My Fulbright Experience I. by Fulbright Hungary

MY FULBRIGHT EXPERIENCE

The Mutual Educational Exchange Program or the Fulbright Program, named in honor of Senator J. William Fulbright, was established by the U.S. Congress on August 1, 1946. It is now administered under the Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act of 1961, as amended by Public Law 87256. This Act provides the legislative authority for the Program. The main objective of this Act is “to enable the government of the United States to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and the people of other countries ... and thus to assist in the development of friendly, sympathetic, and peaceful relations, between the United States and other countries of the world.” The program operates in more than 140 countries. Binational commissions were established by executive agreements in 51 countries. The J. William Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board (BFS) in Washington, DC, comprises 12 educational and public leaders appointed by the President of the United States. It has statutory responsibility for the selection of all academic exchange grantees, the establishment of policies and procedures, and the supervision of the Fulbright Program worldwide. Motivated by the need to change the U.S.’s traditional isolationist policy, the Fulbright Program developed into an indispensable resource for scholars and institutions all over the world. Today, international expertise is even more vital than ever as the realities of the postCold war era become far more complex and the emerging international system increases political and economic linkages throughout the world. Since its inception, the Fulbright Program has welcomed more than 270,000 researchers, lecturers and students from the United States and the rest of the world. Many have assumed leadership roles, including Nobel and Pulitzer Prize winners, heads of state and prime ministers, artists and ambassadors, governors and senators, professors and physicians, supreme court justices and CEOs. These Fulbrighters, past and present, have enabled the Fulbright Program to become the world’s largest and most prestigious scholarly exchange program. Sponsored by the U.S. Department of State, the Fulbright Program offers opportunities for recent graduates, postgraduate candidates, and developing professionals and artists to conduct career-launching study and research abroad as well as for researchers and lecturers in any fields of arts and sciences. Since the establishment of the Program, about 90,000 grantees from the United States and 180,000 grantees from other countries have benefited from the Fulbright experience. The Program awards approximately 4,800 grants for U.S. and 4,800 for non-U.S. applicants annually and currently operates in over 140 countries worldwide. The Fulbright Commission in Hungary was established in January 1992, after a binational agreement was signed between the governments of Hungary and the United States in December 1990. The Hungarian government has acknowledged the importance of the Fulbright Program and also helps financially. The Ministry of Education and Culture provides the office space for the Commission and significantly contributes toward the program costs.

MY FULBRIGHT EXPERIENCE

Academic Years

2002/2003, 2003/2004, 2004/2005 Hungarian - American Commission for Educational Exchange Budapest 2006

ISBN 963 216 798 8 Edited by: Krisztina Dietz Designed by: Mikl처s Szalay Printed by: Korrekt Nyomda Published by: Dr. Huba Br체ckner Executive Director Hungarian - American Commission for Educational Exchange 1146 Budapest, Ajt처si D체rer sor 19-21. HUNGARY Tel.: (36-1) 462-8040, Fax: (36-1) 252-0266 E-mail: info@fulbright.ph.hu Website address: www.fulbright.hu

Budapest, 2006

Foreword

In accordance with the fundamental goal of the Fulbright Program - mutual understanding - the Executive Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Republic of Hungary has established the authority of the Commission to conduct a program of educational and cultural exchange between the two countries using funds made available by both governments. Given the overall mission of the global Fulbright Program, the Commission offers qualified Hungarian and American citizens the opportunity to exchange significant knowledge and educational experience in the sciences and arts, especially in fields relevant to the two countries. Participants thereby contribute to a deeper understanding of U.S.-Hungarian relations and broaden the means by which the two societies can further their understanding of each other’s cultures. The Hungarian‑American Fulbright Commission supports educational and research programs which are in harmony with the spirit of the signing partner states and which receive financial support from the two governments. Besides government funding the Commission seeks donations from the business community, from foundations and from other benefactors as well. In keeping with the spirit of the Fulbright Program, special preference is given to candidates who appear best able to share their newly acquired experience and knowledge upon their return. Preference is also given to qualified applicants who have not had extensive overseas experience prior. The Fulbright Program offers the following grant possibilities for Hungarian candidates: • graduate student grants, • lecturer grants, • research grants, • co-sponsored and supplementary grants, • travel only grants, • teacher exchange opportunities, • other special grants.

The usual duration of the graduate student grants is one or two academic semesters. Grants to lecturers are for one or two semesters, to researchers for three to nine months. Faithful to the spirit of the Fulbright Program, grants are given to candidates who are devoted to sharing their experiences and knowledge in the most effective way after returning to Hungary either in academic or in business life. In order to secure fair screening of applications, the Commission has appointed its own Selection Committee and established its own selection procedures, which include three stages of evaluating the candidates: 1. eligibility screening conducted by the staff of the Commission; 2. evaluation of project proposals by Hungarian and American experts; 3. interviewing of selected candidates by the Executive Director, an American Embassy representative and Board Members. Each year the Fulbright Commission organizes a meeting for the newly returned Hungarian grantees and invites them to give a summary of their grant period. These short presentations demonstrate the manifold value set of the program and the achievements of our grantees. Those who work hard on supporting the program and are involved in the selection of the Hungarian participants can get a first hand feedback on the success of the grant period from the participants by their short presentations. In this book the reader will find reports by Hungarian Fulbright grantees - lecturers, researchers, students, exchange teachers. As the director of the program I’m very proud of our grantees’ achievements, and I strongly believe that their grant period can be (and has been) a life changing experience. Above the professional activities our grantees have done a great job as Hungary’s representatives in the United States, fulfilled their mission to promote mutual understanding. In most of the cases the grant period is only the beginning of a much longer and wider cooperation between the Hungarian grantee and his/her institution and the partners (persons and institutions) in the U.S. It is my pleasure to share the experience of the Hungarian Fulbright grantees with the reader(s) of these reports. The Fulbright Program is as timely, its mission is as important in our days as it was in 1946, the year of its conception. This year we celebrate the 60th anniversary of this global exchange program. I wish many-many more happy anniversaries for the Fulbright program and its alumni. September 25, 2006 Dr. Huba Brückner executive director

Table Of Contents 2 002/2 00 3 11

József Andóczi-B. Long-Awaited Letters from Here and There

Péter Dávidházi On Board of the „Fulbright Scholar” Ship: Research in America

Miklós Kontra Your Right to your Language (Variety)

Péter Kovács Six months in Colorado

Zoltán Kövecses Cultural Variation in Metaphor1

Gábor Lente Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons using Rhenium-based Catalysts

Robert Marcz TITLE – Bonds

Éva Mathey Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon in the Light of American Hungarian Relations in the Interwar Period

111

Tamás Mihálydeák The logical-philosophical basis of logical systems

121

Péter Szûcs The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling

2 00 3/2 00 4 137

Ferenc Bari PhD, DSc Mitochondrial mechanisms of perinatal hypoxic brain injury

145

Dr Tibor Fabiny Trends in American Luther Research. Parallels Between Luther’s Theology and Shakespeare’s Hamlet.

159

Gerencsér Judit The USA and Hungary in Cleveland: Information processing as a bridge between two nations and cultures in past, present and future

171

Jozsef Laczko Modeling the neural control and biomechanics of locomotion

181

Molnár Ádám Researching Literature in Minnesota How Updike’s Fiction Meets Life in the Upper Midwest

192

Szabó Kovács Judit Determination of the hallmarks of gangs and drugs

201

István Kornél Vida Half year as Fulbright grantee at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

2 00 4/2 00 5 217

Zsuzsanna Balázsné Langó Jefferson Davis’s Hungarians: Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army

221

Bollobás Enikô A History of American Literature

227

Kállay Géza Tapasztalatok az Egyesült Államokban

239

Karátson Dávid Comparative volcano geomorphological studies in the San Francisco, Springerville, Hopi Buttes and Mount Taylor volcanic fields

248

Orbán Sándor Journalism, Culture and Government in America

252

Rosivall László Research of Nephrology

Long-Awaited Letters from Here and There József Andóczi-B. ............................................................................. Deák Ferenc Gimnázium 6723 Szeged, József Attila. sgt. 118-120. http://www.deakf-szeged.sulinet.hu/ sir_andoczi@yahoo.com

Pomona High School 8101 W. Pomona Drive, Arvada CO 80005 http://jeffcoweb.jeffco.k12.co.us/high/pomona/ Adviser: Victoria J.K. Blumenthal

............................................................................. The following two accounts have been selected from a serious of letters written to students, colleagues, friends and family over a period of twelve months. The first one describes a trip to Las Vegas while the second relates the rather eventful story of my homecoming from the United States. I decided to keep the original form and translate everything almost word for word as I believe the letters give the impression of a perfect snapshot as they are with all the little insignificant but interesting details. They also capture the child-like curiosity, naivety and wonder that I saw the world with throughout my odyssey, and which enabled a lot of people close to my heart to experience my fantastic adventures together with me. Both these letters along with the ones I wrote in Hungarian are in fact a celebration of the generosity, kindness, courage, humanity, wisdom, verve and wonderfulness of all the people whose friendship life has bestowed on me, and who all these letters were written to and about.

1. Knock, knock, take her! My Dearest Everybody, When one of my colleagues at Pomona High School found out where I was going for the fall break, she told me that it was a place where one could indulge oneself in any of the seven deadly sins or even all of them at the same time if that was what

one wanted. Or if one had the imagination, one could even make up one’s own personal deadly sin and put that into practice. With this guidance in mind, I set off for the entertainment capital of the world, the city of sin: Las Vegas. One of my first impressions of Las Vegas was formed by two young Mormon men

AY 2002-2003 cycling by on the road, each wearing a pair of black pants and a white dress shirt, carrying a Bible in a leather belt-bag. The idea flashed across my mind that the Almighty Creator had trusted these young men with the hardest possible mission if He had sent them here, where people didn’t often come for absolution from their sins. The situation seemed even more mind-boggling because Las Vegas is not a typical place to see bicycles. Taxis and mile-long, shiny, black or white Limousines, yes! But bicycles? But let’s not rush things just yet. Let me tell you the whole story as it happened from the very beginning. From the window of the plane an indescribably exquisite view unfolded before my eyes. As the plane ascended higher and higher in the night, the details of Denver became indistinct, and we seemed to be hovering over an infinite sea of glowing embers. Suddenly it occurred to me that if I were a movie director, I would definitely use this sight, say, in a sci-fi flick. I was actually quite pleased with this movie idea of mine. A few minutes later, it also occurred to me that I might actually have seen something similar in a movie. But which movie was it? I didn’t know for sure, but I was positive that it must have been a science-fiction movie. I felt somewhat dismayed that somebody had stolen my movie idea. After leaving behind the mile-high metropolis, and after everything was shrouded in blackness outside, I thought I would occupy myself somehow. Blood is thicker than water, and this is especially true for a teacher’s blood. I had vainly made a re-

solution to take it easy and to leave those bleeding papers alone this time: pangs of bad conscience soon started to torment me. I had set off for Las Vegas with a huge pile of students’ papers in my bag, and after drinking my usual glass of red wine, I produced my red folder with the portrait of the young Yeats on it, and got down to grading some lofty essays on Miller’s The Crucible. After a while I found myself being looked at in disbelief by the four chaps sitting in the same row as me. They probably found the idea of a teacher grading papers and that of a red-eye flight to Las Vegas incompatible. I had to agree that this WAS a little awkward, and so the next time the widely-traveled essays on Goody Proctor, Abigail Williams and the others saw red ink was only two weeks later. According to ancient tradition, gambling starts even before the plane has landed. The cabin staff goes up and down the aisle and collects a dollar bill from each willing passenger. You have to write the number of your seat on the bill first. After that there’s a draw, and if you are lucky, you win the jackpot. As odd fate had it, the chaps in my row, who had been looking at me somewhat askance, didn’t have a pen to write their seat number with, and in their desperation they decided to turn to me for help. Subsequently, I gallantly offered the sole pen I had on me: the red one I used for grading papers. Then the moment of the draw arrived. Everyone on the plane was waiting with bated breath to learn who the lucky one would be. – Well, it wasn’t me. No, it wasn’t. It was one of the chaps in my row. This company of four was celebrating with gay abandon, and

Long-Awaited Letters with the plastic bag brimming with money (sixty-something bucks), they gallantly treated themselves not to one but two rounds of drinks. And they were beaming with glee at everyone around them including me. With this little incident, Dame Fortune, smirking in my face, gave me to understand that she would not favor me in my gambling endeavors. Unlucky in gambling, but lucky in love, as they say. Well, I’d rather not go into that… I got to Las Vegas Airport safe and sound. Even though I had not booked a room to stay, I knew where I was going. The lady at the travel agency, who had been really nice and had gotten my plane ticket too, had assuaged my worries by assuring me that I would surely find somewhere to stay in Las Vegas. She told me that I should be careful about two things, though. First of all, I should make sure that my accommodation was not somewhere near the city jail. (A very interesting piece of advice, I thought.). And then if somebody tried to foist a really squalid room on me, I should make a move. (‘What’s squalid to her?’ I asked myself. ‘In Hungary, I had slept in extremely sordid dormitories that actually brought to mind the harsh circumstances of Turkish dungeons. And this was America! Come on!’) Traveling in Germany while still in college, I had found that international youth hostels were clean, safe and relatively cheap, too. To my surprise and infinite joy, I actually found one in Las Vegas. The whole thing sounded a little bit contradictory, though: a cheap hostel right on the Strip, the main street of the city, in the vicinity of the biggest casinos. I brushed

aside my suspicions, however, and decided that it would do. I got into a taxi at the airport. Actually, it wasn’t even a taxi: it was rather a hybrid of a taxi and a minibus: you had to let the driver know which hotel you wanted to go to, and he made sure that everyone reached their destination. When I told him that I was heading for the International Youth Hostel, he started to eye me with suspicion and snapped at me a hoarse ‘I’ll let you know’ through the fence of his teeth. I failed to read the implicit sign in his response then. The minibus gradually filled with passengers, and we set off. As the palm trees swooshed by in the dark, the chauffeur entertained us with the latest gossip he had heard through the grapevine. “It’s exactly a week since a man jumped off the roof of this hotel on the right. He had lost all his money on roulette.” He called out the names of the fanciest hotels in Las Vegas, and in the most affable voice imaginable he took leave of his passengers one by one. Then suddenly, he changed his tone. He looked back at me, and with a touch of contempt in his voice and with none of the affability left, he barked the words ‘International Youth Hostel’. (One would think that there are certain words or combination of words such as ‘International Youth Hostel’ which are impossible to be uttered with contempt. Well, he certainly shattered this theory of mine. Ever since then, if I want to practice my histrionic skills, besides repeating tongue-twisters such as A big black bedbug bit the bathing badger’s butt, but the bathing badger bit the big black bedbug back, I keep saying the words International Youth Hostel

AY 2002-2003 to myself – with as much contempt in my voice as possible.) On the neon sign only two letters were working: n and o. Defying all possible danger - come what may - I entered. At reception, a college student welcomed me warmly, and in responding to her query, I decided to take a somewhat more expensive private room instead of just a dorm bed. Only when I stepped into my new quarters did I realize what the travel agent had actually meant by a squalid room. First of all, there being no private access to my room, I had to fumble my way through a dark dorm hall. Once inside, I found the place fairly dismal. A stained, torn and patched green rag hung over the small prison-cell window from two crooked and rusty nails. There were two single beds – both battered beyond imagination and creaking as if in unspeakable agony. By the door there was a pale yellow stool with the paint peeling off, and in the corner there was a suspicious-looking fossil of an electric heater. It was dangerous even to look at it, let alone touch it. Luckily, I had private access to the only shower and toilet in that part of the building, which I shared with the occupants of the dorm hall. The hygiene was somewhat questionable, of course, but I’d rather not mention in what ways. The washbasin was an imitation of fake marble. When it was cast, they added some gold dust to the dollop, and if you were lucky enough, you could still see it glistening through the filth as an indication of the fact that you were in Las Vegas, after all. To top it all off, over the headboards of the groaning beds two

posters hung of the King himself in Viva Las Vegas and Jailhouse Rock. Resigning myself to my fate, I picked the bed under Jailhouse Rock. (Speaking of jails, I still don’t know where the city jail is situated in Las Vegas, but I fear it is better not to find out.) Before going to bed, I decided to take a walk and maybe have dinner. When I got back, the dorm hall was full of men trying to have their dream of dreams, and I had the honor of hearing them wheezing and snoring loudly. I felt rather relieved to have opted for the private room, but I seriously considered looking for a better place to stay the following day. Until then, I decided I could put up with the wretched circumstances of the place. The next morning I set about exploring the city. As I marched across the dorm hall, I noticed that the average age of its occupants was about 65. Outside the hostel, I made sure and checked, but they didn’t have the word ‘eternal’ before ‘youth’. ‘What am I doing here?’ I left my luggage at the reception and told them I would be back for it later. Walking the streets of Denver, you come across some funny little containers on the sidewalk. They serve as newspaper dispensers, something we don’t have in Hungary. You have to insert two quarters into the coin-operated version, and subsequently you can help yourself to the daily newspaper you long to peruse. There are dispensers that work for free. You just have to open their door as you open the oven in your kitchen and grab a copy of an advertising publication for real estate, job opportunities or entertainment. Walking

Long-Awaited Letters the streets of Las Vegas, I came across the same funny containers. I was quite heartened by their presence as I was hoping to inform myself about running variety shows, not-to-be-missed cultural events and once-in-a-lifetime attractions. Accordingly, I went up to the first one that came my way, and I opened its door exactly the way I open the oven in my kitchen and helped myself to a copy of the publication lying there. It was a lively and colorful brochure. According to the glaring lettering on the cover, if I still had not found the one and only, I was bound to just by leafing through the little booklet. I felt a natural urge of curiosity to open it. And here’s what I found. Inside, women of all sorts and persuasions in rather scanty outfits – or sometimes even dispensing with their meager attire – posed in rather inventive postures and cast yearning glances towards me from the pages. The parts especially meant for a gynecologist’s eyes were discreetly masked by small solid black heartlets. (Very discreet and very small.) The other dispensers held similar publications. This was the moment when I actually understood what my colleagues meant when they declared Las Vegas sinful, and what the words ‘job opportunities’ and ‘entertainment’ denoted here. With night approaching, this particular branch of service industry is in full swing on the Strip. Solicitors flank the sidewalk about every two feet, trying to find prospective customers for the girls. This procedure takes the form of a special repetitive rite. First of all, in one hand you hold a stack of the publications mentioned above, and in the other you take one copy and fold it lengthwise. If a man (i.e.

an adult male of any age) passes you, you knock the folded copy against the stack twice, and you reach towards the wouldbe customer and offer it to him. Don’t get too frustrated if he doesn’t accept it. Maybe the next one will. The solicitors can be men, women and even children. It feels as if young and old stick together to make the career of the only gifted child in the family. Knock, knock, take her. Knock, knock, take her. And the solicitors are indiscriminate: you can be walking down the street with a knock-out of a girlfriend hand in hand, and you still get your own copy. You never know. Can you feel the rhythm of the night in Las Vegas? Knock, knock, take her, knock, knock, take her, knock, knock, take her… I was wondering what it was exactly that these good people sold. Prostitution is forbidden by law in Las Vegas, after all. (Outside the city limits, once you are in the middle of nowhere, you find yourself a nice cactus, and you are free to do whatever you wish and whoever you wish to do it with.) Well, they strip. For $250 they go and see you in your own private quarters and they take off their clothing while dancing an erotic dance especially for you. And nothing more. You even have a choice: if the artist is not to your liking, after proper introductions have been made, you can send her away without paying. Well, this is the official story, of course. But, as always, there are other stories, too. Well, I hope you appreciate my intrepidity and the fact that I have found out about so many interesting things! Anyway, I was in search of other forms of entertainment, and so I made my way

AY 2002-2003 to a casino. I was well aware that these dens of sin could be found in the lobby area of the big ritzy hotels. What held me back a trifle was the fact that I was not quite accustomed to sauntering in fancy, red-carpet hotels. I was afraid that people would eye me suspiciously because of my not too elegant appearance and my improper touristy manners. I felt these fears absolutely justified after my little affair with the bus driver. Well, I needn’t have been vexed. A formal appearance or gentlemanly behavior are not indispensable in this environment. The only thing that counts is your money, and nothing else. No matter how much money you can sacrifice – just a few quarters or millions the most important rule is that everybody HAS SOME money that they can spend. It’s an incredible sight when you first enter a Las Vegas casino. There are literally hundreds or even thousands of gambling machines covering the area of several football fields. I’m not exaggerating. There are flashing lights and multitudes of people thronging everywhere. You hear constant tinkling, chinking, jingling, beeping and tintinnabulating everywhere you go. Further inside, countless roulette, blackjack, poker and craps tables await both the knowing and the unsuspecting visitor, and almost each of them is surrounded by players or curious onlookers. It took me at least half an hour just to get through the first casino. After some dithering, I made up my mind to try my luck at a fruit-machine. First, I won a little, and then I lost a little. After an hour of pushing buttons, I began to understand why people spend hours in front of these wily machines. With just a

little bit of investment, I was occupied for a couple of hours myself. (I guess it goes without saying that the balance of my gambling spree was negative in the end.) Fortunately, I’m the type who gets easily bored with cards and other gambling games so I left. This way my money was safe, and I also stood a good chance of seeing more of Las Vegas than just a battered one-armed bandit. I took to observing people in the casino. Who were the types that risked five or even ten bucks on one bet, and who were the types that pecked away at the quarter machines? And also who were the types that snatched down with gusto on the really popular nickel machines once they had spotted one that was not being used? Do I need to say that I belonged with the latter group? There were a few onecent machines, too, but there was just no way of worming your way close to them. I watched people win, and I watched them lose. I watched families clinging to plastic receptacles brimming with coins, and I watched elderly matrons taking their fortune in their hands by clinging to their personalized gambling cards. I came to some really fascinating conclusions concerning the bond between man and machine, and man and money, which I will share with you – perhaps another time in another letter. (You can’t wait, I know!) I moved on. The same kind of atmosphere awaited me in the lobby of the next hotel. And in the next. And the next, too. No wonder, as there are over a hundred hotels in the city, and each lobby abounds with fruit machines, one-armed bandits, and other devices designed to

