returned

very voung, only

twenty-six) he set himself up as Rubens 's rival

and encroached on the master's

terrain.

painted several

monumental

and verv successful altarpieces that were evidently influenced bv Titian, and, in 1628, he became court painter to Archduchess Isabella. In 1632, despite

homeland, he decided to move to England, and he sold the Castle of Steen to Rubens; it was to be the great master's "garden of love" (luring the last years of his life. In London, van Dvck was soon chosen as court painter to Charles I. Surrounded bv a large group

his sucessful career in his

Dvck painted hundreds of pictures, nearly all of them portraits. Except for two visits to the continent England, van

(

Antwerp

1634, Paris

tnd

in the last

Dvck permanently was knighted.

Self-Portrait

1621-1622 on canvas,

oil

32 x 27V4 in. (81

x 69.5 cm)

Alte Pmakothek,

vear settled

Munich

Van Dvck, a strikingly good-looking voung man with

of pupils, during the years spent in

ol his life), van

Anthony van Dyck

a brilliant,

precocious

talent, often painted his

own

portrait.

Thev

are

all

verv tresh works, executed

with rapid, almost casual brushstrokes, in which a smiling vouth at the outset

of his career looks on the

world with confidence and a feeling of eager 138

participation.

Anthony van Dyck Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo

1622 oil

96%

anvas,

(

x 682

in.

(246 x 173? cm) National Gallery, Washington

This

|xii trait,

symbol stay in

almost

ot the painter's (

fenoa,

both

sumptuous and delicate, showing perfect harmony between the magnificence of the scene and the sensitive characterization sitter. The young noblewoman is portrayed

of the

of the loggia of a during a walk in the

in front villa

garden.

The solemn

figure

passes by, rustling the grass, while a dark-skinned

page

tries to protect

her

from the sun. It is clear from her fair hair and pale skin that the sun might be bothersome for face

the duchess, but van

Dyck

turns the delicate skin into a striking detail of his

inventive composition.

The

large red sunshade

glows

like a

around her

profane halo face, creating a

spectacular wheel of color.

Anthony van Dyck Portrait of Nicolas Lanier

1632

on canvas,

oil

44 x 34 (I

in.

11.5 x 86.2

cm)

Kunsthistorischcs

Museum,

Vienna

musician

the court

of King Charles

England, Nicolas Lanier

was

a court artist, exactly

van Dyck. Thus the

painter presents a reflection

of himself in the image of the refined courtier, capable of expressing his

good

taste

simply in

his attitude, his expression, his intelligence,

culture.

Anthony van Dyck Portrait of an Old Man 1618 oil on wood, c.

42 x 29 in. (106.5 x 73.7 cm)

the vear of his admission

St. Luke Guild of Antwerp. The dominant influence is that of Rubens (who was also echoed by Jordaens in the same

years), with an almost

Collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein, Vaduz

to the

have deliberately

chronicle-like attention

to descriptive detail and a full-bodied

use of color.

chosen two male portraits

The background

from the beginning and end of van Dyck's career

order to analyze

neutral,

was the custom

the

recent tradition

of Caravaggio, while

much

the variation in style,

in the

especially in the use

of Nicolas Lanier, executed

ol paint

and the free

when

later portrait

the artist had

brush work. This painting

already settled in England,

belongs to the earliest

the background

stage of his career,

he was

just

when

nineteen,

landscape.

a distant

and

his

Anthony van Dyck Jove

the Form of a Satyr

compositions and the

who

altarpieces, the influence of

reclining female figures.

Rubens

near Antiope

evident,

1630 on canvas, x 59V2 in. (112.5x 151 cm)

much more and van Dyck does

set

Among in this

out to depict

Anthony van Dyck

the works present

not always find the spark of

Madonna and with

volume, similar

characteristics can be seen

St.

Child

Catherine

of Alexandria

oil

livery originality

441/4

and

the paintings of Rubens,

shortly after 1627

freshness that illuminates

Velazquez, and Rembrandt:

his portraits. In this case,

all

too, he does not hesitate

Titian,

to seek inspiration in the

decisive role in the

on canvas, 43 x 35% in. (109.2 x 90.8 cm) Metropolitan Museum

The excellence of his

profane painting of the

development of the history

of Art,

countless portraits should

sixteenth century. Titian,

of painting and increasingly

Wallraf-KichjTtz

Museum,

of them pay

who

homage

played a

Cologne

not

leatl

us to overlook van

Dvck's abundant work "figure painter." in

as a

How ever,

the mvthological

once again, stylistic

the closest

reference point,

and in anv case is the vardstuk lor all painters

became the most important Renaissance master for the painters ot the Baroque era.

oil

New York

Executed

in the brief

Antwerp period

following his return to his native country

before he to

moved

London,

painting

for

good

this line

a clear tribute

to Titian and the Venetian tradition.

141

Anthony van Dyck A Genoese Lady Known as

"Marchesa Balbi"

1623 on canvas, 72 x 48 in. (183 x 122 cm) 1622

oil

National Gallerj

Washington

According to

very true

saying, in the seventeenth

century Genoa did not have a king, but

many

queens. The features and

sumptuous gowns of the Genoese ladies whose portraits van

giye

them

Dyck painted The

a regal air.

young

identity ot this

representative of the

Ligurian aristocrat

unknown, but she is certainly one of the most captivating figures van

Dvck

ever painted in the

shadow of the

historic

lighthouse that dominates

Genoa and

the port of has

become

of the

city.

the

emblem

Here the

painter has chosen the setting of a softly

lit

interior in order to

enhance the truly magical effect of the intricate gold

embroidery decorating the young woman's gown. The hands stand out beautifully against this sartorial magnificence,

and

emerges

the fresh face a flower,

illuminated by

dark, piercing eyes

and a smile to forget.

it is

difficult

Anthony van Dyck Portrait of

Agostino

Pallavicino

1622 oil Oil

canvas,

85 x SSViin.

(216x 141 cm) J.

Paul Gettj

The

Museum, Walibu

radiant portraits

of beautiful Genoese

noblewomen spicy stories

young van

triggered <>l

handsome amorous

>yck's

conquests. Apparently he

was even challenged to a duel by the husband of one of these young members of the aristocracy.

The tone

male portraits, which van Dyck

ol 'the

concentrates so effectively all

the virtues and vices of

Liguria,

quite different.

Senator Agostino Pallavicino,

one of the most in Genoa,

ambitious nobles

gazes rather suspiciously at the spectator. His

sumptuous with

light

to set

attire (bursting

and color) seems

a barrier

between

the privacy of the

personage and the

who like

feels

visitor,

uncomfortably

an intruder.

Anthony van Dyck Lucas van Uffel

1621-1626 on canvas, 49 x 39V2 in. oil

(124.5 x 100.6 cm) Metropolitan

of Art,

Museum

New York

A famous

art dealer

and

collector, Lucas van Uffel

worked

in Venice.

The

painter has cleverly

captured him

in the act

of getting up from his desk, on which valuable objects can be seen.

143

Anthony van Dyck

bimseli "

The Lomellini Family

ith state affairs,

cither,

word,

1625 oil

lis In

the interior

on canvas,

104!4x 97V4 in. (265 x 248 cm)

his

National Gallery of Scotland,

children. sell

The matronly,

possessed mother

varied range of reds), but

there are also echoes of

1623 oil

7714 x 57

Anthony van Dyck

Raphael, in particular the

on canvas,

portrait of

Pope Leo X,

in.

composition, yvith the

Callerw Palatwa, Palazzo

cardinal seated at a table Florence

bearing elegant objects that

good

and

This extraordinarilv

indicate his

immediate, yet extremely

wealth. Nonetheless, these

taste

references to the Italian

the painter's

one of major works,

van Dyck,

the height of

style that

official,

portrait

his Italian

period, shows

yvith yvhat great finesse

can interpret the models of the past and translate

them

into an original, individual style. fact,

The

Thomas

of Savoy

the carefully studied

(196 x 145 cm) Pitti,

Equestrian Portrait of Prince

painting

is,

influenced by Titian

(the figure turning to gaze

Renaissance blend in is

unmistakably

1634 oil on canvas, 124 x 93 in.

(315x 236cm) Galleria Sabauda, Turin

Toward the end of his stay in Italy', van Dyck came into contact with the Savoy

personal, highly refined,

family.

and charged

of Turin commissioned

yvith energy,

The

reigning house

capable of broad sweeps

works from the Flemish

of color, but also of

painter in subsequent years,

expressing the subtle

even

changes of expression and the psychology of this interesting personage.

when he was far away London. This equestrian portrait, one of the most in

representative of Savoy

and a Piedmontese

historic paintings

model

for

official

portraiture, already

dispalvs the characteristics

of van Dyck's English period: the figure

longer seen in close-up

and there

broad view

of the countryside.

the

of the Lomellini family.

members

of the noble

The

at a

city

time

runs

The two children

are close

mother: while the daughter seems to realize to their

the risk of being attacked

her lather

and besieged and the inhabitants are preparing for war. Hence the head of the family, on the extreme left, is dressed from head to foot in armor, ready to plav his role as defender

and observes him with a worried expression on her face, her younger brother has only a vague idea

seen

on the threshold of his home, since he has to leave his family to occupv

extraordinarily rich and

the composition, she

large composition portrays

of civic libertv.

Bentlvoglio

stability.

pivot of the painting and

of danger.

out of the frame, the

his

Seated in the center of

in the histor\

Genoese family

Portrait of Cardinal

the boUSl

of lamilv portraiture, this the

Anthony van Dyck

cil

duty to protect

represents

canvas of pivotal

importance

sister-in-law and her

Edinburgh

armed with

turning toward

about to leave,

of the danger and looks questioningly at his elder sister. The portrait thus becomes a masterlv

emotional and psychological work.

Anthony van Dyck James Stuart, Duke of Richmond and Lennox after

1632

on cam as, 85 x 5014 in. (213.9 x 127.6cm) oil

Museum

Metropolitan

of Art, Sen York

Van Dvck's numerous English paintings are

among

the most important

in the history

aristocratic portraiture.

Thev

also laid the

foundations lor the future

development of the English school of painting, discussed in the

chapter of In

this

last

book.

order to meet the

overwhelming demand, van Dvck employed assistants, and the works executed

London

are

not alwavs entirely painted

bv him.

In contrast,

this large canvas,

extraordinary masterpiece, is all

his

own work. The

voung nobleman, dressed in an extremely elegant suit slim figure of the

with delicate touches of light blue,

enhanced

bv the thin greyhound.

Anthony van Dyck Portrait of Charles

1655

on canvas, 104 3/4 x 81'/2in. (266 x 207 cm)

oil

cm re,

(

l\ins

Dycl

\.ui

had become

"Italian";

ondon be

hangi d

nghsh gentleman "I the ourl In traveling from one ounti into

pei

fe<

to the other, the highly sensitive van

how

)vek

knew

to interpret die

different characteristic nl his patrons,

but also of

the climate, the landscape, the style of dress, and the Social attitudes. Intuitively

van

Dyck captured

the

English love of the

countryside and sport.

The king

readily had his

portrait painted in

comfortable hunting clothes, in the

middle

of a green landscape. His nobility

through

his

revealed

expression

and the innate elegance of the pose, and not through ostentatious attire. This is

the complete opposite

of the portraits of the

Sun King,

the

extremely pompous one by Rigaud.This kind of portrait remained a

fundamental model for the English school. a

hundred years

Over

later, in

the late eighteenth century, the relationship

between

and landscape established by van Dyck was to be taken up and developed bv Gainsborough. figures

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B Jacob Jordaens

manv

Rubens's vast workshop and soon became

in a style based on broad brushwork, thick with paint. Caravaggio 's influence, which is most evident in the light effects of his early works, becomes more attenuated as the years pass, and is

established as a versatile painter, not as a

replaced by a stvle ol painting that

Flemish tradition, while the

drawn from

(Antwerp, 1593-1678)

through

his

Italian art are

ideas

always filtered

completely independent

style.

Jordaens was drawn into the orbit of Jacob Jordaens master'- ol the

the third of the great

Antwerp school,

after

Rubens and van Dyck, who led the city on the Scheldt to the height of European painting in the

first

Unlike Jordai

his

half of the seventeenth

two famous colleagues, i

ittai

148

specialist in a particular

hed

genre

like his

fellow artists Jan Bruegel (still life) and van Dyck (portraiture). He therefore <

losely collaborated

was

iods

"'^

^^^^^^Hi^^Li ^

4J9

also,

above

highlv skilllul at

all,

with Rubens, but an independent master,

developing the stimulating

innovations ol Caravaggio and

Michelangelo,

popular and immediately enjoyable, simple

and full-bodied. Among his religious works, the scenographic altarpiece with the Martyrdom of Sl.Apolloma deserves a special mention, but his paintings of rustic subjects or natural produce are also very

noteworthy. Late

in life

Jordaens often

returned to subjects that were dear to him, such as crowded festive scenes and Aesop's fable about the peasant

and the

After the death of Rubens in

and of van Dyck

satyr.

640

1641, Jordaens became

the leading Flemish painter of his day.

Jacob Jordaens Self-Portrait of the Painter

and endearing genre of the sell portrait with family,

Portrait with Isabella Brandt

girl, the paint)

with His Family

does not depict the

painted by Rubens ten years

daughter,

oil

at his

1622

1621

This

smock, but

extremely elegant

earlier.

attire,

V2 in.

(1S1 x 187 PraJo,

easel or in his

painter's

on canvas,

7lV4x 73

artist

holding a

cm)

memorable

not a palette.

belonging to the widespread

family

enjoying the relaxing

atmosphere and shade of a garden in full bloom

standing, so

the

basket of ripe grapes.

detail indicates his

high social and financial painting,

The jordaens

end of summer, with a gushing fountain, and a young maid carrying a

Every

MaJnJ

lute,

with the eloquent v//

much so that work may be compared

the

The delightful

little

blond

Jacob Jordaens

painting, greath favored

a I"

loved

The Holy Family

portrayed

smiling and timid, with a gentle blush suffusing her i

lucks, and an expression a

blend of coyness

that

and

curiosity.

(118.5X

|.i

of Art, Bucharest

work belongs

ctora ol

OrlSidl

time

thi

I'd.

p In

pai

The lood

toi

the Baby Jesus

also par) ol tin

tradition and

enhani is

the delit ate atmosphere

little girls.

This

virtuosity.

cm) Romanian National Museum 11

oil.

prool of a painter's

figure truly

equal to Renoir's

nid

1625 oil on canvas, 46% x 44'/2 in. C.

to the

<.l

.l.i.

'.tic llilllii.u v.

genre of "candlelit"

149

Jacob Jordaens

or pie, and the person

The Feast of the Bean King

found

became king of the

before 1659

who

in their slice

feast

and master of ceremonies.

on canvas, 9514 x 118 in. (242 x BOO cm)

oil

Kunsthistorisches

Similar scenes are also to

be found

Museum,

the

in the

work of

Dutch painter Jan

who

Steen, Vienna

often morallv

stigmatized excess and

Jacob Jordaens

this early

The Holy Family with the Shepherds

interesting to note the

intemperance. Though

banquets arc very typical

Jordaens celebrated

of Jordaens's oeuvre. There

abundance and

were many occasions

too, underlined the

Metropolitan

celebrating: feast days and

dangers of drunkenness: a

New York

holidays, marriages,

Latin inscription reminds

anniversaries, or other

us that

celebrations were an

madman more

excuse for abundant eating and drinking. A famous

girl

Flemish

glass of

jollity, he, (

feast

for

took place on

"None resembles

drunkard," while is

wine, between

growling dog and

bean was hidden

vomiting man.

in a

cake

a Little

genre apart, not onlv

Jordaens's oeuvre but also

of Rubens and other

Baroque masters.

European Caravaggists (filtered

through the

Rubens school in Antwerp) and of Dutch painting. Well-known and admired by local collectors, Jordaens

oj Art,

Small religious paintings are

in that

about to drink a

the day of Epiphany. A

than a

106.7 x 76.2 cm)

Museum

it is

blend of echoes of the

1616 oil on canvas, transferred from wood, 42 x 30 in.

Scenes of parties and

canvas

became a point of reference and a means of comparison for the so-called

"Caravaggists of Utrecht," including van Honthorst

and Terbrugghen.

Jacob Jordaens The Peasant and the Satyr

Here Jordaens gives a charming, realistic interpretation of a

1625,

74%

oil

x 65

on canvas,

and Dutch

in.

(190x 165 cm) Museum

of Fine Arts,

theme

often dealt with bv Flemish artists in the

seventeenth century, and Budapest

which he himsell painted

in various clever versions at

different times during

According to one of Aesop's fables, in the dim and distant past, satyrs lived on the earth. One evening a satyr was his career.

invited to dinner In

peasant, who,

to cool

when he

came home

feeling cold,

blew on

hands to

them

up.

his

At the

warm

table, the

peasant blew on his

spoonful of soup,

this

down. Astounded

by the ambivalence of gesture, the satyr

this

jumped

beings, since they

dangerously hypot

false

were so and

ritical.

up, reprimanded the peasant, and from that

evening on decided never time

again to live

ÂŤ

ith

human

151

Willem Kalf Life with Nautilus Shell Goblet, detail

Still

1662 on can-"

oil

31 x 26" Thyssen.Collectic

/ Rembrandt van

Rijn

Portrait of Jan Six

1654 on canvas, 44 x 40'/4 in. (112 x 102 cm) oil

Six Collection,

Amsterdam

the end of the sixteenth century, after a

long, grueling

war

against Philip

of Spain,

seven United Provinces of the Netherlands

won independence. Holland was one of these seven

areas, but

tration of cities and industries.

were the

a republic,

really only

had the largest concen-

The United Provinces

ruled by the stadtholders (governors) of

House of Orange, but they had

autonomy. Lacking

in great art

a great deal of local

and culture, except for

the outstanding figure of Erasmus of Rotterdam, Hol-

land almost unexpectedly

became one of the powers of

Europe. That small population, constantly battling against the sea, living in a

flat,

monotonous landscape

that the ingenious system of canals

and windmills had

transformed into rich agricultural land, emerged from

anonymity and won the envious admiration of the

whole continent

onlv a few decades. j

Thanks to the extraordinary enterprise of the East India

Companv,

the beginning of the seventeenth century,

the ports of Amsterdam and Rotterdam were the most flourishing financial and

and with

this

solid

commercial centers

basis

Europe,

of widespread wealth the

Dutch people found many reasons for cohesion and naThe Dutch language, which spread thanks

tional pride.

to an intensive and intelligent literacy campaign, be-

came completely autonomous and definitively separate from the German, and acquired literary dignity. Calvinism became the official religion that imposed a temperate lifestyle

and firm moral principles. However, strong

Catholic and Jewish minorities were

welcomed with

own

original cultural

unusual tolerance and

made

their

contributions to the society. The rapport between life

home

and moments of socialization was governed by

precise calendar in

which holidays and days of penance

alternated; love of the family and care of the household

was

offset

cial

exploits

compensated In other

a brilliant social life.

The

risky

commer-

on oceans throughout the world were for

by the peace and comfort of daily

life.

words, during the seventeenth century the

Dutch enjoved a private prosperity and social harmony were unique. Without a real court or an aristocra-

that cy,

and devoid of ecclesiastic privileges, seventeenth

century Holland saw the establishment of a bourgeoisie of entrepreneurs,

professionals,

merchants, and

nanciers, and can be considered the first

modern

fi-

capi-

talist

democracy.

Among

the

precise indicators of

from the

dai-

literacy figures,

was

the flourishing situation in Holland, apart ly

consumption of calories and the

the fact

had the highest ratio

art, particularly paintings, to

The Dutch school

Europe of works of

number of inhabitants.

perfectly followed the course of his-

tory and the creative development of the principal masters.

Between the end of the sixteenth and the begin-

ning of the seventeenth century,

came autonomous,

distinguishable as a school.

century,

when

During the

and pride taken

in a precise identity,

ed with the unusual

1660,

influences

when

availability

half of the

new

to the pleasure

but also connect-

of merchandise and of

brought by overseas trade. After

the greatest painters, Vermeer, Frans Hals,

and Rembrandt, had died, and

first

continued to become enriched by

themes and personages, mostly linked

exotic

the country be-

began to become independent and

tastes

ordinary, classicizing themes,

had swung to

Dutch

art

began to

Jan Vermeer

The Letter c.

1666

on canvas, 17'/4x 15!4 in.

oil

(44 x 38.5 cm)

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

go into

and military and

a decline,

downward

state

took

The

first

artistic

political affairs of the

turn.

school that was completely Dutch,

namely detached and different from the Flemish school and the general influences of international Mannerism,

was the group of painters active in the important Catholic and university city of Utrecht at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Having trained toward the

end of the Renaissance,

artists like

Hendrick Terbrug-

ghen and Gerard van Honthorst were

many

tracted to Italy and spent

Rome. The Utrecht

irresistibly at-

years of their careers in

painters, however, did not

show

great interest in classical antiquity or Renaissance art;

by contrast, they were extremely taken by Caravaggio's realism and contributed decisively to the spread of

Caravaggism ghen (who,

Europe. Van Honthorst and Terbrug-

because

precisely

they

came from

Utrecht, continued to paint important religious commissions) were also fascinated by Caravaggio's subjects: teeth-pullers, street musicians,

and passers-by

soldiers,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

from the street and everyday

come

century

fortune tellers,

scenes of daily reality.

life

drawn

This was to be-

predominant theme of Dutch seventeenthwhich is distinguished by its cordial and

art,

amiably truthful representation.

Another major genre

in the art

of the Netherlands was

the portrait. This was the typical result of the extension

new and larger clientele. Apart from expressing the self-satisfaction of the wealthy Dutch bourgeiosie, portraiture spread rapidly, giving an of the art market to a

idea of the fashions and feelings, the stricture and

li-

cense of a happy, well-ordered society. The greatest portraitist, Frans Hals,

somewhat paradoxically one

of the most extravagant and liberated painters of the

which were widespread

seventeenth century. Inevitably tied to fixed subjects

of other painters, these scenes

and schemes, Frans Hals escapes monotony thanks to vigorous brushwork and use of color. The legendary

rows of static faces; by contrast, in Frans Hals, action and movement, the interchange of looks, expressions,

make

and gestures predominate. However, even Frans Hals's

his

rapid

execution of his works

(Hals

did

not

sketches or preparatory drawings, but applied the paint directly to the canvas) gives his portraits a fresh, vitality

that

was

new

to be noted and imitated by nine-

brilliant

matic,

approach pales inspired

Dutch society. In the hands become monotonous

comparison with the draRembrandt's absolute

Night Watch,

masterpiece.

teenth-century painters, including the Impressionists.

Rembrandt marks

The most

seventeenth-century Dutch painting.

striking

works

plex, imposing, large

in Hals's

oeuvre are

group portraits

his

com-

that depict the

meetings and banquets of the civic militia companies,

genius,

high point and turning point in

Rembrandt adopted many

truly versatile

different genres

and

techniques, always producing the finest results. His

<$*->.

â&#x20AC;˘

-..

Rembrandt van

Rijn

The Feast of Balthazar c. 1636 oil on wood,

65%

x 82i/2

ambition was to tackle the great historic subjects and the style of the Italian masters, so

much

many Dutch

cided (the only one of the

so that he de-

painters) to sign

events of his

life,

but one might even say that

Rembrandt's pictures

"all"

are, in a sense, self-portraits,

given the emotional charge and

human involvement

in.

(167 x 209.5 cm) National Gallery,

London

works with

name, like Titian, Raphael, and Leonardo. Rembrandt also went against the gener-

his

his Christian

make the customary jourRome; in fact he traveled no

trend because he did not

ney to

Italy,

particularly

Amsterdam, twenty-five miles from Leywere truly extensive, as was his fame. Whatever his subject (mythological scenes, episodes from the Bible, allegories, or portraits), Remfarther than

den.

And

yet his horizons

brandt interprets painting as

a direct, intense partici-

human emotions, sensations, and feelings. Rembrandt painted manv self-portraits that give an

pation in

156

dt&*

explicit,

striking

impression of the often dramatic-

The master's style changed greatlv during his career of more than forty years. If we did not know the course of its development, it would be difficult to attribute the precise, delicate brushwork of his early works and the heavy, dense planes of color in the works of his maturity and old age to the same hand. Rembrandt's late paintings, which we consider todav to be some of the most moving and intense works in the whole historv of art, perplexed the Dutch patrons of his dav. The development of the master's art toward an that they convey.

extremelv expressive and deliberately sketchy coincided with

change

in taste that favored

style

meticu-

Frans Hals

The Laughing Cavalier

1624 on canvas,

oil

323/4 x

26Vi

in.

(83 x 67.3 cm)

Wallace Collection,

London

lous, clean, precise works.

Rembrandt arrived

At the same time, while dimension, with

universal

paintings and characters that had the timeless

Dutch people preferred

classical poetry, the

homes

their

power of

to hang in

serene, pleasant pictures portraying the

typical features of their society

Hooch and

like Pieter

of Dutch

life,

life.

Artists

swept houses, tidy

perfectly

and way of

Jan Steen specialized in scenes city

comfortable and well-loved places

streets, the familiar,

of everyday experience.

elegiac,

domestic poetry

dominates de Hooch's world, where everything seems to belong to a kind of higher order

and everything that

happens follows calm, familiar patterns. picts

De Hooch

de-

with tranquil charm spotlessly clean floors; cup-

boards containing folded, scented bed linen; small, well-kept gardens; and swept doorsteps. Seventeenth-

century Dutch society found in him

its

most impas-

sioned and direct exponent. Jan Steen was also inspired

by everyday subjects, but with increasing frequency he depicted the opposite aspect: whining, snotty-nosed children, coarse old

men, and seductive

girls disrupt

the neat and tidy order, creating confusion.

Some

Steen's best paintings are brilliant satires of society,

where everything

De Hooch's

polite

the opposite of what

world

should be.

transformed into chaotic

pandemonium, perhaps not without

its

own

diabolic

gaiety.

The

greatest painter of

Delft, avoids this fact, is

Dutch

interiors, Jan

Vermeer of

mirror game of reality and

describing Vermeer as a

satire. In

mere "painter of interiors"

very reductive, not only because his not very prolific

tails,

and clothes are depicted with absolute realism.

output also includes landscapes, portraits, religious,

And

and mythological scenes with large figures, but

and country; they become eternal images of feelings and passions. Vermeer's exquisite painterly technique,

and most importantly, because

in his

domestic

also,

interi-

Vermeer does not merely depict Vermeer was a friend of the inventor of

yet

Vermeer 's

figures are not limited to their time

ors and his characters

based on

what he

canvases always fresh and bright, and they convey an

sees.

the microscope, and he seeks and finds the secret

life,

unfailing,

masterly handling of light effects, makes his

moving sense of modernity.

the soul of things and people. This great poetic master transfixes images in a

when time infinite

stands

suspended silence,

still,

moment With

tenderness and unprecedented understanding,

Vermeer captures the inner cavaliers vants.

at a

in a passing ray of light.

and

girls,

life

men and women,

high-ranking ladies and simple ser-

Certainly his scenes are set in the meticulous

context of seventeenth-century Holland. Interiors, de-

157

training with Abraham Bloemaert, the young Terbrugghen made a close study .I Renaissance prints by Durer and

Hendrick

Terbrugghen (Deventer,

Lucas van

588-Utrecht, 1629)

The major exponent

ol the

Utrecht

school, Terbrugghen played a decisive role in the history of

Dutch painting

he made

city

dramatic intensity. The subjects,

light

and compositions are directly

of Utrecht, the episcopal center of

effects,

Holland, had remained mostly Catholic,

influenced by Caravaggio, but the painter

country that had almost entirely converted to Calvinism. For this reason

adds

in a

158

Rome where

which was

spreading throughout Europe. It important to remember that the

1604 he moved to

the personal acquaintance of Caravaggio.

Terbrugghen spent ten years in Italy and during diis time he mastered the technique of painting large canvases, with strong contrasts of light and shadow, and great

bv leading die transition from the late sixteenth-century Mannerist tradition to the Caravaggesque style,

evden, thus acquiring a taste for distinctive expressions, unusual physical types, and strongly marked features In 1

and

his

personal interest

his characters

reappear in various

artists to

Italy.

spend

period

He himself returned

there in

1620, and found a new artistic climate in which the paler and more luminous tones oi the Bolognese school predominated.

Terbrugghen's painting also became lighter, and he began to paint genre scenes and to give a more realistic and picturesque rendering of religious subjects.

Hendrick Terbrugghen Calling of St. Matthew c.

nil

1616

on canvas,

41 3/4X 50'/2in.