Long-Awaited Letters bring about one’s financial ruin. You’ve seen one, you’ve seen them all, I thought to myself, and I found myself wondering what I should do next. Looking around a bit more seemed a good enough idea. After what felt like hours of aimless meandering in the jungle of gambling machines, I chanced into the yard of a hotel, where I saw a rather improbable sight. I found myself in the middle of an oasis with palm trees, a pool, domes and sand-colored walls typical of African architecture. I was half expecting a dromedary to emerge suddenly with a sheik wrapped in a white sheet. I can’t stress enough how improbable the whole situation was. It felt as if I were someone else and in a dream. Bedazzled, I figured out how to get out of the hotel to identify it. It was the Sahara. Improbable is the right word: Las Vegas is a rather improbable place. First of all, it lies right in the middle of the desert, where no one would normally go to have fun. In the beginning, it was only gambling that attracted fun-craving crowds. Later on, people were forced to realize that there were too many casinos, and the lure of losing your salary was just not enough. Somebody had a bright idea, and they built the exact replicas of the world’s greatest tourist attractions. Thanks to this ingenious plan, from the oasis in the Sahara my way led me right to the Forum Romanum. I was dreadfully impressed by the genuine Roman aqueducts, which ran along the promenade. Two blocks away I had the chance to marvel at a perfect if somewhat shriveled imitation of the Eiffel Tower right in the vicinity of the Arch of Triumph. Further

on, across the street, neat little canals separated the maze-like ells and wings of the next hotel, and there was no shortage of gondolas, either. While exploring this wonderfully spurious copy of Venice, I stumbled across a cherubic serenade delivered in a captivating baritone from a gondola. Inside, fleecy clouds hung from the bogus Venetian buttermilk sky above an unrivalled reproduction of Saint Mark Square. I highly recommend Las Vegas to everyone! It is an ideal destination especially if you long to go on a world tour but lack the financial means. You only need to scrape together the fare for one flight, and then you will literally have the whole world at your feet. There’s something else. Most people will want to go shopping when they travel, and for their sake the forefathers of this metropolis dreamt up a perfect combination of cultural delight and consumeristic pursuit. The cultural input has been successfully minimized: it’s absolutely enough to cast a passing glance at a noted edifice from the outside. When you go in, you don’t have to bother about dull, dull, dull museums and art galleries. What you have inside is infinite rows of swanky boutiques and souvenir shops, where you can spend your money to your heart’s content. Seeing this miracle of a city, I felt somewhat sorry. It seemed such a waste of money and time to have visited some of the world’s greatest attractions one by one. I even regretted buying a plane ticket and arranging to fly to New York for the Christmas vacation. There was no

AY 2002-2003 way back, though. I couldn’t get a refund, and I was dead sure that I would be feeling very bored now that I had seen the Statue of Liberty and the fake skyscrapers. I had learnt my lesson, though, and I was sure about one thing. If anyone ever tried to chuck at me a trip to Rome or Venice in the future, I would turn them down flat. What would I want to go there for? I had seen the entire world in Las Vegas! (This shouldn’t stop you from chucking trips like that at me, though. Go on and test me! J)

I’m serious! Test me! There’s one more thing that’s really great about Las Vegas: you can get to places that no travel agent will take you to. Take Treasure Island, for example. Walking down the street, you notice an ark with a Jolly Roger flying at full mast. You also notice some cave dwellings with real cave-dwellers in them. Only closer inspection reveals that they are cleverly camouflaged windows of a restaurant busy with people. The whole hide-out, of course, is surrounded by a fordless moat, at the bottom of which lost treasures of failed buccaneers lie: intricate plates and jugs, subtle gold jewelry, swords and daggers with fine hilts, along with the small change thrown in by the tourists for good luck. Or take the castle of Camelot. (Strangely enough, it bears the name Excalibur here.) It is a real castle from a real fairy tale. Once inside, and once you forget about the sea of slot machines, everything works to create a real medieval radiance. There’s the torches. There’s the

dragon-head decorations and knockers on the doors. There’s the gargoyles. And there’s the hotel staff dressed in medieval costumes. There is also a gigantic banqueting hall where they serve food so typical of medieval times: stuffed turkey and mashed potatoes. And while the dear guests eat, the knights in the arena whang each other unconscious according to the strict moral rules of jousting. The whole event is commentated by none other than the great sorcerer himself, Merlin. Isn’t it just fabulous? Dusk was falling, and suddenly it occurred to me that I had not taken care of tonight’s accommodation. True, the MGM palace was close enough to tempt me, and I also saw the silhouette of a bona fide Sphinx in the distance, but I was getting really tired. And I was getting really worried too, as I had not found somewhere else to stay that night. I decided to head back. As I was trudging along the street, a rather unusual notice caught my eye: The volcano erupts daily every 15 minutes after dark until midnight except in inclement weather. The red flashing light denotes inclement weather. When I saw this sign, it is so typical of me that the first thing that should come to my mind was the thought that I was faced with an idiom here. The volcano erupts daily must be a bleeding idiom that I have not come across in my seventeen years of studying English. That is surely the reason why I don’t understand what this important message is about. I felt rather ashamed. I saw people gathering with expectant

Long-Awaited Letters faces and decided to stay and make sense of this mystery. Within five minutes the earth started to rumble threateningly under our feet. Silence ensued. And then, another rumble followed, but this time it was more powerful. The subsequent silence was even more frightful. The third time the rumbling was almost unbearable, and it gave way to some spectacular volcanic activity. They had everything you need for a proper eruption. They had a volcano, lots of fire and lots of water, too. The water babbled down the side of the volcano while willo’-the-wisp-like flames danced madly on the surface of the pool that girdled the fire-spitting rock. This perfect picture of an eruption could have been spoiled by the lovely statue of a pair of frolicking dolphins in the pool, but by now I was wise enough to ignore certain factors for the sake of perfection. After ten minutes, the whole calamity was over, and people went about their business imperturbably. The night had fallen by this time, and I was about three or four miles from the International Youth Hostel, where I had left all my luggage. To my horror, it started drizzling. Naturally, I had not expected it to rain in the middle of the desert, and so I didn’t have my mackintosh or an umbrella on me. I quickened my footsteps, but there was no help. Within ten minutes it was raining cats and dogs, and I got absolutely drenched within seconds. A rickshaw boy joined me in my haste in the night. A substantial puddle was collecting on the red fake-leather seat, and he, too, looked like a drenched

poodle. After a brief tête-à-tête, he declared that I was a certified case to tramp miles in the pouring rain. That’s what he thought, but I think it was a clear case of the pot calling the kettle black. I spent at least another hour traipsing in the cold and callous downpour. Much as I love a fine summer mizzle, I felt compelled to revise my position on the subject. For some strange reason, I was in no mood for dancin’ and singin’ in the rain. Not now. In addition, I gained a personal insight into the condition of the city’s nonexistent street guttering as the swooshing limos left me covered in a mixture of rainwater and dirt. As I was nearing the hostel, the road beside me swelled into a regular stream until the carriageway couldn’t be seen at all for the rolling river. In order to approach my destination, I had to ford this perilouslooking watercourse. I didn’t want to douse the only pair of boots that I had with me, and which I was intending to wear the following two days so I took them off, tied them together by the shoelaces and hung them around my neck. I tucked up my pants half way up my thighs (!!!) and set out to cross the River of No Return, which reached up above my knees. In the middle of the rushing river I stopped, and I thought to myself in disbelief: this is exactly the kind of fun I envisaged having in Las Vegas. What a perfect way to paint the town red! At long last, I arrived home, and without a second thought I rented the same sweet suite I had had the previous night. Shivering with cold and heedless of all potential danger, I grabbed the electric

AY 2002-2003 heater and plugged it. Thank God, it was working. True that it gave out a little bit of smoke, made strange noises and had two legs missing, but it did work. Within fifteen minutes, the place felt warm and cozy, and I acknowledged that I had never been to a room superior to this one. On Sunday morning I set off again, but fully encumbered this time. I had found out that the prices of even regular hotel rooms soar sky high on certain days. However, they plummet on others (on Sundays, for example), and even an earthborn mortal like myself could afford a bit of ostentation then. My hotel of choice was the Circus Circus. The sharpness of the contrast was rather conspicuous: my room there had two (!!!) large double beds, a television, air conditioning, at least eighteen immaculate snow white towels, complementary items, a breathtaking view and no creeping sense of danger. It was pretty hard to get accustomed to my changed circumstances. I had to twist my own arm. But I eventually managed to, somehow. Food is reputed to be very, very cheap in Las Vegas. I agree. Sometimes, you can have a buffet meal and stuff yourself full until you are ready to burst for just as little as seven or eight dollars. In fact, there are people that specifically come to Las Vegas for the grub and not for gambling. I happened to meet one of them in the person of a Philippine bloke, who I shared a table with. Our discussion was very instructive: I learnt an awful lot about the history and culture of the Philippines, which I will share with you â&#x20AC;&#x201C; perhaps another time, in another letter. I roamed the Strip for hours on end, and I saw many a fascinating sight including a

dazzling fountain show in front of one of the eminent hotels. The shooting darts of water danced a frenetic choreography in perfect harmony to the rhythm of the well-known song Big Spender. Interestingly, this fountain show had been the first thing to come to my studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; minds when I had asked them about their experiences in Las Vegas. What I have written so far goes to show that Las Vegas is a very strange place. But besides the volcano that was scheduled to erupt every fifteen minutes or the Roman aqueducts, there was something else that embodied this quality of strangeness. I know it from my own experience that cars are not only part and parcel of everyday life in the USA , but they are also indispensable. Innumerable services have evolved in order to satisfy the needs of busy drivers. While drivein cinemas have taken root in Hungary with more or less success, a much wider variety of services is available and really popular here. Take fast food restaurants for example: you just croon into a microphone whether you want chicken parmesan or lasagna, and by the time you turn the corner and drive up to the service window, your order will be waiting for you, and all you need to do is pay. Well, this is not so strange, all in all. A somewhat more unusual form of this service is the drive-through pharmacy: you just croon into a microphone whether you want two bottles of laxative or an arch supporter, size 10, and by the time you turn the corner, your order will be waiting for you. And that is all right, too. But what I saw in Las Vegas is beyond all imaginationâ&#x20AC;Ś

Long-Awaited Letters Las Vegas is a place where you can marry the man or woman of your heart’s choice without much ado. At the ceremony, they never ask you any awkward questions, only ones that you can answer with a simple ‘I do’. In order to meet customers’ needs more efficiently, they have also introduced DRIVE-THROUGH CHAPELS. They have the microphone, and they have the service window, too. Unfortunately, I didn’t have a chance to witness such a ceremony in person so I can only rely on my imagination as to how they proceed. Take a white Limousine. You get in the right lane, drive up to the microphone, roll down the window, and you croon in an overwhelmed voice that you want to tie the knot with this bloke/bird in the passenger seat. You say your name and your fiancée’s/fiancé’s. You spell them out, if necessary. By the time you turn the corner and drive up to the service window, your marriage certificate will have been completed for you. But before the newlyweds should get it, they are supposed to show their driver’s licenses to prove their identities. You force the wedding rings on each other’s fingers, and then Friar Lawrence asks you if you mean this marriage seriously. The bride mutters ‘I do’ in an awed voice, and the groom with a radiant smile on his face and leaning over the bride from the passenger seat, follows suit. Finally, Friar Lawrence gives his blessing, and the newlyweds are ready to drive off to the drive-through rice automat, which probably does not exist, but should be invented. I bet you don’t believe me that they actually have drive-through wedding chapels! But they do, I swear. I’ll show

you the pictures when I get home. If you have a preference for more traditional ways of getting hitched, you can, of course, get it underway at a more conventional wedding chapel. They have quite a few of those, too. Even if conventional, you can still feel the difference: you can have Elvis sing for you while you walk up the aisle or you can have neon lights flashing outside the building announcing this important event in your life. I would be very embarrassed, for sure. I had got a ticket for a variety show at one of the top theatres in the evening. I had wanted to make sure that I got a good seat, so I had bought a ticket at the airport, and I had had to pay through the nose for it. The show itself was fairly entertaining: a little bit of dancing, a few acrobats, the occasional comedian and oodles of glamour. It only lasted an hour, not one minute too long. I sat next to a young couple in the audience, and we struck up a conversation, as usual. They claimed to frequent Las Vegas regularly, too, but it was not the food they were in for, but gambling. He said she had the golden touch, and they had actually won a thousand dollars that day. She had just spun the wheel of fortune once, and they were ready to grab the dough. (Why am I always seated next to lucky people and never have luck myself? I guess I need to do some ruminating on that.) This young couple of extraordinary fortune informed me that they hadn’t had to pay for the theatre ticket, either. They merely went to a product promotion, and in exchange they got complimentary tickets for the show. (And I paid FIFTY dollars for just one ticket! L)

AY 2002-2003 The conversation turned to my adventures in the City of Sin, and they I asked me if I had been to the city centre. I assured them that I had, and bragged that I had almost looked at all the big hotels and casinos. I actually started enumerating them one by one, but they stopped me after the fifth name. They enlightened me that what I had seen so far was just the outskirts of the city. The city centre was further to the north. I also learnt that it was better to gamble there because they actually let their customers win more, for they hadn’t had to pay for all the kitschy ostentation. “Great!”, I thought to myself. “I have been running off my feet for two days, and it’s only the outskirts that I have seen. That’s my luck!” With some resignation, I decided to go downtown the next day. As for the rest of the evening, I wanted to surmount my growing frustration, and I decided I was in the mood for a bop. However, I had no idea where I could go so I just picked a place because I liked its name. The dance club called The Gypsy was a long way away, but it was worth the hour’s walk. The two-hour drag show was utterly amusing, and I didn’t even have to pay for it. The taxi driver’s wife had squandered away the family fortune two years before, and they had been struggling to repay their debts ever since. If I had been him, I would have taken my wife and forsaken Las Vegas a long time before. But I didn’t think I knew him well enough to give him advice like that. When I got back to the hotel at four in the morning, I was surprised to find the same hustling and bustling activity as you

would normally find during the day. The lights were the same. The crowd was the same. And you got the same constant tinkling, chinking, jingling, beeping and tintinnabulating as any other time. I learnt that this was one of the tricks that casinos applied. This way people didn’t feel the passing of time or the passing of days, as a matter of fact. The view from my window was truly magnificent, and everything was perfect, except for one thing. One of the letters was not working on the neon advertisement of the hotel. Instead of Circus Circus, it said Circus Cicus, which is the Hungarian for Circus Kitty Cat. Strangely enough, I somehow felt addressed by that, and feeling honored, I hit the sack. For the last day of my stay in Las Vegas I planned to do only one thing: to explore the city centre. I also felt that I couldn’t forgive myself if I didn’t at least once experience the tingle of playing in big money. I only had a quick look-around: this old-fashioned part of the city didn’t have much new to offer me. I must hand it to downtown Las Vegas, though, that it certainly boasts a more elegant and tarnished atmosphere. I went into a casino, and after much browsing and pondering, I decided on a black croupier. There was only one player standing next to the roulette table with an impressive pile of chips in front of him. Though the clock had just struck ten in the morning, the glass of whisky in his hand and his wobbly gait were two tell-tale signs that it wasn’t the first shot he was about to down. I handed over a twenty-dollar bill to the croupier, and he pushed my chips

Long-Awaited Letters in front of me with professional aptitude. In the meantime, the befuddled guest was observing me with a combination of keenness and distrust. He turned to me and said, ‘I don’t like look of you, at all.’ ‘The feeling’s mutual’, I thought, but I ignored him, and made every effort to concentrate on the game. I tried to pretend that standing by the roulette table couldn’t be more natural to me as even at a very early age instead of a pacifier I had sucked on chips in my cradle. Unfortunately, this image of a smooth operator was disastrously destroyed when I placed my first bet. With absolute confidence, I laid one single chip on my favorite color, which gave rise to unanimous indignation among those playing and looking on. You’re supposed to put at least four chips on red, I learnt. ‘Sorry! I just forgot.” I knew they knew I was a greenhorn. Anyway, I got the hang of it very quickly, and enjoyed myself thoroughly for half an hour. I won some on one spin, and I lost some on the next. In the end all my twenty bucks were lost, of course. Relieved, I got up from the table, shook hands with the croupier and my whisky-loving rival and took a gentlemanly leave. I was very proud of myself. I had managed to squander away my money with style, after all. After taking in the old city centre, I decided to go back to the ‘outskirts’ of the city in the hope of some more thrills. In one of the big hotels I noticed an advertisement for a 3D movie show. As I had never seen a 3D movie, I felt somewhat tempted to give it a go. However, I was rather taken aback when I saw that it cost 50 bucks to see six five-minute movies.

Naturally, I felt discouraged. As I was contemplating what I should do next, the guy at the ticket booth came out, and tried to talk me into the deal. When he saw that I was more than reluctant, he divulged to me that for about another twenty minutes there was a special offer, and I could see the same show for half price. He said I should hurry up because time was almost up. I still found the price a little too dear, and chose to leave. Well, he came out of his booth again and said that for a personal special price of fifteen bucks, I could see four of the six movies. I accepted the deal. The 3D movie theatre consisted of a screen and an 18-seat auditorium. Naturally, everybody got their 3D glasses, and for a fuller experience they even made the audience quake with the help of a hydraulic device. There was an elderly lady sitting next to me in the audience with her partner by her other side. As the first movie commenced, as is typical of me, I wasn’t concentrating on what I should have: that is, how virtual reality actually felt. I was more interested in imagining the above lady as the heroine of the movies that were being shown. She completely gave herself over to the new experience, and apparently she was deeply absorbed as she kept screaming really loudly whenever something dangerous happened on the screen and the hydraulic auditorium gave a big jerk. I know it wasn’t very nice of me, but I found her very amusing as she navigated her spaceship into a huge meteorite for the third time or as she slid down the hair-raisingly steep inclines of the Rockies on her snowboard or as she

AY 2002-2003 rode her dirt bike through a cemetery at night while demented and livid zombies thrust their chainsaws towards her. At the end of the fourth movie some people left, and some people stayed. No one wanted to see my ticket or asked me to leave, so I stayed for the other two movies, both of which imitated rollercoaster rides. Out of the six movies, they were probably the truest to life. Afterwards, as I was sauntering down the Strip, near the New York, New York Hotel a sudden, uncontrollable whim overcame me. What if I tried a real, dangerous-looking rollercoaster and not just in 3D? I carefully considered the pros and the cons, but had no difficulty persuading myself. Near the rollercoaster train, a girl in her early twenties gave her boyfriend a kiss as a goodbye. Then she got on, and I was seated next to her. She told me that her boyfriend was too scared to join her, but she couldn’t help loving rollercoaster rides. Then she went on to ask me if it was my first time. My heart was pounding with trepidation as nicely and slowly the train started to ascend. I looked to the left, and in the windowpanes of the fake skyscrapers I saw ourselves creeping higher and higher. And then suddenly we were so high that there were no windowpanes to see ourselves in. I looked forward, and to my great horror, I realized that there were no tracks in front of us. That was when it all started. I felt my heart thumping in my throat and I was gasping for some air as we dove right down into a regular freefall. The events of the ride sped up even more, if possible: a sharp bend to the left, an unexpected turn to

the right, some more free fall, and then up and down. There was only one thing that was worse than not seeing the tracks in front of you: it was when you did see the tracks. That was when you knew that the whole train was going to turn upside down within a second, and it was going to stay that way for about half a mile. That was only if you were lucky. If you were not, then it was going to spin around in a mad spiral and centrifuge the living truth from you for what seemed interminable seconds. Towards the end of the journey, I couldn’t help myself any longer, and I let out a few desperate cries. Then I noticed a sneer on the girl’s face next to me. She was sneering at me the same way I had sneered at the elderly lady at the 3D movie theatre. Well, it was very rude of her, I thought. With quaking knees, I got off the train and sincerely regretted not having gotten a pass for the whole day. Well, folks, this was my big adventure in the City of Sin. I hope you were not bored to death reading it. If you were, just let me know, and I’ll take you off my mailing list. Or if you were really annoyed by it, I would be similarly annoyed and cross if you took revenge by writing me letters of similar lengths. J Two-sentence notes will do, too. I miss so many of you and so many things from home! Take care!