(106x 128 cm) Museum

oj Fine Arts,

Budapest

This

one of the

painter's

favorite subjects, inspired

by the famous canvas by Caravaggio in the church in

Rome, though

return to Utrecht in 1614, Terbrugghen

the rest of Holland. During the years of his

school oi painting and he encouraged

his

force in the local all

his

compositions constantly vary.

Terbrugghen and his colleagues (like van Honthorst) frequently painted traditional religious subjects, which were far rarer in

became the driving

young

of San Luigi dei Francesi

physiognomy

contexts in different pictures.

the

study in

Hendnck Terbrugghen Incredulity of St.

Thomas

1604 oil on cam as, 42% x 53% in. (108.8 x 136.5 cm) ftijksmuseum, bnstadam c.

This important earl) work

shows Terbrugghen

particular interest in

expressions and physical features.

The emphasis

on portraiture, which sometimes verges on the grotesque, is based on his close study of northern

The

engravings.

influence

of Leonardo da Vinci

and was transmitted through

also equally evident,

the brilliant

work

Italian-style

Flemish

painters like Quentin

Metsys. Terbrugghen 's painting, therefore,

though modern

in its

Caravaggesque aspects, remains rooted in the artistic tradition

of the sixteenth century,

transposed

in a

new

key.

Hendrick Terbrugghen Calling of St. Matthew 1621 oil

on canvas,

40V4 x 54 in. (102 x 137 cm) Central Museum, Utrecht Considered one of the painter's greatest

masterpieces, this painting synthesizes the

two main

aspects of Terbrugghen 's style: the influence

long stay in

Rome

of his

blended

with the typical Dutch

tendency to represent reality.

Religious subjects

are treated in an

unconventional way

and the devotional feeling is replaced bv an intense need to convey human truth. The faces, expressions, light effects,

and

details are

evervdav

descriptive-

drawn from

life;

thev are part

of the ordinarv, though touching, dailv experience.

159

Hendnck Terbrugghen

Woman

with

Monkey

1620 oil on canvas, 33% x 25 /2 in. (86 x 65 an) c.

Paul Getty Museum, Mulihu

Though he preferred dynamic, monumental scenes, Terbrugghen also

painted a considerable

number of half-figures, which are reminiscent of Caravaggio's earlv works, like the

genre scenes

before 1600, for example, the Boy with a Basket of Fruit or the Bacchus.

Hendrick Terbrugghen King David Playing

the Harp

1628 on canvas, 59 x 74% in.

oil

(150x 190 cm) Museum Xarodwe, Warsaw

Hendrick Terbrugghen

Terbrugghen 's painting

Boy Lighting His Pipe with a Candle

therefore belongs to

oil

The introduction of magnificent costumes

and bright colors increased Terbrugghen 's popularity

on an international level. Works like this one were evidently destined for princc-K collections.

genre that became widespread from the end

1625

of the sixteenth centurv

on canvas,

on and was mistakenly

26V2 x 21% in. (67.6 x 55 cm )

Dobo

Istvan

considered Caravaggesque.

However, here he

Varmuzeum,

introduces the new

Eger (Hungary)

"sub-theme" of tobacco.

Tobacco smoking began in Holland, since it was

Terbrugghen, too, tried his

hand

at "candlelit"

painting, the kind of scene

van Honthorst excelled

which had become an almost obligatory test of an artist's bravura.

in,

imported bv the East India Company, and it spread to Europe, where it soon became a popular fashion.

Gerard van Honthorst (Utrecht,

classicism.

Van Honthorst specialized

in the

execution of evocative night scenes, with tones that were sometimes delicately poetic

and sometimes dramatic, which earned him

1590-1656)

the nickname in Italv of "Gerardo delle

Van Honthorst and Terbrugghen synthesize the development of Dutch painting that followed

Italian

bv which he

his return to

is still

known

todav.

Utrecht he alternated vast

canvases on religious subjects with genre

models. Van Honthorst

1622 on canvas, 64'/2 x 7444 (164x 190 cm) Wallraf-Richartz Museum, oil

in.

Cologne

witnessed the decline of Caravaggism and the

masters. After the death of Terbrugghen in

Terbrugghen, van Honthorst

subsequent rerival of classicizing themes

1629, and as a result of Rembrandt's

sought to convey a sense

the Netherlands. After his earlv training with

Abraham Bloemaert, in Utrecht, van Honthorst moved to Rome in

the Mannerist master

1610 and remained During this jm work, h' to whkl,

in Italv for se

ten years.

study and

que i

style,

Reni's

increasing popularity, the Utrecht school began to lose favor with the Dutch patrons. Van Honthorst, however, continued to enjoy great personal success and

ended

his career

as court painter to stadtholdcr Frederick

Henry of Orange,

The Hague.

In the seventeenth

Christ Before the High Priest

this idea

1618 on canvas, 107 x 72 in. (272 x 183 cm) c.

Like his colleague and friend

hence he

Gerard van Honthorst

oil

scenes, always influenced bv the great Italian

lived longer than his colleague,

162

notti,"

Gerard van Honthorst Adoration of the Shepherds

of delicate poetry in his works,

Xational Gallery, London

century

became very

popular with collectors,

and manv painters often copied it; consequently this

became mere expression of poetic solution bravura. This

not the

through scenes of touching,

pleasant lyricism. The Nativity

van Honthorst frequently

who

uses the emotional device

unsteady light as an

themes, and some versions

unusual and effective way

have become famous.

light,

one of the

painter's favorite

specialist in night scenes,

candle as the source illuminating the

composition from within.

case with van Honthorst,

uses the wavering,

dl sensitively

rendering

psychological insights.

Frans Hals (Antwerp,

580-Haarlem, 7666J

Korn in Antwerp, though he moved to Haarlem when still a child, Frans Hals is one of the most appealing portraitists in the whole history oJ art. He was a painter who specialized in one genre ot painting, and vet he was so imaginative and brilliant that he always invented new compositions, ranging from the bust ot a single person animated

to \ast scenes representing large

groups of people. are

still

Some

of his major works

the city ot Haarlem,

where

Frans Hals spent nearly the whole of his

long career. Little

known

of his training

was influenced by his studies with the painter and scholar Karel van Mander, who still followed the High Renaissance tradition. In 1616, when he was no longer young, Frans Hals painted his first large group portrait, and earlv work, though

Banquet of the Officers of the St. George Militia, now in the Frans Hals Museum in

Haarlem. After

this

work, the painter

displayed great freedom from the earlier rigid

schemes, portraying groups

movement, rendered vibrant and lively by his rapid brushwork and rich use ot color. The dazzling chromatic effects and rapid execution, which does not linger over details but captures the fleeting expressions

of the characters, are characteristic of

Frans Hals's portraits until 1640. Having

become acquainted with style

the Carvaggesque

through the painters of the Utrecht

school, Frans Hals often uses diagonal light

and neutral grounds, while his dense, thick color is reminiscent of Rubens and the

Antwerp

school.

(he had an efficient

renown workshop with manv

painter of great

pupils and followers), Frans Hals painted large official portraits as well as pictures

of aristocratic patrons or, in

some

models taken from everyday

life,

common

cases,

such

people, drinkers, fishermen, and

young women,

all

depicted with an

emotional and communicative immediacy.

Without making preparatory drawings or sketches, Frans Hals painted his canvases

using a technique that

we might

call

"impressionistic," and that was, in fact,

studied by

some nineteenth-cenrurv

French masters. After 1640, as in Rembrandt's late painting, Frans Hals developed a cool palette and tended to concentrate

which

on black and white,

times created an emotional

dramatic tension.

Frans Hals Portrait of Willem van Heythuysen c.

oil

163S on canvas, .3 in.

(204.5 x 134.5 cm) Alte Pimikothek.

Munich

Frans Hals Married Couple

1622 on canvas, 55 x 65'/2in.

oil

(140 x 166.5 cm)

i.iji

This

seen from ii

i,l

the master's

works,

earliest

".ii 'li

urn,

one

Fountains

can be

tin- Italian. ite

nli pavilions in

and

the

background, which is still Mannerist in style. The in. (I couple are rails ii

Massa and Beatrice van I

aen. Hals portrays

them

with an appealing freshness gaiety. The double marriage portrait was a

and

well-known genre

that

developed in sixteenthcentury painting and became more widespread in

the

first

decades of the

seventeenth century, thanks to outstanding

Rubens. However, only in few cases do the artists succeed in portraitists like

avoiding

official

poses and

expressions. Frans Hals,

however, conveys spontaneity through the happy, carefree expression

man and the subtle, knowing, yet embarrassed of the

smile of the

girl,

who

resting her hand on her

husband's shoulder.

Frans Hals Portrait of a

Frans Hals

Woman

Portrait of a

1643

Man

1650 oil on canvas, 431/2 x 34 in. (110.5x 86.4 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, c.

on canvas, x 38'/2 in. (123 x 98 cm)

oil

481/2

Yale University Art Gallery,

New Haven

New

His exceptionally rapid

York

execution enabled Frans

time Hals's painting lost the rich color and

Hals to capture and

brilliance of his earlv

all

fix

kinds of expressions,

including the unforgettable restrained grimace of this

middle-aged woman, who is keeping her lips tightlv closed and attempting to appear dignified by

gripping the chair.

arm of the

period.

With increasing

frequency he preferred to paint in black and white, and to explore die

psvchological aspect of his

While in his earlv works the characters are

portraits.

usually smiling, in the late

ones their expressions are often tired or worried.

Frans Hals Portrait of Nicolaes

Hasselaer

1630 1635 on canvas,

oil

3114 x 26'/4

in.

(79.5 x 66.5 cm) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

This personage was very high-ranking; he was, in the mayor of Amsterdam, who died fact,

1635

the age of fortv-

three. His ostentatious lace collar indicates his status,

but the dynamic, fluid pose the painter has chosen definitelv not official.

painting

The

extremely

vivacious, and rendered

masterly by Hals's typically thick, rapid

The

brushwork.

sitter has

reading for

stopped

moment and

turning toward the

spectator.

arm

the

leaning on

of the chair as

though about to engage conversation.

Movement

indicated bv his ruffled hair

and the raised edge of his collar. He has hastilv put a finger in between the pages of the large his place.

book

However,

mark his

eyes are not focused on us;

looking up and he

has the vague expression

man who

appears

abstracted, lost in the reflections and the

decisions of his public office

166

Frans Hals Malle Babbe c.

oil

without making a sketch.

1635

(75 x 64

in in.

GemaUegalene, Staatliche Museen, Berlin

broad brushstrokes, rich

National Gallery ofArt, Washington

The

devilish vivacity

commissioned

style,

which foreshadows the

movements of the

artistic

characters from the street:

nineteenth century.

woman nicknamed

Frans Hals portravs her with

an enomous tankard of beer

Hals's output,

between the

magnificent chromatic

and the severe almost

monochrome works

"Malle Babbe" was a familiar

Haarlem's taverns.

This painting dates from the middle period of Frans

richness of his early period

gypsies, fishermen, drinkers.

figure in

cm)

heightened

spontaneous

small canvases depict

This old

27'/4in.

(86 x 69

of the old hag

number of Hals's

on canvas,

33% x

painter uses freely flowing,

color.

quite a

1645

oil

banquets, here the

In addition to his

portraits,

portraits or

the paintings of grand

Company

cm)

an Officer

Portrait of

so than in his

commissioned

on canvas,

29V2 x 25V4

Frans Hals

preparatory drawing or

Frans Hals

last years.

Gypsy

character (an officer

Girl

The

of his

pleasant

who

does not look very military

1630 oil on wood, 223/4 x 20'/2 in. c.

and a paradoxical owl on her shoulder. This nocturnal

wisdom, but here it takes on the opposite meaning; unused bird svmbolizes

to the light of day,

like a

drunkard. Apart from the subject (not unusual in

Flemish and Dutch painting from Bruegel on),

depicted its

powerful despite

its

small

three-quarter

one of Hals's

favorite poses, with his

paintings, executed for

hat.

pleasure and not on

predominantly shades of brown, yellow, and rust are reminiscent of Rembrandt's.

particularly that of Manet.

speaking the extraordinarily

profile,

remarkable naturalness and unbridled exuberance, is one of Hals's freest

Frans Hals has painted

emphasized by

protruding stomach)

range of colors. As usual

painting

evidently a bon

Louvre, Paris

commission. Works like this were to make a great impact on nineteenthcenturv French painting,

stylisticallv

ram,

the red sash around his

cm)

This canvas, with

it is

perching unsteadily

(58 x 52

and

hand on wearing

his hip a

and

broad-brimmed

The colors

that are

167

Frans Hals Portrait of a

Young Man

between 1639 and I6S0 oil "n anvas, 31 x 26'/4 in. (78.5 x 66.5 can) i

Kun .thi\ionschcs Museum, Vienna

The correct chronological order

frans Hals's

paintings (especially

there

when

no information

about the

sitters)

difficult to

often

determine.

Frans Hals

corporations and militias

and Noncommissioned

that dated

Officers

Officers of the St.

George

Militia

1639 oil on canvas, 85% x 165% in. (218 x 421 cm) Frans Hals Museum,

Haarlem

168

from the time of

the wars of independence

and were established to protect the

Dutch

cities;

they later became an

excuse for enjoyable reunions. Hals's large paintings depict the

banquets, meetings, and

parades of these civic

guards and avoid the

Hals excels in the genre

monotonv of

of group portraits.

of people by introducing

Frequently thev are of civic

fresh,

static

groups

animated note.

Frans Hals Portrait of Cathanna Hooft and Her Nurse c.

oil

1620 on canvas,

34 x 25'/2in. (86.4 x 65 cm) Cemdldegalene, Staathche Museen, Berlin

The daughter of a tamous Amsterdam jurist, Catharina was just over one year old when she came to Haarlem to stay for a while with her

grandparents.

was then

that Frans Hals

\\ ,is

commissioned to paint this charming portrait of the little girl in

her nurse's

arms. Certainly

ease looking after the delightful child than posing for the painter, the nurse

wearing

simple black

dress and cap, in striking contrast with Catharina 's rich Italian

with

damask

in Brussels lace.

dress,

and cap

collar, cuffs,

The

child

only posed twice for Frans Hals,

who succeeded

brilliantly

capturing the

tenderly curious

expression of the chubbv little girl,

who

at the painter,

looking

but also

instinctively clinging

to her nurse's dress.

Catharina Hooft later

became the wife of the mayor of Amsterdam, and she would always look on the painting with great affection. In effect, this

work demonstrates artist's

the

extraordinary

in applying colors

skill

and

brushstrokes to create a vitality that

continues to

on regardless of time, fashions, and styles. live

169

Rembrandt van

Rembrandt Harmenszoon

work

van

major public commission in Amsterdam, marked his passage Irom youth to maturity.

oil

Promoted In a competent art dealer, Rembrandt soon became known as an

(359x 438 cm)

(Leyden,

606- Amsterdam, 1669)

miller's son

who grew up

Amsterdam. The

(1652, Mauritshuis.The Hague), Rembrandt'-. Iirst

Rijn 7

in the capital,

riveting Anatomj Lesson

Dr. Tulp

background, Rembrandt determinedly pursued his vocation for painting, and w as prepared to follow a difficult and arduous path when he was voung to reach artistic heights. Though he never left Holland and

which he mostly used to amass a contused though impressive collection of art works and natural curiosities. Rembrandt married Saskia van Ulvenburch and their early years together were the happiest of his life. He was then engaged in painting a series

onlv traveled the short distance between

Levden and Amsterdam, he measured himself against international painters. A trulv versatile artist, he tackles the most varied themes, subjects, and tormats with originalitv.

highly

one historv and

Rembrandt

41 '/4x 172!/2in. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

constantly increased, and so did his wealth,

skilled draftsman,

1642 on canvas,

impassioned portraitist. His fame

with

a lower-middle-class, provincial

remarkable energy and

Rijn

The Night Watch

also

of the greatest engravers in specialized in etchings. His prodigious

oeuvre follows a human and individual course and the long series of self-portraits, executed over a period of fortv vears, provides the most direct, moving, emotional testimony of his life. After learning the rudiments of his art in

The title ot Rembrandt's most famous masterpiece, a

landmark

art,

the historv

not a true

description of the scene,

which does not take place in broad and depicts a parade rather than

at night,

but

of canvases depicting the Passion of Christ for the stadtholder Frederick Henry ol

davlight,

Orange. During the 1630s Rembrandt abandoned the meticulous stvle of his earlv works and turned to monumental compositions, similar to those by Italian Renaissance masters, but characterized by a highly individual plav of light and shadow,

a watch.

and color. In 1642, the painter's career reached its height with the execution of the imposing group portrait known as The Sight Watch (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam). However, in the same year, the death of Saskia marked the beginning

van Ruvtemburg, to line

ruinous series of personal misfortunes, which led Rembrandt through endless legal

festive

The protagonist

Captain Frans Banning

Cocq,

the center

who

of the composition, is

inviting his extremely

Willem

elegant lieutenant,

up the company for the parade. The painting was destined to decorate the

meeting room of the

Amsterdam

civic militia,

Levden, the voung Rembrandt went to Amsterdam. He trained with the Italianate

master Pieter Lastman and learned the stvle and composition of great classical painting. He made the decision to devote

wrangles to complete bankruptcy and the auction of all his possessions. Rembrandt's

and was in the tradition of group portraits of the Companies that defended the city, a genre in which

decline was also linked to the changing

Frans Hals excelled.

himself mainlv to historical subjects and

tastes of the

compete with the Italian models. In fact, following the example of artists like Titian,

inclined to accept the artist's late works,

Raphael, and Leonardo, he decided to sign

unfinished because of their free brush work

renders

and thicklv applied paint. Rembrandt did not receive further public commissions until his last years, and these included the

more dynamic and

historical painting The Conspiracj of the

moving confusedly scene. The striking

his paintings his

with

his first

name

onlv.

return to Levden, he collaborated with

Jan Lievens, and for several vears the two voung painters worked side bv side, often

Dutch

that appeared to

public,

which was

be merely sketched and

Rembrandt's

toward the

exchanging roles and painting similar subjects. Because of his commissions,

Batavians.

Rembrandt painted what the Leyden customers preferred: small works on

of Titian.

and literarv subjects, executed with finesse and precision down to the tiniest â&#x20AC;&#x17E; detail. Noted bv intellectuals and art dealers, Rembrandt was urged to leave the provincial environment of Levden and

The Jewish Bride that are intensely

biblical

end of his

life is

little

style

similar to the late

manner

Compared with

Hals's

already very animated scenes,

Rembrandt this painting

even

full

and three children are in this

contrasts of light and color, the individual

painted outstanding

masterpieces like the Prodigal Son and

human

portrayal of

all

the various

characters, and the total

and have a depth of feeling that becomes almost unbearable. The death of his beloved son Titus, in 1668, was the final blow in an

mastery of

exemplary, unique

height of Rembrandt's

life.

action. Twentv-eight adults

this

complicated composition set this painting at the

work some

career. This large also contains

disturbing and unusual details, like the little fair-

haired girl on the

left,

with a chicken tied to her

running awav in fear, and the face of Rembrandt

belt,

himself between the standard bearer and the helmeted man to the right of him. Because the painter was short, only the top part of his face visible,

but this

enough

to recognize his

unmistakable features that

were made famous

many

170

self-portraits.

bv his

Rembrandt van

Self-Portrait with

Portrait of the Artist's

oil

Rijn Gorget

Mother as

1629 on wood,

14%

the Prophetess

114 in.

(37.7 x 28.9 an)

oil

23'/2X 19

Rembrandt never

joined

militias or the

army;

armor

the piece of

on wood,

ol the

in.

(60 x 48 cm) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam In his

symbolizes the pride

Anna

Mauntshuis, The Hague

dvu

Rijn

youth, Rembrandt

often used

members of his

young Dutch nation and

family as models. His

indicates the painter's

parents are usually

fondness for disguise and

portrayed as very old

striking exaggerated poses.

characters from the

This painting dates from

Scriptures. In this painting

Hob

the artist's early period,

Rembrandt's mother

when he was still living in his hometown Leyden, w here he worked with his

wrinkled

tortoise, but the

colleague and

trepidation with which the

contemporary Jan Lievens. The free style and frank,

pages of the Bible, as

very moving.

woman

work The

direct expression are

though she were

typical of the master's

understanding them by

earlv works.

touch rather than reading them, imbues the picture with the solemnity and

Word.

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Jeremiah Mourning the Destruction of Jerusalem

1630 on wood, 22% x 18 in. (58 x 46 cm)

oil

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

The

subject of this small,

delicate

work

taken

from the Old Testament.

The prophet Jeremiah is mourning the future destruction and burning ol

Jerusalem by the

Babylonian king

Nebuchadnezzar. The old

man

has the features of

Rembrandt's

father,

Harmen van

Rijn. This

one of the painter's most important earlv works mainlv because of the

extremely unusual treatment of

The

Rijn

Last Self-Portrait

marked by a prominent nose. The style of painting has greatly changed;

1669 on canvas, 2VAx 20 in.

the small, precise touches

oil

(59x

in the early self-portrait

with

cm)

Mauntshuis, The Hague

its

striking reflection

of light on metal have

passed since his earlv

been replaced by thick, dense brushwork with heavy paint that absorbs

Sclf-Portrait with Gorget

the light.

are clearly visible in the

does not hide the ravages of time and adversity, though

The

forty years that have

portraval of Rembrandt's

and body. The

face

confident, erect youth has

become

old

man

still-

weak, bent

with heavy,

recognizable

(eat u res

his

Rembrandt

expression has

touching dignity, the

wisdom and the

ol the artist.

man

turning the

mysticism of the Holv

Rembrandt van

an old

light.

The

gold objects in the

foreground are most skillfully executed.

Rembrandt

gives a

masterly rendering of the precious metal, which

seems to of the

reflect the flames

fire

devastating

Jerusalem, on the extreme left

of the picture.

Rembrandt van

Rijn

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Julp

1632 on canvas, 66% x 85 in. oil

(169.5 x 216 cm) Maurttshuis, Hi

This m.islci

turning point

Rembrandt it

marks

pile e

'Âť <

area

in fai

;

the painting that

gained the twenty

six vr.ir

old artist entry into the artistic

circles

<>l

Amsterdam, which resulted m his consequent departure Irom Leyden.

The work,

originally

painted for the seat

of the surgeons' guild in

Amsterdam, depicts

lesson given by Dr. Tulp,

one of the most celebrated physicians in Holland.

seven

men

The

gathered

around the dissecting table

town

are not doctors but

councilors (their names are

on the piece of paper one of them is holding). Their expressions are a

mix of

scientific interest

and

repulsion. Dr. Tulp dissecting the left

arm

of the corpse, exposing the tendons; his

left

hand

miming the contractions and movements of the fingers. The anatomical is

precision indicates

Rembrandt van

Rijn

The Blinding of Samson

Rembrandt's direct observation; he interested in

1636 oil on wood, 93 x 119 in. (236 x 302 cm)

and has of the

Frankfurt is

the

most

dramatic work

violently

the

whole of Rembrandt's oeuvre.The artist gave it

to the celebrated scholar

Costantijn Huygens,

esteem and gratitude for the support he had received

as a sign of his

the court of

Huygens was

The Hague. connoisseur

and admirer of Italian and for this reason

art,

Rembrandt is inspired bv dvnamism and diagona

the

light

of Caravaggio. This

religious painting depicts

Samson captured and blinded by the Philistines. In the

background, the

traitress Delilah

seen

holding the cut hair

of the hero.

knowledge

human body

to Leonardo's.

Stadelsches Kunstwstuut,

This

movement equal

Rembrandt van

Rijn

The Happy Couple c. 1635 oil on canvas, 63'/2X

>/2 in.

(161 x 131

cm)

Gemaldcgalerie, Dresden

This painting portrait of

a self-

Rembrandt

with his wife Saslda

his

knee.

moment

sitting

depicts a

oT complete

happiness and the painter

without any moral

Rembrandt van

undertones, a pose

Saskia as Flora

reminiscent of the Gospel episode of the prodigal son

who wasted

his

wealth on

pleasures.

has cheerfully chosen,

Rijn

St.

July 22, 1634.

Rijn

Lady with a Fan

1633

the great affection during

Petersburg

Rembrandt's favorite

model

Saskia,

whom

love

and Saskia is one of the most famous in the history of art, and we know about their tender engagement, their happiest

Rembrandt van

The

story between the painter

1634 oil on wood, 4914 x 39% in. (125 x 101 cm) Hermitage,

doubtless his wife

he married

moments,

and the tragic ending with the illness and death of Saskia in

642

birth to their last son, Titus. In this extremely fine portrait inspired

Titian, Saskia's

pose give the impression that she fact, in

pregnant. In

1635, she gave

who

birth to a boy lived for

only

two months.

after giving

on canvas,

oil

49 /2 x

393/4 in.

(126x

101

Metropolitan

New

cm) Museum of An,

Rembrandt van

York Girl at

gown and

far

has not been

the

Rijn

Window

1645

possible to identify the

on canvas, x 24'/2 in. (77.5 x 62.5 cm)

oil

young lady

elegant

in this

30'/2

painting.

The

portrait dates

from Rembrandt's early vears

Amsterdam, during

which he soon became very successful, thanks to the

This painting

precision of his style, the

series of fresh

true likeness of the portraits,

and the fascinating

play of light and chromatic contrasts.

career

and

women

in the

[loses.

Throughout

his

Rembrandt enjoyed

painting

174

Dulwich College Gallery,

London

of all ages

most diverse

one of a

images of women freely drawn from reality and painted with impassioned spontaneity. free technique and the

The

striking expressiveness of

pictures like this were later greatly

admired by the

Impressionists.

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Danae 1654 On amas, 72% x 80 in. 1636

oil

(185 x >03 mi)

1636 and

Paint)

rewoi

Iced sev< ral

in tin

course this

oi the

majoi

times

ol eight*

anvas si

one

venteenth-

century mythologii al works. Some years ago

was seriously damaged by a mythomaniac w ho threw acid on

engthy,

delicate restoration has

permitted the partial ni overy ol the masterpiece, and

has

been on exhibit to the general public since 1998.

Rembrandt once ayain challenges the Italian

Renaissance and Titian in particular.

The mythical

shower

gold that

falls

into the maiden's lap has

been ingeniously replaced by a flood of golden light that caresses the nude's soft curves,

and illuminates

the exquisite details of the

furnishings and fabrics.

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Saskia Wearing a Hat

1635

on wood, 39'4x 31 in. (99.Sx 78.8 cm)

oil

Staatliche Galeric, Kassel

Rembrandt van Little Girl

Rijn

with Dead

Peacocks

1639 on canvas, 57 x 531/4 in.

oil

(145x 135.5 cm) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

The seventeenth-centurv Dutch art market particularly favored

still

which was a genre Rembrandt rarely painted,

life,

since he preferred narrative scenes. In this case, he creates an effective

composition by adding to the

two

large dead birds

a little girl in

the

background,

who

has

an expression of curiosity

and

fear.

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Saskia as Flora

1635 oil

on canvas, i8V4in.

(123.5 x 97.5 cm) National Gallery, LcnJon

theater lover, over the

Rembrandt amassed an imaginative wardrobe vears

costumes and

later,

he was to paint

accessories, which he used

a similar

to dress himself and his

woman who

wile, his models. For

place ot Saskia in his heart

Saskia, at the height

(see

anvas

bottom

>>l

the

took the right).

of her Junoesque beauty,

Rembrandt

has chosen

an arcadian, mvthological

costume and

pose clearly

inspired by Titian's painting.

Twentv vears

Rembrandt van

Rijn Bathsheba with the Letter from David

1654 oil on canvas, 56 x 56 in. (142 x 142 cm)

bas-reliefs,

Rembrandt

adds psvchological insight to this biblical picture of

Bathsheba, wife of Uriah,

who at

appears perplexed

receiving a love letter

from David. The model is

probablv Hendrickje

Louvre, Paris Stoffels, the

Though based on major precedents in Dutch painting and on classical

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Hendrickje as Flora

As is evident from the works reproduced on these pages,

1657 oil on canvas, 3914 x 3614 in. (100 x 91.8 cm) Metropolitan

176

New

York

Museum of Art,

Rembrandt

frequently painted the

women

he loved

in various

costumes and poses. Here he has chosen to depict Hendrickje as Flora, once again inspired by Titian.

woman who

took Saskia's place life and family of Rembrandt.

in the

Rembrandt van

Rijn

The Adultress Ib44 on wood,

oil

$3x2534

65.4 tan) National Gallery, London

Returning to

religious

theme, Rembrandt adopts the finesse oi execution of lus

eyden years, enriched,

however, In M'list'

i>l

light

monumental and

completely new

rt-lationship

figures ami

between the an hitecture.