Jozsi / Sir Joseph

Long-Awaited Letters

Afterthoughts: 1.

I’ve counted it all up. I have flown twelve times in my life, and I am enjoying flying more and more. I am very grateful to those who have made this possible for me. Once unimaginable, by now it feels just natural to look for the counter of a particular air company, to check in and to head for the security check. I’ve also learnt to undo my shoelaces in advance because the guards always find me very suspicious for a strange reason or if not, the metal detector will surely go off, and I will have to take them off anyway for an x-ray check. I also know now that I am not supposed to put my nail clippers, my baseball bat or my pig-killing knife in my hand luggage as people won’t be too happy about them. If at all possible, it’s advisable to leave my collection of plastic bombs at home, too. After a thorough overhaul, I can head for the plane. I always ask for a window seat in order to be able to admire the fantastic view from up above. Before the plane takes off, the cabin staff will smilingly but mechanically explain what we are to do in case of emergency. This always reminds me of 9/11. I look around, and I just can’t help myself picturing the terror, the chaos and the end the way it could have happened on those very flights. It’s always some insignificant detail that grabs my attention and sets my mind going. Then I’m forced to realize that it’s not a good game, and I make myself think of something else. Luckily, one of my fellow travelers strikes up a conversation with me by then, or the

air hostess comes, and I order red wine. I always order red wine. The two things go together. Flying and red wine. Red wine and flying. Red wine goes with an awful lot of things.

I guess some of the bigger news from here gets through even to Hungary, but here’s a short summary for you, just in case. In January two planes crashed in midair over northwest Denver; in February a student started shooting outside his high school in Denver, but no one was hurt, fortunately; Michael Jackson is being ripped apart by the media once again; a fire in a Rhode Island club and a panic in an illegally operated Chicago club killed dozens of people; everybody is buying duct tape, plastic sheeting and a three-day supply of bottled water and non-perishable food in preparation for a terrorist attack…

I guess you also want to know what I have been up to lately. Well, I have been exposed to some really exciting stimuli. I was invited to a real western Rodeo by a friend. I got a short introduction into cowboy poetry. I had the honor of listening to the music of some outstanding contemporary musicians. I went snowshoeing in the snowcapped mountains with a bunch of really nice people, and two weeks ago a friend visited me from the Netherlands, and we went to explore Utah’s Arches National Park by car. We both were really amazed to see that such miracles actually existed – but I will let you know about all of the above in

AY 2002-2003 detail – hopefully in the near future. At the moment I am faced with a great dilemma: I am in two minds about where to travel over the one week of the spring break. Shall I go to Chicago or New Orleans? If you can help me make up my mind, please let me know.

Thanks to my friend Lisa, my winter break was another rather memorable experience. We spent three days in New York and a week in Wallingford at her mom’s house, and then another week ensued in a nice villa on the ocean shore in South Carolina. Once again, that’s something I am going to write about in another letter. My situation at the school is getting better and better, and I have got accustomed to the system at last. Now I am enjoying teaching at Pomona High immensely. My classes seem to be more attentive and respectful than last semester, which makes my job much easier. My dear colleagues still continue to be incredibly helpful, and the English department is simply… - I simply can’t find the right superlative to describe them. I’d sooner tell you a story instead: Financial cuts in education are just as much in fashion in the States as in Hungary, and schools are, of course, cut to the quick by ever-diminishing resources. Members of the English Department got a trifle discouraged at the news of having to tighten the purse strings. A little later one of them came up with

a brilliant idea, however, and we have been working on the following project for about two months now. We have resolved to raise the money missing from the budget by our own means. Similarly to the famous firemen of the FDNY, teachers on the department are going to publish their own erotic charity calendar. The models will be none other than the teachers themselves, of course. This will be the token of our success among students and teachers alike. In addition, many believe our fame and success will exceed the framework of the school, and we can expect a great deal of attention not only in Denver, but also at the national level. Details still need to be worked out, but I know one thing for sure: I shall be appearing as an illustration of July, which happens to be the month I was born in. According to our plans, private parts will not be masked by little solid black heartlets, but strategically well-positioned books that constitute the body of the Language Arts curriculum. We are still debating who should get which book (candidates include The Great Gatsby, Pride and Prejudice and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest), and where exactly each model should place it. The possibility of the international distribution of this publication has not been ruled out, so preorders are welcome at the address above. J

Long-Awaited Letters

2. The Red-Carpet Reception Dear Friends, I got home safe and sound about two weeks ago, and this is how it all happened. As my plane was nearing Budapest, I was trying to picture what kind of reception I would have at the airport. Naturally, an ancient Hungarian tradition came to my mind: when a distinguished guest of honor and of high rank arrives in Hungary, he is usually received with various forms of pomp and circumstance. Such festivities include a loaf of freshly baked bread tied up in a ribbon of the Hungarian tricolor, served with a pinch of salt and maybe some paprika, too. This delicacy is usually presented to the respectable visitor by girls in pretty dresses, who invariably present bunches of flowers to the honorable traveler, and who, as a sign of their welcome and admiration, kiss the guest on the cheek. Well, I thought to myself that even though this kind of formality would be perfectly in place and suitable in my situation, I just could not expect my friends to go to such lengths. And then I thought that even though a red carpet leading to my Szeged-bound private aeroplane or a marching band would be really nice, I decided would not insist on either. By the time my plane was ready to land, I had finally made up my mind to feel ineffably elated if just TWO of my friends or relatives showed up to meet me in the arrival hall. I picked up my luggage, went through customs and was very curious to see who those two people would be. Well, there

was only one person waiting for me: one of my best friends’ husband, Attila. He was really sweet: he gave me a very warm welcome. He had four white balloons in his hand to greet me with, and he informed me that he had had a red one too with golden stars on it plus an inscription saying “I’m waiting for Sir Joseph”, but it burst in the very last minute. He was really crestfallen because of that, which made him look even sweeter. We got into his car and started our three-hour journey to the southern city of Szeged. We talked. Or to be more precise, he did most of the talking all throughout the journey, and somehow, I could hardly get in a word edgeways. After an interminable hour of listening, I was beginning to realize that this must be what smart people call reverse culture shock. When coming home from a long journey, your are filled with lots of adventures to talk about, but you rarely realize that the people who stayed home have lots of adventures of their own, even if they seem somewhat dull to you compared to the REAL adventures that you had. I took the advice that the smart people gave in this article I had read, and I was patiently listening and nodding agreeingly as Attila was droning on about recent changes in taxation, the latest traffic regulations or the inconsistencies of Hungarian law concerning real estate. I think he also touched on several laws of physics, but I just cannot recall which ones with utter clarity. We had been “conversing” in this fashion for about two hours, when there was a phone call. It was his wife and my true friend, Ildiko. After talking with her

AY 2002-2003 for a couple of minutes, he asked her if she wanted to talk with me, too. Apparently, her answer was in the negative because to my great shock, he just hung up without handing me his cell phone. And there I was thinking to myself: ‘WHAT? I’m coming home after being away for a whole year, and not even my best friend wants to talk to me? What’s going on? I shouldn’t have come back at all. I should have stayed where I was. I have no home, I have no roots and I have no friends. Is there anyone who loves me or cares about me?” Then, Attila gave me to understand that Ildiko was somewhat worried and vexed because he was still not home, and it was about time to take their son out to the playground, which they usually did together. This time it really seemed that she would have to do that on her own. He also assured me that I shouldn’t worry because it was not such a big deal: even if he missed playing with his son, they could give him a bath together, for he would surely be home in time for that. I’m not sure if I can describe how bad I felt at that moment. In addition to being frustrated, disappointed, and a little bit bored too, I was beginning to feel guilty. “Here I am separating this poor man from his beloved wife and child. How can I be so ruthless? What a heartless bastard I am!” By the time we drew up at the gate of my castle (for the building I live in resembles a real castle), I was really looking forward to a nice and quiet and somewhat depressed evening by myself in the solitude of my cozy little room. And that’s when things started to get really crazy.

The car stopped, and I spotted a familiar face near the gate. It belonged to one of my colleagues. Not having learned from the strange events of my arrival, I involuntarily waved at him as I was really happy to see him. When he acknowledged my identity, he just looked away. He was wearing an elegant suit and had a very serious expression on his face. Again, I had to interpret the situation for myself: “Maybe Pista is translating for some business people in the neighborhood, and so he is not supposed to chat with friends.” I would have gone on with my twisted interpretation of the situation, had there not been a swarm of young people rushing at the car, banging on the windows and demanding autographs. They were demanding autographs from ME. My colleague, the one in the suit, came to my rescue, cleared away the crowd, opened the door of the car for me and ushered me through the gate. “What on earth is going on here?”, I thought to myself. (Those were not the exact words that I actually thought, but I am aware that sometimes one just has to censor one’s mental comments. My friend, Walker, might know the very words from our last Hungarian lesson.) At the gate I was met by a lady wearing an elegant dress suit. She introduced herself, and she assured me that I shouldn’t worry about a thing: everybody was aware that after staying abroad for a long time, one could easily forget one’s mother tongue, and that was why she was there: to translate for me throughout the ceremony. Then she led me along the corridor to the courtyard of the building.

Long-Awaited Letters Do I need to say that there was a red carpet all the way? As I entered, I couldn’t believe my eyes and ears: some fifty people were waiting for me to arrive, and when I did, they burst into a round of unbridled applause and happy cheering. The crumbling walls of the neighboring building had been decorated with huge symbolic posters: one had the word Denver on it, the next had barefooted footprints on it, and the third simply said Szeged. There were flowers, Hungarian flags and banners everywhere. As the rejoicing died down a little bit, a delegation of three approached me, and I was presented with what I hadn’t even dared to dream about on the plane. The freshly-baked bread tied up in a ribbon of the Hungarian tricolor was sitting on a red, silk cushion. Girls in pretty dresses explained that my job was to break off a piece and to consume it with a pinch of salt. Instead of the good old Hungarian paprika, however, they had something else: chili peppers. They explained that they wanted to ease the transition from culture to culture for me, and the similarity between chili peppers and paprika was so striking that it seemed a perfect idea to link the two cultures this way, for I must have eaten lots of Mexican food on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. Next, a gentleman in a dinner-jacket and a bow-tie invited me to sit down in a comfy swivel chair, which along with the red silk cushion appeared oddly familiar: accessories from my apartment. He went on to announce the first number in today’s celebratory show. The large window of the staircase, which overlooks

the courtyard, had been transformed into a temporary stage, and my good friend Eszter appeared in it wearing a very formal and very ugly outfit of the old socialist times and a matching outrageous hairdo. Very unlike her. She began reciting a famous patriotic poem by the renowned Hungarian poet Endre Ady. In it, the poet compares himself to a piece of rock thrown up in the air, which inevitably falls back on earth: just like the way the poet feels compelled to return to his home country whenever he leaves it to go abroad. Eszter’s rendition of the poem was sensational: she got transported with emotion several times: in one of the stanzas she actually got transported twice. Next came a long, long speech delivered by one of my dear colleagues, Csaba Magyar. (Note the name: the word Magyar is actually the Hungarian word for Hungarian.) He addressed me and the crowd from the crumbling window in a very formal manner, and among other things he compared me to none other than the great Christopher Columbus. Everybody was rather expectant when the MC announced the next number in the show, an aria from the famous Hungarian opera Bank Ban, which was based on the very first Hungarian play ever written. To our great disappointment, however, the singer of the aria had not arrived yet as he could not get away from the studios of the local television channel. This news was sad enough as this particular excerpt would have elevated the patriotic overtone of the evening to even newer heights. However, something even sadder was in store for me and everybody present:

AY 2002-2003 the MC announced that to conclude the ceremony, the great traveler himself, Sir Joseph Andoczi would be making an eloquent speech to impress his audience as he usually does. Well, at this point I must tell you something else about my friend, Eszter, one of the main organizers of my welcome surprise. She knows me much too well, and so she also knows that I simply suck at making extemporaneous speeches. Consequently, she grabs every chance to put me in a situation where I have to make a speech of some sort in front of a throng of attentive and (always!) well-meaning people. So there I was again, sweating blood and saying the dumbest things one can imagine. Fortunately, after each specimen of verbal stupidity, the rather appreciative crowd of friends cheered or applauded loudly, which was really funny. After four minutes of torture, I managed to finish my miserable delivery, and the MC thanked me for the profound thoughts I had just shared with them. And then, something rather unusual happened. Everybody lined up in a long line, and a very strange ritual commenced. One by one, my friends, my students, my colleagues and my family came up to me, and after giving me some flowers and kissing me, they each tied a piece of string, cord, ribbon, wire, rope or something of that sort on almost every conceivable projecting part of my body. By the end of this peculiar rite, I probably looked like a quaint little maypole. Among countless others, I had little red hearts around my

ankles, a golden ribbon around my head and even a pair of broken earphones round my left wrist. No one really bothered to enlighten me on the significance of this strange act, but I guess they thought that I was smart enough to figure it out for myself. Well, I think they were trying to tie me to themselves and to my home symbolically so that I wouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t leave them for such a long time again, and this was probably a way of saying that they had missed me. I was moved to tears. But this was still not the end of it. A television crew appeared on the scene (a small one), and they interviewed me right there on the spot in front of everybody. I produced about the same quality of performance as with my speech, of course, but I was beginning to enjoy the situation in a strange, perverted way. Besides interviewing many of my friends, the crew also interviewed my father, who talked about what sort of a child I was a long, long time ago. He was really sweet. And then there was champagne and lots of delicious cake provided by my sister and my fatherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s girlfriend. At long last, I got to talk to my friends under less formal circumstances, and they told me that they had been planning this little get-together for a month, and they were not really happy with the way some of the things had turned out: they had wanted to contact and invite more people, and had actually planned a marching band, but they ran out of time. What a bummer! I also learnt that Attila was actually playing a part in the car, and he was very well aware of the emotional states he was putting me in.

Long-Awaited Letters What an incredible actor he is! He does not know, though, that I have resolved to take revenge. As for the soloist, he showed up two hours late and joined some of my closest friends, my sister and me in consuming the divine stuffed cabbage that my sister had prepared for the occasion. Yummy! Despite our incessant entreaties, he would not sing his aria before such a small audience. Well, I have about two more weeks before school starts, and I have been spending my time unpacking, sorting out photographs, seeing my wonderful friends and telling them about the wonderful friends that I made in the States and the ones that I had the chance to see again in this life.

I know one thing for sure: I am so lucky and blessed to know you. Please remember that if your paths should happen to lead to this part of the world one day, I would be more than happy to be your guide. Also, I always have a mattress or two for you to sleep on in my apartment, or if you should need something fancier than that, we can always think of something. Take care of yourselves, and please keep in touch.

Your friend,

Sir Jozsi

On Board of the „Fulbright Scholar” Ship: Research in America Péter Dávidházi ............................................................................. Hungarian Academy of Sciences Columbia University Institute of Literary Studies Department of English and Comparative Literature Department of 19th Century Literature New York, NY 10027 1118 Budapest, Ménesi út 11-13. www.columbia.edu www.iti.mta.hu dapeter@iti.mta.hu Adviser: Dr. David Scott Kasten

.............................................................................

I should probably apologize for the dubious pun in the title, but my seven-month Fulbright scholarship in 2002-2003 really felt like an exciting transatlantic voyage on board of a ship called the ”Fulbright Scholar”. It was a fruitful voyage, productive in terms of research and rich in cultural experiences. On board of the ship that left Hungary in September 2002 there were the three of us, that is, my wife, our son, and myself, and we felt all the way through that our time both in New York and (thanks to an additional three-month fellowship by the Folger Shakespeare Library) in Washington was most rewarding, and we would cherish fond memories of the trip for the rest of our life. My wife is a literary scholar, our son (my beloved stepson) is a student of mathematics, and the universities (first and foremost Columbia University) and the libraries (the ”Butler” of Columbia, The New York Public Library, The Folger, The Library of Congress) we visited were very hospitable to them as well, so all of us could develop professionally during the ten months on the East Cost. Let me mention three inspiring colleagues from Columbia, professors David Scott Kastan, David Damrosch, and Jean E. Howard, all of whom were very helpful, ever generous with their time, ready to discuss budding ideas. A professor of mathematics from New York University, János Pach, helped our son to audit at the Courant Institute. During this period I gave some guest lectures at several institutions: ”Camel, Weasel, Whale: The Cloud-Scene in Hamlet as a Hungarian Parable” at Columbia University; ”»By What Authority?« The Leavis–Moore Controversy and the

AY 2002-2003 Concerns of Scholarship”, as the Annual Harry T. Moore Lecture at the University of Southern Illinois, in Carbondale; ”»How I Became a Hungarian?« The Odyssey of a 19th-century Hungarian scholar”, at the Library of Congress. I also participated in a conference organized at Columbia University by the AmericanHungarian Educators’ Association, the title of my paper was ”Myths of Fatherhood: Toldy, Gervinus, and Literary History”. At he end I was invited to give an MA course on ”Alexander Pope and English Philosophical Poetry” at the University of California, Irvine, so finally we had two summer months to enjoy the beauties of the West Coast before the voyage ended and our ship returned home in August 2003. By then I had accumulated most of the material needed for my next two books, wrote several chapters in draft, and, thanks to the new perspective provided by a distant point of view, planned my long-term research and writing for years to come. Meantime, my initial plan of research had been slightly transformed. Initially, when applying for the Fulbright scholarship, the idea was to write just one book, on Romanticism, to be titled The Romantic Legacy in Literary Historiography: A Comparative Analysis, as a sequel to my first book published in English, The Romantic Cult of Shakespeare: Literary Reception in Anthropological Perspective (London: Macmillan; New York: St Martin’s Press, 1998). The motivation behind this initial plan was that my personal interest in this topic had been increasingly reassured by a favourable turn in the intellectual climate. Since the 1990s one could sense a renewed

academic interest both in the period of Romanticism (let me mention only the new Macmillan series, Romanticism in Perspective: Texts, Cultures, Histories, or the numerous reconsiderations of the diverse theoretical assumptions of M. H. Abrams, Paul de Man, and Jerome McGann), and in the history of nineteenth-century historiography and literary scholarship, leading to collections of studies which look at the subject in new contexts, viewing it mainly in connection with the forming of nations (let it suffice to mention Nation and Narration, ed. Homi K. Bhabha, London and New York: Routledge, 1990; Nation Building and Writing Literary History, ed. Menno Spiering, Amsterdam and Atlanta: GA. Rodopi, 1999; Writing National Histories: Western Europe since 1800, eds. Stefan Berger, Mark Donovan, Kevin Passmore, London and New York: Routledge, 1999). In the 1990s, amidst all sorts of academic, pedagogical, and administrative duties, I gave occasional seminars on the emergence of English literary historiography, tried to save time for research on the genesis of German and Hungarian literary historiography, and wrote several conference-papers on the subject. (”To Vindicate the Nation: The Romantic Legacy in Hungarian Literary Histories”, in: Europäische Romantik und nationale Identität. Sándor Petõfi im Spiegel der 1848er Epoche, ed. Csilla Erdõdy-Csorba, Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999. pp. 129–135.; ”Abstammungsmythen in der ungarischen Literaturgeschichtsschrei bung”, in: Geschichtliche Mythen in den Literaturen und Kulturen Ostmittel- und Südosteuropas, eds. Eva Behring, Ludwig

On Board of Fulbrigt „Scholar” Ship Richter, Wolfgang Schwarz. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1999, pp. 347–356.; ”A nemzeti nagyelbeszélés újjászületése. A narratív identitás mûfajvándorlása irodalomtól tudományig” (”The Rebirth of the National Grand Récit: The Peregrination of Narrative Identity from Literature to Scholarship”), in: Nemzeti romantika és európai identitás. Tanulmányok a romantikáról (National Romanticism and European Identity: Studies on Romanticism), ed. Anna Cséve, Budapest: Petõfi Irodalmi Múzeum és Kortárs Irodalmi Központ, 1999, pp. 155–179.) All these preliminary works fell into a comprehensive pattern that was to be tested by further research and the result could be articulated in a new book. I thought I needed 10 peaceful months to complete my preparations by doing the necessary research on English and American literary histories of the Romantic and post-Romantic periods, by organising the material for a thorough comparative analysis, and by writing at least the first draft of the book itself. In The Romantic Legacy in Literary Historiography: A Comparative Analysis I wanted to focus on how the discipline of literary historiography and the scholarly genre of literary history emerged out of the post-Romantic world. I wanted to detect how the role and figure of the literary historian took shape, how literary history became the new grand narrative of the nation (inheriting some of its legitimating functions from the epic), how its historical vision, point of view, rhetoric, and vocabulary became indebted to romantic poetry, how all these traces reveal that literary historiography, in spite of its superior pronouncements about the unreliablity of poetic truth or fiction in

general, to a considerable extent grew out of poetry. Most of this plan remained, but came to be integrated in a more comprehensive project that was to be articulated in two books, one on the genesis of Hungarian literary history writing, and another one on the history of vindication as a cultural function of the intellectual. In New York I soon realised that for both projects one should go back to the late eighteenth-century histories of literature in England, Germany, and Hungary, and analyse the rhetoric of vindication by which accusations of cultural inferiority were (reciprocally) refuted. In the 18th century numerous European authors produced inventories of their nation’s literary heritage to prove that it is not inferior to their haughty rivals, and such efforts gave a tremendous impetus to the rise of scholarship in these countries. I wanted to find out how (and if) the motivation behind the 19th-century rise of American literary historiography differed from this European tendency. As vindication had remained one of the strongest motives that prompted 19th century European scholars to write their literary histories, I wanted to analyse not only the ways in which historiography sought to vindicate the nation, but also how this aim was inherited from traditional duties of the intellectual, how it shaped the main genres of the discipline, and how it was to be reconciled with the emerging ideal of scholarly independence and with the acknowledged need for critical judgement. By investigating the rhetoric and even the sheer grammatical formulae of nineteenth century literary histories I