177

Rembrandt van Woman Paddling in a

Rijn

Stream

1654 oil on wood, c.

24'/4X 18!/2in. (61.8 x 47 cm) National Gallery, London

This

another intimate

painting.

Here Rembrandt amused

has captured an

Hendrickje Stoffels

The

paddling

in a

canvas

so spontaneous

stream.

has been thought to be unfinished.

contrary, this

the a splendid

example of the inexhaustible freshness of

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Saskia with a Red Flower in

Her Hand

of the red flower,

token

of love and faithfulness, is

extremely moving,

few months on June 14, 1642,

since a

1641 later oil

on wood,

38% x

32'/2 in.

Saskia died after giving

(98.5 x 82.5 cm)

birth to Titus. This

Gemdldegalerie, Dresden

This extremely sweet vet tragic picture

the

Rembrandt van Rijn Woman In Bed

1645

on canvas, 32 x 26Y4 in. (81 x 68 cm) Satwnal Gallery oj Scotland,

of the work. likely that

a biblical subject

their

wedding

while he spent

night,

praving

and making

sacrifices to

remove the

evil spell that

had affected

178

very

based

(Sarah waiting for Tobias

oil

Edinburgh

It is

it is

his

This delightful painting has

marriages). But the figure

been celebrated through the centuries. Its fame is perfectly justified bv the

subtle, appealing ambiguity

irresistibly spontaneous and exudes the joie de vine of a girl on the threshold life.

last

expressing great affection, in

which an awareness

of imminent death

when

becomes

she was sick, weak, gift

a very intimate painting,

portrait of Saskia, painted

and haggard. The

Young

the age of thirty,

a declaration

of eternal love.

Rembrandt's brushwork, and one of the masterpieces that explains the French Impressionists' admiration of Rembrandt.

179

Rembrandt van Portrait of Titus

Rijn

Studying

1655

Rembrandt van

of portraits of his beloved

Aristotle

son in childhood and

the Bust of

adolescence, which are

on canvas, 30'/4 x 24% in. (77 x 63 cm)

oil

Museum Boymans

painted a whole series

among

the

most

and touching

whole

reminded Rembrandt of Saskia. Rembrandt lovinglv

Reading

136.5 cm)

Metropolitan .Museum of .Art,

New

York

Painted for the Sicilian

observes the fair-haired,

collector Antonio Ruffo,

delicate, intelligent child

this

growing up. The portraits

extraordinary meditation

express a feeling of

on culture, on the

affection and protection,

significance of classical

men.

Titus's smile brings a ray

though Rembrandt wanted to embrace the child with the best part

of hope to the elderlv

of himself, his colors

bring the bust of

Rembrandt. The

and brush.

back to life. In the melancholv atmosphere bathed in a faint light, the gold chain on Aristotle's chest gleams brightlv.

1658

on canvas, 2614 x 21 in. (67 x 55 cm) oil

Kunsthistonsches Museum,

Vienna

180

on canvas,

56V2X S3 3/4in. (143.

onlv child of his marriage to survive,

Portrait of Titus

oil

history of art. Titus, the van

Beumngen, Rotterdam

Homer

1653

delicate

in the

Rijn Contemplating

artist

work

antiquity,

and on illustrious

Aristotle's caressing

hand and gaze seem to

Homer

Rembrandt van The Syndics

Rijn

of the Cloth

Guild

1662 on canvas, 75>/4x 109% oil

I'M /

in.

279 cm)

rXijksmuseum, Amsterdam In

1662, as a sign of his

return to favor with the

patrons of Amsterdam,

Rembrandt was commissioned to paint a group portrait (the last one had been The Niflht Watch, twenty years earlier). The syndics

of the Cloth Guild are depicted around of samples.

a table

book The group,

looking through

which the painter studied length in drawings and sketches, is rendered extremely dynamic by the free, broad handling typical of Rembrandt's last years. The pose of the man on the left, who is captured rising to go to a meeting, at

a very effective

way

of rendering the scene

even more

Rembrandt van

Rijn

The Conspiracy of the Batavians

1661 oil

on canvas,

7714 x 121% in. (196 x 309 cm) Nationalmuseum, Stockholm Like the portrait of the

group of syndics of the Cloth Guild, this marks Rembrandt's return to large, important works for public commissions.

The

painting depicts the

conspiracy of Guido Civile

who

led the Batavians of

Roman

Holland against the invaders, and

was

executed for the town in

Amsterdam (now

Royal Palace). This

hall

the

only

the central portion of a

much

larger composition,

which was seriously damaged and has since been long forgotten.

lively.

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Self-Portrait

1658 on canvas, 52>/4 x 40 3/4 in.

oil

(133 x 103.8 cm) Fnck Collection, New This painting

York

truly

exceptional both in style and moral content. The artist is going through an

extremely difficult period, and his bankruptv has exacerbated personal

problems and wrangles.

legal

has seen

everything he possessed

and the collections he had amassed over the years sold for a song in a ruinous series of auctions. But

Rembrandt

reacts to these

disasters with self-

possession and solemn dignify, clinging to his

stature as an artist. Perhaps

he has consciously imitated

by using broad handling and thick pigment, and e\ erv Titian's late style

brushstroke on the canvas is

a display of vitality,

energy, and conscious

presence.

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Painted (hoi

The Family Group

tl)

Bride (sei

aftei

The

follow Ing

page), this torn King famil)

1668

1669

poi

,Âť,/

llllruh

Rembrandt van Jacob

Rijn

depicts

reflet

intense

w bich

ted in the analogous

[nton

filiform,

golden rays

Museum, lirunmuk

that play

on the red

ol light

fabrics.

by Nicolaes Maes.

Rembrandt's work iv

on canvas,

51>/4X 38 l/4

striking.

While Maes

faithfully depicts the in.

appearance and wealth

(130.5 x 97 cm)

of his

National Gallery, London

sitter,

Rembrandt

goes beyond a mere

Rembrandt van

Jacob Trip, a rich merchant

"photographic" likeness

Juno

from Dordrecht, decided

and confers on Jacob Trip

to have his portrait

the dignity of a biblical

painted bv

.in

donate famil)

accurately and precisely

Trip

1661 oil

nl affeÂŤ

relationships,

(126x 167 cm) Hei

web

on canvas, 49'/2 x 65'/4 in. oil

Rembrandt

patriarch.

soon after being portraved

Rijn

1665

on canvas, 50 x 42'/2in. (127 x 108 cm) Armand Hammer Collection, oil

This strong, finely

executed, mythological figure of the goddess

how Rembrandt's

shows

artistic

powers had not declined with age.

Los Angeles

Rembrandt van Rijn Aman Sees His End c.

1665

on canvas, 46 x 50 in. (117x 127 cm) oil

Hermitage,

St.

Petersburg

Rembrandt's late works, passions and emotions are restrained and not displayed openly and In

dramatically as in his early painting.

Profound

meditation, the fruit of

long

human

experience,

replaces the impetus and theatrical

works of

flair,

creating

striking intensity.

(83

Rembrandt van Rijn The Return of the Prodigal Son

debated,

opposite page:

Rijn

The Jewish Bride

depii

Jew

1666 oil on

on canvas,

103V4 X 79'/2 in. (262 x 202 cm) Hermitage,

The painter's last monumental work

ish

lain. is,

gesture the couple exchange

x 65 Vz in. (121.5 x 166.5 cm) Riiksmuseum, Amsterdam

The

the mai

poet, though

not certain. However,

remains imprinted on the

memory. The handling ot the

pigment, interwoven

with gold, is

the affectionate, intimate

47%

Petersburg

St.

his paint ing

may it

1668 oil

(

Rembrandt van

identity ot these

two

been much

an almost indescribable

figures has

masterpiece. Rembrandt

discussed and

is still

being

brilliant

a further

confirmation

of Rembrandt's total creative

freedom

in his last years.

projects onto the Gospel

parable his

own

tragic

experience of being an elderly father

his son,

abandoned

but he can no

longer embrace him, unlike the father of the

prodigal son.

of Titus in

The death

668 was the

tragedy that brought the painter's

life

to a close.

Rembrandt van The Suicide of

Rembrandt van

Rijn

Lucretia

Rijn

Jacob Blessing His Sons

1664 on canvas, 47V4 x 39% in. (120x 101 cm)

works feature scenes and characters that seem to have been directly inspired by plays and

oil

1656 oil on canvas, 69 x 82% in. (175.5 x 210 cm)

This remarkable canvas, depicting an unusual subject, clearlv illustrates

the change in Rembrandt's style in his last years;

the brushstrokes tend

broken and no longer

define the details, but only '

the masses, colors, and action.

The

elderly

patriarch Jacob

blessing

one of his grandsons, the fair-haired Ephraim and entrusting Israel to him.

Joseph, Jacob's son, seems to be reprimanding his father for not having

chosen Manasseh, the eldest son.

184

Rembrandt himself had taken part in public

National Gallery of Art, Washington

Gemaldegalerie, Kassel

to be

actors. In his youth,

Rembrandt was

fascinated

by the world of the theater. Frequently his

performances. In

this case,

too, the elaborate

costume

and melodramatic gesture remind one of an actress or singer.

185

Gerard Dou

Dou was

Dou

down

obsessed

l>\

Formal

clarity,

and

complete, and their market price during

Rembrandt's first pupil, between 1628 and 1630. He is one of the most typical exponents ol the FijnschilJcrei or "tine painting" characteristic of Levden. Rembrandt's early precise, meticulous style remained Dou's point ol reference

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

throughout

Gerard Dou The Young Mother 1658 on wood, 29 x 21% in.

oil

history lor being

has gone

his

extremely accurate small or very small works are painstaking. Naturally such paintings took a very long time to

(Leyden, 1613-1675)

his career, to the

extent that

was extremely high, which eruouraged imitators who wire not always so successlul.

The son

ol a glass painter,

from 1632 on Dou was the most famous painter in Leyden after Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam and Jan Lievens left for

became an actual mania. According to sources, Rembrandt and Dou worked together on several paintings, but it has

pictures in an arched

been very

or an illusionistic picture frame.

difficult to identify these to date.

England.

established the local painters'

guild in 1648.

Dou

frequently set his

window frame

(73.5 x 55.5

cm)

Mauntshuis, The Hague

The

descriptive details

are painted

ith a

remarkable accuracy that is reminiscent of Jan Bruegel's

crowded

allegories and the earlier

paintings and miniatures of the Flemish "primitives.

Gerard Dou The

Seller of

Game

1670 oil on wood, 22% x 18 in. (58 x 46 cm) Xatwnal Gallery, London c.

Dou's gifts of patience and minute handling in the

Gerard Dou

representation of details

Studio

and surfaces clearly emerge in the exuberant still lifes that he often paints in the foreground, creating almost illusionistic

oil

effects despite their small

Self-Portrait in the Artist's

1647 on wood, 17 x 13'/2in.

(43 x 34.5

cm)

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden

There are no

The apparent confusion

particular variations in

reigning in the painter's

size.

style

throughout the

painter's career

and he

always remains faithful to his earlv

manner

studio

merely "poetic

license," a pretext to

display his skill in depicting art objects, musical

acquired in Rembrandt's

instruments, and diverse

studio in Levden.

valuable items. In actual fact,

Dou's studio was

proverbially clean

According Dou had an obsession for order that was virtually manic. and

tidy.

to experts

Sources of the time

record his efforts to keep his atelier spotless;

he even limited

\isits

from strangers to a

minimum. When

a supplier

or a buver came to the studio,

Dou

stopped

painting until the next day

because (according to him of the dust and dirt the\

brought into the

ascetic

•t

>'*"

187

Jan Steen

Jan Steen (Leyden,

The Feast of

Nicholas

St.

1626-1679) 1660 oil on canvas, 32'/4 x 27 in. (82 x 70.5 cm)

painter of sjreat originalit) and narrative

force, Steen is on< ol the ol

major exponents

seventeenth-century Dutch

art.

His

lite,

artists,

Steen

city,

but

his

when

same Rembrandt, Steen completed his in the

Italian painting,

a fair-haired little girl is

city as

happily hugging her

rarely has scenes of such

knowledge of and admired the free a fair

smiling tenderness. By contrast, is

subjects painted bv Adriaen van Ostade.

from

moved

effects. In

The Hague, but

his

painting were meager, so he Delft (Vermeer's his

and

city-),

boy

his little

brother

impishly points this out

1649, he

to his grandmother.

earnings from

moved

left a

not received any presents,

Goyen, and acquired

his father-in-law a taste for refined,

atmospheric, light

on the

crying desperately; he

has been naughty and has

married the daughter of the

landscapist Jan van

new

Baroque painting

doll.

manner of Frans Hals and the picturesque In 1648, he

moment

grandparents and grandchildren. At the center of the painting

apprenticeship in Utrecht and Haarlem,

where he acquired

exchanged;

that brings together

individual style.

Though he was born

gifts are

the tender

it is

conferring a solid

own

Claus,

northern Europe,

monumentalitv and compositional complexity on his genre subjects, and developing

amused

The day of Santa

frequently, thus detaching himself

an observant,

painter of children.

moved

from the local schools. He prolific output was the result of his confident rapid execution. Thanks to his varied training, Steen succeeds

respectful, and

Steen did not have permanent

residence in one

AmaerJam

Rijksmuseum,

were scenes from daily observed with a certain disenchanted, amused irony. Unlike most ol his fellow favorite subjects

The old woman's amused expression makes one

where he divided

think that soon an

time between painting and running a

unexpected gift will appear for her punished

brewerv. After further travels, and particularly a long, profitable stay in 7

One

grandchild.

Haarlem, Steen spent the last years of his hometown. During his career,

many

life in his

of the

details of this

delightful picture

Steen painted the same scenes several

figure, in the

times, but with variations. His very

on the

enjoyable canvases sometimes have a tone

who

right,

the

background with a baby

of underplayed realism, amused

holding his present with an expression of

detachment or

astonishment.

critical

moralism.

Jan Steen

confusion reigns and

The Cheerful Family

increased by the general uproar. Despite

1668 43!/2

there

In effect, the real title

work should be Dutch proverb written

this

on the piece of paper, top right:

of good between the

a feeling

relations

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

the

5SÂť/2 in.

(llO.Sx 141 cm)

"As the old people

young people sing." which alludes to the example adults should set children. The play, so the

family in this picture certainly

no model of

order and discipline;

its

moralizing undertone,

on canvas,

oil

generations, as can be

seen from the doddery old drinker and the rosy,

chubby baby. Steen s work in his tavern and brewery was an endless source of

human

which

experience,

abundantly

reflected in his paintings.

Jan Steen The Morning

Toilet

1665 oil on canvas, c.

14'/2X

10%

in.

(37 x 27.5 cm) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

This small painting

executed with admirable finesse and is a notable

example of the intimate, private scenes Steen likes to alternate with his larger compositions with

many

characters. In the pale light of early morning, the girl

has just gotten up and is putting on her stockings.

Steen is famous for rather licentious paintings that give the impression he

peeping through the keyhole. But here the poetic feeling for everyday gestures pervades the painting and precludes the possibility of sensual allusions.

The

little

dog

curled up on the bed is a loving true-to-life detail.

189

Jan Steen

indignant representation

disc ipline to

The World Turned Upside

of the physical and material

and one needs some

the overturned pitcher,

Down

degradation

This

and the

glass ol red

genre that

an- spe<

iln

1665

oil

on canvas, 57

in.

straight,

enjoyment

in life!

with drunken parents. But

painting

in a

how can one consider masterpiece a serious

was very popular in Flemish and Dutch art and goes back to Bosch

ol a Family

this

sermon? Steen always

(105 x 145 cm)

put

painting expresses severe

with amusement. It is true that evervthing is chaotic,

and Bruegel the Elder, and the culture of proverbs and popular wisdom that nourished the art ol the Netherlands for centuries.

moral criticism;

but

Some

Kunsthistorisches

identifies with his

Museum,

Vienna

characters and depu

them

careful observation this

it is

affectionately

all it

takes

and

a little

details (like the pig

with the rose

its

mouth, w

ine)

references

to local savings.

The more

extravagant notes include the

monkes

the

mis

tin-

youngest

appealing, in

bom

the high

hair io the eldest stealing

sweets from the cupboard, the door of which has been >

arelessh hit open.

playing with

lock on the wall, duck perched on the

the

shoulder of the pensive doctor, and the dog on the table wolfing

down

the cake. All the children

Jan Steen The Lovesick c.

oil

is holding, and another proverb that helps

girl Girl

us to understand

1655

The

dressed in a

receiving the

wan cheeks and has a

remedy

for the pains of love": is

\ isit

of a severe doctor. Her

Munich

this

girl,

robe,

Alte Pmakoihck.

the text on the

piece of paper the pale

pose appear light

she

tired

in a different

when we

realize that

merely lovesick.

The painter

gives a

masterlv rendering of the domestic interior

and lingers over everv it

of anv dramatic qualitv.

x 20'/2 in. (61.5 x 52 cm)

"No doctor

one of

Steen 's works and strip

on canvas,

24'/2

190

air

detail.

Gerard Ter Borch The Guitar Lesson

Gerard Ter Borch (Zwolle 1617-Deventer 1681)

and refined painter of domestic interiors, Ter Borch has manv ol the Stylistic and poetic characteristics of Portraitist

seventeenth-century Dutch

Amsterdam when he was

arid first

He moved

art.

just fifteen,

studied with a local painter, hut

soon, attracted bv the echoes of painting that reached

Italian

the major European schools and great

all

He went

first

1660 on canvas,

26'/2 x 22*/4

in.

(67.6 x 57.8 cm) National Gallery, London

The remarkable characterization of the figures reflects Ter Borch's

him from Utrecht

and Haarlem, and stimulated by Rembrandt's monumental manner, he began to travel. From 1635 to 1642, he studied abroad, and came in contact with masters.

oil

London where he

met van Dvck, then to Rome and Spain. On his return to Amsterdam, he immersed himself in local painting and became

consummate skill as a portraitist. The scene is

reminiscent of the

interiors of Vermeer,

an artist with

whom

Ter Borch was definitely in direct

personal and

professional contact.

acquainted with Rembrandt's use of light effects and, later,

with the earlv works

of Yermeer; thev must have struck up

he was best man at Yermeer 's wedding. In 1654 he moved to Deventer, where he quietlv spent the rest of his life. As well as portraits, a friendship since

executed above

during

all

second stav

his

Amsterdam, Ter Borch painted peaceful, delicate domestic scenes, which displav in

great finesse of execution and a very effective feeling for is

calm depiction, which

not limited to virtuositv for

(as

sometimes happens

its

own

sake

Dou's works),

and deliberated does not venture into psychological analvsis in the

manner of

Yermeer, but remains within the sphere of precise, sympathetic representation.

Gerard Ter Borch Interior

with Figures

Opposite page:

Gerard Ter Borch

Woman

1650 on canvas, 28 x 28 3/4 in. (71 x 73 cm) c.

Peeling Apples

oil

1651 oil

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Also entitled The

Admonishment

Father's

this is

one of Ter Borch 's favorite subjects and he painted it

frequently.

feature

typical

the silvery

reflections of the girl's silk

gown

that gleams softlv

in the serene,

dim

light

of the domestic interior.

on wood, x 12

14'/4

in.

(36.3 x 30.7 cm) KunsthistoTisch.es

Museum,

Vienna

The

perfect balance

of the composition, the rigor, the serenity,

and the studied simplicity of the objects on the table

make

this painting a

symbol of the Calvinist morality that dominated seventeenth-centurv Dutch culture.

(Rotterdam,

Pieter de Hooch The Mother

de Hooch

Pieter

629-Amsterdam 1660 on canvas, 20 3/4 x 24 in.

or Rotterdam,

1684)

oil

poetic painter

peace and quiet, ol Dutch domestic

of the calm cleanliness

de Hooch is an artist who has always been well-known, but has recently

(52.5 x 61 cm) IXijksmuseum, Amsterdam

interiors,

The magic of

the light

been receiving greater attention. In tact, though not possessing Vermeer's gift of psychological penetration, de Hooch reveals in all his works great lyrical finesse, and a poised elegance of composition, color, and expression, which make him

shining through the

one of the greatest genre painters of all time. De Hooch was a pupil of Nicolaes Berchem, and ever since his vouth he was

lines

attracted to simple, serene themes.

completed some time

his artistic training

by spending

window and spreading through the house is depicted with a perfect mastery of perspective, stressed by the converging

on the floor. The mother is looking for possible lice in the hair

of her

who

Leyden where the legacy of Rembrandt and the example of Dou led him to refine his painting further, making it even more subtle and precise. The turning point in his career was his lengthy stay in Delft (nearly a decade from 1654 on), during which he measured himself directly with Vermeer. Some of his themes are similar, in particular the secret world

of domestic intimacy, but the feeling

all

different.

Vermeer always captures the

human element

of the situation; de

Hooch

little

daughter,

kneeling

her feet.

necessary and private

which in figurative Dutch culture of the

task,

seventeenth century

was considered the symbol of the mother's role, the

metaphor of lice indicates that the mother was responsible for removing

manner of

physical

and moral "dirt" from the home and the children.

affectionately and meticulously depicts

the context, the episodes and the figures, creating, in his

most

successful works,

symbolic images of Dutch culture

in the

mid-seventeenth century. Around 1663

moved to Amsterdam, where his works met with the approval of bourgeois he

collectors, partly because of his remarkable

handling of perspective. In his later works

he tends to comply with the tastes of the

new Dutch

clientele,

who

are attracted

Pieter de Hooch The Linen Cupboard

by affected gestures and somewhat cold, aristocratic ostentation.

1663 on canvas, 28'/4 x 30V2 in. (72 x 77.5 cm)

oil

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

One

of de Hooch's

most famous works, this painting dates from between the end of the period spent in Delft and his

move

Amsterdam.

Since he was working for a public with

demanding

tastes,

understand

why

one can

there

greater monumentality

than in his earlier works.

However, the painting is extremely appealing. The lady

tidying the linen,

helped by her housekeeper, while the

little girl,

who

supposed to be learning how to do household tasks, seems to be irresistibly attracted by the sunlight outside, on this bright is

spring day.

Pieter de Hooch House in the Country 166S

on canvas, 24 x 18'/2 in. (61 x 47 cm) oil

Bjiksmuseum, Amsterdam

Bourgeois interiors

predominate oeuvre, 1

luit

de Hooch's

there

ver\ pleasing

also

group

of works depicting exteriors. As always the is slow and serene, never hasty or dramatic

action

De Hooch

depicts peaceful

episodes such as this one,

where, taking advantage of the Hue weather, a man and woman are taking

some refreshment a table in the

ot a It

house

garden

in the country.

not a luxurious

mansion, but the kind ol place

where

a well-off

middle-class family would

for a trip or to

a vacation.

spend

Every detail

alludes to the small

decorous, justified pleasures of a break

from work or domestic chores.

195

Pieter de Hooch Couple with Parrot 1668 oil

on canvas,

28 3/4 x 24'/2

in.

(73 x 62 cm) Walliaj Ruliuri/ Museum,

Cologne

Following the model ol

sonic ot Vermeer's

paintings, the spectator

views the picture from a

room

that

the foreground

darker than the

room w here is

the scene

taking place.

The

pail

and hroom suggest the standpoint of a maid, who is watching what her master and mistress are doing.

Pieter

de Hooch

Courtyard of a Dutch

House 1660 on canvas, 29 x 24% in. (73.7 x 62.6 cm) c.

oil

de Hooch

Interior

with Figures

1660 on canvas, 29 x 25'/2in. (73.7 x 64.6 cm)

oil

National Gallery, London

Based on

Pieter

a perfect

depiction of space seen in perspective, this

National Gallery, London

painting has an open,

The checkerboard floor and beamed ceiling give

airy atmosphere.

the impression that this

De Hooch once more shows in

his great skill

rendering materials

realistically

and giving

interior can be precisely measured. The figures are arranged in a studied

manner reminiscent of

the spectator an almost

Italian

tangihle impression

of the fifteenth centurv,

of the whitewashed walls,

who came back

brick flooring, and roofs.

wooden

and Flemish painters into

fashion as a consequence

of seventeenth-centurv studies of physics, optics,

and geometrv.

Jan (Johannes)

Vermeer (Deift.

1632-1675)

Vermeer

tor a long

works disappeared

time and were completely lost in the prodigious output of Dutch painting His name onlv re-emerged in the nineteenth

became one of the most precious and best-loved painters of all time. Vermeer 's fame rests on a few small, or very small, centurv, and he gradually

established as

works, but

in a

century and

painting that produced so pictures of daily

school of

manv charming

Vermeer captures the

life

magic, the deep and intimately aspect of everyday tasks.

and of

soul, of peace,

human

painter of the

light,

Vermeer was

the son of an innkeeper. His father was a

member

of the painters' guild, an essential

requirement

one was to practice the

profession of art dealer.

From

his

childhood on, Vermeer saw countless paintings pass through his father's shop.

They may not

all

have been top quality, but

they certainly provided an effective range

of styles, fashions, and trends.

his

Vermeer inherited business and became an innkeeper and

father's death in 1632, his

art dealer.

painting or

He had

a preference for Italian

works

at least

influenced by Caravaggio.

were began

that

also

to paint, in the artistic climate influenced

bv Carel Fabritus. Vermeer's early works, which already displayed extremely fine

brushwork, were religious (in mainly Calvinist Holland, he was probablyCatholic, or

became

convert after his

marriage) and mythological scenes. His contact with various artists of the period, including Gerard Ter Borch, led him, from

1656 on, to abandon the elevated subjects

of his early works and tackle

ordinary themes, to which he brought a

new

creative vein.

consummate

painted

masterpieces, the result of

painstaking

and highly refined technique, in which the^ echoes of fifteenth-century Flemish painting, especially in the use of light and the importance given to the minutest detail, blend with an awareness of the tendencies in the art of his day. Vermeer led a brief and uneventful

when he was

(he died

life

onlv forty -three), though he

Jan Vermeer Artist and Model

behind, sitting at his easel,

dean of the Delft painters' guild, made brief trips into the environs of the city and,

(Allegory of Painting)

takes the viewer's

had no

less

than thirteen children.

the end, had contracted so

that his

widow had

sell his

He was

many

debts c.

paintings to

1675

on canvas, 47V4 x 39V4 in. oil

pay back the baker.

He had no

public

commissions, and onlv sporadic and indirect links with other countries. Very

works can be dated with certainty, and their chronological order very difficult to determine. His was a simple, modest life, but he established few of

(120 x 100 cm) Kunsthistorisches Museum,

may be

invented the microscope. This

an interesting key to understanding

the miracle of Vermeer's painting, which lies in

hidden

the revelation of the secret in little

life

things that light unveils to !

standpoint and has folded back the heavy curtain on the left to be able to see the interior

of the studio. In the sharp

important friendships, particularly with Antonie van Leeuwehock, the great Delft

who

same time, he

clarity of the bright

his

scientist

but, at the

heart, and patience.

voting

woman

room

posing

Jan Vermeer Young Lady Sitting

can only be truly enjoyed

at a Spinet

company of very few other people who have the same

c oil

of Vermeer's brief career,

an ancient Muse. All

2014 x

magnificent painting

peace, beauty,

(51.5

contemplation that

becomes

a spiritual

This

testament.

a self-portrait

of the painter, seen from

map

action.

17%

large

in the

interesting

the reproduction of a

x 45.4cm)

painting by the

true music lover,

Vermeer often

It is

to note, on the back wall,

in.

\aiional Gallery, London

of Holland decorates

the back wall.

tastes.

on canvas,

in classical attire like

almost has the significance

1671

Painted toward the end

this

in solitude

paints

Dutch

Caravaggesque artist Dirck van Baburen that

still

exists today.

instruments and plavers,

The same

picture

but never public concerts

reappears

or recitals. Vermeer seems

interior

by Vermeer,

to imply that music

and

likely that

was

and foremost an inner emotion, something that first

another

the painter's private

collection.

199

—

200

Jan Vermeer

The Procuress

I'he

characteristic period.

scene

the interior

of a brothel, and

1656 oil on canvas, 56'/4X S1V4

alludes to

in.

one a

not

turning point

Vermeer's art. Regarding its size and style, it is linked to his earlv

parable

who

wealth At the other

ol the lew

dated paintings, and

marks

dissipated his lather's

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden is

tin-

of the prodigal son

(143x 130 cm)

This

unlikely that the painting

works

extreme, it is also possible (though this is more improbable) that the

pn ture contains

a subtle

autobiographical reference,

given that the procuress's

featuring large figures, but

features resemble those

the contemporary subject

makes

painter's disagreeable

the prelude to

Maria Thyns, the

Vermeer's mature and

mother-in-law.

Jan Vermeer

concentrates on the figure,

while the surrounding

The Lacemaker c.

space

1669-1670

oil

9'/2

reduced to

neutral ground. Perhaps

on cam as,

this simplicity that gives

8Âť/4 in.

the painting

(24 x 21 cm)

delicate

Louvre, Paris is

its

exquisite,

charm. The theme

not verv rare; there are

one of Vermeer's most famous paintings, though it is somewhat

several sixteenth-century

atypical. In fact, unlike

compared with Velazquez's

the scenes of interiors,

embroideress. However,

This

the airl intent

lacemaking

on her depicted

close-up; thus the picture

precedents, and the

lacemaker can also be

no other painting can match its silent, metaphysical atmosphere.

Jan Vermeer

on the

Reading a Letter

Girl

left,

the immobile

figure in the center

of the space, and a

1657 on canvas, 32% x 25'/2 in. (8 3 x 64.5 cm)

close-up of remarkable

oil

still-life details. it is

Above

all,

in this painting that

Vermeer begins

his

calm,

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden insistent exploration

This

another work

linking Vermeer's early style

with that of his

maturity, and the

most

of his art.

anticipates

typical features

From

the

compositional standpoint, it

establishes an

arrangement that became customary, with the light entering through a window

of the secrets of the female soul,

which he conducts

with absolute charm

and discretion. We shall never know what is written in the letter;

can only sense the

sentiments

expresses,

which are barely perceptible of the

the stillness

room.

201

Jan Vermeer

View

Street in Delft

of Delft

around 1661

1660 1661 oil un (..una--, 18!

x 46'/4

canvas,

oil oil

2l!4x

in.

1714

(54.

Mauntshuis. The Hague

Vermeer painted landscapes very rarely, hut

hometown

this \ista of his is

his absolute

masterpiece.

Proust was very fond of

and

it,

led to the general

public's rediscover) ol the painter. This

work

oilers an

excellent explanation of

Vermeer 's poetic and st\ listic choices. It is by no means a precise, objective view. Onlv some buildings

correspond to the actual architecture ol Delft,

which

depicted from

outside the walls and

beyond the canals that surround the historic center. Vermeer blends realitv and fantasy, affection and free-ranging

memory. For him,

it is

not

top priority for the view to be instantlv recognizable (as

was to be

Jan Vermeer

in the

views of Amsterdam by van der Heyden, a few

on the Vermeer depicts

years later); contrary,

the city as a place that really lived in.

harmony is

The

ol light

and color

unforgettably beautiful, is

the limpid relationship

between the

in.

x 44 cm) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

(98 x 117.5 an)

line of

Asleep

Girl

1660 on canvas, 30 X 34'/2 in. (76.5 x 87.6 cm)

oil

Metropolitan

New

Museum of Art,

York

Bold perspectives executed to perfection, fascinating

buildings, the cloudv skv

descriptive details, a

above, and the reflection

life

of the brick walls in the

casually placed

canal.

colorful folds of the carpet

still

seen in close-up,

on the

table, consisting

of a jug and tray of a pictorial

immediacy

and plastic density worthy of Cezanne: all this serves as a frame for the delicate picture of the drowsy

Perhaps she

girl.

tired or

dreaming; whichever, the figure has an impalpable appeal.

Jan Vermeer

have

Allegory of the Faith

reference, for instance, the

|>i

e< ise sj

mbolic

picture of the Crucifixion

1675 on canvas, 45 x 35 in.

oil

back "all and the

tin

serpent of

(114.3x SS.9cm> /Metropolitan Museum ofArt,

vil.

whole picture given

Though

i->

symbolic and

doctrinal interpretation,

Vermeer

still

succeeds in

This allegorical figure

rendering the scene

symbolizes the Catholic

concrete, tangible, and

faith,

and very many

details

the

to be

immediate.

Jan Vermeer Young Woman with a Water Jug

1670 on canvas, 18 x 16 in. (45.7 x 40.6 cm)

though it expresses a touching human, psychological, and luministic truth.

oil

Metropolitan

New

Museum of Art,

In fact, the figure of

Temperance appears on the stained glass

window and is

this virtue

reflected in the girl

York

holding the polished, This painting, too, can be

gleaming

jug.

interpreted symbolically,

Opposite page:

Jan Vermeer Young Lady Standing

Jan Vermeer The Astronomer 1670 oil on canvas, 20 x 18V4 in. (50.8 x 46.3 cm) c.

(51.

women, but

his

men

memorable. His ties

of science

with

men

make him

particularly interested in

philosophers and scholars. Intelligence, application, intuition,

and

concentration traverse his

on canvas,

17%

in.

45.2 cm)

National Gallery, London

pictures featuring

personal

1671

20'/4X

Generally Vermeer prefers

are also

Front of a Spinet

oil

Louvre, Paris

painting

canvases following

the spread of a ray of light

and of knowledge.

Another canvas devoted to the theme of music and another harmonious blend of Vermeer

inimitable

yellows and blues. The figure in the picture within

the picture

in evidence. is

holding

in his

unusually

The Cupid

a playing

faithfulness in love, and on this subject there is a Dutch saving according to which there onh one card to plav and you i--

204

card

hand, an allusion to

cannot cheat.

205

206

Opposite page:

Jan Vermeer

Jan Vermeer The Glass of Wine

Girl

1658

1660

30'/2X 20'

on canvas, 26 x 30 in. (66 J x 76.5 cm)

(77.5 x 66.7 Herzog Intoa

The

were

girl's

unusual

a great success with

expression

upper-middle-class

effects ol tin is

collectors in Holland

indie ates the

wine, which

often stigmatized by

painters and

during the seventeenth century and can be

compared with

cm) Uhh h

Museum, Brunswick

Gemaldegalerie, Berlin as tins

in,

oil

Scenes such

Wine

with a Glass of

1659 1660 oil on canvas,

Dutch

moralists like Jan Steen.

According to

similar

widespread

compositions executed

symbology, the offer

same period by Hooch. However, Vermeer always introduces the theme

of a

in the

cup

full

of wine was

relations, ot the passions

and the man's insinuating attitude certainly underscores this interpretation. But perhaps the most extraordinary

of the soul, that are

part of this picture

reflected in the characters.

background. A man

a sexual invitation,

Pieter de

of the psychological

the

leaning heavily on a table,

covered with a deep blue tablecloth a tray

a shiny

on which

set

with two oranges,

ceramic jug, and

white napkin. This blend

of color, texture, and light has few equals in the history of art.

Jan Vermeer Portrait of a Young Woman

oil

to be normally aligned

on canvas,

17'/2X

15%

with the face, suggest that

in.

(44.5 x 40

cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Vermeer 's female

figures

have given rise to a great deal of speculation in an

attempt to identify them with his wife, sister, or other relatives. As their identity remains

questionable,

it is

best

to examine the paintings closely a

few

of the shoulder and arm,

which do not appear

1665

the unnatural position

and try to discover

secrets. In this case.

Vermeer painted the face from life and the body from

mannequin.

Jan Vermeer Girl

with a Balance

1660 1665 on canvas, 16% x 15 in. (42.5 x 38(iiu

oil

National Gallery of An, Washington

The traditional title of work (Woman Weighing

this

proved to be is nothing on the two pans of the Pearls) has

incorrect. There

balance held lightly and precisely in perfect

The pearls on the table

equilibrium. are lying

precious

in a small,

cascade that catches the light.

The young woman

appears to be in

late

pregnancy (we have this impression in other female figures painted by Vermeer), and is standing in front

painting

depicting The Last Judgment. It is

to be

remembered

that the

Archangel Michael

holding

balance always

appears in the center of

Flemish pictures representing The Last Judgment. Hence, there

once again a mysterious link between the scene painted by Vermeer and the "counter-melody" in the picture hanging on the wall.

Jan Vermeer Girl c.

1665

oil

sufficient to set

Jan Vermeer Young Woman

him apart

as a first-rate

with a Turban

exponent of these genres. Here, the extremely fine,

on canvas,

7 in. (23 x 18 cm)

powdery

exquisitely executed.

Washington

The

certainly cannot

1660-1665 on canvas, 18!4x 15% in. (46.5 x 40 cm)

oil

reflection of the

broad, bright red hat

National Gallery of Art,

Vermeer

which are

landscapes in his oeuvre,

with a Red Hat

detail

on the right

arm of the

(the carved

Mauritshuis, The

Hague

Despite the fact that the

example of Vermeer's

young woman's identity is unknown, this portrait has become the symbol

Yet there are magnificent

"impressionistic"

of Vermeer's painting.

examples

brushwork.

be considered

a portraitist,

and neither can he be considered

by the

a landscapist.

of portraits

chair,

and

almost liquefied light)

work of great

and freshness,

precision

which

the light penetrates the

pigment and seems to give it an inner warmth and

make

live

independently,

by becoming concentrated in details like the pearl

gleaming

208

in the girl's ear.

210

Jan Vermeer The Milkmaid 1658

oil

on canvas,

17% x

16'/4 in.

(45.4 x 41 cm) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Held bv the great

museum

Amsterdam,

the fundamental "temple"

of the Dutch painting of the "golden age," The Milkmaid and The Letter

almost form

a diptych,

haw

since they

common

similar composition, the

customary

from the

entering

light

the vigorous

left,

beauty of a lower-class girl and a young lady. The \lilkmaiJ gives an extraordinary rendering

manv

different surfaces,

ranging from the basket of bread to the mousetrap

on the Hoor, the hanging woven basket and the polished metal. Despite the exceptional beauty

of the

still life,

the picture

concentrates on the

girl's

The white of milk coming out

robust beauty. trickle

of the jug

the luminous

focus of the action.

Jan Vermeer The

Letter

around 1663 oil on canvas, 18'/4X 1 514 in. (46.5 x 39 cm) Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam Silence, concentration,

and an almost metaphysical puritv of the image create atmosphere,

a rarefied

heightened by the every element

fact that

perfectly

set in an ideal pattern of

volumes, voids, and colors.

work

This

yet again a

masterpiece of evocative poetry, in

which even

someone's absence

is felt;

sense the distance

between the person who WTOte the letter and the girl

who

The empty

map who

now

allude to is

reading

it.

chair and the

someone

not there, whose

presence

evoked by the

piece of paper on which a dazzling light

falls.

211

Heyden

Jan van der Heyden The New Town Hall in Amsterdam

(Gorinchem, 163'?'-Amsterdam, 1712)

alter

Jan van der

exponent of Dutch painting in the second half oi the seventeenth century, van der Hex den trained with the still-life painter Job Berckhevde. Though he was not typical

interested in the flowers and sumptuously laid tables

painted by the master, van der

Hex den acquired from

this

experience

taste tor great pictorial precision

and the

accurate representation of objective

great traveler, van der

Hevden

reality.

visited

Cologne, Brussels, and London, but his Favorite subject is xx ithout doubt Amsterdam, xvith its canals and imposing

monuments and simple houses. Van der Hexden can be considered a forerunner of vedutism, both in his original approach to the image and in his use of technical and scientific instruments

buildings,

order to reproduce

with accuracy. In

his

fact, his

urban context*. paintings are

nearly alxvavs toxx-nscapes, depicted with

documentation, so much so that he can be considered a very important precedent for van Wittel. During his a taste tor

around 1700, the painter still lifes and landscapes, but without exer equaling the limpidity last years,

also painted

of his viexx

of Amsterdam.

1652

oil

283/4

.im.is,

33%

(73 x 86

in.

cm)

Louvre, Paris

Erected by Jacob van

Campen

to replace the

earlier building that x\as

destroyed b\

fire,

the

imposing Town Hall in Dam Square in the center of Amsterdam marks the

swing toward classicism in architecture and more generally in in

Dutch

taste

the second half of the

seventeenth century.

Van der Hexden depicted the building several times

from different angles, and he was evidently fascinated bv the precision of the forms, by the smooth surfaces, bv the studied

elegance of relations and proportions, but also

by the play of light and

shadow on the octagonal tower.

Jan van der Heyden The Martelaarsgraft in

Amsterdam

1670 on wood, 17'/4 x 22% in. (44 x 57.5 cm)

oil

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Landcsape is one of the most popular genres in seventeenth-century

Dutch

art. Van der Hevden's interpretation

it is

and

lucid, precise,

as objective as

possible.

Hence the

painter xvas far-removed

from the highly evocative "Romanticism" of van Ruisdael and from the generic views of the countryside or sea.

On the contrary, he wants the viexx point to be precisely recognizable and the place depicted to be compared xxith reality. In order to obtain this effect he pioneered the use of a scientific

instrument called the camera obscura, which alloxxed

him

to observe

the landscape through a lens that cast the

onto

a fiat surface.

image

Gaspar van Wittel

(Amersfoort, 1653-Rome, 1736)

outstanding views of the great

in a direction that his

predecessors could

View all,

Rome, an inexhaustible source of monumental and picturesque vistas), destined to be the model for the eighteenth-century

with Canaletto,

vedutisti,

who

beginning

did his training in

Rome. The son of van Wittel, whose name was Italianized to Vanvitelli, was to become one of the greatest architects of the eighteenth century.

He was

active

and Campania, and designed the impressive royal palace particularly in Naples

Caserta.

of Florence

from Via Bolognese

cities

of art (Florence, Venice, and, above

Founder of the veduta genre, which was to be enormously successful in the eighteenth century, van Wittel moved to Italy in 1675 at the very young age of twenty-two, and virtually divided his whole career between Rome and Naples. However, he assimilated the typicallv northern taste for objective, precise, clear landscapes, as opposed to the "ideal landscapes" ot the Bolognese and French artists active in Rome. His concern for natural and architectural truth can be seen to derive from the success of van der Heyden's views of Amsterdam, but van Wittel developed and extended this

Gaspar van Wittel

buy impressive souvenirs of their in Italy. Thus he painted

Grand Tour

c oil

1695

on canvas,

18 x 29'/2in.

(46 x 75 cm) Duke of Devonshire Collection, Chatswonh

Van Wittel succeeded in unforgettably

capturing

the major sights of the

Grand Tour, the

cultural

journey that was to

become

indispensable for

every young European aristocrat at the turn of the

eighteenth century. In

Italy,

never have foreseen. Fascinated by the

one of the musts was

Mediterranean sunshine, drawn by the monuments, enraptured by the relation between nature and architecture in central and southern Italy, van Wittel

"room with a view" in Florence. The blend of nature and monuments,

exploited his great scenographic

city created

ancient

monumental

create images that are truly in

skill

range and panoramic. Van Wittel

and foremost, on extremely accurate drawings from life, and then on a blend of faithful realism and narrative elements, through the introduction of figures, animals, and means technique

ut transport.

based,

first

Working

at the

geographical context and

by van Wittel

contributes toward

spreading

knowledge

of Italian cities of art.

turn of the

century, van Wittel assimilated the tastes ot the

new

traveling public

who wanted

213

Gaspar van Wittel

Alban

Aldobrandini

source

Villa

in Frascati

1720 1725 oil on cam .is, 38Vi x 68"/i in. (98 x 174 cm) c.

Private collection.

The

Rome and

\illas, ruins,

natural landscape of the

Gaspar van Wittel The Docks painted during his visit to oil

first

Naples

on copper,

17% x

38>/2in.

(45 x 98

cm)

Private collection,

London

The Neapolitan views constitute a very interesting section

of van Wittel 's oeuvre.

The

paintings of the

historic center (often

featuring imposing ancient

monuments)

contrast with

pleasant country scenes

[ills <>i

are a constant

inspiration lor

In st

and foremost the

realistic, rather

unassuming

Baroque landscapists. Masters like Annibale Carracci, Poussin, and

aspect of laded glory and

Lorrain had depicted these

convincing backcloths

places as the perfect

of that "lesser"

setting lor idealized

which eighteenth-century scholars were somewhat

classical scenes.

Van Wittel,

over a century alter the

dawn of the

genre, notes

transforms the old towns into the

first

indifferent.

and most Italy,

Gaspar van Wittel The Apse of c.

oil

Peter's

1711

on canvas,

22 l/2 x 43*4 in. (57 x 111 cm) Richard Green Collection,

London

Todav van Wittel's Roman views arouse

some The monuments

strong emotions and regrets.

depicted with analytical precision and a great love For ancient. Renaissance,

and Baroque architecture are always in

immersed

green vegetation,

in a context that

enhances

them and surrounds them with the colors and

atmosphere of

garden.

Gaspar van Wittel Castel Sant'Angelo

Seen from the South c.

oil

1690-1700 on canvas,

34'/4 x 45V4 in. (87 x 115 cm)

Richard Green Collection,

London

Thanks to their accuracy,

explicit

many of

van Wittel's views are valuable for reconstructing the appearance of buildings

or parts of the city that

have radically changed today.

The port along

the

Tiber, for example, has

completely disappeared

and the banks of the historic river are now-

very different.

From

the

standpoint of art history, it is

interesting to note

that van Wittel's views

were

a precise point of

reference for the abundant later

production of vedute

Rome, which began

with Piranesi's engravings.

215

^^1^

nteent

> r

C mm

C/D <

Georges de La Tour The Cheat

When

Galileo separated science from phi-

losophy and theology,

marked a way of

this

profound transformation

in the

considering the problem of knowledge. Particularly in France, the extension of the mathematical

method

to the sciences of the spirit

was the

for Descartes 's rationalism and for his

which was to have

clarte,

opment of the During

this

starting point

deep need for

a great influence

on the devel-

figurative arts.

period secular society was engaged

in-

tense dialogue with religious society. Themes of faith and religion confronted those of philosophy.

The

relationship

between grace and arbitrary freedom, between man's will

and predestination was interwoven with Cartesian

philosophical problems, as the scientist Blaise Pascal in particular testifies in his

work

Lettre escrite a un provincial,

which defends the Jansenist movement

against the au-

thoritarian conformitv and moral laxitv of the Jesuits.

There

no doubt

took the

that Pascal

new

Cartesian

principles as his starting point. For him, too, man's true

being

lies in

thought; however, for him the concept of

self-awareness assumes an essential ethical and religious significance, following the legacy of Augustine. Unlike

Montaigne, with

whom

he shares

a lucid interpretation

of the human-condition, Pascal exposes the tragic conflict that

at the

not stop

root of human existence; therefore he can-

at the

conclusions of skepticism or acquiesce to

dogmatism. Hence

The

clash

Valentin de Boulogne St. John the Baptist

Pascal's "bet."

between passion and reason

throughout

his Pensees

pression in Racine's great plays,

testimonies

that

evident

most complete exone of the most sublime

(1670) finds

its

of a century of theater par excellence.

oil

1628-1630 on canvas, '4

x 35'/z

in.

(130 x 90 cm) Santa Maria in Via,

Camerino

Scenographic research, apart from that specific to the theater,

in fact

one of the most outstanding aspects of

the Baroque figurative arts.

The churches with

their rich

Georges de La Tour The Hurdy-Gurdy Player c.

oil

stucco ornamentation, their elaborate baldachins, and the "glory" of their luminous heavens, the squares with their fountains, the ings,

wings and backdrops of the build-

which open up

varied, festive stage

different perspectives,

where the

rites

become

of political power, of

the sacred and the profane, are performed. In

France

was the court

that

determined the

stylistic

orientation of the arts, through personalities like Cardinal Richelieu, and, in particular, Cardinal Mazarin,

gave

new

who

vigor to artistic and cultural activities by pro-

1631-1636 on canvas, 3/4x

4T/4 in. (162 x 105 cm) Musee des Beaux-Arts, Nantes

Philippe

de Champaigne

Nicolas

Poussm

Ex voto

David Victorious

1662 oil on canvas, 165 x 90'/4 in. (165 x 229 cm)

Louvre, Paris

1627 oil on canvas, 39!4 x 51

in.

(100 x 130 cm) Prado, Madrid

moting the foundation of the Academie Royale des Arts (1648).

The founders, alongside Charles Lebrun,

who dominated French Baroque

sonality

was

a follower of Poussin,

who

a per-

classicism and

Cham-

included Philippe de

combined French elegance with Flemish psychological penetration. Hyacinthe Rigaud was also to move in this direction in his famous portraits of Louis XIV, in which the influence of van Dvck is combined with the theatrical Baroque style. The initiatives promoted by Cardinal Mazarin included the establishment of workshops and manufacturies such paigne, a portraitist

as that of the

successfully

Gobelins (1662â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1667), directed by Charles

Lebrun and specializing

products of top-quality crafts-

manship.

The

Palace of Versailles

became

connected to the town along

formed an urban

fabric that

the vital center;

a central axis

was

and with

was to become the model

for

the city of absolutism.

was combined with

In the interior of the palace the decor

Vitruvian

utilitas

to create a perfect equilibrium

furnishings and space,

and comfort,

cial status

rationality,

the palace

between

between the requirements of in a fusion of

so-

monumentality and

luxury and convenience. The focal point of is

the great Galerie des Glaces, opening onto

the garden and designed by Lebrun.

Here the decoration

common

blends with the architecture in the celebrate and glorify the king. There

between the different

arts,

new

intent to

relationship

though the leading role

played by architecture and theater, which by their very nature coordinate the heterogeneous materials and techniques.

Baroque

art, particularly in

terest in

contemporary technical and

ies, in

France, displayed a great inscientific discover-

the image they proposed of a universe without a

which raised doubts

center,

taining the

as to the possibility

of con-

whole history of the world within the brief

space conceded by religious orthodoxy.

At the center of the cultural debate was the theme of the different relationship to be established with tradition.

Being old ceased to be a value in a total

problematic Poussin

filters

new

itself,

yet there was not

break with the past, but a new, very complex, and relationship

work

with

very illuminating in

was

established.

this

regard, since

every element of his extensive culture to create

forms, modulated according to almost mathematical

219

Hyacinthe Rigaud of Louis XIV

Portrait

1694 on canvas, 109 x 76'4 in. (277 x 194 cm) oil

Louvre, Paris

rhythms, and he demonstrates is

underscored by

his

a taste for abstraction that

refined interplay of color. His

works are mental constructs

which the individual

ele-

ments are poised within a solid internal architecture, which is reminiscent of Cartesian clarte. His natural landscapes give a

new

interpretation of the classics in a

man-

ner that was to be adopted by Claude Lorrain. Taking his starting point the ideal

rives at a vision that

same time,

grounds are linked thanks to his sults

which

life,

distant

backgrounds and fore-

pursued with determined with

his art

a spirituality and an Romantic landscapes.

disinterested in figures

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

thev are painted bv other artists

opposite extreme.

man

dignity on his

the

of light and color. What re-

indefinite quality that anticipate

While Lorrain

an articulate spatial continuity,

pictorial stvle,

which imbues

vigor,

but idealized

true to

skillful interplav

new

of ordered harmony, he ar-

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

in his pictures

Louis Le Nain

at the

succeeds in conferring great hu-

humble characters, who

are nearly

always country folk, captured in interiors or out of doors, in a kind of popular counterpoint to Poussin's aristocratic world,

not without

beyond any

intellectualism, though

a certain clumsiness,

unconfident drafts-

manship, and considerable compositional ingenuity. Far

skilled,

though

still

within the sphere of real-

ism clearly influenced by Caravaggio,

Vouet and Valentin de Boulogne

also

de La Tour's depiction of humble Player, in

which Stendhal noted

truth" that can be read as a loud

which Simon

worked,

folk.

Georges

His Hurdy-Gurdy

"a terrifying, plebeian

denouncement of prole-

tarian misery, exhibits an ability to explore the surfaces

and outlines of things

that,

though influenced by Car-

avaggio, are also reminiscent of northern stylizations. exhibits the

flair

of an experimenter

bold colors and arbitrary use of

who

striking in his

light. In the

works of his

maturity, despite his refusal of abstract models and his habit of depicting his characters, even biblical figures, in

contemporary

dress, in actual fact

it is

no longer possible

to speak of realism, nor of a Caravaggesque stvle. His

nocturnal scenes are

which inclined toward that

220

rejected

in line

a stoic

law.

Georges de La Tour's

pictorial

taste,

uncontrolled passions and appealed to

willpower and moral

into

with Parisian

conception of existence

oeuvre thus

fits

perfectly

context where the points of reference are

Claude Lorrain Landscape with Abraham Driving

Away Agar and

Ishmael

1668 oil on canvas,

41%

x 55 in. (106 x 140 cm) Pinakothek, Munich Alte

Corneille's Le Cid, Descartes's Discourse on Method, and Poussin's Manna, and he bases his creativity el

on the mod-

offered by the tragic playwright.

Poussin sets himself openly against Cravaggesque realism, since he maintains that art constitutes first a

mental construct. Poussin

the word, according to

whom

tamed Romanticism, and he

and foremost

classical in Gide's sense

classicism

the

above

of all

most outstanding

exponent of seventeenth- century French

painting.

221

Simon Vouet (Paris,

1590-1649)

Having made when he was Followed

his

name

as a portraitist

very young â&#x20AC;&#x201D;it

French

lad) to

said that he

London

to paint

when he was only fifteen Vouet moved to Italy in 16H. He went

her portrait

first

to Venice

with the

where he became acquainted

ainting ol Titian, Veronese, and

Tintoretto, and was impressed, above

all,

bv the great compositions in the Doges' Palace, then to

Rome where

the circle of the

he frequented

Dutch Caravaggists. He

received major commissions in several

Roman In

churches from Pope Urban

VIII.

624, he painted the canvases of

The Temptation of St. Francis and The of the Saint for the church

Investiture

of San Lorenzo in Lucina, examples of a compositional style rich

in theatrical

which Caravaggesque influences blend with the Baroque. That same year Vouet was elected president of the Accademia di San Luca and, in 1627, now a famous artist, he returned to France where Louis XIII appointed him "first painter to the king" and gave him an apartment in the Louvre and an annual stipend. Having set up a studio frequented bv the greatest artists of the day, Vouet effects, in

devoted himself to the decoration of Parisian churches and palaces, in which Baroque eloquence was tempered bv Poussin-stvle classicism.

Simon Vouet Crucifixion

1622 on canvas, 147% x 88!/2 in. (375 x 225 cm)

oil

Chiesa del Gesii, Genoa

This painting, executed in

Rome, was in

sent to

Genoa

1622, where Vouet had

spent a year in the service

of Paolo Orsini and the

Doria family. His stay in Genoa, and above all his contact with Orazio Gentileschi,

who was

also in the city in 1621

encouraged Vouet gradually to abandon the

Caravaggism of his early lor a Baroque stvle i

i't,

vigorous, i(

222

ally

lined.

Simon Vouet

Magdalene

St.

161+ 1615 Oil on wood, 243/4 x 19'/4 in. (63 x 49 cm)

Palazzo del Quirmale,

Simon Vouet

The

and the carefully studied arrangement of the figures

oil

Last

Supper

1615-1620 on canvas

Catherine

1614 1615 oil on wood, 24% x 19(4 in.

(63 x 49 cm)

Rome

Palazzo del Quirmale,

Rome

theatrical scene

several planes anticipate

Vouet's large Parisian Palazzo Apostolico, Loreto

compositions.

223

Valentin

de Boulogne (Coulommiers, 1591 -Rome, 1632)

Born his

into

famil) ol Italian artists, after

mined

apprenticeship in France, he

Rome

in lt>l

where he met Simon Vbuet

and was attracted by the Caraveggesque painting that was still in vogue. He entered the Bemtvogel circle under the nickname

"Innamorato" and painted works that, though their subjects for example,

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

The Cheat,

now

Dresden

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

are

reminiscent ot the carefree climate ol the

Dutch

circle,

depart from this to anticipate

the composed, tragic quality of Louis Le Nain's figures. As a tavern habitue, even

when he

tackles biblical and religious

themes, he

always concerned with

depicting everyday reality in

humble

Rome

aspects. In

most

its

the artist enjoyed

the protection of such illustrious patrons as the Barberini family,

who were

reputedly francophiles. Thanks to the

support ot Cardinal Francesco Barberini,

nephew of Pope Urban VIII, de Boulogne was commissioned to work alongside Vouet, Poussin, and Sublevras in the

He died tragically summer of 1632.

basilica of St Peter's. in

Rome

in the

9 Valentin de Boulogne Martyrdom of Saints Processus and Martinian

1629 on canvas, I19x 75 /2in.

oil

(302 x 192 cm) Pmacoteca Vaticana, Rome Painted for the basilica

St. Peter's, it

on an

altar as a

to PoUSSin 's

was placed pendant

Marurdom

of St. Erasmus, executed

during the same period.