AY 2002-2003 hoped to test whether or not the predilection of some distinguished European authors of the period to use the first person plural with metaphors of descent (”our predecessors”, ”our ancestors”, ”our forefathers”), and thereby to make literary history function like a genealogical myth in the service of the emerging nation, was applicable to early American literary histories. Since in Eastern Europe the vocabulary of this genealogical grand récit was haloed by sacralizing metaphors of the literary profession itself (the written work as an offer on the altar of our fatherland, the poet as martyr, even the scholar himself compared to an apostle, etc), I was planning to examine, compare, and interpret the transcendental allusions, wherever significant, in the literary histories of the four countries. As regards Shakespeare’s sharee in all this, I wanted to investigate how and why Shakespeare was given the role of a father-figure, whether seemingly natural or apparently adopted, in the genealogical myth used by the rising profession of national scholarships in the countries chosen for inspection. As I needed material pertaining to the scholarly reception of Shakespeare from the mid-18th century to the late 19th century I thought (rightly) that the Folger Shakespeare Library, together with the nearby Library of Congress, would be ideal for this part of my research. If ever so slightly, the method was to differ from that of The Romantic Cult of Shakespeare: Literary Reception in Anthropological Perspective, but it was to incorporate some of its methodological principles and theoretical assumptions. In that book, trying to explore the coherence

of a latent religious pattern in the reception of Shakespeare, I had to keep a wide focus so as to include (for comparative analysis) both the verbal and the non-verbal manifestations of cultic reverence in a unified field of research (mainly inspired by the cultural anthropologist Victor Turner), instead of the usual (and for my purposes, disabling) methodological dichotomy between an aristocratically exclusive attention to critical history and a hostile or at best condescending attitude to literary cults conceived of as mere conglomerates of amusing oddities. Now the focus was to be hardly less wide but for a different purpose: as I wanted to explore how the authorial roles and the rhetorical characteristics of Romantic poetry had contributed to the formation of postRomantic literary historiography, and how both the Romantic birth-mark and the late nineteenth-century professionalization of this discipline had been shaped by the self-legitimating (ideological and psychological) needs of the newly established or redifened political nations, I had to keep my focus wide enough to include both the poetic and the scholarly works of the nineteenth-century, to make them accessible for comparative analysis, and to acknowledge the possibility of influence between them in both directions instead of giving absolute priority to literature and treating literary historiography or scholarship as something derivative, merely secondary, or downright parasitical. As a general methodological guideline I fully agreed with Joep Leerssen’s succinct point: „The history of literary history [...] has been studied by literary scholars as a derivative epiphenomenon accompanying

On Board of Fulbrigt „Scholar” Ship literary practice: as a sort of meta-literary history. [...] The time has perhaps come to release the practice of literary historywriting from its dependence on literary practice and to re-contextualize it. Some of the contexts in which the historical praxis of literary history-writing could be fruitfully studied include: the development and professionalization of general history-writing, the emergence of cultural history, the academic establishment and professionalization of the human sciences, the changing role of the academies and universities in the nineteenth-century nation-state, and the nineteenth-century penchant for canonizing, monumentalizing and commemorating the national past.” (Leerssen, in: Spiering 1999, pp. x–xi.) Let me add that my recontextualization was to include the genesis of literary historiography in terms of genre: one of my central hypotheses (based mainly on Hungarian case studies and to be tested by further comparative research) was that in some countries the history of national literature as a new scholarly genre took over some functions and and even some characteristic features from the epic, creating a new distribution of labour in the comprehensive (poetic and scholarly) system of post-Romantic genres. To examine this I was to analyse the minutiae of both social and textual data, and had to narrow my focus, whenever needed, in order to highlight the telling details of microhistory. The significance of this comparative research was easy to discover.It was symptomatic that in Menno Spiering’s pioneering collection of studies, Nation Building and Writing Literary History

(1999), the range of the countries discussed did not include a single East European example. Most of the recent monographs or studies on the subject confined themselves either to Western or to Eastern countries, as was the case in Shakespeare studies as well, where you could find anthologies like The Romantics on Shakespeare, in which ”the” Romantics were all English, German, or French. As I tried to bridge this separating gap between East and West by a more comprehensive research strategy in The Romantic Cult of Shakespeare, in the new projects I wanted to show that four countries, two from Western Europe (England and Germany), one from the region of Central and Eastern Europe (Hungary), and the United States deserve to be analysed together because of their latent connections, interesting similarities and no less revealing differences. Three of these four countries figured in René Wellek’s Confrontations: Studies in the intellectual and literary relations between Germany, England, and the United States during the nineteenth century, an important little book he published back in 1965, containing, as he put it in his Preface, ”studies on German-English and GermanAmerican literary and philosophical relations during the Romantic Age”. (I gratefully acknowledge here that Wellek himself generously supported my work by sending me encouraging letters, books, and offprints, all through the 1980s, when it was much less possible for Hungarian intellectuals to travel to conferences in the West.) By this comparative analysis I wanted to show that the Romanticism of Hungarian culture, a culture that in the early nineteenth century (and lamentably

AY 2002-2003 often ever since) suffered from an undue inferiority complex, had interesting and valuable things to offer to Western literature and scholarship. As regards the significance of the new research and writing for my own professional development, after having written books on the history of literary cults and the history of literary criticism respectively, I hoped to get my third major possibility to study the social ways of appropriating literature, this time in the history of literary scholarship. I have always felt that these three means of appropriating literature are interconnected, and now, studying the last of the three, I was hoping to unearth some hidden aspects of their mutual connection. Personally, being 53 years old in 2002, I was looking forward to a carefree academic year of full-time research in an inspiring environment, before the next hectic period of university and institute responsibilities would take over, making the time for sustained archival work as difficult to spare as ever. The fruits that resulted from the Fulbright and Folger scholarships are numerous, and more than the first half of the double plan has already been accomplished. In terms of puiblication this means the completion and publication of a monograph, my bulkiest ever, titled Egy nemzeti tudomány születése: Toldy Ferenc és a magyar irodalomtörténet (The Birth of a National Scholarship: Ferenc Toldy and Hungarian Literary History), Budapest: Akadémiai, Universitas, 2004, 1028 pages. As the text is in Hungarian, let me mention here that there is a due acknowledgement of the benefits of my Fulbright scholarship and the inspiring intellectual climate of Columbia University at the end

of the Preface, on page 17. In addition, there are several publications in English. I gave a version of a paper, ”Camel, Weasel, Whale: The Cloud-Scene in Hamlet as a Hungarian Parable”, at the Department of English and Comparative Literature of Columbia University, and another version of it at a Shakespeare conference in Basel, and the final version was subsequently published in America as part of the book Shifting the Scene: Shakespeare in European Culture, edited by Ladina Bezzola Lambert and Balz Engler, Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2004, pp. 95–110. I published ”Weimar, Shakespeare and the Birth of Hungarian Literary History” in Shakespeare Jahrbuch, volume 141, ed. Ina Schabert, Bochum: Verlag und Druckkontor Kamp GmbH, 2005, pp. 98–118. Another related paper, ”Shakespeare, Pope, and the Philosophy of Vindication” will be published in a volume growing out of an international conference on ”Shakespeare and Philosophy in a Multicultural World”. More importantly, I am systematically working on the material accumulated during my Fulbright and Folger scholarhips in America, and I am getting closer to writing the second book, in English, on the genres and history of vindication in 18th-century England. Remembering the painted glass window of the Old Reading Room in the Folger, with its emblematic figures representing the seven ages of man from As You Like It, now is the time in my life to do it. One day, maybe in five years’ time, that book will be completed, and I will surely acknowledge that it would not have been possible to write it without the research started during my Fulbright months in America. I am grateful.

Your Right to your Language (Variety) Miklรณs Kontra ............................................................................. University of Szeged H-6725 Szeged, Tisza Lajos krt. 103. http://www.u-szeged.hu kontra@lit.u-szeged.hu

Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 48824-1027 http://www.msu.edu Adviser: Prof. Dennis R. Preston

............................................................................. One good thing among the many about the Fulbright program is its Occasional Lecturer Program whereby visiting scholars can lecture to students and faculty at an American university other than their host institution. In March 2003, I spoke at the Linguistics Colloquium of the University of North Texas on a topic that is of the utmost importance to me: language rights and language-based social discrimination. If I can believe my hosts, Professors Patricia CukorAvila, John R. Ross, and Shobhana L. Chelliah, the talk was received favorably by both students and faculty. What follows below is a reconstruction from the notes of my Texas lecture. It also formed part of the workshop on Linguistic Human Rights I gave at the Linguistic Society of America Summer Institute on July 11 and 12, 2003, in East Lansing, Michigan.

1. Introduction

Many people suffer from Linguistic Human Rights violations but they may be unaware of it. If you are a native speaker of English in Texas or Michigan, or a native speaker of Hungarian in Hungary, you may think your language rights are not being violated, but if you are a native speaker of Spanish in Texas or Michigan,

or a native speaker of Gypsy/Romany in Hungary, you may be rather sensitive to language rights violations. You may even have experienced them. In this paper I hope to show that there is a good reason for the differential perception of language rights violations between native speakers and nonnative speakers of a language, but

AY 2002-2003 I will also show that most native speakers’ language rights are also violated, hence the parentheses around “variety” in the title. Language rights as social problems have been with us from time immemorial, but awareness of them is quite new. When I took linguistics classes at Indiana University-Bloomington in 1978−81, language rights were not a topic at all, not even in casual conversations, although they could have been, had someone called our attention to the Ann Arbor trial about Black English in school (see Labov 1982). Today, the situation is different: language rights tend to be discussed in sociolinguistics classes, there is a fast growing literature on Linguistic Human Rights, and there are some loud polemics among linguists concerning linguistic discrimination (see, e.g. Blommaert 2001, and Skutnabb-Kangas, Phillipson and Kontra 2001) or the teaching of Standard English (see, e.g., Trudgill 1995, Stein and Quirk 1995, and Trudgill 1996). Language wrongs, to use Phillipson and SkutnabbKangas’ (1995) phrase, often happen insidiously. One of the reasons for this is that language rights are rarely codified. The language rights of majority populations/nations are inexplicit rights. The rights are formulated explicitly only for ethnic or national minorities. Minority rights are not human rights. Among many other scholars the Hungarian lawyer Andrássy (1998) has shown that Article 27 of the Interna-

tional Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted in 1966), “which still grants the best legally binding protection to languages” (Skutnabb-Kangas 2000: 557) is about minority rights rather than human rights. Minorities have the explicit right to use their languages, but majorities do not have such an explicit right. Of course, majorities have the same right (to use their languages) – implicitly. If the right to use one’s language were explicitly extended to majorities as well, then we would have a universal human right: Everybody has the right to use his/her language (Andrássy 1998: 102). Quite independently of the lawyer Andrássy, the Romania-Hungarian linguist Sándor N. Szilágyi (1994) has authored a draft Bill on the Rights Concerning Ethnic and Linguistic Identity and the Fair and Harmonius Coexistence of Ethnic and Linguistic Communities. Szilágyi explicitly states that his bill is not about minorities but about all citizens of Romania. It is based on the principle of equality before the law. To use the Slovak political scientist Miroslav Kusý’s words (1996: 69), it is based on the principle of civil coexistence of all citizens of the state, rather than on the principle of superiority of the dominant nation.

profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language.” The originally published version of this bill had

“In those states in which ethnic, religious or linguistic

nemzeti identitás “national identity” in its title. In

minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities

1999, Szilágyi changed it to “ethnic and linguistic

shall not be denied the right, in community with other

identity”. A revised version of the bill was published in

members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to

2003 (Szilágyi 2003).

Your right to your Language Of course, whether a state adopts the principle of civil coexistence or the principle of superiority of the dominant nation has fundamental consequences for the political, economic, social, educational, linguistic and other rights and for the well-being of minorities and individuals belonging to minorities. For instance, a Hungarian who says something like I hope you donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t mean to say that the Gypsies in Hungary should enjoy the same educational rights as the Hungarians in Transylvania (Romania) (something I have been told on a number of occasions), is clearly revealing his/her belief in the principle of superiority. Such a belief is based on something like one group of people (and their language) is better suited for education through the medium of the mother tongue than another. Such a belief is clearly based on recognizing an official/state language as the proper medium of education, but denying such recognition for other languages in the state in question. For instance, a state may deny the right to education through the medium of Romany on the basis that the Roma have no state of their own. Or it may deny the right to education through the medium of, say, Hungarian in Slovakia on the principle that Slovak is, but Hungarian is not, an/the official language in Slovakia. In both cases the Linguistic Human Rights (LHRs) of the minorities would be violated. But what exactly are LHRs?

2. Linguistic Human Rights Not all language rights are linguistic human rights, for instance, the right to learn one or more foreign languages in school is a language right but not an inalienable human right. As SkutnabbKangas says, some rights are necessary, others are enrichment-oriented rights. The right to learn a foreign language in school is an enrichment-oriented right. I will quote Skutnabb-Kangas (2000: 499) to introduce LHRs: Linguistic majorities, for instance English-speakers in the United States or Australia, or Swedish-speakers in Sweden, normally take it for granted that their children can be educated through the medium of their own language. They also take it for granted that their mother tongue, the majority language, can be used in all (or most) official situations, by both children and adults. They see it as self-evident that the school supports the children in learning the official language (i.e. their mother tongue) as well as possible. Normally they also take it for granted that they can identify with their mother tongue and have this identification accepted and respected by everybody, including the school and census authorities. Many of the majority members are not aware of the fact that these, for them self-evident rights are in fact denied to most linguistic minorities in the world, even when these rights should be seen as fundamental, inalienable linguistic human rights.

AY 2002-2003 Sadly, I will add, a number of linguists are not aware of this either, especially if they belong to a majority. The reasons are very simple: (1) one does not miss what one has, and (2) if one does not look further than one’s own life or social milieu, one will tend to generalize from one’s own experience. I believe that the embarrassing insensitivity and ignorance of many majority Hungarian linguists concerning the social and linguistic plight of minority Hungarians in Hungary’s neighboring countries can be explained with these two

factors. I also believe that the same factors may also explain insensitivities among some other, non-Hungarian linguists. So what should a universal covenant of Linguistic Human Rights guarantee? Table 1 presents Skutnabb-Kangas’ list (2000: 502, her Table 7.5):

to “members of the Spanish culture” who “woke up one morning to find themselves citizens of the United States” (Marshall 1986: 40) when the US annexed New Mexico following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. According to the latest census figures, about

When Austria-Hungary collapsed at the end of World

520,000 indigenous Hungarians live in Slovakia,

War I, Hungary lost about two-thirds of her territory and

160,000 in Subcarpathia, Ukraine, over 1.4 million

population to the successor states of Czechoslovakia,

in Romania, about 300,000 in Voivodina, Serbia, and

Romania and Yugoslavia. Millions of ethnic Hungarians

a few thousand each in Eastern Slavonia (Croatia),

became citizens of another country in a fashion similar

Slovenia, and Austria.

Table 1. Linguistic Human Rights à la Skutnabb-Kangas a universal covenant of linguistic human rights should guarantee at an individual level, in relation to

mother tongue(s)

that everybody has the right to • identify with their mother tongue(s) and have this identification accepted and respected by others; • learn the mother tongue(s) fully, orally (when physiologically possible) and in writing.

This presupposes that minorities are educated mainly through the medium of their mother tongue(s), and within the state-financed educational system; • use the mother tongue in most official situations (including schools).

other languages • that everybody whose mother tongue is not an official language in the country where s/he is resident, has the right to become bilingual

(or trilingual if s/he has 2 mother tongues) in the mother tongue(s) and (one of) the official language(s) (according to her own choice).

the relationship between languages

(includes knowledge of long-term consequen-

• that any change of mother tongue is voluntary

ces), not imposed.

profit from education • that everybody has the right to profit from education, regardless of what her mother tongue is.

Your right to your Language When a group of school children is denied the right to education through the medium of their mother tongue, their LHRs are violated. When a worker in the USA is denied the right to use his/ her language at work, the requirement advanced by the Linguistic Society of America in March 1996 that all residents of the US should be guaranteed the right “to express themselves, publicly and privately, in the language of their choice” is certainly violated. This latter violation may not be a violation of an LHR (the extent of LHRs is still being debated), but the former, denial of mother-tongue-medium education, certainly is. Such denial may be overt (e.g. for Kurds in Turkey until recently, where use of Kurdish was legally forbidden and severely punished, see Bruni 2003) or covert. Skutnabb-Kangas asserts, and I agree with her completely, that every time a minority school child goes to a school where there is no teacher who is bilingual in the child’s language and the state language, there is a case of violation of LHRs. This is a shocking statement to many, but it is nevertheless a true statement. It is easy to see why. Majority children go to school to be educated, and this happens through the medium of their own language; that is, for them education is primarily a matter of intellectual development. Minority children, on the other hand, although they go to school for the same basic reason, have access to intellectual development only through the medium of a language they do not know (well enough). They need to learn a new language to participate in education, something majority children do not have

to do. If the teacher is monolingual, s/he cannot possibly be as helpful/useful as a bilingual teacher would be. The argument goes like this: it is the responsibility of states to provide bilingual teachers for minority schools. A state that does not provide bilingual teachers for minority schools does not meet international standards, see, for instance, The Hague Recommendations Regarding the Education Rights of National Minorities & Explanatory Note (1996) issued by the High Commissioner on National Minorities of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). To recapitulate, if bilingual minority school children are taught by teachers who are monolingual in the majority/state language, that is a violation of the children’s LHR to be educated through the medium of their mother tongue. It is not only an LHR violation, says SkutnabbKangas, but also an instance of linguicism and linguistic genocide.

3. Linguicism and linguistic genocide Linguicism is defined by Skutnabb-Kangas (2000: 30) as “Ideologies, structures, and practices which are used to legitimate, effectuate, regulate and reproduce an unequal division of power and resources (both material and immaterial) between groups which are defined on the basis of language”. One illustration of linguicism or discrimination between groups of people defined on the basis of language, comes from research by the Hungarian sociologist István Kemény (1996). The data

AY 2002-2003 I will present are his, the interpretation is mine. According to the study, there is a great difference between the educational achievement of Gypsies who speak Hungarian as their mother tongue and those who do not. In 1994, about 25% of the former group did not complete 8 grades of school, but the same figure for those whose mother tongue is Romany or Boyash (a dialect of Romanian) was nearly 50%. Now if we consider the fact that the Gypsy school children whose mother tongue is not Hungarian can only go to schools with Hungarian as the medium of instruction, we see that the discrimination based on the mother tongue yields differential educational achievement. Twice as many non-Hungarian-speaking Gypsy children drop out of school as Hungarianspeaking Gypsy children. In Hungary, as elsewhere, educational achievement and employability are strongly correlated. The fact that non-Hungarian-speaking Gypsy children cannot even begin their educational career in their mother tongue is directly related to their overrepresentation among the unemployed. Discrimination on the basis of the medium of instruction yields, in many cases, lifelong unemployment. But Skutnabb-Kangas goes further than this and says that this case constitutes linguistic genocide. This is a term that many people, many linguists among them, are unfamiliar with. It is also a term that many critics find loaded, inflammatory and hence alienating (see, e.g., Minogue 2002: 334). Linguistic genocide is not discussed in any human rights conventions, but, as

Skutnabb-Kangas (2000: 314) reminds us, it has been discussed. After WWII, when the UN laid the groundwork for what later became the International Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (1948), linguistic and cultural genocide were in fact discussed alongside physical genocide. All three were seen as serious crimes against humanity. The Ad Hoc committee which prepared the Convention had specified the following acts as examples constituting cultural genocide in Article III: Any deliberate act committed with intent to destroy the language, religion or culture of a national, racial or religious group on grounds of national or racial origin or religious belief, such as (1) Prohibiting the use of the language of the group in daily intercourse or in schools, or the printing and circulation of publications in the language of the group. (Emphasis added) (2) Destroying or preventing the use of libraries, museums, schools .... When the Convention was finally accepted by the General Assembly, Article III covering linguistic and cultural genocide was not adopted. It is thus not included in the Convention. â&#x20AC;&#x153;What remains, however, is a definition of linguistic genocide, which most states then in the UN were prepared to acceptâ&#x20AC;? (SkutnabbKangas 2000: 317). Thus the term that some critics of

Your right to your Language Skutnabb-Kangas find loaded, melodramatic or alienating originates from the preparation of the UN Genocide Convention of 1948. Now let us return for a moment to the non-Hungarianspeaking Gypsies in monolingual Hungarian schools taught by monolingual Hungarian teachers. Is the use of their mother tongue (Romany or Boyash) “prohibited in schools”? It certainly is, by virtue of the fact that no teacher can speak to them in Romany or Boyash. The lack of bilingual teachers forces these children to not use their own language in school. The use of a language can be prevented overtly or covertly. Hitting somebody for speaking language X is an overt act of prevention/prohibition. The unavailability of government bureaucrats or school teachers who speak the language of minority citizens constitutes covert prevention/prohibition. It constitutes an act of linguistic genocide, according to the definition of the term most states in the UN were prepared to accept in 1948, and according to Skutnabb-Kangas (2000: 352-3). If you do not like the term, I offer a synonym: lack of bilingual teachers forces minority children in school to shift languages. The point is that the shift does not occur “naturally”, nor does it occur “out of the free will of the minority children”, as one would be led to believe Act 184/1999 on the language use of national minorities in official contacts in Slovakia allows the use of minority languages in official contacts but it also states that government officials are not required to know the minority language. Minority languages can be used de jure in official contacts, but de facto they cannot.

when reading much of the literature on language shift and language death. In fact, Skutnabb-Kangas uses the term “linguistic genocide” (read “language murder”) quite purposely, to emphasize the role of agents in many cases of language shift. Not in all cases, but in many cases. Many linguists, social and political scientists see language shift as voluntary, based on cost-benefit analysis by speakers. Others see it in most cases as enforced (Skutnabb-Kangas 2000: 371). The shift from Irish to English in Ireland is one of many cases which has been interpreted in drastically different ways: John Edwards saw in it a case of voluntary shift, for which he was duly criticized by Nancy Dorian, who showed that “The Age of Penal Laws lasted for almost 80 years (1691−1778) and left no doubt as to the penalties of being Catholic and Irish-speaking − more or less synonymous in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries − in Ireland” (Dorian 1994: 117).