The

late

influence of

Poussin 's classicism can still

the

be discerned alongside

new

acquired

Caravaggesque

work by

style in this

Valentin, despite

nflicts

and quarrels

two

.irtists.

Valentin de Boulogne The c.

oil

Last

Supper

1625- 1626

on canvas, x 90'/2 in.

54%

(139x 230 cm) Gallena Nazionale d'Aite Antua. Rome In a scene that

deliberately empty,

attention

fully

focused

on the twelve apostles surrounding the rapt Christ.

Each of them reacts

differently to the Savior's

words. Their expressions of astonishment, anguish,

and sadness convey an extraordinary psychological intensity.

Valentin de Boulogne The Concert

1620 on canvas, 68 x 84'/4 in. (173 x 214cm) oil

Louvre, Paris

bourgeois interior,

characterized solely by a classical bas-relief,

the

setting for this concert.

Caravaggio's influence

evident not only in the

choice of subject, but also in the

melancoly

air

of the

figures, the realistic faces,

the violent contrasts of

and shadow, the tones, and the thick pigment. light

warm

225

Valentin de Boulogne Judith and Holofernes 1626 on canvas, 41% x 55!/2in. (106 x 141 cm) C.

oil

National Museum, La Valletta (Malta)

The

starkly illuminated

figures

emerge from the

dark background, spatial is

especially

Manfredi.

1628 on canvas, 49'/4 x 69 in. (125 x 175 cm) c.

oil

Louvre, Paris

This

work

an astonishing

for

its

intense

psychological insight,

conveyed through

a plav

of looks and disturbing silences.

table

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Around

the

the pivot of the

composition

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

the

characters are arranged

randomly, some with their backs to the viewer, some facing him, in a

scheme of

complex

conflicting lines

and rapid changes of

226

axis.

that

closely linked to the

work of the

Valentin de Boulogne The Fortune Teller

in a

arrangement

Caravaggists,

Bartolomeo

Georges de La Tour (Vic,

593-Luneville, 1652)

in his early years

La Tour

Georges de La Tour

faithfully

The Fortune

followed Caravaggio's model, in his

maturity he

moved toward

a simplification

Teller

1632-1635 oil on canvas, 40V4 x 481/2 in. (102 x 123.5 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York c.

of composition and a stylization of the

painter

who was

long overlooked,

figures, attributing a

La Tour's oeuvre has only recently

been reconstructed and assessed by modern criticism. This revival, which began in the Twenties, has reattributed to La Tour works that were previously considered to be by other Caravaggesque painters, especially Valentin and Honthorst. The 1972 exhibition in Paris, the first devoted to La Tour, was pivotal in this respect since

displayed over thirty

original paintings by the artist. His

biography

nothing

known

likely to

also uncertain. Little or

of his training, which

have taken place in Nancy.

It is

between 1610 and 1616, which would explain his knowledge of Caravaggio's works and his possible that he journeyed to Italy

circle,

whose

influence can be seen in his

However, recent studies have revealed that he was an unusual artist who developed an individual, consistent, extremely modern language Though painting.

moral value to

realism, in line with the severe style

From 620 on, documented at Luneville, hometown, where he spent a

of French classicism. his

presence

his wife's

happy period and established himself both socially and artistically. In the following decade Lorraine was devastated first by the plague and then by war. Luneville, a garrison center, was put to fire and sword and plundered; thus all traces of the artist and most of his early works were lost. In 1643 LaTour was back in Luneville, where he remained until he died from an epidemic fever, contracted in 1652, which had already caused the death of

his wife.

Though

chronological order of his paintings uncertain,

it is

the is

possible to trace a line

Three young

women

and

an old gypsy are

symmetrically arranged

around a young gentleman with whom they are exchanging intense

Here LaTour combines the Caravaggesque theme of the fortune teller, which was relatively common glances.

during the

first

half of the

seventeenth century, with the originally French

of development from the "daytime"

theme of the prodigal son

paintings to the large "nocturnal"

robbed by women.

compositions, in which candlelight is

a kind of leitmotif.

227

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Georges de La Tour The Paid Money c.

oil

1630-1635 on canvas,

39 x 593/4

in.

(99 x 152 cm)

Museum

of Fine Arts,

Lwow

(Ukraine)

Originally attributed to

Honthorst during the nineteenth century,

was

attributed to La Tour only

1970 and dated, though

this

doubtful, to the

beginning of

The

subject

his career.

a religious

one, perhaps the pavment of tribute money.

Georges de La Tour Musicians' Fight 5 1630 on canvas,

162

oil

37 x 55 J.

in.

(94 x 140 cm)

Paul Getty Museum,

Malibu

The studied symmetry

the figures conveys a moral lesson.

The desperate

woman on by

the

left

offset

two laughing musicians ol life.

40*

229

This

Magdalene with

the onl\ signed

canvas devoted to the vaint.

Georges de La Tour

Lamp

presents

severe

Georges de La Tour Christ with

1640 on canvas,

having chosen solitude and in.

(128 x 94 cm) Louvre. Pans

Man

austerity, is

depicted

Magdalene

in tranquil

poverty.

Joseph

the Carpenter's Shop

image than the others;

1638 1643 oil on canvas, 50'/2 x 37 c.

St.

oil

39%

54 x

(137x

in.

101

cm)

Louvre, Paris

saint particularly

venerated in Lorraine,

Georges de La Tour

this is the

The Penitent Magdalene

depicts her at the dramatic

Joseph

moment

land of mute dialogue with

1638-1643 on canvas, 52% x 36!4 in. (134x 92 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, c.

oil

Xeu

York

only one that

of her conversion.

Marv Magdalene

seen in

front of a mirror, the

svmbol of vanitv, is

which

reflected the flame of a

candle, the svmbol of time passing. She has

made her

La Tour opposes the

choice; this can be seen

dignitv of moral asceticism

from the jewelry she has laid aside and from her crossed hands on the skull

to the vanitv of the world.

Of the artist

four canvases the

devoted to the

saint

her

represented in a

the Christ Child.

The old

Joseph absorbed

in his

work,

who

does not realize

that the piece of is

sawn wood

taking on the shape of a

cross,

who

offset

bv the Child

symbolizes innocence

and hope.

lap.

Georges de La Tour

La Tour takes up

Woman

that

Removing

Fleas

a theme was popular with

the Barnboccianti and

230

1630â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1634, oil on canvas, 47>4 x 35'/2 in. (120 x 90 cm)

he transforms

Music Historique, Nancy;

use of light the solitude of

Lorraine

emphasizing with simple,

calm gestures and

moment

a skillful

of daily privacy.

Georges de La Tour The Penitent

St.

Jerome

(with Cardinal's Hat)

[630 on canvas, 59% x 43 in. (152 x [09 cm)

oil

Nationulmuscum, Stockholm

One

tin

most noble

figures painted by the artist, the

nude, weak

* >

< 1

saint clasps the cross in one-

hand and the blood-stained rope be has used to himself in the

flagellate

other.

231

Georges de La Tour The Newborn Baby c.

1648

geometric shapes. Thus the composition acquires a severe inonument.il and dramatic qualitv that

on canvas, 30 x 35 -\ in. (76 x 91 cm) oil

makes this the most famous painting in the artist's

Musee

Jes Beaux-Arts,

Rennes

In an intense and rarefied atmosphere, an arbitrarv light

models the

causing

them

figures.

to resemble

oeuvre.

Georges de La Tour St.

Sebastian Attended

by St Irene c. oil

1649 on canvas, x 50% in.

6B%

(162 x 129 cm) Staatluhc Museen, Berlin

This painting, discovered in

1945

the small

church at Bois- \nzeray, dates from the Lorraine painter's late period. At first

thought to be

work

bv his assistants, unlike the other version held in Berlin,

accepted

now widely

an original

and considered ol superior ciualitv Within the small space

lit

bv a lantern,

La Tour breaks up the scene b\ setting ever) figure

In the

foreground

St.

a different plane.

Sebastian with

at his side,

stand three

captured

lies

St.

Irene

and behind her

women

in attitudes ol

pity, grief,

and prayer.

233

continued

Nicolas Poussin (Les Andelys,

through the study

"first

Nicolas Poussin

Bacchanalian Revel

an eye also on the Caravaggesque school

and Bolognese classicism

Poussin soon found the obligations of this

Roman

sculpture, with

as exemplified

Poussin was born into a noble family that

by Guido Reni and Domenichino.

had seen better days. Against the wishes

who wanted him

him him

painter to the king" and placed charge of all painting and decorative work for the royal residences.

his training

of Raphael and

1594-Rome, 1665)

demanding

1628 Poussin was commissioned by

life at

court irksome and

Paris in 1642, turning his back

Before a

Herm

of Pan

1631-1633 oil on canvas, 39V4 x 56 in. (100 x 142.5 cm) c.

left

on the

to become a became involved, at an early age, with the workshop of Quentin Varin, a modest Mannerist painter who

Cardinal Barberini to paint an altarpiece

extraordinary advantages of his position

of the Martyrdom of St. Erasmus for an altar in St. Peter's, where Vouet and Valentin

to take refuge in

de Boulogne were also working.

year and the king in the following year

Poussin

was

having failed to secure an important

convinced Poussin that it would be better to remain in Rome, where he led a life devoted to work and enlivened only by visits from friends and French patrons.

from the bacchanalian

of his father,

magistrate, Poussin

Les Andelys from 161

to 1612.

This experience confirmed him in his

commission

vocation, and on Varin 's departure, he ran

dei Francesi, he decided to

away to

scale official

Paris to begin a difficult period

of training. In 1622 he

Giovao

Battista

his painting

met the

Marino,

who

Italian

poet

appreciated

and offered him protection

and friendship.

Although Poussin 's lame was beginning to spread in Paris,

when- he received

nomissions, he

left

the

itv

was reunited 1

the

nd he

for the

In 1630,

church of San Luigi abandon large-

works and devoted his energies to paintings on a smaller scale for rich art lovers. He thus regained the favor of French collectors, who became his main admirers and patrons. Urged by friends to return to France, he hesitated until

when

640,

the

promptings became still more insistent and the promises of work more attractive. On his arrival in Paris, Poussin

was,

in fact,

warmly welcomed by Cardinal Richelieu and by Louis XIII himself,

who

appointed

Rome. The deaths

of Cardinal Richelieu

The

last

the end of the

period of his career was marked

by increased interest landscape.

in the natural

The Louvre series of Four between 1660 and 1664

Seasons, painted

for the

Due de

artistic

and

Richelieu, constitutes his

spiritual testament.

The short

National Gallery, London

drew

inspiration

scenes painted by Titian in the Villa in is

Aldobrandini

Rome. The composition based on a diagonal

line

stretching from the tree

trunk to the

nvmph, formed by the

fallen

a vertical line

statue of Pan and the trees

behind

it,

and

a horizontal

cycle, closing with the remarkable Winter,

line linking the

again features the fundamental themes

in the

of his painting, such as the fecundity of nature and the sense of human existence.

distant plain.

dancers

foreground to the

Nicolas Poussin

Daphne

Apollo and

1625

after

on canvas,

oil

38'/2X Sl!4

(98 x

in.

cm) Mum,

Alte Pmakothck,

Inspired by Ovid's

Metamorphoses, this

work depicts

Apollo'-,

unsuccessful pursuit ol the is

nymph

a votary

)aphne,

who

of Artemis and

cannot accept the god's love.

laving taken refuge

with her lather, the river

god Peneus, she

finally

turns herself into a laurel to escape Apollo.

The

unanimously regarded as a pendant to the Midas and Bacchus by painting

virtue of their similarities in

terms of format, subject Golden Age), and

(the

compositional layout.

Nicolas Poussin Midas and Bacchus

c 1629-1630 oil

on canvas,

38>4x (98 x

5 1

in.

30 cm)

Alte Pmakothck,

Munich

Poussin was strongly attracted to the

theme of

Midas, drawn from Ovid,

and based

number of

on it. Having obtained from Bacchus the paintings

gift

of turning everything

he touches into gold, the hungry, thirsty king Midas

soon regrets his greed. Bacchus grants him release by having him bathe at the source of the Pactolus River. Poussin depicts the

myth where Midas thanks Bacchus for part of the

liberating him. In the

background, a youth can be seen collecting gold from the Pactolus.

Nicolas Poussin The Death of Germanicus 1627 on canvas, S8!4 x 78 in. (148 x 198 cm) oil

one

and host documented

the artist's sill-control

works. The subject, drawn from the Annals of Tacitus,

and natural instinct

and the expression

emotions. The poses,

1626

Cardinal Barberini tor his

the orchestration of the

composition demonstrate

archaeological research,

Minneapolis in

Poussin 's most celebrated

combines moral teaching,

Minneapolis Institute of Art,

Commissioned

family palace, this

gestures, and

rhythm of

the bodies together with

lor the In rim

Nicolas Poussin Martyrdom of St Erasmus 1628 oil oil

canvas,

126x

7 5!4

in.

(320 x 186 cm) Pmacoteca Vaticana, Rome

Commissioned

l>y

Cardinal

Barberini for the basilica

St. Peter's, this

painting

stands out from the rest

of Poussin 's work by virtue of both

its

matter.

size

and subject

appears to have

been greatly influenced by Italian Baroque painters such as Caravaggio, Guido Reni, and Giovanni Lanfranco, above all as to the colossal rendering of the figures and the dramatic nature of the scene.

The strong

light

emphasizes the powerful muscles of the saint and his executioners.

Nicolas Poussin The Reign of Flora 1631

on canvas,

oil

5lVi x 71'/4in. (131 x 181 cm) Cemaldegalerie, Dresden In the

center of the canvas.

Flora, the goddess of

springtime blossoming, scatters flowers in the

company of mythological characters drawn from Ovid's Metamorphoses,

whose myths are associated with certain flowers.

Framed bv

Giorgionesque boulder and a slender arbor,

can see Narcissus gazing at his reflection in a

jug

of water brought bv

nvmph Echo, Smilax and the nvmph Crocus, Hvacinth and Adonis. the

Nicolas Poussin The Rape of the Sabine

Women

oil

1634-1635

1637-1638 on canvas,

on canvas,

60'/2X 81

oil

62'/2X 81

in.

(154x 206 cm) Metropolitan

New

Museum of Art,

abducted Sabine

make them

women

their wives.

lated figure of

Louvre, Paris

York

The founding of Rome episode, when the Romans to

in.

(159x 206 cm)

Romulus

set

above

The main figures are the same as those in the Metropolitan version, but the architectural

background is richer and Romulus is now emotionally involved, as indicated by his solemn, theatrical advance before the wild throng of men and women.

Nicolas Poussin The Adoration of the Magi

This renowned work,

which complex

several copiei of exist,

lnj;lily

layout. In the foreground,

1633 on canvas, 63 x 71 3/4in.

before the imposing ruins of a temple, an agitated

(160x 182 cm)

figures contrasts with

oil

throng of gesticulating

GemalJegalene,

the seven-

Dresden

ol the Nativity

composure group.

239

Nicolas Poussin Landscape with the Body of Phocion Carried of

Out

Athens

1648 on canvas, 45 x 69 in. (114x 175 cm) oil

Earl of Plymouth's Collection,

Qakly Park, Shropshire

The proportions of the human figures blend in with those of the landscape in a

harmony of line and The body of

color.

Phocion, the Athenian general accused of treason

and sentenced to death, seen in the foreground.

Nicolas Poussin Winter

1660-1664 on canvas, 46'/2 x 63 (118x 160 cm)

oil

Louvre, Paris

The

last

work of an

exhausted painter

poor

health, this ends the cycle

of the Seasons inspired

by the Georgics by Virgil, Poussin

favorite author

together with Ovid. Originallv commissioned

by the

Due de

the series

XIV now in

of Louis

and It

Richelieu,

formed part 's

collection

the Louvre.

represents an extreme

declaration of faith in

nature together with an absolute awareness ol the relentless ol

operation

dark forces almost

foreshadowing the end ol lucid

Cartesian

optimism. The ark glimpsed beneath the faint

sun half-concealed

by the leaden sky bat

the

kground symbolizes intinuation of Lth,

life

while the iugh

Nicolas Poussin Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice 1648 on canvas, 47'/4 x 78% in. oil

(120x 200 ml) lout

re.

Puns

The dramatic separation of the two lovers ol Greek myth is depicted in a

Roman

setting

that includes Caste]

Sant Anijclo. This

hanllv surprising given

Poussin 's view ol painting as primarily a

mental

construct. In an\ case, the discrepancy regards tlui

organization ol the

am as,

hut not the

depiction

ol the

indh idual

elements, where the

artist

never loses contact with truth ami nature

Nicolas Poussin Landscape with Polyphemus

1649 on canvas, 59 x 78 in.

oil

(150x 198 cm) Hermitage,

This

St.

Petersburg

one of Poussin's

most important landscapes, and indeed

contains no trace of the

dramatic Homeric episode.

The wholly alludes to,

idvllic

Virgil's bucolic

and

a sort

scene

anything,

world

of primitive

communion between man and nature.

241

Nicolas Poussin Self-Portrail

1650

cam. is,

oil Oil

38'/2X 29'/4

in.

(98 x 74 cm) Louvre, Paris

While Poussin painted no portraits, he did execute

two

sell-portraits between 1649 and 1650 giving very different images of himself.

The

first

(Bodemuseum,

shows the artist holding a book with the words "De lumine Berlin)

and constitutes

et colore," a tranquil

celebration of

himself and his painting.

The second was considered the better likeness by Bernini,

both

who saw them 1665. This severe,

austere image conveys a

sense of the intellectual rigor of Poussin's art

through the monumental pose and the expression,

which betray anxiety and concern.

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Roman

Claude Lorrain

countryside or campagna, the

exploring and recording precious drawings.

One

of the greatest seventeenth-century

landscape painters, Claude Lorrain

Rome

moved

Landscape with the Marriage of Isaac

hundreds of

The extraordinary

of Morning, Afternoon, Dusk, and Night

series at

Claude Lorrain

the

Hermitage demonstrates Lorrain's highly

and Rebekah 1648 on canvas, 58% x 77!/2 in. (149 x 197 cm)

oil

1613 and remained there until his death except for one stay in Naples from 1 6 9 to 1621 and another in his native Lorraine from 1625 to 1627. His apprenticeship took place in the workshop of the Roman landscape painter AgostinoTassi. 1629 saw the beginning of his association with Joachim von Sandrart, with whom he learned to draw from life, and freed himself from Tassi 's academic models. He gradually developed a tendency to give concrete shape to nature through the continuity of space and light. The remains of classical architecture, the

hills

of Latium that the artist never tired of

(Chamagne, Nancy, 1600-Rome, 1682)

great trees silhouetted against the sky, the distant peaks,

and the

still

combine to produce an

seaports

ideal

and yet

recognizable landscape based on the

personal use of light in relation to the

hour dictated by the subject. from the left indicates morning

specific

Light

and suggests cold tones for the landscape and the sky. Light from the right represents evening and allows the use of warm tones with skies ranging from fiery pink to orange. The cosmopolitan atmosphere of seventeenth-century Rome had a positive effect on Lorrain's

National Gallery, London

Under the influence of Domenichino and Annibale Carracci, Lorrain's style

became more elevated and serene. Having abandoned fantastic vedute (views)

long career, enabling him to combine very

picturesque motifs, the

different experiences

artist

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

Poussin's classical

Bolognese school from Carracci to Guercino, and the Caravaggesque handling of light in a synthesis of remarkable originality restraint, the landscapes of the

that anticipates Turner

Impressionists.

began to base

and

his

landscapes on the nearbv

Roman

campagna.

and the

24 J

Claude Lorrain Seaport with

Medici

Villa

1657 oil on canvas, 40'/4 x 5214 in. (102 x 135, in, Umzi,

lorence

Painted tor Cardinal dc'

Medici, this work has a personal significance as

portrays Villa Medici

the

foreground

as well as a

ship in the port flying the flag

of the Knights of

St.

Stephen, an order founded

by the Medici

combat

Mediterranean.

Claude Lorrain Landscape with the Rest

on the

Flight into

Egypt

1647 oil on canvas, 401/4 x 52% in. (102 x 134 cm) Gemaldegalerie, Dresden

The structure is

of this

work

based on a precise

geometrical plan. Dense

masses of vegetation provide a frame and the

movement

of the trunks

and foliage serve to underscore the actions of the figures.

562 to

heretics in the

245

Claude Lorrain The Trojan Women Setting

page:

Claude Lorrain Landscape with Apollo Guarding the Herds of Admetus and Mercury

Robbing Him

4x 17%

(55 x 45

1643 oil

on canvas,

V4x

593/4 in.

(105 x 152 cm)

1645 oil on canvas, 21 3

to Their Fleet

Fire

Metropolitan

Museum of Art,

Veil York

in.

cm)

The painting shows

the

Gallena Doria-Pamphih,

Trojan

Rome

Juno's prompting and

women

obeving

This painting stands out

setting fire to their ships

among

after seven years of

the various versions

of the subject bv virtue of its

vertical compositional

lavout

Though

treated as

a pastoral subject,

the

work draws new strength from the mythological

tale.

Following Ovid, Lorrain

wandering in order to halt Aeneas 's progress toward Italv.

The

from

Virgil's Aeneid

subject

taken

and

constitutes a sophisticated literary

metaphor alluding

to the difficulties

represents Apollo as a

encountered bv Lorrain

simple shepherd being

patron, Girolamo Farnese,

robbed bv Mercury, depicted with the

as apostolic

service of

nuncio in the

Urban VIII.

customarv attributes of the caduceus and the winged sandals and helmet.

Claude Lorrain Seaport with Acis

and Galatea 1657 on canvas, 39V4x 53*4 in.

oil

(lOOx 135cm) Gemdldegalene, Dresden

This mythological subject is

taken from Ovid's

Metamorphoses. In the

center of the composition, Acis and Galatea, hidden

beneath an awning, conceal their

embraces from the

Cvclops Polyphemus,

who

can be glimpsed lurking threateningly in the

on the

right.

woods

Claude Lorrain Seaport

1674 on cam. is, 2814 x in. (72 x 97 cm) oil

Pinakothek, \iunii h

lite

cut subject in

oeuvre

.mi's

seaport,

(he

here the

reflecting surface of the

water oilers the artist an opportunity to play with

shimmering

the

the rising sun.

imaginary spot of

effect of

uses this

the foot

triumphal arch

inspired by the

Titus in the

Arch of

Forum

as a

setting lor a genre scene.

The

leading role

however, played

is,

always

by the landscape.

Claude Lorrain Imaginary View of

Tivoli

1642 oil

on copper,

8'/2X 10V4in. (21. 6x

25.8cm)

Courtaultl Institute Galleries,

London This work, marking one

of the

last

appearances

of the capnecio in Lorrain's production,

is an imaginary view of the Temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli, with Rome and the dome of St. Peter's in the background. The scenic layout, with an

enormous bridge separating the pastoral subject in the foreground

from the landscape in the background, is unusually

complex given the small size

of the copper plate.

worked throughout his life same workshop as his brothers, where all tile works were signed with the surname alone, thus making attribution ol reputation, lie

Louis Le Nain (Laon,

1593-Pans, 1648)

the

Louis Le Nain Peasant Family

1642 on canvas, 44'/2X 62'/2in. oil

Diametrically opposed to the classical

the paintings often difficult, despite the

school of French painting represented

difference in their artistic temperaments.

by Poussin, Louis Le Nain distinguishes himself as the leader of the school

Antoine

specializing in paintings of an elegiac rural

produced mythological and religious works, but his fame rests on his canvases portraying the peasant world w ith measured realism. Mathieu devoted his energies to historical and religious subjects and continued the peasant genre alter his

This

brother's death.

viewer.

seventeenth-century torm ol genre painting better known in Italy through the lite,

work of the

have

so-called Bamboccionti.

little

information regarding

Louis Le Nain's

near Laon,

life.

town

Born

in the

country

northern France,

with one older and one younger brother

who were

also painters, Le

childhood

in close contact

world. Little

Nain spent

his

with the peasant

known about

his artistic

workshop of a Flemish master in his hometown, he probably made a journey to Rome between 1629 and 1630 before settling in Paris, where he soon acquired a certain training. After a

period

the

traditionally indicated as a

painter of miniatures and portraits. Louis

(ll)x 159 cm) Louvre, Paris is

a sober, rustic

setting with austere figures frontally arranged, like

actors on a stage, their intense, severe gaze

directed toward the

The

soft, still light

and the sober coloring of

browns and grays combine to give an interpretation

of the peasant world that

both authentic and solemn.

Louis Le Nain Peasants' Repast

1642 oil on canvas, 38V4 x 48 in. (97 x 122 cm)

of his peasant scenes for religious subjects, as in this case,

town of Emmaus

set in a rustic interior

and

Le Nain also employed

biblical

with two disciples in the is

Louvre, Pans

where the

episode of Christ's supper

represented as

a peasants'

meal.

the everyday simplicity

249

Philippe de

Champaigne (Brussels,

1602-Paris, 1674)

After serving his apprenticeship in his

hometown, in 1621 Champaigne moved

awav from official became more involved with movement. The intense

to turn graduallv

Philippe de to Paris,

where he met

Poussin and was commissioned to

work

Champaigne

the Jansenist

Triple Portrait of Richelieu

spirituality and strict rules of moral conduct observed at Port-Roval bv the followers of Abbe Antoine Arnauld, including the great mathematician and

philosopher Blaise Pascal, gave renewed vigor to Champaigne

paintings. This

with him on the decoration of the Palais de

demonstrated bv

Luxembourg. In 1628 Marie de' Medici appointed him court painter, a position he was to retain also during the reign of Louis

(Moussalli Collection, Paris) and the Ex-Voto (Louvre, Paris) painted

XIII.

His portraits, especially those of Louis XIII

Eliminating

and Richelieu, were renowned both for their grandiose conception and for their acute insight, demonstrating a capacitv to combine French elegance with a psychological penetration of Flemish origin.

Philippe de

painting as he

his portrait of Pascal

for the miraculous cure of his daughter,

nun

on canvas, x 28V4 in. (58 x 72 cm) oil

22%

National Gallery, London

Richelieu, the supremely

competent, taciturn, cold, subtle, and tenacious minister,

was made

cardinal in 1623. Master of

convent of Port-Roval. Baroque gratification, his painting achieved a formal purity in its

the destinies of the French

portrayal of ascetic, immobile figures,

Louis XIH's reign. The

in the

all

while retaining the grandeur of his early portraits.

monarchy, he inspired and directed the events of

svstem of the triple is adopted in

portrait

this

case not as an artistic

device but as an

oed him to decorate <6) and the >rbonne (1644) as well as ntrv. I

the founders of the i

un, but began

opportunity for greater analytic insight.

Philippe de

Champaigne Portrait of Henri Groulart

1654 oil

on canvas,

36Vi x 29-V4 (92.5 x 75.5

Museum

in.

cm) Budapest

of Fine Arts,

celebrated portrait

Champaigne combined psychological

painter,

penetration with an analytic technique

drawn

from the Flemish tradition.

The artist, who became more involved with the Jansenist

movement

in his

maturity, oilers an austere

and severe image of

his

sitter.

251

Charles Lebrun (Paris,

1619-1690)

paintings, but especially for decorative

personality in the French

decorated the castle of Hesselin

1649, the palace of President Lambert

650, the castle of Vaux between 1658 and 1661, and the Apollo Gallery

The dominant

works.

school of Baroque classicism, Lebrun

in the

was the supreme arbiter of

of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Louis XIV's

taste at the

court of Louis XIV. In 1634,

of just

fifteen,

the age

he entered the workshop

of Simon Vouet, where he produced paintings revealing an already acquired

master)' of technique. In 1642, despite

appointment as court painter, Lebrun decided to complete his artistic apprenticeship in Rome on a grant

his

provided by Chancellor Seguier. Between 1642 and 1646 he studied sixteenth-century Poussin and also of the painters

Roman works

came under

working

with

the influence

in the capital at

Louvre

1663. As a protege

first

Both the religious and the academic subjects

Sleeping Child

are characterized

composed solemnity,

oil on canvas, 34V4 x 46 Vi in. (87 x 118 cm)

Louvre, Paris

passion.

1655,

Charles Lebrun Chancellor Seguier c.

oil

noble rhetorical 1 1

tone, and restrained

1656

on canvas, 6V4 x

137%

in.

(295 x 350 cm) Louvre, Paris

superintendant of finances, he was

appointed

Charles Lebrun The Holy Family with the

Accompanied by pages

painter to the king

662 and began the most fertile period of his career. He was made a chancellor in 664 and prince of the French Academv two years later. Between 1 67 and 684

and squires, the chancellor advances with all the pomp

he decorated the Galerie des Glaces

order and symmetry of the

in the palace

of Versailles.

He produced

canvases glorifying the sovereign for the

and colored marbles, gilded bronzes, and mirrors for the walls ceiling

due

his position as

though

composition underscore the

calm and severe magnificence of the new social class to which the

that

became part of the architecture

chancellor belongs, that ot

in a

quest for the sublime that makes

the elite forming the roval

work

that time. Poussin's teaching

the sumptuous character of Versailles

impact on

unique.

Colbert's death in 1683,

artist

Lebrun

fell

into disgrace. In the

Chancellor Seguier,

his style

had a decisive that can be seen in his re

ith

dramatic feelings

alculated poise

The

in a theatrical scene.

last

years of his

life,

deprived

important commissions bv Pierre Mignard, he devoted his energies

to easel painting.

entourage. In this

shows

the

his gratitude to his first

protector, bv depicting

himsell as the squire

holding the parasol.

Hyacinthe Rigaud

Portrait of Louis

XIV

(Perpignan, 1659-Pans, 1743)

foi

gifi

ih.ii

shrewd

court of the Sun King and

around the

work

Ins

world. Having completed his

16SI Rigaud

moved

yons,

pot

in this offii Lal

the subjet si

Sun King, which plays ol. u ith

ayal ol the

ond. ii

to the royal

rhetorical paint

respet

attributes. The dais, the

Grand

he sumptuous

1701 Louis XIV ordered Ills official court painter to

materials and hangings, the

paint a portrait intended as

the-

was admitted to the Royal Academy

.iiuo

exemplifying the parade Si.

where he

to Paris,

pompous and

Louvre, Path

tins

artistic

Montpellier and

work,

portraits ol the

provides singular documentation ol

Spain

oil

observer ol the

Parisian aristocracy orbiting

apprenticeship

on canvas, 109% X 74% in. (279 x 190 cm)

would keep the

1701

Rigaud was

Philip

h tlun decided, however,

iya!

lal

mine and

royal insignia

all

throne, the classical .

..Iiinin,

hangings

and the theatrical all

contribute to

the grandiose effect ol the

scene.

Vrt

three years later with the help ol his 1 ehrun. Influenced Flemish tradition, he modeled portraits on those of van Dyck.

protector Charles h\ the his

Noticed by the king's brother,

who

commissioned a portrait ol himseli and one of his son, Rigaud was appointed court painter in 1688. He painted two portraits of Louis XIV, in 694 and 1701 creating an image of the king that has become 1

established in the collective In the portrait of Louis

the

pomp

XIV

memory. in

the Louvre,

of the drapery and the bright

range oi colors oiler

a distinct

image of

As court painter, Rigaud was a resounding success, and his list ol clients

regality.

expanded to include all the European cope with the ever increasing flow of commissions, he

courts. In order to

employed assistants and divided his workshop on a specialized basis, Sevin de la Pennaye being responsible for clothing,

Monnover

for inserts with

(lowers, Charles Parrocel for battles,

and Francois Desportes for landscapes and animals.

253

^ rt

<L>

j ^

c t

(

Franz Anton Maulbertsch pper, detail 56'/,

..MM

.*,

Cosmas Damian Asam Vision of after

St.

Bernard

1720

fresco

Abbey Church, Aldersbach

This

chapter examines developments connected

with painting

in a vast geographical

area that can be described, with

simplification, as the It

and cultur-

some

over-

German-speaking world.

made clear from the outset that, number of undeniable common traits, there are artistic and political differences between Germany

should, however, be

despite a

great

and Austria. For both nations, the seventeenth century

was

a difficult period, characterized

ing threat of Turkish invasion siege of Vienna in also the

end of

by war and the loom-

from the southeast. The

1683 marked the dramatic climax but

this

age-old nightmare. Freed from the

pressure of a long Dark Age,

Germany

(especially the

eastern regions of Saxony and Prussia) and Austria en-

joyed a period of great brilliance in the seventeenth century,

when

the figurative arts provided a splendid frame

Rococo culture. The history of painting for

Germany and

central

the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

influenced bv the historical situation and, to

Europe

thus strongly

some

extent,

bv the incompletely resolved question of relations both

between Catholics and Lutherans and between the

vari-

ous local centers of power making up the fragmented

German empire. The whole

of central Europe was dis-

rupted by the long and tragic Thirty Years'

War

(1618â&#x20AC;&#x201D;1648), which halted every possible cultural

movement and brought

appalling devastation. The sacking

of Prague by the Swedes and the resulting dispersal of

Emperor Rudolph of Hapsburg's collection

spectacular and varied

known of a whole series of redrew the map of German art in

only the best

events that drastically

the seventeenth century.

The end of the Renaissance in Germany than else-

(which actually went on longer

where)

also

marked the end of the

classicism adopted in

many

tradition of Mannerist

princely mansions,

its

place

being taken by an interesting variety of ideas and

influ-

ences reflecting

German

polycentrism.

ing seventeenth-century artists

Some

of the lead-

were influenced by

Italian

painting and spent longer or shorter periods of study in

Venice,

Rome, or

Naples. By contrast, the eighteenth

century saw a complete reversal of this trend, as Venetian painters sought

Venetian and

work

German

courts.

The influence of

Roman painting can be seen in the brief but Adam Elsheimer, a painter of rare and

almost "Romantic" interpretation of the century style of painting. Johann

new

seventeenth-

Liss, a highly

exuberant

painter clearly inspired by his studies of Rubens, found a

second

home

in Venice,

in the difficult

and

his

luminous, ebullient paint-

some of the more

ings constitute

successful achievements

period of seventeenth-century Venetian

art.

Johann Carl Loth and Johann Heinrich Schonfeld benefited greatly from their contact with the centers of production of Italian art.

While the south,

artists displayed a certain predilection for the

German

collectors appear to have shared the taste

of their middle-class counterparts in Flanders and Holland for

genre painting

episodes of everyday still lifes

(still

life,

lifes,

landscapes,

scenes and

and portraits). The production of

thus flourished in the seventeenth century in Ger-

some highly distinctive features. Georg Flegel exemplifies the

poetical career of

many, where

precious talent, capable of giving a lyrical and indeed

Didactic and ultra-precise,

displayed

widespread taste for "moralized" references, whereas

with symbolic

still lifes

Abraham Mignon's work resembles

the illustrations for scientific treatises

mology. The most fascinating of

on botany and ento-

however,

all,

the enig-

matic Sebastian Stosskopf, a painter from Alsace (and as

such claimed by both French and

German

painting), the

author of deeply evocative metaphysical compositions. Despite the presence of interesting

artists,

seventeenth-

centurv central European painting did not give rise to an authentic unified school. This

time of feverish activity

came

in the

next century, a

in the fields of architecture,

orna-

mentation (stucco and inlaid wood), and of course painting in Austria and the Catholic regions of brilliant

Germany. This

period can be divided into two parts.

we have

the one

monumental (and at times a little monotonous) decorative work carried out for princely pahand,

trons

the

or the great reconstructed

Benedictine abbeys,

where the Asam brothers played the leading

role;

on the

some sketches for larger works, but others independent compositions with the same freshness and immediacy as sketches, almost as though painted "in one go." Among the many other hand

a rich harvest of small paintings,

eighteenth-century Austrian artists recognized as great

masters of the Rococo

style, attention

Paul Troger and Franz

most

brilliant of

century, a

them

movement

Sebastian Stosskopf or Allegory of the Five Senses

Summer

1633 oil on canvas, 44Vix 71 in. (113x 180.5 cm) Musee de L'Oeuvre de Notre-Dame, Strasbourg

should be drawn to

Anton Maulbertsch, perhaps the all.

Then,

in the

second half of the

to "moralize" art began to spread

from Germany.

The very country that gave birth to some of the brightest and most imaginative Rococo works also provided theoretical foundations and concrete

examples for neo-

classicism, a rigorous style of art based

on the example

of classical antiquitv. Anton Raphael Mengs was one of its earliest

and most committed exponents.

257

Adam (Frankfurt,

Elsheimer

1578-Rome, 1610)

great artist of the

same generation

Caravaggio, Rubens, and Guido Reni,

Elsheimer unfortunately died very voung, thus interrupting the development of a poetical style of painting that had

begun

works of rarity and charm. Attracted from an earlv age by

with great delicacy

moved to Venice came into contact with Hans Rottenhammer (who had worked

Italian in

Renaissance art, he

598, where he

with Jan Bruegel

watershed that was not merely symbolic many early Baroque masters, Elsheimer moved to Rome, where he spent the last ten years of his short life. In the livery circles of "Romanized" Nordic painters, Elsheimer altered his style to focus primarily on landscape painting, but also real for

previous \ears) and

Elsheimer struck a note

scientific.

movements of his

Elsheimer was familiar both with the Caravaggesque handling of light and the tranquil sweeping day,

views of the

Annibale Carracci. His

Tintoretto's paintings in the Doges' Palace in Venice. In the fateful year

of 1600, a

in the early history

of landscape painting.

12V4x 16V4 in. cm)

The

(31 x 41

Munich

This enchanting nocturnal Elsheimer's best-known

experience gave rise to Elsheimer's most ambitious religious works, whirling

well as a real cornerstone

1609 on copper,

both

and romantic, idealized and Keenly interested in the artistic

Roman

countryside bv

own

technique was,

however, to remain firmly linked to his northern roots, and was characterized

by exquisite, painstaking execution and impeccably suffused with light.

in the early

oil

elegy

classical

produced

seventeenth century, as

Egypt

of intense expressive originality that was

studied Tintoretto's work. This Venetian

celestial visions directly inspired

Elsheimer

Flight into

Alte Pinakothek,

as did his friend Paul Brill. In this field,

Adam

unquestionably

work. Despite size, it

its

small

can be regarded

one of the most

fascinating paintings

perfect depiction

of the heavenly vault,

where the Milky Way and the constellations sparkle in a sky illuminated full

moon, demonstrates

Elsheimer's great interest

world of science, and the work of Galileo in the

in particular.

Adam

Elsheimer

The Good Samaritan c. 1605, oil on canvas, 8!4 x lOVi in. (21.2 x 26.5 cm) Louvre, Paris

Elsheimer 's small canvases

form

sixteenth century Venetian

Âťi

delightful

compendium

of the trends

to be found in painting in

reminiscent of the

masters, especially rintoretto's lair

early seventeenth-century

in tin-

Rome, This landscape

works

Scuola di San Rocco

Venice,

Adam

Elsheimer

clearly

demonstrate

his

Holy Family with Angels

links

and the Young John the

late

Baptist

work, and were reinforced in particular by the two

oil

1599 on copper,

14% X

9Vl

with Tintoretto's

sixteenth-century

years he spent in Venice in his youth.

in.

this influence

(37.5 x 24.3 cm)

with his

own

However, is combined exquisite

Gemaldegalerie, Berlin

handling of light to Elsheimer's small paintings

create the effect of a

golden sunset.

religious subjects

Adam

Elsheimer

landscape, Elsheimer

and Mercury in the House of Philemon and Baucis

Jupiter

welcome rest taken by the two divine wayfarers are set in the calm, precisely

portrayed interior of a

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden visit

paid bv Jupiter

and Mercurv to the

in disguise

humble dwelling

of the aged couple

peasant's dwelling

illuminated by shafts of light. In

the early years

of the seventeenth century,

Elsheimer thus established

model of realism

mvthological and literarv

episode frequently

handling of

depicted in seventeenth-

environment, and light that was to be taken up by painters from

centurv painting. While

Rubens uses

as a

for a spectacular

kindlv, rustic hospitality

in.

(16.5 x 22.5 cm)

The

human element. The of the elderly hosts and the

1608 oil on copper, 6'/2

focuses on the delicate

pretext

stormy

all

human

in the

figures,

the European schools.

259

Georg Flegel (Olomuc,

ittle is

566-Frankfurt. 1638)

known about the training and who was a

career of this artist,

fundamental point of reference for the early

development

ot "archaic" still-lite

painting north of the Alps.

The evident

with the Flemish painting of the fifteenth century and the Renaissance links

period

make

worked

in the

very likelv that he initiallv Netherlands. This tradition

also accounts for Flegel's delight in the

precise reproduction of objects, accurately

observed and painted with respect to shape, volume, material, and differences in the refraction of light

mark

a significant step

Flegel's

works

also

lorward compared

to late sixteenth-centurv Flemish and

Dutch first

painting, since thev are

examples of pure

still life

among

the

without

figures. Stress should also be laid on his complete independence with respect to Italian art, which exercised great influence on manv German masters in the early-

seventeenth century.

Georg Flegel

with various objects

satisfaction,

Cabinet with Shelf

arranged

delight in the painstaking

c 1610 on canvas, 36'/2 x 24'/2 in. (92 x 62 cm)

like small

collections of rare items.

representation of elegant

This was a very popular

objects, feelings that

genre

to be subtly

oil

Xarodni Galene, Prague

One

interesting

compositional invention bv Flegel consists of paintings

depicting cupboards, cabinets, or display cases

harmony, and

in the

seventeenth

were undermined

century, particularly with

bv the disquieting impact

art collectors in central

of Stosskopf 's metaphysical

and northern Europe, and some masters developed these compositions so that thev practically verged on trompe-l'oeil. Flegel conveys a sense of order,

Georg Flegel Still

Life

allusion to the

with Stag Beetle

1635 oil

(25 x 38

displayed together with

in.

cm)

Wallraf Richartz Museum,

Cologne

For

all its

being prominently

on wood, x 15

a fish, the

age old symbol

of Christ.

still life,

specifically art historical

terms, apparent

simplicity, this

Redeemer's

and enter fasting, bread and wine sacrifice

possible to

detect echoes of the (

rÂŤ

in. 111

tradition, for

directly inspired by a

example

modest snack, lends itself to a whole variety of

naturalistic depiction of

interpretations, including

by Durer.

the exact

the stag beetle inspired

a possible religious

261

Johann (Oldemburg,

Liss 1595-Vemce, 1629)

Like his friend and near contemporary Domenico Fetti, Liss died verv young.

The lew

short years of his career were,

however, generousl) filled \\ ith work spanning a broad range ol subjects and stylistic

points of reference, journeys, and lations

with the collectors

time and other

artists.

a result

ol tin-

of his

delight in travel and contact with different cultures, Liss

became an

intelligent

exponent of various forms ol figurative expression, especially during the third decade of the seventeenth century. While his best-known works draw inspiration above all from sixteenth-century Venetian art, his career began with a series of journeys to the Netherlands and stays in Antwerp, Amsterdam, and Haarlem.

These provided important opportunities for contact with Rubens's studio, and Flemish and Dutch Caravaggesque painters like

Jordaens andTerbrugghen. His taste and peasant festivities

for genre scenes

of clearly Flemish derivation dates from this period. He arrived in Italy in 1621

and studied in Rome from the following year to 1624, thus gaining first-hand experience of the different versions of the Caravaggesque style produced bv the northern masters. The decisive turning point came with his move to Venice. In a

somewhat mediocre period

of Venetian painting characterized by the tired repetition of

models drawn from

Tintoretto, the arrival of Liss was a breath

of fresh

air.

His richlv sparkling, luminous

painting inspired bv Veronese and Titian

gave the Venetian school a timely

paving the

way

imminent

for the

arrival ol

in the longer

Bernardo Strozzi and,

thus

jolt,

term,

laving the foundations for the renewal of

Venetian art in the eighteenth century.

Johann

Liss

The Finding of Moses c.

oil

1626-1627 on canvas,

61 x

41%

in.

(155 x 106 cm)

Musee des Beaux-Arts,

Lille

The presence of similar canvases in various princely collections

explained by the fact that Liss painted various copies,

with few variations, of his

successful

compositions. Scenes such as this

amply

justify the

painter's popularity with

the art lovers of his day.

The scene

Hooded with

an all-enveloping wave ol

Irom which the shapely forms ntily clad maidens

soft, radiant color,

force,

biblical

Johann

Liss

Vision of St C.

oil

Jerome

1627 on canvas,

88V2X 69 in. (22i* 175 cm) thunh of San Nicold det

Tolenum, Venice

The masterpiece of

Liss's

religious works, ibis

perhaps the most original

and important altarpiece painted

whole

m Venice

the

the seventeenth

Comparison with

century.

the great religious

produced same period

paintings it)

the

111

Italy,

Flanders, and Spain

demonstrates the

German

painter's absolute creative

freedom. Centering on

between Jerome and the splendid angel on the lett, the scene expands into

the conversation St.

the billowing clouds

and

tin-

gradual

progression ol soft, refined colors from the dark,

bottom right hand corner to the luminous apotheosis above

265

Johann

Liss

Peasants Fighting c.

1620

oil "ii

26'/2

canvas,

323/4 in.

(67.4 x 83

cm)

Gcrmunisches

Natwnalmuseum, Nuremberg

The two works on this page show the "other side" of

work. Trained Dutch-Flemish

Liss's

in the

tradition, Liss

to try his

hand

was at

led

the

characteristic genre scenes that

were popular with the

artists

and collectors of

Amsterdam and Antwerp, but also appreciated in

Rome. The German master always uses rich, thick

and his monumental approach differs sharply from the milder treatments paint,

of similar subjects

produced bv the Bambocaanti.

Johann Peasant

Liss

Wedding

Feast

1620 oil on canvas, 25% x 32 in. (65.5 x 81.5 cm) c.

Museum of Fine Arts, Budapes In his

genre and peasant

scenes, Liss does not hesitate to accentuate

coarse, almost caricature like effects

comparable works

to those found in

bv Jordaens and later Steen, but he eschews

the explicit moral

messages of

Dutch

his

and Flemish colleagues.

The staggering dancers are

inebriated

realistically,

though somewhat unpleasantly, juxtaposed to the

drunken man

vomirinp on the

left.

Johann

Liss

Venus Dressing c.

oil

1627 on tain. is,

!7M

in.

69 cm) llffi/i,

Florence

Such enchanting scenes as this

make

all

the

regrettable that Liss died so young, thus prematurely

barring the wa) to an

development in Baroque painting. While the echoes of Titian and original

the unquestionable links

with Rubens 's sumptuous Ityle

must be pointed out, composition

this delightful is

a tresh,

independent

expression ot the radiant

young

talent of a brilliant

master.

The

artist's

anticipation ot

themes

and devices characteristic of eighteenth-centur) Venetian painting

particularly striking.

265

Johann

Liss

Vision of

St.

Anthony

1620 oil on wood, 9'/4 x 7 in.

(23 .3 x 17.8

cm)

Richaru .Museum,

Walliaj

Cologne In his handling ot this

which was very northern European painting and

subject,

popular

traditionally seen as an

opportunity to conjure

up hizarre creatures from hell, Liss

returns to the

characteristic features of

genre works, painted

his

with wild and deliberately excessive exuberance.

Johann

Liss

Judith

c oil

1625 on canvas,

50% x

in.

(129 x 104 cm)

Museum oj Fine Arts, Budapest Portrayed as a flambovant

Baroque heroine, Lisss Judith graces the walls of various European

museums made

thanks to the copies

by the

artist

himself for

different princely collections.

w ork

The

spectacular

hinges on the

contrasting

momentum

of the terrible decapitated

body of Holofernes and the twisting body of Judith. Her dress, wide and rippling

like a sail

swelling in the wind,

wave of color that whole painting. The eve tollows is

illuminates the

the swirling

movement

of folds and creases until

comes to rest on the round neckline and the soft, smooth, gleaming it

skin of the exotic,

seductive, vet tcrrilving

young woman.

267

Johann

Carl Loth

(Munich. 1632-Venice, 1698)

Loth has been placed immediately alter countryman Liss, though this

his Fellow

sliohtlv alters the correct chronological

sequence of the

artists

presented in

this

chapter, because of the similarities between their respective careers. After initial

training in the north, Loth also mi

where he spent most of his working life and became so Italianized that he was also known as "Carlotto," a delightful quasi-dialect version of his name. to Venice,

There are, however, substantial differences between the stvles of the two artists. Loth arrived in Venice around 1650, at a very distinct time, artistically speaking.

Following

Liss's

death a good

manv

years

before, the deaths of Fetti and Strozzi had

interrupted the development of a rich,

luminous

stvle of painting,

which was

reminiscent of Titian and the Flemish painting of the period. Seven teenth-

centurv Venetian art was characterized

bv the work of the Tenebnsti, painters of dense, weighty compositions in

predominantly dark colors. Loth took

this

form of expression

in his eclectic

quest for dramatic impact and a carefully

planned chromatic range. Studies in

and other

cities

helped

to attenuate his stvle and keep

with the

latest

Rome

in later years it

in line

developments.

Johann Carl Loth

Wiirzburg,

The Good Samaritan

provides excellent proof of

references on which the

Loth's popularity with

work

aristocratic collectors of

classical,

before 1676

on canvas, 49 x 42 Vi in. (124.5 x 108 cm)

this painting

oil

held by the historical

nude

The

relaxed,

figure of the

wounded vouth, drawn directly

drawn from the well-

known New Testament parable,

Still

based.

period. While the subject is

Collection, Pommersfelden

the European Baroque (oval)

Graf von Schbnborn

the rich series of formal

in line

its

treatment

with the tastes

family collection of the

of a cultured, sophisticated

prince -bishops of

public capable of grasping

from ancient

sculpture, effective.

particularly

Johann Carl Loth

and Mercury in the House of Philemon and Baucis before 1659 oil on canvas, 70 x 99!/4 in.

encountered this subj< from )\ ill's Metamorphoses

Mercury and Jupiter about

(178 x 252 cm)

the

Jupiter

Kunsthistarisches

Vienna

Museum.

have already

massive, 1

paintings by

Elsneimer. tin-

Rubens and

oth focuses on

conversation betwi en

reward

to be

bestowed

on the pious and hospitable While the

peasants.

figuri

lull

bloodl d

n minis* ent

sew nh nil, ntury Flemish Genoese painting (in other words, Rubens ol

and Strozzi), the Squawking duck on the lends an amusing everyday touch to the mythologii al I

â&#x20AC;˘

scene.

269

his followers

had by then declined

Johann Heinrich

portrayal ol

Schonfeld

Inn

ommoo

Johann Heinrich

and

Schonfeld

of the French masters, the triumphant

Scythians at the

Baroque of Bernini and Pietro da Cortona, and the small paintings of everyday subjects produced bv the northern Bamboccianti and the members

of Ovid

classic al

1640 on canvas, 4314 X 36% in.

touch of an unusual groin] of eastern "tourists") is

(Biberach an der

Riss,

They had been replaced by the classicism

609-Augsburg,

1683) Like his fellow countrymen Liss and Loth, Schonfeld is a German painter who spent very important periods of his working in Italy

In addition to the

life

unquestionable

Rome and the other Italian one should not forget the tragic consequences of the devastating Thirty Years' War, which constituted a very concrete obstacle to the development of painting and the art market in Germany. attraction of cities,

It is

significant that shortly after the

war

came

to an end with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, Schonfeld returned to Germany, where he was very successful

both with collectors and in terms of commissions for religious works. His work as a highly regarded engraver also contributed to his fame throughout the seventeenth century. Having completed his artistic training in southern Germany, he settled in Rome in 1633. It should be noted that the popularity of Caravaggio

oil

(llOx 93.5 cm) Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest

Rome founded

by Cornelis van Poelemburgh. In this context, Schonfeld became a leading artist thanks to his exquisite workmanship and the unusual compositional device of causing his figures to recede toward the background. This success was repeated during his long and important stay of over a decade in Naples, where he moved in 1638. In Naples he apparently took little interest in Ribera's full-bodied and occasionally brutal realism. If anything, he was attracted bv Bernardo Cavallino's success in producing scintillating, dynamic

Prolonged contact with the northern painters present in seventeenth-century

Rome

stimulated Schonfeld

in the later

seventeenth

but also

in the

century,

when Roman

became

ruins

characteristic

shadow of the

ancient ruins. Unlike the Bamboccianti, he did not

exotii

in view of the future development of European art and culture, not only

the everyday world to be in the

tin

also particularly significant

to try his hand at depicting

found

folk

ruins This painting

(which includes

of the Schildersbent, the association of Dutch painters in

Tomb

aptured the poetii and evocative Inn of the i

eighteenth

background from the Enlightenment to German Romanticism.

for paintings

linger over the realistic

effects capable of illuminating generally brownish, somber settings. He gained

considerable experience in the

Johann Heinrich

It is

composition of very large, theatrical

Schonfeld

this

Hippomenes and Atalanta

Reni's historic

canvases, suitable for representing the

triumph of ruling houses.

interesting to compare work with Guido

interpretation of the

1650-1660 on canvas, 48V2 x 79 in. (123 x 200.5 cm)

representation of the

episode including the

same

running track, the

arrival,

which Schonfeld was probably familiar. While the classical

and the spectators. The

Bolognese master focuses

almost transparent

subject, with

oil

\iewer and give a narrative

monumental depiction the two nudes, Schonfeld a

Brukenthal National Museum,

Sibw, Romania

prefers to distance the

paint, applied lightly with

the tip of the brush and

parts,

some

seems to foreshadow

certain eighteenth-century effects.

At the same time, Stosskopf

Sebastian Stosskopf (Strasbourg,

work

Stosskopf often verges on trompe-l'oeil.

597-ldstein, 1657)

All his

remains totally original With his almost maniacal passion for precision,

painter working on the "borderline," as

works explore the inner nature

of things. The objects appear as though

Sebastian Stosskopf Still

Life

with Basket

of Glass Objects

aristocratic objects.

The

crystal glasses in the straw-

basket are

all

do not form

different and a single set

1644 oil on canvas,

but a small, select

x 24V2 in. (52 x 62 cm)

astonishing imitative

collection, depicted with

20'/2

befits

one

an artist born in Alsace, Stosskopf

of the

specialists in

most mvsterious and fascinating in Baroque still life. He trained

the Rhine-land and Flanders, but a series

of parallels can be drawn with other painters of the period, including

Georg

Hegel and Jan Davidszoon de Heem.

metaphysically transfixed, immobile,

and yet precarious, threatened by the possibility of

imminent

in the

moment

of silence

often deafening concert

of Baroque art.

des Beaux-Arts,

disaster. Fragile,

precious, and defenseless, Stosskopf 's rare paintings are like a

Musee

One

of the glasses

skill.

broken, however, and the

Strasbourg slivers of crystal,

now

Reserved for an elite group of patrons, some of Stosskopf 's works

introduce the poignant

Sebastian Stoskopff

theme of the

Trompe-l'oeil

depict precious collections

nature of beauty.

of sophisticated,

completely useless, fleeting

(etching of the Triumph of Galatea attached to a tablet with sealing wax)

1643-1644 on canvas,

oil

25'/2X 21!4 (65 x 54

in.

cm)

Kurnthistoriseh.es

Museum,

273

Abraham Mignon (Frankfurt,

640-Wetzlar, 1679)

works were to remain milestones in German taste and were to be constantly imitated right up to the Biedermeier period in the

Abraham Mignon's

belong to a highlv characteristic seventcenth-centurv genre of illustration poised midway

between

still lifes

and science. His precise, and perfectly legible technique make them excellent examples of a cross between Baroque exuberance and the taste art

exquisite,

late

training in his

nineteenth century. After

hometown, Mignon

Utrecht in 1659, together with the master Jacob Morel, to work with Jan Dayidszoon de Heem, an excellent Dutch painter of

mid-seyenteenth century. Mignon alternated periods of residence in Frankfurt widi stays in in the

still lite

From then

on,

for analytic, naturalistic representation.

Utrecht, where the records

The

he was

result of unquestionable talent

and

an assured sense ot composition, Minion's

left for

1669.

member

show

of the Guild of

that St.

Luke

Abraham Mignon

and insects

Nature as a Symbol

the color and fragrance

of Vanity

of magnificent flowers.

1665-1679 oil on can\as,

surrounded by countless

31 x 39 in. (78.7 x 99 cm)

is filled

with

However, these flowers are deadly snares.

The

painting can thus be

interpreted Hessisches Landesmuseum, as

Darmstadt

an allegory of the yanity

of earthlv things, the

The moist undergrowth

fading ot beauty, and

teeming with small

the all-de\ourina passage

animals, reptiles,

ot time.

Abraham Mignon with Fish

Still

Life

and

Quail's Nest

1670

ml on canvas,

i5x 28V4 in. (89x71.5 cm) /Museum In-

of Fine Aits,

Budapest

distinguishing Feature

Mignon s

clarity,

art

its

based on

meticulous drawing

and painstaking attention to detail. Experts have also

put forward interesting allegorical interpretations (it

Ins still litis,

which can

often be read as a choice

between wood and

evil.