4. Two issues of mothertongue-medium education There are as yet no binding international covenants specifically on linguistic rights. Despite fine declarations to promote diversity, including linguistic rights, the most important LHRs needed for the maintenance of linguistic diversity are absent from binding international human rights instruments. Thus mothertongue-medium education is not an LHR in the legal sense. This state of affairs has severe consequences. Language gets much poorer treatment in human rights instruments than other important human

AY 2002-2003 attributes. The depth of the linguistic problems are often not recognized or they are presented as unavoidable givens we just have to live with. I will give two examples, both from the approximately 1.5 million strong Hungarian minority in Romania.

4.1. Problem 1: The medium of instruction Article 22, paragraph 1 of Act 84/1995 on Education in Romania (republished in 1999) states that Upon completion of their general studies [i.e. 5th to 8th grades – my note], pupils take national aptitude tests, which are designed by the National Educational Ministry and published by the beginning of the respective school year, in the following subjects: Romanian language and literature, Mathematics, and a test in either the History of Romanians or the Geography of Romania. Pupils belonging to national minorities who receive education through the medium of their mother tongue also take a test in their mother tongue and literature. This part of my paper draws heavily on Kontra and Szilágyi (2002). “Art. 22. – (1) Studiile gimnaziale se încheie cu susţinerea unui examen naţional de capacitate, structurat pe baza unei metodologii elaborate de către Ministerul Educaţiei Naţionale şi dată publicităţii până la data începerii anului şcolar, la Limba şi literatura română, Matematică, şi la o probă din Istoria românilor sau Geografia României. Elevii aparţinând minorităţilor naţionale, care frecventează cursurile gimnaziale în

According to this text, a Romanian pupil − that is an ethnic Romanian pupil in Romania − takes an exam not in his or her mother tongue and literature, but in Romanian language and literature. The wording of the law does not even refer to the fact that Romanians also have a mother tongue. It suggests that all pupils in Romania, irrespective of the medium of education, take the same exams: Romanian language and literature, Mathematics, etc., and, in addition, national minority pupils should also take exams in their mother tongue and literature. In fact, however, what happens is that all pupils take an exam in their own mother-tongue language and literature (Romanians in Romanian, Hungarians in Hungarian), and, in addition, Hungarians and other minorities take an exam in the state language and literature, which is Romanian. (This extra burden is increased by the fact that exams in history and geography must be taken in Romanian by all pupils, because the law only allows these subjects to be taught in the state language. So in these subjects Romanian pupils take the exams in their mother tongue, while minorities do so in a second language, a task which is much more difficult.) The wording of the law conceals what really happens, suggesting that the exams in minority mother tongue and literature are added to what is common to all. This concealment is omnipresent in Romanian laws. In the general provisions, limba maternă, susţin şi o probă la limba şi literatura maternă.”

Your right to your Language if language is specified, it is specified as Romanian, never as mother tongue. Then, after the general provisions, some “extra provisions” are made for minorities, which can or may take place in their mother tongues. It is worth observing that in Romanian laws the expression “mother tongue” appears exclusively with respect to minorities. Thus, the use of the mother tongue is constructed as a privilege, or as a kind of extra burden. It seems to be a privilege because it is mother-tongue education which requires extra provisions or extra paragraphs in the law which specify the circumstances under which mother-tongue-medium education may take place. If something is presented in a separate paragraph of the law, it must be a privilege that the majority speakers do not enjoy. Now let us rephrase the law such that all pupils, not just minority pupils, have a mother tongue. It would look like this: Aptitude tests must be taken in: Mother-tongue language and literature, Mathematics, and either the History of Romanians or the Geography of Romania. Pupils belonging to national minorities who receive education through the medium of their mother tongue also take a test in Romanian language and literature. This text gives a more accurate or adequate picture of what is really happening. It shows what is really added to what. It shows quite clearly that mother-tonguemedium instruction is common for all, and, on top of that, minority pupils take

instruction in the state language and literature. Of course, such a rephrasing recognizes the basic fact of human life that everybody has a mother tongue, regardless of their belonging to the majority or a minority in a state. Such a rephrasing is also in harmony with what many consider a linguistic human right, namely the right to receive education through the medium of one’s mother tongue – at least primary education. Clearly, such a rephrasing takes education through the medium of one’s mother tongue, rather than education through the medium of a state language, as basic. Such a rephrasing is in harmony with what most linguists, educators and social scientists advocate on the basis of their best research. Such a rephrasing, which is also in harmony with The Hague Recommendations Regarding the Education Rights of National Minorities issued in 1996, could make it more evident that linguistic rights are universal human rights, belonging to both majority and minority, and not some particular rights applied only for the conditions of the minorities (see Andrássy 1998). The educational implications of such a law are quite important. For instance, if we look at the teaching/learning load of minority pupils in Romania, and if we recognize the fact that all pupils have a mother tongue, hence all learn their mother tongue and literature in school, and some also learn the state language (with the respective literature), then it is quite clear that the teaching/learning load of the minorities is different from that of Romanians. More precisely, if minority pupils were to study according to the

AY 2002-2003 Romanian pupils’ curriculum or weekly teaching load, they would need 13.5 years to complete the studies which the Romanians complete in 12 years. Of course, minority pupils also go to school for 12 years only, which means they stay in school longer every day. (According to the general perception in Romania, this extra load is caused by the “extra lessons” in mother tongue and literature, for example Hungarian.) But this added 1.5 years is not quite the same as 1.5 average school years. The average school year has room for music classes, physical education, and other “less academic” activities, but the minorities’ “extra” 1.5 years are all filled with Romanian lessons only. It is obvious that such a curricular arrangement is disadvantageous for the minority pupil because s/he has to study the majority language while the majority pupil may be playing soccer, or, conceivably, is studying for the university entrance exam. It seems that nobody is concerned about the “extra” teaching load of the minority pupil. It is viewed as an extra load which is undertaken by the minority pupil or their parents voluntarily. The minority pupils have only themselves to blame if they find school too hard. If education through the medium of the mother tongue (L1) is too hard, pupils are free to choose the “easier” way: education through the state language (L2). Now how could this situation be improved? If the law were to recognize the universal fact that all people and all citizens of a state have a mother tongue, then this would make it easier to see what is basic education, and what is added to basic education. Policymakers and

educators who may be concerned about overburdening pupils in school would better see where the problems lie and how they can be solved. In the concrete example we have used, it would be easier to attack the educational discrimination which concerns minority pupils in Romania. It is clear that minority pupils must and need to learn Romanian in school, but it also seems clear, at least to Szilágyi and myself, that they should not be overburdened to such an extent by studying the state language. Such a change in the wording of the law would also make it easier for the Romanian authorities to understand that the subject “Romanian language and literature,” although identical in name both in the curriculum for majority Romanian pupils and for minority pupils, actually means different things for Romanians and minority pupils. Clearly, in the first case the goal is to educate mothertongue (L1) speakers of Romanian in Romanian language and literature, but in the second case the goal is to enable minority pupils to acquire Romanian as a second language (L2). Understanding the difference in goals may help politicians understand why minority pupils should not study Romanian according to the same curriculum and should not use the same teaching materials as native speakers of Romanian do. If they do, as is unfortunately the case today, the result can only be unsatisfactory: despite the great number of Romanian lessons, Hungarians do not acquire Romanian well enough in school, which later renders them disadvantaged (see Szilágyi 1998).

Your right to your Language According to The Hague Recommendations, “persons belonging to national minorities have a responsibility to integrate into the wider national society through the acquisition of a proper knowledge of the State language.” This recommendation has an important pedagogical implication: the responsibility to acquire a second language should be matched by the possibility or right to learn it as a second language. Szilágyi and I are convinced that the right to learn an L2 as an L2 is important. If L2 learners are taught the L2 as if it were their L1, without regard for their drastically different needs for teaching materials and methods, the pedagogical conse-

quence will be poor proficiency in the L2. Moreover, social conflicts will accrue, as is the case, for instance, in Subcarpathia, Ukraine, where government pressure on Hungarians to learn the state language Ukrainian is increasing at a time when the Ukrainian educational authorities have not yet trained teachers in sufficient numbers who are bilingual in Ukrainian and Hungarian, nor have they published a Ukrainian–Hungarian dictionary for their minority citizens. Table 2 summarizes the differences between state-language-medium education and mother-tongue-medium education.

Table 2. From state-language-medium education to mother-tongue-medium education (1) State-language-medium education In State A the state/official language is X. A mother tongue is a language/a vernacular different from the state/official language. Therefore: L1 speakers of X don’t have a mother tongue. L1 speakers of Y, who may speak X as an L2, have a mother tongue. Education in State A is through the medium of X. For L1 speakers of Y, it can also be through their mother tongue. Education through the mother tongue is constructed as a privilege but is made to be perceived as a burden freely assumed by the minorities, according to their own wishes. See, for example, the Constitution of Romania: “Article 13: In Romania, the official language is Romanian. Article 32: (1) [...] (2) Education of all grades shall be in Romanian. Education may also be conducted in a foreign language of international use, under the terms laid down by law. (3) The right of persons belonging to national minorities to learn their mother tongue, and their right to be educated in this language are guaranteed; the ways to exercise these rights shall be regulated by law.”

AY 2002-2003 (2) Mother-tongue-medium education Everybody has a mother tongue. In State A the state/official language is X. Therefore: L1 speakers of X use their mother tongue as the state/official language, without any special effort. L1 speakers of Y are compelled to make special effort to acquire language X as the state/official language. Education in State A is through the medium of mother tongues. Therefore: For L1 speakers of X, education is through the medium of X. For L1 speakers of Y, education is through the medium of Y, and X is taught as an L2. “The official State language should also be taught as a subject on a regular basis preferably by bilingual teachers who have a good understanding of the children’s cultural and linguistic background” (The Hague Recommendations, p. 7).

Education through the mother tongue is NOT constructed as a privilege, but as a universal right. The learning of the state language (and literature) is recognized as an additional burden not depending on the choice made by the minorities, and this extra burden should be as small as possible for L1 speakers of the minority language Y. Few politicians deny that the right to education is a human right. Many maintain that mother-tongue-medium education for minorities is not a human right, implying that the right to education means the right to education in the state or official language. Such trivialization of the language issue in education often leads to severe social conflicts as well as unprofessional language pedagogy which yields poor results. It can also dilute human rights to such a degree that they become meaningless.

4.2. Problem 2: How to set limits on mother-tongue-medium higher education In the news media but even in some scholarly texts, one often comes across arguments against minority-language use based on cost to the taxpayer. As if minority citizens did not pay taxes... Here is one example of many: Kenneth Minogue, of the London School of Economics, in a review of the book Language and Minority Rights by Stephen May, has this to say: Rights are curious concepts, being imperious in what they demand and flabby in what holds them up. At their worst, they constitute an argument for riot. They make rigid what in political and, especially, tribal terms is flexible.

Your right to your Language Worse, they obscure other realities, in particular economic ones. May tells us quite a lot about how Welsh or Irish or Maori have been revived in recent times, but hardly concerns himself with the costs. ... it costs the British taxpayer quite a bit to supply a few Welsh speakers with a television channel of their own. (Minogue 2002: 333) People who subscribe to the principle of superiority of the dominant nation often argue that minorities cannot possibly have state universities because the costs to the taxpayer would be prohibitive. Counterexamples such as Åbo Akademi, the Swedish University in Finland, are then brushed aside with the argument that it is impossible to set up a mothertongue-medium university for each of the 19 or so national minorities in a country like Romania. This point lumps together numerically large minorities with tiny ones, e.g., Hungarians in Romania who constitute about 7% of the population (over 1.4 million people) and Armenians, who number only about 2000 speakers. The question is how does one prevent a State from granting equal rights and funds to a large minority and a tiny one? How does one prevent Romania from granting the same rights and funds to Armenians as to Hungarians? Here is Szilágyi’s (1994) solution. Briefly, he says that the proportion of students belonging to a linguistic minority in relation to all students attending state universities should be equivalent to the proportion of the linguistic minority members in the population as a whole.

That is to say, if Hungarians constitute 7% of all citizens of Romania, then Hungarian students in higher education should also constitute 7% of all the students attending state universities in Romania. On the other hand, if a minority is tiny, say .01 percent of the population, and if the number of their university students calculated as in the previous paragraph would be smaller than the number of students in the smallest state university, then this minority should not have the right to a mother-tongue-medium university. The right of a minority to a university with the minority language as the medium of instruction is calculated in the following way: (a) Take the number of students in all the state universities; (b) Multiply it by the percentage indicating the linguistic minority’s proportion in the entire population of the country; (c) If (b) is equal to or greater than the number of students in the smallest state university, then the linguistic minority has the right to a state university. Here are three hypothetical examples to show how Szilágyi’s bill would work if it were to be passed into law.

In present-day Romania, such a law has no chance of being passed in parliament. Perhaps surprisingly, most of the leading politicians of the largest Hungarian party, the Democratic Federation of Hungarians in Romania, have also been reluctant to support Szilágyi’s bill.

AY 2002-2003 Hypothetical example (1): Romania has 22 million citizens, of whom, say, 20% study in state universities/colleges, that is 4.4 million students; Hungarians in Romania constitute 7% of the entire population; 4,400,000 x 0.07 = 308,000; If 308,000 is equal to or greater than the number of students in the smallest state university, then Hungarians have the right to a Hungarian-language university. Hypothetical example (2): Romania has 22 million citizens, of whom 20% study in state universities/colleges, that is 4.4 million students; Armenians in Romania constitute 0.01% of the population, that is 2200 people; 4,440,000 x 0.0001 = 440; If 440 is smaller than the number of students in the smallest state university, then Armenians don’t have the right to an Armenian-language university. Hypothetical example (3): Before the third hypothetical example is demonstrated, section (3) of paragraph 58 in the revised bill (Szilágyi 2003: 612) should be introduced to readers. Here is my translation of it: If the number of university students belonging to a linguistic community is smaller than the percentage that is calculated according to (b) above, and the balance is large enough for an independent university, then the minority has the right to a new university.10

Linguistic community X constitutes 10 percent of the population, that is, 2.2 million people; 4,400,000 x 0.1 = 440,000; There are 380,000 university students belonging to linguistic community X; 440,000 – 380,000 = 60,000; The smallest state university has 45,000 students; consequently, X has the right to one more university than they have. 10 This is necessary because a minority may have a university with their mother tongue as medium of instruction, yet the proportion of its students can fall below what their percentage in the total population would justify. For instance, in 1992 Hungarians represented 7.12% of the population of Romania, but only 5.18% of the university students in the country (Szilágyi 1999, ms.). Thus Hungarians were undereducated compared to Romanians, even if we disregard the fact that most of them studied not in mother-tongue-medium institutions but in Romanian-language universities. Similar data could be cited from Serbia (see Göncz 1999: 103) and Slovakia (Lanstyák 2000: 57).

Your right to your Language

5. Ain’t this a punchline though? A considerable amount of research has been carried out on language rights, but the greater part of this research concerns cases of inter-language discrimination rather than intra-language discrimination (e.g., Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson, eds, 1994, Kontra et al, eds, 1999, Skutnabb-Kangas 2000). This is in no way to underestimate the importance of work by such American linguists as Labov (1970, 1982), Baugh (1999), Lippi-Green (1997), Rickford (1999), Smitherman (1998), and Wolfram (1998), or by such British linguists as Milroy and Milroy (1999) or Cameron (1995). What I believe is missing is research on the interactions between inter-language discrimination and intra-language discrimination. Like many other linguists (but not nearly all), and unlike most non-linguists (or “normal people”, to use Dennis Preston’s appropriate phrase), I am convinced that language-based discrimination also hurts most majority monolingual speakers, in the US as well as in Hungary and most other countries where prescriptivism necessarily reinforces social inequalities (see Myhill 2004). I am also convinced that the major institutions which maintain and re-create this linguistic discrimination are the public schools. If you happen to use multiple negation in your English or know such an unfortunate person, you also know that such people are incapable of logical thought, probably have a low IQ or worse. If your school teacher never told you this, I

suspect you are either a liar or never went to school. (That’s bad enough, but at least you are not a liar.) Now this multiple negation business has always amazed me because I am Hungarian and we all use multiple negation regardless of our IQ. All the famous Hungarian-American physicists who participated in developing the atomic and hydrogen bombs during World War II, Eugene Wigner, Leo Szilard, and Edward Teller, spoke their mother tongue the way I do, with the same rule of multiple negation. But if that is not enough to convince somebody, here is my trump card: about 150 million native speakers of Russian are multiple negators. If this has anything to do with limited intellectual capacity, how come those Russians got the first Sputnik up in orbit in 1957, effectively scaring Americans that they were being left behind in the space race?

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by Stephen May. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 23: 333–334. Myhill, John. 2004. A parametrized view of the concept of ‘correctness’. Multilingua 23: 389–416. Phillipson, Robert and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas. 1995.

Europe. The European English Messenger IV/1: 44–46. --- 1996. Standard English and the National Curriculum. The European English Messenger V/1: 63–65. Wolfram, Walt. 1998. Scrutinizing linguistic gratuity: Issues from the field. Journal of Sociolinguistics 2: 271–279.

Six months in Colorado Péter Kovács ............................................................................. Péter Kovács University of Denver University of Miskolc College of Law Department of Public and International Law 2255 East Evans Avenue, Denver, CO 80208 3515 Miskolc, Egyetemváros www.jogikar.uni-miskolc.hu www.law.du.edu profpeterkovacs@hotmail.com Adviser: Dr. Ved P. Nanda

............................................................................. How can I summarize on a few pages my impressions related to my six months’ stay in the United States at the Denver University College of Law as a visiting professor? As my wife and our three daughters joined me, I also had an insight in elementary, middle school and high school life. Last but not least, all the treasures of Colorado that we saw cannot be forgotten.

Teaching and contacts with students I had two subjects to teach twice a week: the European protection of national minorities and international humanitarian law (law of warfare). These optional classes were taken by cca dozen students each: the ambiance was rather convivial and I have very good memories of these classes. E.g. I had a Cherokee girl in my class in my class on minority protection. She was slightly older than the others but she had already considerable practice as far as she acted as counsel for her tribe. After the classes, she explained to me interesting

cases from her practice related to the issues of native Americans in the US. There was also a Russian pharmacist, having newly arrived in the US, he wanted to have a law degree and, for evident reasons he was very interested in studying minority issues. The students were curious about how a regional international organization, namely the Council of Europe could develop a concise system of protection for the benefit of linguistic or national minorities. In the group dealing with the law of

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warfare, I was the only male having performed military service, the other person with similar experience was a girl. Another member of the group had escaped years ago from the Balkan-tagedy of the 1990’s: he had a definite talent for analysis of problems of the law of warfare. It was astonishing for me that students apparently saw the Vietnam war as a far element of world history. On the students’ invitation, I participated also in the preparation of the DU-team for the Jessup moot court competition, related in that year also to humanitarian legal problems of warfare: I could check the students’skills in the presentation of pleadings, so important in a legal carrier.