In tact,

"negative" creatures

such

voracious snails

arc juxtaposed to "positive"

ones a

symbol

the butterfly, oJ the soul

freeing itself

cocoon of

from the

sin.

Paul Troger c

(Monguelfo

1698-Vienna,

in Val Pusteria,

1782)

Born

Alto Adige ami an outstanding

figure in the eighteenth-centur) Austrian

school, Troger took up and developed the motifs of Italian Baroque painting in the brilliant context ol Viennese Rococo,

of which he settled in

leading exponent.

Vienna

of his working

important

there, obtaining

life

official

positions and

the director of the Arts. Troger artists

1728 and spent much

Academy

was born into

becoming

of Figurative

a family of

and successfully combined the

imaginatiye approach of Rottmayr and

other Austrian colleagues with the Venetian

and Neapolitan traditions, drawing

on Solimena's works, which were highly regarded in Vienna. The result particularly

vigorous style of painting with an

energetic handling of light and shade in sketches and small canyases, but also

huge decorative works suffused with light. Among the painter's most celebrated fresco a great ability to tackle

compositions, attention should be drawn to the decorations for the library

of the Benedictine Abbey of Melk, on the Danube (Triumph of Reason, 1731-1732) and the ceiling of Bressanone cathedral (Adoration of the Mystic Lamb,

1748â&#x20AC;&#x201D; 1750). The main groups of canyases museums in Vienna (especially the Austrian Baroque Museum, Behedere Castle) and the Museo

by Troger are held by

Diocesano

Bressanone.

Paul Troger Christ Comforted

Intense popular feeling, charged w ith pathos and

by an Angel

dramatic emphasis,

developed w

1730 oil on canyas, Museo Diocesano, Bressanone

ithin a highly

refined pictorial format, in

which elongated swathed in light.

figures are

Franz Anton

Maulbertsch (Langerargen, 1724-Vienna, 1796)

German bv terms of

birth but Austro- Hungarian style

and where he was

active,

Maulbertsch is one of the most interesting exponents of European Rococo. He trained in Vienna, where he assimilated Troger's teaching and admired Andrea Pozzo's bold st\le.

Maulbertsch was an international

artist,

capable of appreciating the brilliant

taste ot the

southern

German

courts

and the rapid, fragmented, luminous brushstrokes of Venetian masters such Sebastiano Ricci and Piazzetta.

He made

particularly close study oi Giambattista

Tiepolo's works, and actually

met the

Venetian master during his stay at

VYur/hurg. Ticpolo was a twofold source of inspiration for Maulbertsch, both for his

impetuous for his

style as

an easel painter and

decoration of vast spaces with

light,

and imaginative, Maulbertsch had a brilliant career at court and ÂŤ ith ecclesiastical patrons in Austria airy frescoes. Aristocratic

(attention should be in

drawn to the frescoes

the Piarist church in Vienna and the

Hofberg

Innsbruck), Bohemia, Slovakia,

and Hungary.

momentum

Franz Anton

briskness and

Maulbertsch

of sketches, but are

leaves others in shadow,

The Education of Mary

independent compositions

and an all-enveloping sense

in their c.

oil

175

own

right.

The

illuminates

some

of dynamism that

parts but

subject, repeatedly painted

on canvas,

23'/2X 11 34

in the historv

in.

(60 x 30 cm) Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe

Maulbertsch 's most characteristic

work

of art

in the

customary terms of delicate domestic intimacy, is treated bv Maulbertsch as an opportunity for a highly imaginative

work

consists of easel paintings

featuring a flight of angels,

that display

all

the

brilliantly controlled.

handling of light that

277

Franz Anton

Maulbertsch Dawn

Allegory of c.

1750

Oil 'in

(

.imas,

26V4 x 20Y4

in.

(67 x 5? an) Wallraf-Richartz Museum,

Cologne

Maulbertsch makes no distinction

between

religious subjects and

mythological or allegorical

themes. His painting always strikes a lofty note of imaginative idealization.

Whenever

possible, he

introduces whirling

airborne figures in wildly unpredictable athletic

poses in line with the light-hearted taste

of Rococo art.

Franz Anton

Maulbertsch St.

Narcissus

Glory

1750 oil on canvas, 63% x 40'/2 in. (162 x 103 cm) c.

Akademie der bildenden Kiinste, Vienna

As is typical in Maulbertsch 's work, the face

practically

unrecognizable, lost in the great mystic flight of light

and color and the swirling

momentum

brilliantly

imparted to the painting a whole.

Franz Anton

As often happens,

In the decoration of large

Maulbertsch

Maulbertsch's frescoes

areas of wall or ceiling,

Allegory of the Sciences

prove more

Maulbertsch again uses the

(detail

with figure

of Diogenes)

1794

and

effervescent sketches.

lighter palette of Tiepolo and the international

This tendency

Rococo

artists.

accentuated in the later

works, which also had

fresco librjr\

static

contrived than his

of Strahov Abbey,

to take into consideration

the

Prague

new

neoclassical style.

Franz Anton

Maulbertsch

Abduction Scene

Sacrifice of Iphigenia

c 1750-1752

1760

on canvas, 29 x 20 /2 in.

oil

(73.5 x 52.4

on canvas,

48!/2 x 36'4 in.

cm)

tforavska Galeric,

Brno

(123 x 92 cm)

Muzeum Narodowe, Warsaw

Franz Anton

In a dazzling aura of divine

Maulbertsch

splendor, the shining

Marriage of the Virgin

Madonna

set at the

intersection of the

1760, oil on canvas, 23 [/4X 14 in. (59 x 35.5 cm)

perspective diagonals

Private collection, Vienna

on which the painting expertly based.

279

Cosmas Damian and Egid Quirin

of the great Baroque architecture,

Asam

worked

(Benediktbeuren, 1686-Munich, 1739)

the churches of Andernach, Rohr,

(Tegernsee,

especially Bernini's creative output. Alter

returning to roles.

692-Mannheim, 1750)

all

Asam

in the

brothers played the leading role

period of great Rococo decoration

predominantly Catholic regions of southern Germany. Architects, painters, and decorators, they translated the in the

scenographic feeling of

late

1714, they always

Baroque into

masterpieces of Bavarian Rococo. Egid

who showed

Quirin,

a talent for sculpture

and moldings, produced altars, groups of statues, and ornamental stuccos. Cosmas

Rome, where il

study

Abbey Church, Aldersbach It is

very difficult to

capture in photographs the striking effect of the

brothers.

open

1733, the brothers began

abbeys and their particular

the construction and decoration

theatrical effects should be

skv. In

Munich. Built at their steps awav from their home, the church (also known as the Asamkirche) is designed

1720

fresco

developed freely to include forms, colors, and perspectives leading away into the

both the rw onstruction work and the perfectly integrated decoration of stucco, 1711, the two brothers

after

churches built and

work on

'leath in

Abbey

Damian worked primarily as a painter; his work was based on his studies in Rome but

charming exuberant forms. They worked above all on the majestic abbeys, executing

d furnishings. After their

Interior of the

Church, Aldersbach

Their most important works include

Weingarten, Weltenburg, and Straubing,

Born to the craft (their father Georgera was a reputable painter of frescoes), the

Germany

closely together, often exchanging

Cosmas Damian and Egid Quirin Asam

of the church of

St.

Nepomuk in own expense, a few

John

as a dazzling theatrical

work

that

culminates in the apotheosis of the saint

above the high

altar.

decorated by the

The

Asam

light

interiors of the

Rococo

seen and appreciated

dynamically bv moving

around inside the vast spaces and enjoying the succession of spectacular views.

Cosmas Damian and Egid Quirin Asam Assumption of the Virgin after

1720

fresco Cupola, Abbey Church, Aldersbach

The cupola over the high altar creates a highly

effective optical illusion

of piercing the ceiling.

Here we can see the continuity established

between the sculptural elements and the paintings through the close

between two brothers.

collaboration the

Anton Raphael

Mengs (Aussig,

1728-Rome, 1779)

painter and theorist oi ureat importance

in the history

of art, Mengs

rightly

regarded as one ot the founders of Neoclassicism

or, to

be more precise,

the leading figure in the phase of transition

between the late Baroque and the changes brought about in art and culture by the Enlightenment. Trained by his father Ismael (a miniaturist at the Saxon court), Mengs spent his childhood and early youth

between the Dresden of Augustus III of Saxonv, and Rome. During his travels in Italy, the young Mengs developed a passion for the study of archaeology and came under the spell of Raphael's painting. While such interests are hardly unheard similar tastes were displayed a century of in this earlier bv Guido Reni and Poussin

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

case they constitute a theoretical stance

intended as

a radical alternative to

the

dynamic virtuosity and animated, but often excessive, style of Baroque art. Even a journev to Venice, where the great eighteenth-century school of Tiepolo was then developing, did nothing to change

Mengs 's mind. After settling in Rome, Mengs became the advocate of a return to a serene, intellectual form of art grounded in the classical rules

of decorum, harmony,

and composure, and imparted these precepts as director of the Accademia Capitolina. In 1755, the arrival in

Rome

of the philosopher and writer

Winckelmann marked of

the beginning

noble period devoted to the study and

revival of ancient art. The fresco Parnassus on the ceiling of Villa Albani 761 summarizes the return to Raphael and classicism. The spreading of Enlightenment ideas and aesthetics paved the way ( 1

for a radical change in taste. In

1762, Mengs published the

first

edition

of his treatise Reflections on Beauty and in Painting, a

Taste

fundamental theoretical

known throughout Europe, and he established himself as an study soon

outstanding cultural authority in the fields

of art and ideas. His highly controlled and aristocratic frescoes for the royal palace in

Madrid, where he worked for two long

periods, gave the definitive coup de grace

toTiepolo's creative exuberance and

put forward

new model

in the neoclassical era.

that ushered

Anton Raphael Mengs Glory of St Eusebius

1757 fresco Ceiling,

Church

oj Siint'Eusebio,

Rome

Mengs could not sever ties

all

with Baroque art

works,

in his public

and especial Iv those commissioned tor churches in

Rome.

is,

however,

possible to detect an

emphasis on formal and intellectual control over the-

painting that curbs

excessively bold

foreshortening and

subdues dramatic impetus.

Anton Raphael Mengs with Red Cloak

Self-Portrait

1744 pastel

on paper,

2P/4X 16% (55.5 x 42.5

in.

cm)

Gemdidegalerte, Dresden

Mengs was

also highly

regarded as a portraitist. This earlv work, painted

when he was only is still

sixteen,

partly influenced

by the free brushwork of Venetian art. Mengs subsequently painted a

number of

self-portraits,

which he sent to the courts of Europe in order to spread his fame.

283

J 1

I**

9^H

the intellectual capital of Europe: a that Paris, was incontestable from 1715 on, when Philip of title

Orleans assumed the regency on behalf of Louis

XV Parisian

emony

and the refined,

atmosphere of

intellectual

drawing rooms was preferred to the solemn cer-

of the Versailles court.

was

this

period that saw

the rapid spread of the Querelle des anciens

which had already emerged

at the

et des

modernes,

end of the seventeenth

century, and the birth of the Enlightenment, a cultural that was to extend to the rest of Europe. A whole range of directions and interests converged

movement

around the dominant role assigned to reason. History

was understood

as the

slow process of civilization, and

the liberation from the sway of the sacred and the irrational,

which meant

that the principal targets

were

reli-

gious confessions, considered to be the source of ignorance.

The new

figure of the intellectual

began to play

He was fundamentally eclectic and willing to explore new disciplines and to share his ideas in a constant relationship with the public. Two particularlv influleading role.

were Voltaire, the author of Candide (1759), whose irony was an effective weapon against hatred, fanaticism, and passion, and Baron de Montesquieu, whose De l'esprit des his (1748) describes the regulatory mechanisms of society, beyond religious and metaphysical influences. The ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the most problematic and complex figure of the Enlightenment, ential figures

evolved in a substantially opposite direction. His writings, Discours sur

les sciences et les arts

first

(1750) and Dis-

couts sur l'origine de l'inegalite (1755), consider history as a

gradual decline and corruption compared to an origi-

nal state in

which men were innocent and equal. The

most significant cultural achievement of the Enlightenment was, however, a collective work, the Encyclopedic ou Dictionnaire raisonne

(1751 â&#x20AC;&#x201D; 1772),

des

jor French intellectuals Francois Boucher

The Toilet of Venus 1751 oil

on canvas, 33V4

in.

(108 3 x 85 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

mon

sciences,

des

arts

des

metiers

macom-

to w^hich Voltaire, Rousseau, and the all

contributed, united by a

desire to fight the obscurantism and the prejudices

of traditional culture. The editor of the encyclopedia was the writer and philosopher Denis Diderot, author of the Paradoxe sur

comedien, a

major contribution to the

lively

debate on the theater that developed in the eighteenth centurv, which led to the revaluation of genres such as farce

and the drame

bourgeois, traditionally

be inferior. Also important in

this sense

considered to is

the painter

Jean-Honore Fragonard The Love Letter c.

1770-1780

on canvas, 32-% x 26'/4 in. (83.2 x 67 cm) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York oil

Watteau, whose theatrical vocation finds

on Dancourt's play

subject, based

on the comedy

rather

The

Les trois cousines,

ballet La Venitiene,

amorous The unattainable and mysterious Eros is, in

one of

his favorite

masks, such as

the

Gilles

from the Commedia

a desire to

stage, but

record the

from the enclosed,

effortlessly

life

aims rather to carry out a

process of symbolic transfiguration. His

move

fact,

(Louvre, Paris). However, Watteau 's

does not stem from

contemporary

initi-

themes, together with that of theater

interest in the depiction of scenes Jell' Arte

a theatrical

scene that represents the various levels of ation.

ex-

its fullest

pression in Embarkation for Cythera (Louvre, Paris).

work seems

artificial,

and iron-

world of the theater to the magnificent foliage of parks

whose only concern seems moment. Here there appear

inhabited by Arcadian ghosts to be to capture the fleeting

to be curious affinities with music, especially with that of

Mozart, whose pictorial counterpart Watteau can be considered.

The

figures captivate us not because of the

theme, but for the order

seem

to have

comedy

which they are arranged: they

been born under the

ballet

lights

of opera or

performances and to pursue an almost

pre-Wagnerian dream of

a fusion

of the various

The work of Jean-Baptiste- Simeon Chardin

arts.

far

from

the artificial fantasies of Watteau 's fetes galantes, country

and comedy actors, representing instead everyday

balls,

aspects of position,

life.

His disarming simplicity, balanced com-

and delicate use of colors, with

preference for

white and light blue, are evidence of a refined technique

and an extraordinary lucidity of analysis, in a manner that

seems

some ways

to anticipate Cezanne. His four ver-

sions of Boy Playing With Cards, for

same

silent,

immobile world

flayers. In his late

example,

recall the

Cezanne's series of Card-

maturity, Chardin abandoned oil paint-

ing in favor of pastel, a technique that

duced into France

in the

had been intro-

second decade of the eighteenth

century by the Venetian painter Rosalba Carriera, and that

met with

great favor

among

portrait painters.

Maurice Quentin de La Tour appreciated the rapidity of execution, which allowed

him to seize aspects of his figwould otherwise be indefinable, such as the spontaneitv, freshness, and immediacy of expressions. The work of Liotard, on the other hand, moves in a com-

ures that

pletely different direction, using the technique of pastel

not in order to exploit nuances of semi-tones and subtle

287

Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin Still Life with Cat c.

oil

1728-1730 on canvas,

28%

x 41

Vi in.

(73 x 105 cm)

Metropolitan Museum New York

of Art,

blending but, on the contrary, to define the figures with firm, clear strokes free

from any

lyrical effects.

itinerant court painter, Liotard

worked

for Austrian,

French, English, and Dutch nobles, avoiding the grave

poses that characterized Baroque portraits. objects he preferred as accessories chairs, books, letters,

were

Among

the

furs, tables,

and baskets of fruit: against a plain

ground, often gray-brown, the image

is still,

without chiaroscuro. Examples are the

in a light

Self-Portrait

and

The Chocolate Girl (both in the Gemaldegalerie, Dresden), painted around 1745.

lore brilliant and inventive, although uneven, io

was i

free of the tyranny of

models

was to some extent influenced

by Watteau, especially

works such

as the Birth ofAdonis

and the Death ofAdonis (both in the Matthieu Goudchaux Collection, Paris), painted around 1730. The mythological scenes that

form the

essential

and most successful

part of his output are accompanied by the fine portraits in which his extraordinary decorative most evident. As well as painting, he also prac-

and landscapes ability is

ticed drawing, set design, and tapestrv, giving a

life

new

lease

to the Gobelins factory.

While Watteau took delight in painting fetes galantes and Boucher preferred allegories and pastoral scenes, Jean-

Honore Fragonard,

the last of the great French painters

of the eighteenth centurv, combined scenes of familv

life

with

all

lively taste

these, depicting

and

a realistic,

Jean Antoine Watteau Gilles c.

oil

1717-1719 on canvas,

72'/2 x

58%

in.

(184 x 149 cm) Louvre, Paris

though by no means sentimental,

"A genius of

virtuosity," the

spirit.

Goncourts were to

call

him.

Fragonard's appeal stems from the refinement and at the

same time the seemingly improvised spontaneity of

his

works, executed in magnificent reds and deep rust tones, anticipating the great art of the Impressionists, especially

Renoir,

who was

his spiritual heir.

long undervalued, Fragonard

eclectic painter,

probably the finest rep-

resentative of the sensual, courteous eighteenth century that

was to end with the revolutionary deeds of the bour-

geoisie,

who

populate his work throughout his long ca-

reer until his death in 1806.

289

Jean Antoine

Watteau (Valenciennes, 1684-Paris, 1721)

The

greatest French artist of the early

eighteenth century, he chose the intimacy of genre scenes, the witty improvisation

of the

Commedm

or pathetic

idvll

Jell' Arte,

and the frivolous

offetes galantes, in open

contrast with the rhetorical and

pompously

of the Academy. In the Querelle des modernes, which raged at

classical style des anciens ex

the beginning of the century in France, he immediately showed himself to be

frequented the workshop

anti-Academy.

of Pierre and Jean Mariette, collectors and printers, representatives of a trend that

opposed the official taste of the court and the Academy, preferring the most free and open currents of French and Flemish-Dutch

•.

painting. In opposition to the classical style

of Poussin he favored the wide, free rein of the imagination, whose fullest expression

—

not in classical theater, in the theater but in the contemporary genres of comedies-ballets and Comedie ltalienne

was

(Commedia

resumed

dell'.lrte),

performances of which

after the death of Louis

XIV

1715. This type of theater, populated by comedians, clowns, and masks, constituted

'vffi

main theme of his work. A fundamental experience in his development was his stay with Claude Audran, the keeper of the the

Luxembourg

Palace, the

home

of the great

of Marie de' Medici. This contact with the work of the Flemish

Rubens cvcle of the

Life

master was to prove decisive from a thematic and formal standpoint. His style became more free and immediate, his painting ductile and rapid, the tones delicate

and bright, and the figures fluid and light. While it is impossible to order his works chronologically,

it is

possible

thematic point of view

—

—from

to identify

V-

two

main lines: theater scenes and fetes galantes, imaginary gatherings of ladies and

gentlemen evoked in a sweetly nostalgic atmosphere and in a swift, ductile manner that combines the warm colors of Rubens with the iridescent tones of the Venetian school. It was precisely as a painter ofJetes galantes that

he was received into

the Academy.

Almost the whole of Watteau 's output was executed in the last six years of his life, between 1717, the date of Embarkation for the date of Gersaint's Shop Cnhera, and 72 1

Sign, a eulogy of

most

«l

modern

painting and of

illustrious predecessors

its

(from Rubens

to van Dvck), considered to be his artistic

testament.

Jean Antoine Watteau

groups

Reunion Champetre

collage. Unlike in classical

frames

in a

.*T

composition, there are

I718

no main characters and no hierarchy of figures. The imaginative, rhythmic 'ion and the

phere ;>ible

IfW

5V-\.

;

-r-'.-

": '

•

' .

•

.;•

•

•'

Jean Antoine Watteau Mezzetin

1717-1719 oil

on canvas,

17x 21%

in.

(43.1 x 55.2 Metropolitan

New

cm) Museum of Art,

York

Here the painter employs his favorite theme of masks for a highlv effective

psvchological investigation.

A Commedia

dell' Arte

Mezzetin

represented

mask,

he sings, accompanying an

himself on the guitar

—

elegant image, with a subtle veil of melancholy.

Jean Antoine Watteau Embarkation for Cythera

1717 on canvas, 50'/2 x 76 in. (128 x 193 cm)

oil

Louvre, Paris

The painting can be read as a theatrical

scene that

unfolds from right to

left,

from the rose -garlanded bust of Venus to the couples of lovers

who

j^,J

are about to board the boat for the island of Venus,

the goddess of love, born in the sea off

The on

^5W^P

Cvthera.

scene, perhaps based

a play

by Dancourt,

to be read as an invitation to

embark

for the island

of love, and every detail is

•

a variation

flBF

this

invitation: the boat

l»

V£

*•

^I^HP'

magnificent golden

gondola and the journey illy,

the

used

M '

afflr '

Jean Antoine Watteau La

Game d'Amour

1717 on canvas,

oil

20!4x 23^

an atmosphere pervaded

by iridescent displays a

light,

and

In the

National Gallery, London

foreground

oljetes galantes,

perspective.

against a

strikingly original.

the main group, oblique

belongs to the genre

painting,

main

complex

and evasive, behind them a statue of Pan, which creates a double

The

in the

figures in the scene

composition.

in.

(51.3 x 59.4 cm)

and separation

of luxuriant nature

which is

set

background

The

feeling

of psychological absence

293

Jean Antoine Watteau Shop Sign

Gersaint's

1720 oil on canvas,

64'4x

120'/2in.

(163 x $06 cm) (

harlottenbuia

One

masterpieces, painted lor GersaJnt,

Âť

iili

his

was nd

frii

dealer

tin- art

w liom he

1719, \ci\

astle, Berlin

(

ol his last

sia\<-d

when he was w

ill

from

already

tuberculosis.

iili

The unusual breadth of the composition

raises

new some

genre

painting to

heights;

to the left

assistants

place a portrait of I.ouis

XIV

(attributable to

Lebrun) in a box, while a gentleman, perhaps Watteau himself, invites a lady to admire examples of

modern

painting

hanging on the wall.

To the

right Gersaint

his wife are

and

busy showing

items to their customers,

probably the patrons.

The

artist's

main

sobriety

and originality of the color combinations, and the brushwork, at times nervous and rapid, at times applied calmly in wide, subtly

modulated

are precursors of

Impressionism.

sections,

painting The Ru\ (Louvre, Paris),

Jean-Baptiste-

Simeon Chardin (Paris,

1699-1779)

controversial artist,

but

Cubism

times almost

in his

use ol space,

times capable of tender, contained

emotion, Chardin was perhaps the only great painter of the eighteenth century \\

ho had no Academy training and

never traveled to

Italy.

who

The Academy

in Place

Success, however, only

precursor

shown

Dauphine in an open-air exhibition, won him admission to the Vcadeim as a "painter ol animals and Iruit." 1728

did,

however, manage to win him back: his

when he

tame

alter 1737,

exhibited seven genre scenes

the Salon, including the Cnrl uuh Rocket

and Shuttlecock

(llffizi,

Florence). In 1743

time -i onsuming duties, he redu< ed his output and began to paint copies and variations ol previous works.

From

animated by a desire to change and to surprise, Chardin turned to pastel, a medium that he used only for portraits, analyzing the features ol Ins models with 1771

the

still

same

careful attention he had brought

game

Chardin was elected counselor of the

to fruit and

Academy, in 175 5 he became treasurer, and from 76 he was the "hanger"

Before him only Vermeer had matched the

of the Salon, an event of international

the Bunch of Flowers in a white china vase

renown. Taken up by these increasingly

decorated with

in his

still lifes.

particular pictorial treatment evident in

blue pattern (National

Gallery ol Scotland,

dinburgh), with the subtle interplay ol white and blue, m a milky light, that demonstrates an I

almost magical ability to combine great power and great simplil itv.

Jean-Baptiste Chardin

A central

The Young Schoolmistress c. 1736

bare composition of this

oil

on canvas,

24V4 x 26'/4 (61.

in.

ix 66.5 cm)

\ational Gallery, London

painting

element

the long hatpin

voung woman, seen

in profile, points

out the

letter of the alphabet to

This work, whose theme

century Dutch painting,

and gray tones, presents

evokes the transitoriness

a classical pyramidal

Chardin to bring out

c. 1739 oil on canvas, 24 x 24% in. (61 x 63 cm)

of earthly things and

structure.

the psychological depth

Metropolitan

of the character.

"Sew York

much

with which the sweet figure of the

Jean-Baptiste Chardin Soap Bubbles

young

in the

her

pupil.

It is

not so

the careful rendering

of the features as the subtle use of color that allows

Museum

oj Art,

taken from seventeenth-

same time the fickleness of women's

feelings.

based on

The composition, a plav of brown

the

297

Jean-Baptiste Chardin Pipes

and Drinking Pitcher

1757 oil on canvas, 12% x 15% in. (32.5 x 40 cm)

Jean-Baptiste Chardin

Louvre, Paris

Self-Portrait

Owned

bv the

the painting

drawn up on a

the death

wife

[ere, too, there

steel

blue satin. is

harmony of blues

and whites.

pastel, 18

x 15

in.

Jean-Baptiste Chardin

(46 x 38 cm)

Boy Playing with Cards

Louvre, Paris

1737:

rosewood case with

handles, lined

delicate

1775

was described

the inventory

in detail in

ol his first

artist,

Exhibited

the Salon

775 together with the portrait of his second wife of

Marguerite Pouget, he married

744,

much admired by and public

alike.

whom it

was

critics

Writing

about the painting at the end of the nineteenth

1737 on canvas, 32V4 x 26 in. (82 x 66 cm)

oil

Sational Gallery of Art, Washington

This

the

last

of four

same one of many

versions of the subject,

centurv, Proust praised

related to childhood

Chardin

and children's games.

eccentric

originality in portraying

The

himself as an old English

yet elegant

tourist.

and the physical

simplicity of the bare

composition

and psychological characterization ot the boy anticipate Cezanne's

famous

painting the Card-Players,

rff

-?.

• 299

Jean-Baptiste Chardin The Cook 1758 oil

on canvas, x 14'/2in.

(46 x 37

cm)

Alte Pmakothek,

Munich

Here Chardin adapts a theme typical of seventeenth-century Hutch painting: next to the

woman, who slightly

leaning

forward, he places

round objects characteristic of the

furnishing of a

There

interior.

no aspect

homely is,

however,

ol social critique,

but rather a desire to highlight the ordinariness ol the

scene by avoiding

any picturesque detail.

The broad brushstrokes i

over the canvas with a

thick layer of paint.

Jean-Baptiste Chardin The Return from Market 1739 oil

on canvas,

W/ix

(47 x 38

in.

cm)

Louvre, Paris

Exhibited at the Salon of 1739, the painting is particularly striking

due

to the brilliant

composition. To the the

left,

doorway opening onto

the copper tank creates a background perspective that projects the

pourvoveuse, captured in a distracted attitude tbat contrasts with the realistic

setting,

toward the viewer.

Pierre Subleyras (Saint-Gilles-du Sard,

1699-Rome, 1749)

ihus

becoming one

ol the public painters

of eighteenth century Rome, Sublevras worked in large and small

formats With notable results.

Sublevras trained in Paris in the workshop

tine portraits,

(Museum, ChantilK and the Abbess BattistmaYernasca (Musee Fabre,

enes. In 1727 he

Rome

won

die Prix

for his Bronze Serpent

(Fontainebleau), and the following year

mo\ed

to Italv.

A protege of Cardinal

1740 he was admitted to the 74-3 he di San Luca and in obtained the commission for the Mass of St. Basil, one of the altarpieces in the basilica of St. Peter's, where he worked together withVouet, Poussin, and Valentin, Valenti, in

Accademia

St.

Catherine de'

Ricci

painted

of Jean-Pierre Rivalz, a painter ol lowerl

Pierre Subleyras The Marriage of

such as Benedict XIV

oil

1740 1745 on canvas

)

Pi irate

ollection,

Rome

Montpellier), as well as magnificent

The

altarpieces such as the Crucifixion (Brera,

ol light

Milan) and the Miracle of St. Benedict in the church of Santa Francesca Romana in

heightens the center of the picture,

where the mystical

Rome,

union

celebrated, while

His

last

revealing hidden talent as a colorist.

works

display an almost Jansenist

rigor in the spare lines of the composition and the limited range of color, reminiscent of that of Philippe de Champaigne.

skillful

distribution

and shadow

an enigmatic, isolated figure to the right

draws

the viewer's attention.