Researching All colleagues having returned from the United States were speaking lengthly about university libraries possessing enormous collections of books and reviews. I cannot help doing doing the same: the reachness

of libraries is shocking not only vis-a-vis Hungarian universities but also vis-a-vis French universities where I also had the possibility to study and to teach. I also benefited from the librarian facilities and wrote three articles: one about the development and limits of international jurisprudence, another about the role of the United Nations in the fight against international terrorism and a third about the international law of antiquity. The first two were published by the DU College of Law (Denver Journal of International Law and Policy vol. 31 (n°3 – summer 2003 and in Ved P Nanda (ed): Law in the War Against International Terrorism, Transnational Publishers 2004), the third in a European legal review. (Journal of History of International Law 6 /2004) I was very much impressed by web-based American law-journals and I can proudly say, we have recently launched our own virtual review, the Miskolc Journal of International Law. (http://www.mjil.hu) Denver collegues were friendly and my Fulbright-supervisor, professor Ved P Nanda was always ready to help when I needed. I attended several interesting colloquies - I called the pizza colloquies as was served for the audience - about i. the universal fight against international terrorism, ii. legal coordinatas of the detention of captured Afgan fighters, detained in Guantanamo, iii. conditions of the international legality of the use of force and the Iraq issue. (NB: my fellowship

Six months in Colorado was realized in the Fall semester, i.e. in the turbulent months of the multilateral diplomacy preceeding the war.) It was very interesting to see everywhere, in cars, on dwellings and in shops the manifestation of the cohesion of the people in this very complicated and tragic affair where Europe did not and still does not understand the American position.

Public schools and our kids For a foreign professor arriving with kids in the United States, the most difficult things are how to find a proper dwelling and appropriate schools. We were lucky as we got enormous help from the staff of the Dean’s Office. Moreover Englewood, a quiet, calm and green suburbun town of Denver, had public schools frequented without any problem by kids of the local middle class. It was by the way very interesting for us to see that – contrary to our European standards – American schools may put on display the ethnic composition of the enrolled pupils as well as the ratio of kids enjoying free lunch. We learned a lot about American teaching methods in schools: the promotion of creativity and self-trust was considered as one of the basic pedagogical aims. Compared with Hungarian standards, the quantity of the mandatory data of classes was much less, but the basic difference vis-a-vis the so called Germantype (or Prussian) pedagogy prevailing in cca half of the European countries was that pupils were not required to memorize so many things, long and rather boring

texts, but they were taught how to find the necessary data for a given project (why not „3-dimensional”) and how to carry out their ideas. Schools organized regularly exhibitions from the pupils’artifacts and these events were often linked to multiculturalism, manifested inter alia in cooking etc. I appreciated very much the idea when each pupil in my daughter’s class had to find a country the history or the culture of which he or she was ready to show in a 3 dimensional form: they had to establish the installation, add a typical music, show the traditional gastronomy. Compared to my elder daughters who studied English as a foreign language for years, my youngest daughter arrived without knowing a word of English

AY 2002-2003 and moreover for her, arriving from the kinder-garten, this was her first elementary school. She was received with kindness and care on behalf of her teachers and schoolmates, and we could soon feel that she was able to follow the classes and to communicate with the others. Each month, some pupils became cougar kids of the month, the cougar being the school mascot, in presence of the whole school. My daughter was also decorated in December, just before our return, and the wording of her „award” shows well the spirit in the school: „How lucky Charles Hay elementary School has been to have Blanka as part of our school community. Most of us cannot imagine what it must be like to come to a new country and be surrounded by people we don’t know and a language we don’t understand. (…) She soon helped us to learn how to communicate despite the language barrier (…) „ Our daughters got quickly integrated in school life and what’s more, they found friends: they went out shopping or supporting the school’s teams. These friendships are still existant; they regularly write letters or E-mails to each-other.

Wonderful Colorado! Denver, the „mile high city” is a typical capital of an American state: with a short history, high sky-scrapers, Victorian-style cottage-houses and a lot of parks. It has no historically important buildings but the Denver Museum of Nature and Science can be very proud of the collections of dinosaures. We very much enjoyed the Denver Zoo and all the different types

of fish and sea animals of the Aquarium. Before Christmas we saw the Denver Light Parade, a spectacular show sponsored by the lectric companies. In spite of the rather chilly weather, a huge crowd gathered to see Cinderella’s carriage or the giant-like ballons. Denver is also the gate to the Rocky Mountains:, the national parks are really fantastic: Pikes’ Peak, the National Monument Park or the Garden of the Gods (near Colorado Springs) with the strange configurations of cliffs, rocks known from „western” movies or the Red Rocks Amphiteatre are all such „must see”s that all teachers of geography would like to see – and not only to teach by photos. (The same can be said about the geysirs, mofettas, sulphataras of theYellowstone park, in Wyoming and Montana.) We also visited canyons but maybe our most interesting trip was the visit was to Mesa Verde, the home of cliff-dwelling cities of the anasazi tribes, disappeared around the XI-th century. We enjoyed every day life as well: the swimming pool or the tennis courts next door made it possible for us to keep fit. We appreciated the fact that we had time for everything, a change after the overloaded and busy days in Europe. Research-results, documentation, new professional ties, new friends and a variety of impressions: six months’ of great adventure and a good initiation into the American way of life. Thank you America, thank you the Fulbright Commission!

Cultural Variation in Metaphor1 Zoltán Kövecses ............................................................................. Eötvös Loránd University Department of American Studies Ajtósi Dürer sor 19-21 Budapest, 1146 Hungary

University of California Department of Linguistics Berkeley, California zkovecses@ludens.elte.hu Adviser: George Lakoff

............................................................................. Abstract Cognitive linguists have so far paid a great deal of attention to the remarkable universality of many conceptual metaphors. However, their theories fail to account for the equally impressive diversity of metaphorical conceptualization both across and within cultures. The present paper is an attempt to lay down the foundations of a theory of metaphor that is capable of simultaneously accounting for both universality and variation in metaphor.

1. Introduction The general question that I will be concerned with in this paper is the following: To what extent and in what ways is metaphorical thought relevant to an understanding of culture and society? Clearly, any answer to this question forces us to consider issues typically discussed in two broad ranges of disciplines: cognitive science and the social sciences. Typical representatives of the former include contemporary cognitive psychology and

cognitive linguistics, whereas a chief representative of the latter is anthropology in its several forms (symbolic, cultural, semantic, etc.). Metaphor has always been of great interest to many anthropologists since the very beginnings of the field (see, for example, Fernandez, 1986, 1991). The general difference between the two ranges of disciplines in the handling of metaphor seems to be a slightly different focus on what they find most important

AY 2002-2003 in the study of metaphor. While scholars in cognitive science tend to ask “What is metaphor?” and “How does it work in the mind?”, scholars in the social sciences tend to focus on the issue of “What does metaphor do in particular social-cultural contexts?” Many anthropologists working on issues related to metaphor had found new inspiration for their work in the cognitive linguistic theory of metaphor that was first developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in their widely read book Metaphors We Live By (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). But it soon became clear that, although in many ways inspirational, this book (and much of the research that grew out of it; see Kövecses, 2002) does not in every way meet the needs of anthropologists. One major reason for this was that, as a general tendency, cognitive linguists have overemphasized the universality of some of the metaphorical structures that they found, and they ignored the many cases of nonuniversality in metaphorical conceptualization (Fernandez, 1991). This situation presents cognitive scientists and linguists working on metaphor with a challenge: Can the cognitive linguistic view of metaphor simultaneously explain both universality and diversity in metaphorical thought? I wish to take up this challenge and argue on the basis of a wide range of data that the cognitive linguistic view of metaphor can successfully perform this job. To be sure, in order for it to accomplish the task, it needs to be modified, revised, and supplemented in several ways. My major goal in this work is to develop such an “updated” and relatively compre-

hensive theory of metaphor that makes the theory more readily useful to people working on issues in the social sciences. In other words, this paper is an attempt on my part to bring one possible version of the cognitive linguistic theory of metaphor closer to those who have an interest in studying the role of metaphor in complex social-cultural phenomena, such as emotions, politics, thought, morality, as well as highly abstract cultural processes and entities such as time, life, and personhood. This way, I hope to continue the “debate” or dialog between cognitive linguists and anthropologists that was called for by James Fernandez more than ten years ago (Fernandez, 1991: 8). I do not intend to do this by surveying the huge anthropological literature on metaphor; that would be a huge task in itself. Instead, I try to offer a reasonably comprehensive metaphor theory of what I take to be issues relevant to social scientists on the basis of the data that I have collected or that have been accumulated by other cognitive linguists interested in the issue of metaphor variation. Anthropologists and other social scientists can then judge whether the theory I arrive at is valid when compared with their theories based on their own data. This way we can begin to work together toward building a better account of the role of metaphor in understanding our own cultures and those of “others.”

2. Universality in metaphor Metaphor is linguistic, conceptual, neural, bodily, and social all at the same

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 time. Since cognitive linguists claim that metaphor is of the mind, the brain, and the body, many people who are familiar with the view of metaphor that originates from Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Metaphors We Live By often expect that what we call “conceptual metaphors” are largely or mostly universal. They also often criticize this view for ignoring the obvious diversity of metaphors across and within cultures. My major goal in this paper is to offer a balanced view that takes into account both the universality and diversity of metaphor. In this view, we have to be able to answer the following questions: (1) Which metaphors are universal and why? (2) What are the dimensions along which metaphors vary? (3) Which aspects of metaphor are affected by metaphor variation? (4) What are the main causes of variation? (5) How do the causes that produce variation interact with the causes that produce universality? In this paper, I will try to outline my best answers to these questions. However, before I begin, it will be useful to briefly look at an example of universality in metaphorical conceptualization. It seems that several unrelated languages may share several conceptual metaphors for particular emotion concepts. One of these emotion concepts is happiness. There are a large number of conceptual metaphors for happiness in English (Kövecses, 1991), but three of them stand out in importance: happiness is up (“I’m

feeling up”), happiness is light (“She brightened up”), and happiness is a fluid in a container (“He’s bursting with joy”). The Chinese cognitive linguist Ning Yu found the same conceptual metaphors in Chinese (Yu, 1995, 1998). Let us take happiness is up as our example. (Ning Yu used the following grammatical abbreviations: PRT = particle, ASP = aspect marker, MOD = modifier marker, COM = complement marker, CL = classifier, BA = preposition ba in the so-called ba-sentences.) happy is up

Ta hen gao-xing. he very high-spirit He is very high-spirited/happy. Ta xing congcong de. he spirit rise-rise PRT His spirits are rising and rising./He’s pleased and excited. Zhe-xia tiqi le wo-de xingzhi. this-moment raise ASP my mood This time it lifted my mood/interest. Hungarian, a Finno-Ugric language, also has the same conceptual metaphors, as can be seen from the examples below: happiness is up

Ez a film feldobott. this the film up-threw-me This film gave me a high.-This film made me happy.

AY 2002-2003 Majd elszáll a boldogságtól. almost away-flies-he/she the happiness-from He/she is on cloud nine. It is a remarkable fact that the same metaphor exists in the three languages. After all, English, Chinese, and Hungarian belong to very different language families and represent very different cultures of the world, which presumably did not have much contact with each other when these conceptual metaphors evolved. The question arises: How is it possible for such different languages and cultures to conceptualize happiness metaphorically in such similar ways? Three answers to the question suggest themselves: (1) it has happened by accident; (2) one language borrowed the metaphors from another; and (3) there is some universal motivation that enables the metaphors to emerge in these cultures. If it is true, as cognitive linguists claim, that “simple” or “primary” metaphors (Grady 1997; Kövecses, 2002) are motivated by universal correlations in bodily experience, we can be pretty sure that it is the third explanation that gives us the correct answer to the question. Indeed, when we are joyful, we tend to be up, moving around, be active, jump up and down, rather than down, inactive, and static. These are undoubtedly universal experiences associated with happiness (or more precisely, joy), and they are likely to produce universal (or near-universal) simple or primary metaphors. The happy is up metaphor is a genericlevel metaphor. We know that metaphors

tend to be universal or near-universal at this level. Specific-level metaphors tend to be different cross-linguistically. For example, a specific-level version of the metaphor happy is up in English is happiness is being off the ground. As Ning Yu (1995, 1998) observed, this specific metaphor does not exist in Chinese.

3. Dimensions of metaphor variation I will distinguish two kinds of dimensions along which metaphors vary: the cross-cultural and the within-culture dimension.

3.1 Cross-cultural variation The most obvious dimension along which metaphors vary is the cross-cultural dimension. Variation in this dimension can be found in several distinct forms. One of them is what I call “congruence.” This is what obtains between a generic-level metaphor and several specific-level ones. Another is the case where a culture uses a set of different source domains for a particular target domain, or conversely, where a culture uses a particular source domain for conceptualizing a set of different target domains. Yet another situation involves cases where the set of conceptual metaphors for a particular target domain is roughly the same between two languages/ cultures, but one language/ culture shows a clear preference for some of the conceptual metaphors that are employed.

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 Finally, there may be some conceptual metaphors that appear to be unique to a given language/ culture. I will demonstrate congruence and alternative metaphorical conceptualization by some examples.

3.1.1 Congruent metaphors There is some evidence that

the angry

person is a pressurized container

metaphor may be near-universal (see Kövecses, 2000a). What is especially important about this conceptual metaphor is that it functions at an extremely general level. The metaphor does not specify many things that could be specified. For example, it does not say what kind of container is used, how the pressure arises, whether the container is heated or not, what kind of substance fills the container (liquid, substance, or objects), what consequences the explosion has, and so on. The metaphor constitutes a generic schema that gets filled out by each culture that has the metaphor. When it is filled out, it receives unique cultural content at a specific level. In other words, a generic-level conceptual metaphor is instantiated in culture-specific ways at a specific level. This is one kind of cross-cultural variation. Consider the following three special cases. In one, Matsuki (1995) observes that all the metaphors for anger in English as analyzed by Lakoff and Kövecses (1987) can also be found in Japanese. At the same time, she also points out that there is a large number of anger-related expressions that group around the Japanese concept of hara (literally, ‘belly’). This is a culturally significant concept that is

unique to Japanese culture, and so the conceptual metaphor anger is (in the) hara is limited to Japanese. Second, Ning Yu (1998) studied the pressurized container metaphor in great depth, and points out that Chinese uses a version of this metaphor in which the excess qi (i.e., energy that flows through the body) that corresponds to anger is not a fluid, like in English, but a gas. The gas is neutral with respect to heat, but it is capable of exerting pressure on the bodycontainer. The most remarkable feature of the Chinese anger-metaphor is that it employs and is crucially constituted by the concept of qi—a concept that is deeply embedded in the long history of Chinese philosophy and medicine. Third, Zulu shares many conceptual metaphors with English (Taylor and Mbense, 1998). This does not mean, however, that it cannot have metaphors other than the ones we can find in English. One case in point is the Zulu metaphor that involves the heart: anger is (understood as being) in the heart. When the heart metaphor applies to English, it is primarily associated with love, affection, and the like. In Zulu it applies to anger and patience-impatience, tolerance-intolerance. The heart metaphor conceptualizes anger in Zulu as leading to internal pressure since too much “emotion substance” is crammed into a container of limited capacity. The things that fill it up are other emotions that happen to a person in the wake of daily events. When too many of these happen to a person, the person becomes extremely angry and typically loses control over his anger.

AY 2002-2003 In all of the three cases, there is a generic-level metaphor and a specificlevel one. The specific-level metaphors are instantiations of the generic-level one in the sense that they exhibit the same general structure. The lower-level instantiations are thus congruent with a higher-level metaphor. Where they differ is in the specific cultural content that they bring to the metaphor.

3.1.2 Alternative metaphors There can be differences in the range of conceptual metaphors (or, more precisely, the range of source domains) that languages and cultures have available for the conceptualization of particular target domains. This is what commonly happens in the case of emotion concepts as targets. Chinese shares with English all the basic metaphorical source domains for happiness: up, light, fluid in a container. A metaphor that Chinese has, but English does not, is happiness is flowers in the heart. According to Ning Yu (1995, 1998), the application of this metaphor reflects “the more introverted character of Chinese.” He sees this conceptual metaphor as a contrast to the (American) English metaphor being happy is being off the ground, which does not exist in Chinese at all and which reflects the relatively “extroverted” character of speakers of English. As another illustration, let us take the concept of life as target. Later in the paper, we will see that life is commonly and primarily conceptualized as struggle/

war,

precious

possession,

game,

journey,

and in several other ways by Americans and Hungarians. However, as work by Elizabeth Riddle (2001) shows, speakers of Hmong, a language spoken mainly in Laos and Thailand, conceptualize it very differently. They view life as a “string” that can be cut and broken. The word meaning ‘cut,’ tu, can also mean ‘to give birth,’ ‘to die,’ and ‘to kill.’ Riddle presents evidence for the existence of the conceptual metaphor not only from language but also from social behavior. Although the Hmong metaphor life is a string resonates as at least vaguely familiar to members of the European cultural sphere who have a similar metaphor in Greek mythology (the three Fates spinning, weaving, and cutting the thread of life), the Hmong metaphor is much more clearly present among speakers of this language and seems to guide much of their linguistic and nonlinguistic behavior.

3.2 Within-culture variation We know from work in sociology, anthropology, sociolinguistics, etc. that languages are not monolithic but come in varieties reflecting divergences in human experience. It makes sense to expect metaphor variation in the varieties of language most commonly identified by these researchers. I will present evidence that, I believe, supports the idea that metaphors vary not only cross-culturally but also within cultures. This variation can occur along a number of dimensions including the social, regional, ethnic, style,

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 subcultural, diachronic, and individual dimensions. I conceive of this approach to metaphor variation as the cognitive dimension of social-cultural diversity. I will demonstrate with some examples how metaphors vary along these dimensions.

3.2.1 The social dimension Social dimensions include the differentiation of society into men and women, young and old, middle-class and working class, and so forth. Do men, the young, or the middle-class use different metaphors than women, the old, or the working-class? At present we do not have systematic studies from a cognitive linguistic perspective. But we do have some indication that some of these social factors might produce variation in metaphorical conceptualization. One example of this is the men-woman dimension. This dimension seems to be operative in several distinct cases: the way men talk about women, the way women talk about men, the way men and women talk about women, the way men and women talk about the world in general (i.e., not only about the other). In English speaking countries (but also in others), it is common for men to use expressions such as bunny, kitten, bird, chick, cookie, dish, sweetie pie, and many others, of women. These metaphorical expressions assume certain conceptual metaphors: women are (small) furry animals (bunny, kitten), women are birds (bird, chick, hen-party), and women are sweet food (cookie, dish, sweetie pie). However, when women talk about men they do not appear to use these metaphors of men, or

use them in a more limited way. Men are not called bunnies or kittens by women. Neither are men characterized as birds or chicks, but they can be thought of as large furry animals instead, such as bears. And women are more commonly viewed by men as sweet food than men are by women, although women can also sometimes describe men as food, especially for sexual purposes.

3.2.2 The regional dimension Languages often develop new metaphors when the language is moved by some of its speakers to a part of the world different from where it was originally spoken. The spread of English to the United States is one example (see Kรถvecses, 2000b). Another is Afrikaans (Dutch spoken in South Africa). Afrikaans was carried from Europe to South Africa, and, as shown by Rene Dirven (1994), it changed its metaphorical patterns. It acquired many new metaphors based on natural phenomena and the animal world.

3.2.3 The style dimension Style is determined by a number of factors, such as audience, topic, setting, and medium. All of these may influence the selection and use of metaphors in discourse. For example, slang is typically rich in metaphor and may be characterized by metaphors not found in other varieties of language.

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3.2.4 The subcultural dimension Each society and culture consists of a number of subcultures. Subcultures develop their own metaphors, and these metaphors may define the group. There is of course no subculture that defines itself through an entirely new set of metaphors, but some of the metaphors members of the group use may be new relative to the mainstream. For example, we can think of emotionally-mentally ill people as one such group. Although depressed people share many of the metaphors for the concept of depression-sadness that “nondepressed” people have, like depression is darkness, depression is heavy, depression is descent/down, they also have metaphors that is unique to the group. One such metaphor is depression is a captor (McMullen and Conway, 2001).

3.2.5 The individual dimension Individuals often have their idiosyncratic metaphors. These can be entirely novel or they may be versions of already existing conceptual metaphors. Thus, one can have a view of love relationships as the action of “pushing a wagon uphill,” a metaphor based on love is a journey, but adding to it the aspect of requiring an effort to maintain it.

4. Aspects of metaphor involved in variation In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is seen as being constituted by a variety of

components that interact with each other. The components include the following: (1) Experiential basis (2) Source domain (3) Target domain (4) Relationship between the source and the target (5) Metaphorical linguistic expressions (6) Mappings (7) Entailments (8) Blends (9) Nonlinguistic realization (10) Cultural models We can conceive of the components as aspects of metaphor. The question for us is: Which one of these aspects are involved in metaphor variation? I suggest that all of them are. Conceptual metaphors consist of a source and target domain (2 and 3). The choice of particular sources to go with particular targets is motivated by an experiential basis (1). The relationship of the source and the target is such that a source domain can apply to several targets and a target can attach to several sources (4). The particular pairings of source and target domains give rise to metaphorical linguistic expressions (5). There are basic conceptual correspondences, or mappings, between the source and target domains (6). Source domains often map materials onto the target beyond the basic correspondences. These additional mappings are called entailments, or inferences (7). The bringing together of a source with a target domain often results in blends, that is, conceptual materials that are new with respect to both the source and the target

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 (8). Conceptual metaphors often materialize in nonlinguistic ways, that is, not only in language and thought but also in social reality (9). Conceptual metaphors converge on, and often produce, cultural models, that is, structured conceptual configurations (10). Due to limitations of space, I can only demonstrate some of these in this paper.