Pierre Subleyras St.

Ambrose Converts

Theodosius

1745 on canvas

oil

Calieria Nazionale, Perugia

Painted for the church of the Olivetans in Perugia, both the composition and the limited range of colors

demonstrate

a Jansenist

Pierre Subleyras

Mass

altarpiece in the Basilica

174? oil

dei Frari in Venice, or the

on canvas,

Madonnas and Saints of

52*4 X 31'/2 in. (133.5 x 80 cm) Hermitage,

This

model

St.

Paolo Veronese). The is dominated by a

scene

Petersburg

controlled sense of

the magnificent

composition, beginning

for the altarpiece

with the monumental

executed for the church

architecture in the

of Santa Maria degli Angeli

background. The two

Rome. Perhaps

his

masterpiece of religious painting,

it is

oil

line of seventeenth-

and

eighteenth-century

which extends from the allegories of Jan Bruegel and Rubens to painting,

1747-1749 on canvas

Academy of Fine

Arts,

Vienna

the

museum images

Having reached the end

early neoclassicism, such

his career,

effectively

Subleyras

and evocatively

remembers

his

oeuvre.

Taking the form of

Zoffany's Tribuna of the

Ujfizi.Th,e artist's poetic sensibility can

be seen in

such as the figures with their backs to us,

details

a self-portrait in his studio,

becomes a summary of the artist s

which may even remind

works and

of Painting. Particularly

the painting

also,

through

he presence of classical I

his

sources

luer is. This

work

an important

us of Vermeer's Allegory

touching

the small figure

of the fair-haired boy intent (it

seems) on drawing.

fluted

columns give

a sense

of rhythm to the space and create an atmosphere of

The

coincidence that Subleyras

high solemnity.

placed

are arranged along a clear

of The

Painter's Studio

the center

figures

diagonal axis, but, despite

reproduced below. He draws from and develops

the rigid control, the scene

number of different sources, achieving a work

Subleyras unfurls his

memorable whites

of high nobility and great

the center of the canvas,

composure. The starting

creating the bright

points are the Holy

luminosity that

Conversations of sixteenth-

distinctive feature.

Pierre Subleyras The Painter's Studio

century Venetian painting (such as Titian's Pesaro

St. Basil

remains

lively.

Once

again

his

most

Maurice Quentin de La Tour

concerned with appearances, and toward which he adopted a detached, ironic, and

(Saint-Quentm. 1704-1788)

After his training

artist

who recorded

official sick- ol

the

pomp

contemporary

life

with considerable professional

and the

skill

times scornful attitude. in Paris in

the

workshop

of J. Spoede, a painter of still lifes, in 1725 he went to England, when- he staved for

France

two

and an

received

years.

his

painted portraits of

0111s

ouvre), ol

and of great

mem hers

ill

and the

nervous, impulsive temperament

the

artist, his rapidit) ol exe<

the aristot

rat

matched

encyclopedists Voltaire, Rousseau, and D'Alembert.The medium he used for

become popular to

Pans (1720

portraits,

the Academy, taking part regularly in the

Venetian pastelist Rosalba

evidence of a society that was only

Salons.

proved to be the medium best suited

Camera.

a r.ipiditv ol vision that

extreme undermine

refined elicits, achieved through

technical virtuosity, does not

in France after the stay 1721) of the will known

eye lor psychological analysis, he painted portraits, all of them in pastel, that arc

l>\

ol thi

ution was

allowed him to capture his sitters in vibrant tones. His search for luxurious,

Intellectuals, including the

these portraits was pastel, which had

return to Paris he

numerous commissions for and in 1737 he was admitted

Marquise de Pompadour (both

the spontaneity and freshness of pastel painting.

Pastel to the

Maurice Quentin de La Tour Portrait of

Mile Ferrand

1753 oil on canvas Ake Pinakothek, Munich

cultured voung lady

portrayed as she takes a pause from her reading of a

work on Newton.

the mid-eighteenth century, the ideas of the English scientist,

who had

died in 1727, had reached a vast

public, including

women, with

the

publication of

works

\e\rtoniamsmo per

dame

(The Science of Newton for

(1737) byFrancesco Algarotti.

Ladies)

305

Jean-Marc Nattier (Paris,

1685-1766)

made by in

portraits of Louis

of mythological portraits, Nattier

completed the works Raoux had left unfinished, an experience that was to prove decisive in his development. In 1710 he was commissioned bv Louis XIV to make engravings of his drawings of Rubens 's The Life of Marie de' Medici in the

Luxembourg

official

portrait

He produced XV, Queen Marie

painter to the court.

After training in the studio of Jean Raoux, a painter

Jean-Marc Nattier

his godfather Jouvenet,

742 he became the

Palace, and in

the

Academy

juently, i

1715

as a

however, he trait painting, i

ient

hed b\

Leszczynski, and the king's daughters.

were portraved innumerable times, depicted as nvmphs, shepherd girls, or young goddesses, in a form

The

latter

of "posed" portraiture that preferred an unreal though measured elegance

characterized by classical

composure

and Albani, acquire emblematic value, becoming the svmbols of a societv, an environment, and a lifestyle marked artificial

d elegant e.

grace and

1751

on canvas, x 3214 in. (70 x 82 cm)

oil

27'/2

Ujfi/A, Florence

the rouged cheeks, and still

reminiscent of the art of Domenichino

by the taste for

Maria

astonished expression,

psychological interpretation. His

world

Madame

In this portrait the

of attitude and pose to anv kind of portraits, the last record of a

Portrait of

Zeffirina

the coy gesture of stroking

her lapdog

all

contribute

to the sitter's doll-like

appearance.

Jean-Etienne Liotard (Geneva, 1702-1789) After his apprenticeship in Geneva in the workshop of Daniel Gardelle, where he

mainlv learned the technique ol miniature

on china, in 1723 Liotard moved where he began to work as a miniaturist and engraver. Individualism was both his limit and his strong point. Having painting

to Paris,

attempt to enter the Academy

tailed in his in

1733, he devoted himsell exclusively to

portrait painting, establishing himself as a

master of pastel,

medium

introduced into

France by Rosalba Carriera. Linlike other masters

who

exploited the semi-tones and

Jean-Etienne Liotard The Chocolate

Girl

1744 1745 pastel on parchment 32'/2 x 20 3/4 in.

the sfhmato transitions of pastel, Liotard

(82.5 x 52.5

denned his figures with clear lines, avoiding any form of lyricism. A cosmopolitan

Gemaldegalerie, Dresden

artist,

he painted the Austrian, Lrench,

English, and the

whole

Dutch

nobility, leaving

out

array ol curtains, drapes,

crowns, and other

trills

court portraiture.

that characterize

depicts his characters

cm)

Liotard's masterpiece, it

was already praised his contemporaries

for the technical perfection

achieved in the use of

Count Francesco

with remarkable simplicity, with clear,

pastels.

well-defined surfaces, as though they are

Algarotti,

engraved, without recourse to elegant,

the painting in 1745 in

cloving formulas.

Venice for the royal

779 on he received no more commissions. Concerned by the development of political events, he retired

From

to his

who purchased

collections of Dresden,

country house

southeast ot Geneva, still liles

in a village to

the

where he painted

of naive beauty and unexpected

modernity.

died in 1789, one

month

praised

its

likeness.

astonishing

The

refined use

of a limited range of colors is

particularly effective:

the white apron stands out against the

background

betore the beginning of the French

tones of gray, pink, and

Revolution.

ocher,

which are also used on the cup.

for the pattern

307

Francois Boucher (Paris,

1703-1770)

and for brief periods in Naples and Venice. He painted mythological themes such as the Birth ofAdonis and the Death of \donii (both

Boucher, a brilliant decorator and colorist and a protege of the Marquise de Pompadour, represented the elegant, rehned taste of the court of Louis XV.

painted

all

his subjects

with great

perfection and taste, happy to try his hand

wide range of genres and themes, from mythological subjects to pastoral scenes, from landscapes to portraits. After training in the workshop of Francois at a

Lemovne, he traveled to staving in

Rome

Italy in

the French

727,

Academy

the Matthicu

Goudchaux

Ins style are

treatment. to

given

Tin-

work with

individual

following year he began

the Royal Manufactory

ot Beauvais, for

which he produced the

Collection, Paris), and the pastoral scene

cartoons ol lourteen tapestries

Woman

Fetes de village a 1'itahcnnc, rustic

at the

Fountain

(J.

Speed Art

Museum, Louisville). He returned to Paris in 1731 and was admitted to the Academy as a history ,

painter in 1734, presenting Rinaldo and ArmiJa (Louvre, Paris) as his morceau de

1735 he received his first commission: the decoration of the

reception. In official

Queen's room with four in

in the palace

grisailles

of Versailles

depicting the virtues,

which the Italian-influenced aspects of

with brightly-colored figures

the series

scenes relaxed

poses against a highly evocative background of woods and ruins.

Despite the evident influence ofWatteau,

Boucher evolved an unmistakably aimed at exalting beauty and eroticism. In 1742 he began to work with the Paris Opera, producing magnificent stage sets; this comes as no surprise, since his theatrical individual pictorial language

to( .limn

and

his

evident

both

Ins painting

drawing. In 1755 he was appointed

painter to tin- king, after which he continued to alternate religious and pastoral subjects, landscapes and countryside or mythological scenes, confirming his fame as a charming

painter of grace and joy.

Francois Boucher Nude Lying on a Sofa

Francois Boucher Rinaldo and Armida

I7S2

17 34

on canvas, 2314 x 28% in.

oil

(59 x 73 cm) Ahe Pinukothck, Munich

\\ it

nudity

air,

the girl's

to tradition, Hon.

of the cushions,

and the pink

own

features and

with those of

flesh

beauty

and sensuality

1746

Commissioned by

the

on canvas, in.

cm)

day: morning, noon,

Swedish ambassador Count

afternoon, and night.

Tessin, an assiduous visitor

light, precise

Boucher household well as an admirer of

to the

(64 x 53

many

ol his paintings.

Francois Boucher Morning

20%

Armida

his wife,

in various guises in

of the age.

2514 x

woman of renowned who appeared

representation of the

oil

depicted Rinaldo with his

ereate a perfect

frivolity

to the

the curtain and the clothing,

onto XVI ol Torquato

(

won him admittance \. ademj V ording

The daring pose,

silk

cm)

Parti

lasso's Jerusalem Delivered,

the reflection of the light

on the

re,

This painting, based

provocative yet

graceful.

K a rather

mischievous

35.5 x 170.5

Gently reclining on the safe,

on canvas, x 67 in.

5 3 '/2

Mme

Boucher, the painting

was to have been part of a

The

design and

the skillful representation

of the drapery are the most characteristic features of

Francois Boucher

decorated wall and

the intricate rocaille

Breakfast

on the

of the bronzes,

of bourgeois domesticity,

1739

on canvas, 32 x (81.5 x 65.5 cm)

oil

floor in a scene

25%

a subject that in.

for Boucher.

was unusual

The

anecdotal scene.

Stockholm

four different times of the

shadows on the

diagonal light casts dark richly

silver.

probably represents the family of the artist,

series of four, depicting

of the

painting

Louvre, Paris this richly

tiatioaalmuseum,

and the reflection

who

takes delight in depicting

the folds of the garments,

309

Francois Boucher

Triumph of Venus

Diana Leaving Her Bath

1740 oil on canvas,

oil

51 x

63%

1742

in.

on canvas,

22 3/4 x 29V4 in. (57.5 x 74 cm)

30 x 162 cm Sanonalmuseum, Stockholm

louvre, Paris

mythological scene

A work

which Boucher displays

perfection and great

( 1

extraordinary

to spread light and joy.

chromatic harmony, it is perhaps Boucher's

The composition

masterpiece. In the pink

his unrivaled ability

characterized bv the rich

impasto of color and the refined use of tones.

fleshiness of the nudes, it

presents a young,

mischievous model of femininity.

Francois Boucher The Birth of Venus The Toilet of Venus 1743

on canvas, 40 x 34 1/2in. (101.6 x 87.6 cm) each Private collection. New York oil

These are

fine

representations of the aspirations and illusions

of an age marked by

its

taste for an elegant,

frivolous lifestyle. is,

in fact,

There

nothing very

sacred about the

two

figures of Venus,

who

look

like elegant society ladies

occupied with an idle game, reclining gently to reveal the rich impasto

of their

flesh.

t^Rfir'

.-#**#

Francois Boucher Winter

1755 oil

on canvas, x 28 in.

21%

<55.3x 71.3 cm) Fnck

Collection,

This canvas

NewYork

one

ot a

series of four paintings

depicting the four seasons,

commissioned bv the Marquise de Pompadour, perhaps to be hung over the doors in one of her residences.

Francois Boucher Portrait of the

Marquise

de Pompadour 1756 on canvas,

oil

79'/4x

61%

(201 x 157

in.

cm)

Alte Pinakothek,

Exhibited

Munich

the Salon

of 1757, the painting presents the sumptuously

dressed Marquise with a

book open on her

lap,

an aristocratic interior

depicted in a manner that highlights Boucher's

masterv ot decoration.

Francois Boucher The Marquise de Pompadour at Her Toilet 175S

Pompadour

on canvas.

portraved

her boudoir. Everv detail ot

her precious outfit

depicted with painstaking i

oil

are,

from the bracelet

cameo to the powder box, Irom the with

the

gilt

Mowers decorating her hair ittered on the table ibbons and laci \ ite

dressing

Francois Boucher Marquise

Portrait of the

de Pompadour 1759 oil

on canvas,

35 3/4 x 27'/4 (91

in.

x 69 cm)

Wallace Collection, London

Commissioned

tor the

W A

Castle ofBellevue in 1758,

4•

]

the painting represents the

Marquise

in a

small

wood

next to Pigalle's statue of Lore and Friendship.

The

figure of the

>% * MF

woman,

with her noble pose

and sumptuous dress,

dominates the composition, which almost entirely

shades

<T*™eK^«

of ocher.

W^^^*-**rr^&fP'^

A^ML±>

m .

-i^mmsJm

V...

-5f)

/ffl T i v

> .

Hlf

yT *

"^o^vnfeJsX

^HrS*'

'"JF1 S

11V gst

si r.

" '

%jy

VMS

'^9

•

Jean-Honore Fragonard (Grasse.

1732-Paris, 1806)

The

great master of

last

trained in Pari*, I

the

si\

Loo.

when he

autumn

there until the

Rome,

for

left

staving at

French Academy for four vears. Here he devoted himsell to landscape painting, influenced bv great Italian masters such as Tiepolo, who taught him to draw and to paint with light, and Barocci, who taught the

European Rococo, where he had moved at Chardin,

as a pupil

He remained

of 1756,

After spending

workshop

pted helped to pr<

Proteges, directed bv Jean-Baptiste van

few months 1750 he

of Boucher, and .'ins

lor the

and Beauvais "li

the Prix de

him the

art of brilliant

composition Aftei a brief stav inTivoli and a jourm Naples, in 1761 he returned to aris where I

lie

staved lor the rest of his

briel trips to

Holland

and Germany in 1773. In 1765 he was elected iy,

life

apart from

1769, and to

member

Italv

of the

but he remained independent,

"mi

the bourgeoisie

and the new nobilitv. For them he painted mainlv sweeping landscapes in the Dutch style, and "small paintings" of gallant subjects or of evervdav life, the success of which earned him a reputation as a facile, superficial painter.

Around

780

his painting

took

a decidedly

neoclassical turn, although he maintained

own

his

personal touch.

Some

of his

distinctive characteristics, such as the

swathes of color applied without any preparatory drawing, the brushstrokes,

and the striking colors, remained constant throughout his career, whatever genres he tackled. I

lis

versatility led

him

make

use

those he considered to be his masters.

from Rembrandt to Rubens, Tiepolo, Watteau, and Boucher, with confident ease, as

to test out his ability.

painter

of gallantrv and nature, though also of

domestic scenes and childhood, he left an extremelv varied oeuvre that seems, with the decline of the monarchy, to evoke all that had society.

been dear to eighteenth-century

Jean-Honore Fragonard

La Gimblette

The Swing

(The Ring-Biscuit)

1766 32

on cam as, x 2 51/2 in.

(81

x 65 cm)

1765 1772 oil on canvas, 2VA x 34'/4 in.

oil

(70 x 87 cm)

Wallace Collection, London

hmdation Cailleux,

Paris

Commissioned by Baron de

\ frankly libertine stone

1766

St. Julien,

depicting a reclining young

the erotic nature of the

woman

scene

lapdog.

as she plays

The

light

with

enhances

the pink tlesh tones of her

body

in a

composition

characterized by a sort of parallel

Hce,

lit

between the girl's up by a slight

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

the classic love

triangle in

which the

lover has himself depicted

reclining in the (lowers, furtively

watching

as she

pushed by her is overshadowed

â&#x20AC;&#x201D;

smile, and the raised legs

husband

and right arm, which

attenuate the sensuality

skillful play

ol the scene.

his

mistress on the swing

some extent bv

the

of colors used

to create a dream-like

atmosphere reminiscent of Watteau's idealized landscapes.

Jean-Honore Fragonard

Louveciennes,

The Declaration of Love

the Frick Collection in

1771 oil

84%

Despite the

influence of seventeenth-

on canvas,

125'/4X

New York.

now

century Dutch and Flemish in.

painting, Fragonard

(318x 215cm) Fnck Collection, New York

displays great

Together with The Climb, The Pursuit, and The Lover Crowned with Flowers, the

an unreal atmosphere.

painting

part of the

freedom

of expression. The effective use of color gives the scene

In the

center

the girl

the tender embrace

series the Progress of Love

of her lover, while to the

commissioned by Mme du Barry for the decoration of the games

right the figure of Venus,

room

protect the couple.

the castle of

standing on a

tall

pedestal,

seems to watch over and 315

Jean-Honore Fragonard Music Lesson

Jean-Honore Fragonard

1769 oil on canvas, 43'/4 x 47>/4 in.

The

28% x

(110x 120 cm)

scene of bourgeois

which the feeling the voung man toward is

life

rendered with

extraordinary,

unsentimental immediacy.

faithful

spirit

mirror of the

of his age, Fragonard

ensures that the scene retains a

composed

by using

on canvas,

36>/2 in.

Louvre, Paris

the girl

oil

(73 x 93 cm)

Louvre, Paris

Bolt

1778,

grace

limited range ind avoiding

This animated indoor scene

typically libertine.

attempting to escape from

girl

amorous advances of a young man, depicted as he draws the bolt on the door. The theatrical nature of the scene, in which an unexpected stream of light isolates the bodies of the two voung people, leaving the the

rest of the

room

shadow,

creates an atmosphere of soft sensuality.

J16

Jean-Honore Fragonard The Reader C.

oil

1776

young

on canvas, x 25 /2 in.

(S2 x 65

intent

Portrayed against

cm)

National Galley

women

Washington

lit,

background, the

posr

oi the

ilding the

hand

hook

deliberate!) affe< ted,

expression

vague

girl's

rapt, while

Jean-Honore Fragonard

Music

Venus Refusing a from Cupid

1769

on canvas,

Kiss

1760 on cam as,

3P/2X 25V2in. (80 x 65 cm)

oil

Louvre, Pans

(37 x 34 cm) (oval)

The

Jean-Honore Fragonard

oil

the'

their private occupations.

32'/4

Considered one oi Fragonard 's masterpieces, this is a scene of bourgeois life from his series <>l

Whx.

13'/2 in.

Private collection

figure of the musician,

seen from behind, with his

turned to the viewer, bathed in an uneven light

This

work

one of the

late is

that creates strong

contrasts.

The

composition, based mainlv

on shades of ocher, is one ot the group of portraits

series of oval paintings

depicting real and

imaginary female figures in affected poses, according

to the conventions of the rising bourgeoisie.

symbolizing poetrv, singing, theater,

and music.

317

Gtandomenico Tiepolo

Sebastiano

Ricci

Venus and Adonis

1705-1706 on canvas, 27'/2x 15*4 in. (70 x 40 cm) Musee des Beaux-Arts,

oil

Orleans

The

great revolutions of the eighteenth century

shifted the

main thrust of

away from

Italy

and

historical progress

something of a

left it as

backwater. While the smoke from the tories

began to

rise

over the green

first fac-

of England,

hills

Italy

struggled in vain to free itself from an agricultural tradi-

made

tion that tal

impossible to compete on the continen-

market. Impoverished and torn apart by the great pow-

ers in their fight for control of the ancient duchies, Italy

was

subdued onlooker

at the great events characterizing

the eighteenth century Highly precious items of art and culture left the country to embellish the

new

lections of the

homes and

col-

sovereigns of Saxony, Prussia, Russia,

Sweden, Poland, and other nations. The palaces of the cen-

European

tral

political

of reference for

world became the

Italian artists in

essential points

search of work. Great

humble laborers, celebrated masters and anonymous craftsmen, experts in stuccowork and unskilled house painters left Italy (Lombardy and the Veneto painters and

in particular) to settle

abroad and play

Rococo movement. Only

tained any contemporary glory, while

cities in Italy re-

most of the penin-

was "relegated" to the realm of memory

sula tial

a leading role in the

few areas and

stage

on the

cultural tours

crats of "modern"

made by

the

an essen-

young

aristo-

Europe.

The precarious state of the old patrician families, and in some cases their definitive collapse, led to a dramatic outflow of masterpieces toward the courts of central and

northern Europe. Like the Gonzaga family century, the Este family lection, gallery.

come

were forced to

which became the main nucleus of the Dresden

The

still

dispersal of Italy's artistic heritage

was to be-

greater during the Napoleonic period, and the

onlv possible remedy at the tem of Italian museums as a

new

in the

sell their art col-

local level

was to

set

foreign collections to safeguard at least the

of the glorious past.

museums were

Many

a sys-

protective bulwark against the

of the leading

Italian

memory

and foreign

thus founded between the eighteenth and

the nineteenth centuries. In accordance with the spirit of

Enlightened Rationalism, these collections do not share the celebratory and decorative character of the princelv

seventeenth -centurv collections, but displav an anthological

and didactic purpose, the desire to create

a systematic

overview of the evolution of the different schools with the art criticism of the period.

in line

Giambattista Tiepolo

Seated Man and with Vase c.

oil

Girl

1755 on canvas,

65 x

21'/4 in.

(165 x 54 cm) National Gallery, London

During the eighteenth century, the image of Italians

Italy

and the

became dishearteningly stereotyped: wonderful

landscapes

Hooded with Mediterranean

light,

embellished

by ancient ruins or historical monuments, and peopled by garlanded shepherds dancing with their nymphs.

And

all

was observed with "anthropological" detachment by

this

travelers in search of strong emotions. In short, the try of painting

This

is,

coun-

became the country of the "picturesque."

of course, an exaggeration. Despite the general

background of acute economic and

social difficulty, there

was no lack of illustrious personalities and centers of considerable

constant vitality and variety of

the

vigor:

Neapolitan culture, the laboratory of ideas and projects created by the rising

House of Savoy

in the youthful city

Turin, and the stern Milan of the early Enlightenment and

was Marco

the founding of La Scala. But eighteenth-century Italy

above

all

Venice. The Serenissima Repubblica di San

rose again after

make

its

last

eclipse in the seventeenth century to

its

century of independence one of dazzling

splendor as one of Europe's greatest cultural centers of the figurative arts, theater,

music, and

many

other

fields.

Although the international importance of Venetian painting

unquestionably such as to merit absolute precedence

with respect to the other schools of eighteenth-century Italian painting, for this

overlook

artists, cities,

the risk of falling into

mena, for example, late

very reason

and ideas

it is

that

important not to

might otherwise run

unmerited oblivion. Francesco

strikes the rich

Neapolitan Baroque, a tradition of imagery that spread

beyond the boundaries of painting to

far

Soli-

resounding note of the

affect the

whole

range of figurative arts at every social level, from the precious, dainty porcelain

ornaments for the court to the

Christmas creches for the forget the impetus given tion of the

Roman

cities

common

folk.

Nor

should

by the Bourbons to the excava-

buried by Vesuvius. In the second

Herculaneum became an immense treasure trove of models for the burhalf

of the eighteenth century, Pompeii and

geoning Neoclassical school. The arrival in Naples of the Farnese collections, previously held in Parma, also served to

make

the city's

museums

an indispensable point of ref-

erence both for archaeology and for Renaissance painting. In the

north of

Italy,

Eighteenth-century

attention should be

Lombard

culture

drawn

to Milan.

was greatly

influ-

enced by an important historical event. In 1706, during the

War

of Spanish Succession, Milan was occupied by

321

Giambattista Piazzetta Saints Vincent Ferrer, Hyacinth, and Louis

Bertrand

1738 on canvas,

oil

135%

67%

in.

(345 x 172 cm) Santa Maria dei Gesuati, Venice

Prince Eugene of Savoy and passed from Spain to the Aus-

Empire. The territory of Mantua shared the same

trian

while the lands on the other side of the River Adda,

fate,

namely the provinces of Bergamo and under Venetian jurisdiction despite

remained

ty to Milan. This situation

Brescia,

remained

their cultural proximisubstantially stable,

with minor modifications in favor of the House of Savoy, until the

end of the century, when the

was to throw

all

As the cradle of Enlightenment wholly

new form

arrival of

arrangements into

territorial

ethics,

Napoleon

disarray.

Milan developed

Giacomo Ceruti

of "social" painting.

in-

troduced images of the poor, the disadvantaged, and the marginalized into

art.

His paintings are striking because of

their direct depiction of reality (in fact, they recall the

work of another Lombard

painter, Caravaggio)

and the un-

usual sense of outrage and involvement conveyed by the respect, they occupy a very important place

artist. In this

European

art.

As pointed out above, Venice deserves separate treatment. Indeed, any discussion of eighteenth-century Venetian art

must

also include

works executed

great distance from

at a

The experiences of Canaletto in London, Tiepolo inWurzburg and Madrid, and Bernardo Bellotto at various central European courts provide the most celethe

Rial to.

brated examples of the truly European dimension

sumed by it

as-

the Venetian school and the decisive leading role

played in the development of eighteenth-century art in

all

countries.

While the Venetian

state

plummeted

decline that culminated in 1797 with the Treaty of

into a

Campo

Formio and annexation by the Austrian empire, Venetian art enjoyed a period of splendor with specialized masters in various sectors.

Indeed, the eighteenth-century Venetian school offers the greatest possible variety of subject matter, dimension, and

medium, from monumental scenes of everyday icate

views of the

life,

city.

frescoed ceilings to minute

from sumptuous

The

altarpieces to del-

starting point for the rebirth of

the Venetian school was the decisive

abandonment of the

"shadows" of the seventeenth century and

a return to the

"sunlight" of the Renaissance. Sebastiano Ricci, Piazzetta,

and Tiepolo openly acknowledged that they drew upon the great sixteenth-century masters, especially Veronese, to

produce sumptuous scenes

full

of color and movement,

adding a taut, effervescent vein of inspiration to the cal

models. Giambattista Tiepolo,

in particular,

classi-

reached

Francesco Guardi Town with Canal

Canaletto Procession of Knights of the Order of the Bath Before Westminster

oil

Abbey 1747-1755

1 % x 20% in. (30x53 cm)

oil

on canvas,

39 x 39%

765-1 770 on canvas,

Uffizi,

Florence

in.

(99 x 101 cm) National Gallery, London

immense

the climax of a luminous expressive crescendo in secular allegories,

color irresistibly

Tiepolo

which were an explosion of

and

light

propelled toward the heavens.

perhaps the most important and influential

European Baroque. Impetuous and

painter of the late

overpowering, capable of orchestrating broad theatrical effects

without neglecting descriptive

marizes the rise and reer.

Having reached

detail,

Tiepolo sum-

of the Rococo style in his long ca-

fall

its

Rococo

height around 1760, the

became unfashionable almost overnight, supplanted and practically ridiculed

by Neoclassicism. This explains

how

one of Europe's most celebrated and sought-after painters could

from

come

away

to die alone and almost forgotten, far

his native land, in the

space of a few short years.

Another characteristic aspect of Venetian painting

veduta, or view, the particular type of landscape

made

who was

famous throughout Europe by Canaletto, worthily succeeded by his

the

nephew Bernardo

Bellotto.

Based on the observation of reality but also on the use of subtle optical devices to correct perspective theatrical effect, vedute

were by

far the

and enhance