4.1 Source Different construals of the same source domain may lead to cross-linguistic metaphor variation. Given a particular source, this source may be construed differently in two languages. A case in point is the source domain of motion in space in English and Turkish, as analyzed by Seyda Özcaliskan (2002). Özcaliskan showed that English primarily encodes manner into its verbs of motion (e.g., walk, run, march), whereas Turkish motion verbs lack this information concerning motion. Turkish primarily encodes direction into many of its motion verbs (e.g., verbs corresponding to English fall, come, spread, descend). This difference in the construal of motion events leads speakers of the two languages to comprehend target domains by means of a shared source domain that, for them, comes in two versions: the manner-centered one (for English) and the neutral or direction-centered one (for Turkish). In this case, the shared source is at a high level of abstraction, whereas the cross-linguistic differences are found at a Word form Most frequent case Different Less frequent case Different Least frequent case Different

specific level of conceptual organization. Moreover, as Özcaliskan notes, this built-in difference in the kinds of information that the source domain encodes may predispose the speakers of the two languages to attend to slightly different aspects of not only the source but also of the target domain.

4.2 Entailments Both English and Zulu have fire as a source domain for anger, but speakers of Zulu make use of entailments, or inferences, concerning the metaphor in a way in which speakers of English do not. In Zulu one can extinguish somebody’s anger by pouring water on them (Taylor and Mbense, 1998). This potential metaphorical entailment is not picked up by the English anger is fire metaphor in the form of conventionalized linguistic expressions. Notice, however, that the metaphorical entailment is perfectly applicable to enthusiasm in English, as when someone is said to be a wet blanket at a party.

4.3 Linguistic expression If two languages have the same conceptual metaphor, the linguistic expression of the conceptual metaphor in the two languages may follow a variety of different patterns. Based on the examination of the time is money metaphor in English and Hungarian, I found the patterns below (see Kövecses, 2003):

Literal meaning same different different

Figurative meaning same same same

Conceptual metaphor same same different

AY 2002-2003 The table shows the regular patterns that we get if we keep the figurative meaning constant; that is, if we want to know how the same figurative meaning is expressed in the two languages. Given the money metaphor, the most frequent pattern is the one in which a(n obviously) different word form with the same literal meaning expresses the same figurative meaning by making use of the same conceptual metaphor. Such patterns give us a way of systematically studying the differences between languages in the expression of metaphorical meaning.

5. Causes of metaphor variation What causes our metaphors to vary along the dimensions and in the aspects that were discussed in the previous sections? I suggest that the causes can be grouped into two large classes: differential experience and differential cognitive preferences, or styles. In other words, the suggestion is that, on the one hand, many of our metaphors vary because our experiences as human beings also vary. And, on the other hand, our metaphors vary because the cognitive processes we put to use for the creation of abstract thought may also vary.

5.1 Differential experience On the whole, it may be suggested that differential experience is constituted by divergences in context, social or personal history, and what I call â&#x20AC;&#x153;human concern.â&#x20AC;?

5.1.1 Awareness of differential contexts When we use metaphors, we are (mostly unconsciously) aware of the context around us. The contexts that seem to have an influence on the metaphors we use include the physical environment, social context, and the communicative situation. Let us look at cultural context and the communicative situation to demonstrate the point.

5.1.1.1 Cultural context The broader cultural context simply means all the culturally unique and salient concepts and values that characterize cultures, including, importantly, the governing principles and the key concepts in a given culture or subculture. The governing principles and key concepts have special importance in (metaphorical) conceptualization because they permeate several general domains of experience for a culture or cultural group. To demonstrate the effect of these differences on metaphor, let us first consider in some detail the near-universal pressurized container metaphor for anger in a variety of cultures. We saw above that, at a generic level, this metaphor is very similar across many cultures. However, at a specific level we can notice important differences in this metaphor across certain cultures. How do these differences arise? Geeraerts and Grondelaers (1995) note that in the Euro-American tradition (including Hungary), it is the classicalmedieval notion of the four humors from which the Euro-American conceptual-

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 ization of anger (as well as that of emotion in general) derived. But they also note that the application of the humoral doctrine is not limited to anger or the emotions. The humoral view maintains that the four fluids (phlegm, black bile, yellow bile, and blood) regulate the vital processes of the human body. They were also believed to determine personality types (such as sanguine, melancholy, etc.) and account for a number of medical problems, together with cures for them (like bloodletting). Obviously, then, the use of the humoral view as a form of cultural explanation extends far beyond anger and the emotions. In addition to being an account of emotional phenomena, it was also used to explain a variety of issues in physiology, psychology, and medicine. In other words, the humoral view was a key component of the classical-medieval cultural context and it exerted a major impact on the emergence of the European conception of anger as a fluid in a pressurized container. In Japan, as Matsuki (1995) tells us, there seems to exist a culturally distinct set of concepts that is built around the concept of hara. Truth, real intentions, and the real self (called honne) constitute the content of hara. The term honne is contrasted with tatemae, or one’s social face. Thus when a Japanese person keeps his anger under control, he or she is hiding his or her private, truthful, innermost self and displaying a social face that is called for in the situation by accepted standards of behavior. The notion of hara greatly influenced the Japanese conception of anger over the ages. King (1989) and Yu (1995, 1998) suggest

that the Chinese concept of nu (corresponding to anger) is bound up with the notion of qi, that is, the energy that flows through the body. Qi in turn is embedded in not only the psychological (i.e., emotional) but also the philosophical and medical discourse of Chinese culture and civilization. The notion and the workings of qi is predicated on the belief that the human body is a homeostatic organism, the belief on which traditional Chinese medicine is based. And the conception of the body as a homeostatic organism seems to derive from the more general philosophical view that the universe operates with two complementary forces, yin and yang, which must be in balance to maintain the harmony of the universe. Similarly, when qi rises in the body, there is anger (nu), and when it subsides and there is balance again, there is harmony and emotional calm. Without the concept of “qi,” it would be difficult to imagine the view of anger in Chinese culture. Thus the four emotion concepts, anger in English, düh in Hungarian (the two representing European culture), ikari/ hara in Japanese, and nu in Chinese, are in part explained in the respective cultures by the culture-specific concepts of the four humors, hara, and qi. What accounts for the distinctiveness of the culture-specific concepts is the fact that, as we have just seen, the culture-specific concepts that are evoked to explain the emotion concepts are embedded in very different systems of cultural concepts and propositions. It appears then that the broader cultural contexts that operate with culture-specific key concepts account for many of the

AY 2002-2003 specific-level differences among the four emotion concepts and the pressurized container metaphor. The example of the pressurized container metaphor for anger demonstrates how culturally unique key concepts fill out generic-level schemas in the creation of cross-culturally differential metaphors. We can expect such differences in key concepts to bring about differences not only in the production but also in the understanding of metaphors by speakers of languages that are associated with differential core values. Jeannette Littlemore (2003) shows that when speakers have conflicting core values (such as individualism-collectivism), they are likely to misunderstand each other’s metaphors that are based on those values.

5.1.1.2 Communicative situation I mentioned earlier that one of the factors in the communicative situation is topic. Take, for instance, the sentences described by Jean Aitchison (1987): “Cougars drown Beavers,” “Cowboys corral Buffaloes,” “Air Force torpedoes the Navy,” and “Clemson cooks Rice” (Aitchison, 1987: 143). These headlines from articles describing American football games exemplify the case where the author of the headline can create a metaphor for defeat in sports on the basis of certain properties of the characters that participate in the “story.” Since, for example, cowboys are in the business of corralling animals, the author is in a position to create a metaphor for defeat based on this property of cowboys.

5.1.2 History One of my students, Niki Köves (2002), showed in a small-scale study that Hungarians primarily use the life is war and life is a compromise metaphors for comprehending the concept of life in general, whereas Americans predominantly employ the life is a precious possession and life is a game metaphors. Why do Hungarians use the metaphors they do for life, and why do Americans use different ones? The issue obviously has to do with the peculiarities of Hungarian and American history. Hungarians have been in wars throughout their more than one thousand year old history as a nation and state and had to struggle for their survival as they are wedged between powerful Germanspeaking and Slavic nations. Given this history, it is not surprising that for many Hungarians life is struggle—and less of a game. To point this out is, of course, trivial as far as history is concerned, but it is not trivial as far as the study of the emergence of a particular metaphorical conceptual system is concerned. Personal history also plays a role in shaping metaphorical conceptualization. This is imperceptibly true of ordinary people but it is much more clearly true of poets and other creative writers. We can suggest that the unique metaphorbased symbolic system that an author uses may be partially determined by his or her personal life histories. For example, Sylvia Plath’s metaphors come in part from the fact that her father was German and that he was an entomologist specializing in

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 bees. Or, take Hemingway’s symbolic system. Hemingway did bullfighting in Spain, was a big game hunter in Africa, and was a deep sea fisherman in Florida. All of these activities became symbolic in his novels and short stories. Actually, in Hemingway’s case it may be difficult to be sure whether the life story produced the metaphors, the life story was produced by a certain vision of the symbolic system itself, or the life story and the symbolic system envisioned simultaneously influenced each other and jointly emerged.

5.1.3 Human concern I mentioned above the unique conceptual metaphors used by people diagnosed with episodes of depression. One of them was the metaphor depression is captor. Why don’t non-depressed (i.e., “only” sad) people talk about sadness as captor? Most people do not normally talk about being trapped by, wanting to be free of, or wanting to break out of sadness, although these are ways of talking and thinking about depression in a clinical context. It makes sense to suggest that people with depression use this language and way of thinking about their situation because it faithfully captures what they experience and feel. Their deep concern is with their unique experiences and feelings that set them apart from people who do not have them. It is this concern that gives them the captor metaphor for depression.

5.2 Cognitive preferences and styles Many different cognitive processes are at work in metaphorical conceptualization. These include not only “seeing” some kind of resemblance between two things (metaphor) and/or blending them (conceptual integration) and not only providing access to an entity through another (metonymy), but also elaboration, focusing, conventionalization, specificity, and transparency. All of these can be found at work in all languages and cultures, but the degree to which they apply to situations in which metaphorical conceptualization occurs can vary from language to language. We can think of these differentially-applied processes as differential “cognitive preferences or styles.” (My use of the term “cognitive style” is perhaps not the conventional one here as compared to the customary usage in cognitive psychology, but this does not in any way affect the argument. On cognitive linguistic work in relation to metaphor understanding using the more customary sense, see Boers and Littlemore, 2000.) In this section, I will discuss some of these: experiential focus, metaphor and metonymy, and blending, or conceptual integration.

5.2.1 Experiential focus Cognitive linguists emphasize that human beings share a great deal of bodily experience on the basis of which they can build universal metaphors. The question that inevitably arises is this: Is this universal bodily basis utilized in the same way across

AY 2002-2003 languages and cultures or even varieties? In light of the available evidence it seems that the answer is no. The universal bodily basis on which universal metaphors could be built is not utilized in the same way or to the same extent in different languages and varieties. The notion that I would like to offer to get clear about this issue is that of “differential experiential focus.” What this means is that different peoples may be attuned to different aspects of their bodily functioning in relation to a target domain, or that they can ignore or downplay certain aspects of their bodily functioning with respect to the metaphorical conceptualization of a target domain. A case in point is the conceptualization of anger in English and Chinese. As studies of the physiology of anger across several unrelated cultures show, increase in skin temperature and blood pressure are universal physiological correlates of anger. This accounts for the anger is heat metaphor in English and in many other languages. However, King’s (1989) and Yu’s (1995, 1998) work suggests that the conceptualization of anger in terms of heat is much less prevalent in Chinese than it is in English. In Chinese, the major metaphors of anger seem to be based on pressure—not heat. This indicates that speakers of Chinese have relied on a different aspect of their physiology in the metaphorical conceptualization of anger than speakers of English. The major point is that in many cases the universality of experiential basis does not necessarily lead to universally equivalent conceptualization—at least not at the specific level of hot fluids.

As a matter of fact, the conceptualization of anger in terms of heat has not always been the case even in English. Caroline Gevaert (2001) found on the basis of a variety of historical corpora that heatrelated words accounted for only 1.59% per cent of all the words describing anger before 850. The number of heat-related words for anger dramatically increased in the period between 850 and 950. Then the number of these words decreased between 950 and 1050 to 6.22% and then to 1.71% by around 1200, and then to 0.27% by around 1300. After 1300 the number started growing again, and after 1400 it became dominant in texts that described anger. These numbers indicate that the conceptualization of anger in terms of heat is not a permanent and ever-present feature of the concept of anger in English. How can this fluctuation occur in the conceptualization of anger over time? Is it because people’s physiology changes in anger throughout the ages? This obviously cannot be the case. I believe the answer is that universal physiology provides only a potential basis for metaphorical conceptualization—without mechanically constraining what the specific metaphors for anger will be. Heat was a major component in the concept of anger between 850 and 950, and then after a long decline it began to play a key role again at around 1400—possibly as a result of the emergence of the humoral view of emotions in Europe (see Gevaert, 2001; Geeraerts and Grondelaers, 1995). We can notice the same kind of fluctuation in the use of the domain of “swell” noted by

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 Gevaert, which I take to be akin to what we can call the “pressure” component in the conceptualization of anger today. Pressure was a major part of the conceptualization of anger until around 1300, but then it began to decline, only to emerge strongly again, together with heat, in the form of the hot fluid in a container metaphor centuries later. The point is that we should not expect any of the conceptualized responses associated with anger to remain constant in conceptualizing anger (and the emotions in general) throughout the ages.

5.2.2 Metaphor and metonymy Are there any differences in the way the cognitive processes of metaphor versus metonymy are used in different languages and cultures? The most systematic investigation along these lines is a study by Jonathan Charteris-Black (2003). He examined in great detail how and for what purpose three concepts—mouth, tongue, and lip—are figuratively utilized in English and Malay. He found similarities in metaphorical conceptualization. For example, in both languages, the same underlying conceptual metaphor (e.g., manner is taste) accounts for expressions like honey-tongued and lidah manis (‘tongue sweet’) and in both languages such expressions are used for the discourse function of evaluating (especially negatively) what a person says. However, he also found that the figurative expressions involving the three concepts tended to be metonymic in English and metaphoric in Malay. In English, more than half of

the expressions were metonyms, while in Malay the vast majority of them showed evidence of metaphor (often in combination with metonymy). For example, while metonymic expressions like tightlipped abound in English, such expressions are much less frequent in Malay. It seems that, at least in the domain of speech organs, the employment of these concepts by means of figurative processes is culture-specific.

5.2.3 Blending The differential application of the universal cognitive process of blending, or conceptual integration, is likely to produce a great deal of cultural variation—either within or across languages and cultures. The kind of blending that Fauconnier and Turner (2002) call “double-scope network” is especially relevant here. With “double-scope networks,” the target domain plays an equally important role in contributing to the frame structure of the blend. Selective parts of both source and target make up the emergent frame structure of the blend. We can illustrate this with the anger is a hot fluid in a container metaphor. Take the following sentence analyzed by Fauconnier and Turner (2002): God, he was so mad I could see the smoke coming out of his ears. This is a novel elaboration of the metaphor anger is a hot fluid in a container. In it, an element of the source is blended with an element of the target. There are no ears in the source and there is no smoke in the target, but in the blend both are present at the same time as smoke

AY 2002-2003 coming out of his ears. A frame is created with smoke and ears in it that is novel with respect to both the source frame and the target frame. What happens here is that an angry person’s head with the ears becomes the container in the source, and the smoke (steam) in the source will be seen as coming out of the ears (and not through the orifices of the container). This is a true fusion of certain elements of both source and target in the blend. Given the new emergent structure, the blend can be developed further. One can say, for example: God, was he ever mad. I could see the smoke coming out of his ears – I thought his hat would catch fire! As Fauconnier and Turner note, to understand this sentence, we need the “smoke coming out of one’s ears” frame. But we also need the knowledge based on how intensity is conceptualized in the conceptual network associated with the metaphor. A submapping of the anger is heat metaphor is intensity of emotion is degree of heat. One of the entailments of this metaphor is that a high degree of heat may cause fire (corresponding to “intense anger may cause a dangerous social situation”). But how does “hat” get into the blend? The fact that it does shows the almost infinite creativity of blends: we can take them further and further, bringing about new conceptualizations that depend on old ones and on the application of systematic cognitive processes. In this particular case the “hat” emerges as we run the previous blend with the “smoke coming out of

one’s ears.” The head-container with the ears metonymically evokes the hat, which is typically worn on the head. Due to the entailment of the intensity is heat metaphor (“high degree of heat may cause fire”), the hat can be seen as catching fire. This would indicate an overall increase in the intensity in the person’s anger. The kind of anger described by the phrase “smoke coming out of one’s ears” could occur in any culture that places a great deal of emphasis on heat in conceptualizing anger. Given this extremely general constraint, which of these cultures will actually come up with such an extended form of anger may be a matter of accidence. The universal cognitive processes are available to all speakers in all cultures, but they are not put to use to the same extent by all of them.

6. Conclusion In this paper, I have attempted to outline a view of conceptual metaphor in which the issue of metaphor variation is just as important as universal embodiment. I demonstrated, by means of a few examples, the basic components of such a theory: dimensions of variation, aspects of variation, causes of variation, and the interaction of the causes that produce variation with universal embodiment that produces universality in metaphorical conceptualization. Such a view can be considered as a first step in the direction of a cognitive-cultural theory of metaphor. The cultural-cognitive view is a natural and necessary complement of the experiential view. This is not to say

Cultural Variation in Metaphor 1 that the experiential view has completely ignored the issue of variation in culture— it did not. Rather, the suggestion is that it has not paid enough attention to it and has not taken into account the minimally necessary components of a more full-fledged cultural-cognitive theory of metaphor.

References Aitchison, Jean. 1987. Words in the mind. London: Blackwell. Boers, Frank and Jeanette Littlemore. 2000. Cognitive style variables in participants’ explanations of conceptual metaphors. Metaphor and Symbol 15(3), 177-187. Charteris-Black, Jonathan. 2003. Speaking with forked tongue: a comparative study of metaphor and metonymy in English and Malay phraseology. Metaphor and Symbol. 18-4, 289-310. Dirven, Rene. 1994. Metaphor and nation. Metaphors Afrikaners live by. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Fauconnier, Gilles and Mark Turner. 2002. The way we think. New York: Basic Books. Fernandez, James, W. Ed. 1991. Beyond Metaphor. The Theory of Tropes in Anthropology. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Geeraerts, Dirk and Stephan Grondelaers. 1995. Looking back at anger: cultural traditions and metaphorical patterns. In J. Taylor and R. MacLaury (eds.) Language and the cognitive construal of the world. Berlin: Gruyter. Gevaert, Caroline. 2001. Anger in Old and Middle English: a ‘hot’ topic? Belgian Essays on Language and Literature. King, Brian. 1989. The conceptual structure of emotional experience in Chinese. Ph.D. diss. Ohio State University. Kövecses, Zoltán. 1991. Happiness: A definitional effort. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity. Vol. 6(1), 29-46. 2000a. Metaphor and emotion. New York/Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2000b. American English. An introduction. Peterborough, Canada: Broadview Press. 2002. Metaphor. A practical introduction. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2003a. Cultural variation in metaphor. Discourse and Cognition, 2003,Vol. 10.2, 1-24, published by the Discourse and Cognitive Linguistics Society of Korea. 2003b. Language, figurative thought, and cross-cultural

comparison. Metaphor and Symbol. 18-4, 311-320. 2004. Metaphor in culture. In B. Lewandowska and A. Kwiatkowsk (eds.), Imagery in language. Festschrift in Honour of Ronald W. Langacker. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 523-542. 2005. Metaphor in culture. Universality and variation. New York/Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Köves, Nikoletta. 2002. American and Hungarian dreamworks of life. (term paper, Department of American Studies, ELTE, Budapest) Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson. 1980. Metaphors we live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1999. Philosophy in the flesh. New York: Basic Books. Lakoff, George and Zoltán Kövecses. 1987. The cognitive model of anger inherent in American English. In D. Holland and N. Quinn (eds.) Cultural models in language and thought. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Littlemore, Jeannette. 2003. The effect of cultural background on metaphor interpretation. Metaphor and Symbol. 18-4, 273-288. Matsuki, Keiko. 1995. Metaphors of anger in Japanese. In J. Taylor and R. MacLaury (eds.) Language and the cognitive construal of the world. Berlin: Gruyter. McMullen, Linda and John Conway. 2002. Conventional metaphors for depression. In S. Fussell (ed.) Verbal communication of emotion: interdisciplinary perspectives. Lawrence Erlbaum. Özçalışkan, Şeyda. 2002. Metaphors we move by: A crosslinguistic-developmental analysis of metaphorical motion events in English and Turkish. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of California, Berkeley. Riddle, Elizabeth. 2001. The “string” metaphor of life and language in Hmong. (ms., conference presentation, Budapest, International Pragmatics Conference) Taylor, John and Thandi Mbense. 1998. Red dogs and rotten mealies: How Zulus talk about anger. In A. Athanasiadou and E. Tabakowska (eds.) Speaking of Emotions. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Yu, Ning. 1995. Metaphorical expressions of anger and happiness in English and Chinese. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 10: 59-92. 1998. The contemporary theory of metaphor in Chinese: A perspective from Chinese. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. (Endnotes) 1 Portions of this paper have appeared in Kövecses, 2003a, 2004 and 2005.

Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons using Rhenium-based Catalysts GĂĄbor Lente ............................................................................. University of Debrecen Egyetem tĂŠr 1., 4032 Debrecen, Hungary http:\\www.unideb.hu lenteg@delfin.unideb.hu

Iowa State University Ames, 50011, IA, USA http:\\www.iastate.edu Adviser: Prof. James H. Espenson

............................................................................. In this report, I am giving a summary of the research I did as a Fulbright scholar in 2002-2003 and also recalling the pleasant memories of a year spent in the United States. The original research project planned in my application had to be modified because rhenium-based compounds were not active as catalysts in the title reaction. However, less expensive iron complexes were active catalysts and helped me to discover that light has an important effect on the oxidation of chlorophenols in general. I developed a systematic way of comparing the efficiencies of different catalysts, worked with a new method for studying photochemical reactions, and began the long work of studying one particular catalyst in detail. The results were published in five different original research papers in the peer-reviewed chemical literature. In addition to my research, I also took part in the Fulbright Occasional Lecturer Program, created a website and gave a talk to commemorate the Kossuth bicentenary, and tried to make Hungary better known through a chemical presentation about the cyanide pollution wave that swept the Hungarian river Tisza in 2000.

AY 2002-2003

1. Introduction This is an unusual report in a number of respects. To begin with, the title was a major headache for me. I had to choose between two alternatives that seemed equally uncomfortable. The first choice was using the original project title of my application for Fulbright fellowship and not writing much about it in the report. The second choice was finding a title that reflects a little better on the research I actually carried out as a Fulbright scholar and at the same time confusing official records of my participation. After much agony, I decided to go for the first alternative and apologize for the grossly misleading title as a first thing in the introduction. Why cannot I write about the research planned in my proposal? In fact, I can write about it four simple but honest words: it does not work. But the story is longer than that. I planned my application for a Fulbright scholarship in early 2001. The scholarship began in the summer of 2002. So I had to write a research proposal more than a year ahead. This is not easy in basic scientific research. When I was an undergraduate student, one of my professors told me something I still remember and believe: if you can predict the results of your research, you should not be doing it. Over the years, I have become convinced that good basic research is done to learn or discover something and not to confirm predictable phenomena. In my research proposal, I did my best to plan a particular research project in sufficient detail to be convincing even for specialists. However,

Mother Nature proved me wrong on one of my basic assumptions. Another major problem with this report was the amount and depth of technical details I should include in it. As the scientific results of my work as a Fulbright scholar have already been published in the peer-reviewed chemical literature in five different original research papers1-5, it seemed to be pointless to repeat them in a similar fashion. Neither it seemed to be wise for me to assume that the possible readers of this report would have the same level of chemical expertise the usual audience of my publications has. Finally, I have decided to put the emphasis on showing how exciting it was to work on this project and also write briefly about the non-scientific activities I was involved in as a Fulbrighter.

2. Research Project As I have already mentioned, I could not do the research planned in my original proposal. The reason for this was that the rhenium compounds mentioned in the title did not have the expected effect on the studied chemical reactions. In this section, I will describe how I made this fact sure and what changes I made in the research strategy after this finding.

2.1. Scientific Background and Objectives The organic compounds in the title, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and halogenated aromatic compounds, are principal pollutants from incomplete combustions, and are of special environ-

Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons mental concern due to their toxic, carcinogenic, potent mutagenic properties and ubiquitous presence in the environment. They are regarded as priority pollutants by both the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the European Union. These compounds are commonly found in the atmosphere both in the gas and particle phases. They are present in both surface and underground waters and were also shown to be resistant toward biodegradation. The negative environmental impact of these compounds has been known for decades, and there have been considerable efforts in basic research to answer the challenge posed by them. Through the work planned in my original proposal I wanted to contribute to these efforts by combining my expertise in inorganic chemical mechanisms research and chemical kinetics with the use of rhenium-based catalysts under development if Prof. Espensonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s laboratory in Ames, Iowa. A publication6 that appeared in Science magazine (one of the two leading scientific journals) in April 2002, shortly before the beginning of my grant period, convinced us to focus our research on chlorinated phenols. This subclass of compounds is produced by paper mills in the delignification of wood pulp by chlorine bleaching and is present in industrial sewage. Because of their toxicity, these compounds must be removed from sewage. A standard treatment method for organic pollutants is evaporation of water followed by incineration. For chlorinated phenols, this treatment method must be avoided as it produces sizeable quantities of extremely

toxic dioxins. Incidentally, one compound from the dioxin family received considerable attention from the international press in early 2005 when a story broke about its alleged use in an infamous 2004 assassination attempt against Ukrainian presidential candidate Viktor Yuschenko, who was later elected president. An efficient method for the treatment of sewage containing chlorinated phenols would be to oxidize the chlorinated phenols completely, in other words, using an appropriate chemical to degrade these compounds to form water and carbon dioxide, which are harmless materials. The chemical used in this degradation process has to meet very stiff standards. It has to be cheap and widely available, more or less environmentally benign and should not form unwanted byproducts in considerable quantities. There are only three reactants that come close to meeting these tough standards: oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and ozone. Ozone, in addition to its counterintuitive property of being highly toxic to humans, is not particularly cheap or widely available. Oxygen is notoriously difficult to use in reactions at ambient temperatures. In conclusion, hydrogen peroxide seemed the best choice. However, it is now well established that hydrogen peroxide reacts extremely slowly with chlorinated phenols and additional reactants are needed to accelerate the reaction in order to be useful for practical purposes. Such reactants are called catalysts in chemistry. Prof. Espensonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research group has wide experience in using rhenium-based catalysts to facilitate chemical reactions

AY 2002-2003 using hydrogen peroxide. This was a very nice coincidence for this project. We had compelling reasons to believe that these rhenium-based catalysts could be successfully used in the oxidation of chlorinated phenols. Although rhenium is a very rare metal and is expensive as such, the amounts needed for catalytic application are so tiny that this does not usually pose a major limitation on its uses, at least not in the chemical laboratory. In fact, the single most important industrial use of rhenium is also as a process catalyst.

2.2. Scientific Findings The findings of my chemical research will be summarized in five subsections describing closely related results. I should mention that I usually worked on these experiments simultaneously and not independent of each other. As a consequence, the results and objectives of these seemingly different projects often mutually influenced one another in a way that is difficult to describe clearly.

2.2.1. Reasons for the Unsuitability of Rheniumbased Compounds to Serve as Catalysts As my research project begin in August 2002, I prepared one of the most generally applicable rhenium-based catalysts that has been successfully used to catalyze a vast number of reactions using hydrogen peroxide. This compound is called methyltrioxorhenium (abbreviation: MTO, chemical formula CH3ReO3). Within a week or so, I confirmed a complete failure

in attempts to catalyze the oxidations of different chlorinated phenols with MTO. In the experiments, the chlorinated phenol stayed intact without any sign of degradation, the only change observed was a slow and well known catalyst deactivation. Later, I also had some chance to gain some insight as to why this reaction did not occur against the expectations. A chemical reaction does not usually consist of a single event in which all the reactant molecules are involved. It is much more common to have reactions with several simple steps one after another, each step involving the formation and break-up of only one or two chemical bonds. In a degradation reaction like the oxidation of chlorophenols, the number of bonds broken and formed is usually above 20 and may sometimes exceed even 50 implying that there must be quite a few simple steps. There are several different molecular ways for a compound to undergo oxidation depending mainly on the order of the bond-breaking and making processes. One of these ways is called â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;oxygen transferâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. This means that the compound undergoing degradation accepts one or more oxygen atoms from various possible sources as the first step. For MTO, it is known that it works best when the first step in the degradation is oxygen transfer. However, it turned out that chlorophenols are not prone to oxidation by this oxygen transfer mechanism. Therefore, MTO is not a good choice for catalyst. As this became clear, I went back to the chemical literature to search for

Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons better catalyst candidates. There was no shortage of compounds with possible or proven catalytic activity.6-8 Many of these compounds contained some iron and I also noticed a structural motif that was common to an unusually high number of them. Finally, I decided to use several of them and compare their properties in a systematic way. But before that, I discovered something that was highly unexpected and is probably the single most important finding of the whole project thus far. In the next subsection, I will explain what this discovery was.

2.2.2. The Effect of Light on the Oxidation of Chlorinated Phenols When I settled with a few promising ironcontaining catalyst, I began mechanistic studies on their reactions. These mechanistic studies mainly involve experiments in which the time course of the target chemical reaction is studied. From the way the reactions evolve in time, it is often possible to draw solid conclusions on the order of the individual simple steps the overall process consists of. I used several different methods to follow the progress of the reaction. One of the most useful methods was a device called a chloride ion selective electrode. This is a simple piece of scientific equipment that can measure the amount of chloride ions present in a solution, no matter what other components there are in the mixture. The chlorine atoms in the structures of chlorophenols end up as chloride ions after the degradation reaction. So this electrode

gives a simple and selective way to follow the progress of the reaction. During the early studies, I used 2,4,6-trichlorophenol as a representative chlorinated phenol in the experiments. Its chemical structure is shown in Figure 1. At first, the reaction times were quite long, often extending to a full day. Fortunately, the experimental equipment did not need constant human monitoring, so I could start an experiment at the end of the day, let it run through the night, and have a look at the recorded results next morning. Sometimes the experiments continued well into the next day as well. An important and in this case fortunate feature of the lab I worked in was that it was located somewhat below ground level and I had to have the lights on whenever I was in the room. The first morning following an overnight experiment (October 16, 2002) I came to the lab but had something else to do for some time. Acting on a sudden impulse, I made a very unusual note in my research notebook: I recorded the exact time at which I came to the laboratory (8.10 am). Never before or after this day I did this again. After about an hour I arrived, I began processing the data from the experiment that was still running. To my great initial surprise, the data showed that the rate of

AY 2002-2003 chloride ion formation suddenly increased at some point in time. This was extremely unusual. The rate of almost any chemical reaction decreases as time passes. Even in the rare cases where such acceleration is observed, it is a gradual process and not a sudden change. My sudden acceleration was small, but significant. It definitely called for an explanation. The rate of a chemical reaction may depend on a number of outside factors. However, outside factors are usually controlled and kept unchanged during a single experiment. A sudden change like the one I saw could only be due to an outside effect that changed within a very short time period. At this point, I made a crucial calculation which determined the exact time when the sudden acceleration began. This would again be highly unusual in normal research because the rate of chemical reactions only depends on the time that elapses after starting the reaction. However, the sudden acceleration was anything but normal. It turned out that the sudden acceleration occurred at 8.10am, exactly at the time I arrived. It was clear that I somehow did something that changed the rate of the reaction. My best hypothesis was that turning the light on caused the effect. There was a very convenient way to prove this explanation. The experiment was still on, I just had to illuminate the sample deliberately with an intense light source and see whether this influences the rate or not. I found a powerful lamp in the laboratory almost immediately and did the experiment with spectacular results: the rate increased enormously. The chloride ion concentrations

measured in this single highly conclusive experiment are shown in Figure 2.1 In a subsequent flurry of research, I made sure that light has an effect on the degradation reactions of all chlorophenols â&#x20AC;&#x201C; no matter what the catalyst or the oxidizing agent is. This was an important finding for two very fundamental reasons. First, this effect was previously unreported in the literature. Scientist doing earlier related research took no precautions to avoid the effect of light, therefore their conclusions had to be critically revised. Second, it could be advantageous to improve the cost-efficiency of an industrial sewage treatment process simply by exposing the treated sewage to sunlight. On a more personal note, I have to admit that I was lucky to find this light effect so early on. Several fortunate circumstances helped me in this finding but I hope that this whole story also falls into a category for which there is an age-old scientific saying: â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;chance favors the prepared mindâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. I am sure I would have made this discovery without the fortunate coincidences because my usual experimental procedures are careful enough to reveal hints of light effects even if I am not looking for them intentionally. However, without this luck, the discovery could have taken a lot longer and could have rendered a huge body of experimental work inconclusive.

Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

2.2.3. Detailed Studies on Light-driven Chemical Reactions â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a Case Study with Simultaneous Improvement of Experimental Methods When the light effect became clear there were two evident lines of research to follow. The reaction was accelerated by light, but it also proceeded without illumination. So one possible way to continue was to do further experiments in the dark. This was in agreement with the scientific methods used from the dawn of systematic research â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a good experimenter identifies and separates the important outside factors and handles them one at a time. The other direction was to find the actual reaction the light brings about by photochemical investigations, learn about it as much as possible and try to improve its efficiency. I decided to pursue both of these possible lines. Even if there were no practical way to improve the efficiency of the actual industrial water treatment methods by illumination, it would have been less than satisfactory intellectually not to find a reason for the light effect. At first, finding a logical explanation posed quite a bit of a challenge. The huge problem was the first law of photochemistry. This law states that only light absorbed by some of the reactants may have any effect an a chemical process. Although chlorophenols, hydrogen peroxide, and the catalysts used all have absorption in the ultraviolet light range, the degradation reaction was also

accelerated by visible light, which none of the reactants absorbed. Finally, the experiments revealed that a compound named a chlorinated quinone is formed in an early reaction step of the degradation and consumed in a later one. Quinones usually absorb visible light (consequently they are colored) and so do chlorinated quinones. What is more, quinones are known to undergo photochemical reactions and these reactions have been studied in considerable detail because of scientific interest unrelated to the degradation of chlorinated phenols. So the light absorption and subsequent photoreactions of chlorinated quinones explain why even visible light influences the rate of the reaction. I took this opportunity to work on an idea that had been brewing in me for some time by then. This idea was basically to develop a new experimental technique for studying photochemical reactions. Usually, photochemical studies require specialized instrumentation. This equipment is readily available in many laboratories throughout the world, but simpler methods would also be welcome. The idea was that a commercially available and much more common piece of instrumentation called diode array spectrophotometer has a pair of powerful lamps which are intense enough to force photochemical changes. Thus, this instrument can drive the reaction and detect the changes at the same time. Although the instrument is not designed to carry out photochemical investigations, we showed that it can still provide valuable information on lightrelated processes. The initial study was

AY 2002-2003 done on the photochemical reactions of a selected chlorinated quinone named 2,6dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone. Its chemical structure is shown in Figure 1. Using this method, it was possible to clarify mechanistic points in this photoreaction.2

2.2.4. Comparison of different iron-based catalysts Despite my efforts to identify and study the processes responsible for the light effect, the main interest in the reactions remained elucidating the mechanisms of the reactions taking place without illumination. As I already mentioned, there were a number of earlier studies published in the literature. These studies typically focused on characterizing the properties of one particular catalyst in detail, often using specialized and expensive instrumental techniques to draw conclusions. I was surprised to find that no efforts to compare the different catalysts systematically had been reported in the literature in spite of the relatively large number of individual systems studied.6-8 So I decided to work on a protocol that uses relatively simple instrumentation and makes quick comparison possible. My systematic study defined and measured three different stoichiometric and two kinetic efficiencies for the catalysts in the oxidation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol by hydrogen peroxide. Six different ironbased activators were used to make the comparison: Fe3+(aq) (from a simple iron alum), Fe(TPPS)+ (a water soluble ironcontaining porphyrin that is similar to the iron-containing compounds in human blood), cis-[(cyclam)Fe]3+, trans-[(cyclam)Fe]3+,

[Fe(TPA)]2+, and [Fe(6-Me2-TPA)2+ (these four are synthetic compounds that have been used successfully to catalyze similar reactions). The systematic chemical names for the abbreviated ligands are: TPPS = mesotetra(4-sulfonatophenyl) porphine, cyclam = 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane, TPA = tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine, 6-Me2TPA = bis[(6-methyl-2-pyridyl)methyl](2pyridylmethyl)amine. These ligands and their iron(III) complexes were usually not available from chemical suppliers and had to be prepared individually. The stoichiometric efficiencies of the catalyst were characterized by comparing the total organic carbon content, chloride ion concentration, and remaining oxidant concentration to the ideal stoichiometry where carbon dioxide, water and inorganic chloride are the only products. The kinetic efficiencies of the catalysts were compared using the rate of chloride ion formation and H2O2 consumption. The final conclusion was that Fe(TPPS)+ is probably the best catalyst overall and all five other catalysts have advantages and drawbacks.5

2.2.5. Detailed studies with one catalyst Once I identified the complex Fe(TPPS)+ as a promising catalyst, it was clear that this compound is worth having a closer look at. So I carried out detailed studies to explore the mechanism of the catalytic reaction. This basically means finding out the sequence of simple steps involving only a few bond-breaking and making events through which the reactions proceeds. The usual way to do this is to study the time course of the reactions using a

Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons number of different initial concentrations for each reactants. For a reaction that is as complicated as the total degradation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, this usually assumes years, if not decades, of experimental work, some of which is routine but also often requiring creativity. During the last part of my Fulbright scholarship, I dedicated my experimental efforts to beginning this long process of research. It became clear that 2,4,6-trichlorophenol is first transformed to 2,6-dichloro-1,4benzoquinone and other chlorophenols react in a manner that shows full structural equivalence. I studied the kinetics of these reactions in detail, clarified the exact role the catalyst plays during the reaction and also showed that the initial and catalytically highly active form of the catalyst is transformed to a much less active form as part of this first process. So it is clear that the catalyst could be further improved by a structural modification which makes this deactivation process a lot slower.3 With different chlorophenols I also studied structure-reactivity relationships for this particular step. The finding was quite surprising: the reaction did not show the usual structure-reactivity relationship patterns but there was an unexpected close correlation between the rates of the reactions and a structural indicator of the different molecules that can be measured by nuclear magnetic resonance at carbon13 isotopes. Further research should make clear what this close correlation exactly implies and show whether similar correlations hold for other types of reactions as well.4 I also began studying how this first important intermediate compound, 2,6-

dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone further reacts in the course of the overall reaction. The finding was that this compound can react with hydrogen peroxide without a catalyst being present. In this process, an oxygen atom is added to this compound to form 3,5-dichloro-2-hydorxy-1,4-benzoquinone. Although a catalyst is not needed in this process, the presence of Fe(TPPS)+ significantly alters both the rate and the product of the reaction. The product of the catalytic oxidation could not be identified positively, but it seems to be likely that the six-membered carbon-ring of 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone opens up during the process.4

2.3. Significance and Dissemination of Findings The results of the research done during my one-year Fulbright scholarship have been published in the peer-reviewed chemical literature in five separate papers.1-5 The spectacular effect of light on the oxidation of chlorophenols seemed to be a rather significant new finding which merited rapid publication in a non-specialized chemical journal. We chose the journal Chemical Communications.1 The results of the photochemical studies were published in a widely read photochemical journal named Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry.2 It took an unusually long time to publish the results comparing the efficiencies of different catalysts, but finally this paper came out in the journal Green Chemistry.5 The editor of this journal decided to award the special title â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Hot Articleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; to this paper, indicating that the results reported in it are of unusually

AY 2002-2003 high scientific quality and importance.9 The results of the detailed studies of the Fe(TPPS)+-catalyzed reactions were published in two parts: the first in International Journal of Chemical Kinetics3 and the second in New Journal of Chemistry.4 All of these five journals are peer-reviewed meaning that two or three scientists, who are experts in this field, check the experimental design, the data processing, the presentation and the conclusions of the paper and the work is only published if they think it meets the generally accepted scientific quality standards.

2.4. Continuing the Research When I finished my Fulbright scholarship in the summer of 2005, I was convinced that I had to continue this kind of research after returning to Hungary. I managed to do so in collaboration with Prof. Istvรกn Fรกbiรกn, a full professor of inorganic chemistry at my home institute. The American host institution also helped me to start as they allowed me to ship most of the important specialty chemicals needed for this research to my home University in Debrecen. At the first occasion possible (in May 2004) I also applied for separate research funding to the Hungarian Research Fund OTKA. In January 2005, I was informed that my application was successful and I can continue this special line of research for four years with a budget of about HUF 1,000,000 ($ 5000) per year. Prof. James H. Espenson, who was a very generous host of my Fulbright scholarship, is about to retire in the

summer of 2005 and this will bring our highly successful collaboration to an end. I still hope to maintain contact and share research projects with researchers at Iowa State University, especially with Dr. Andreja Bakac and Prof. William Jenks. After part of the research was published, I also began collaboration with Terrence J. Collins at Carnegie Melon University in Pittsburgh, PA. His group is very active in developing high-performance catalysts, one of which he already sent me for detailed study. Since the end of my Fulbright scholarship in 2003, I have continued working with the water soluble catalyst Fe(TPPS)+. The new method developed for studying photochemical reactions seems to prove its usefulness beyond my most optimistic expectations. In the cerium(III)-catalyzed autoxidation of sulfur(IV), this method gave spectacular and significant new results.10 One graduate student changed her research project to use this method for studying the autoxidation of sulfur(IV) with other catalysts. She has completed an impressive series of creative experiments and is expected to defend her PhD in late 2005.

Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

3. Beyond Research – a Fulbrighter on Mission 3.1. A Chemist’s Way of Talking about Hungary in the USA One of the major objectives of the Fulbright Program is trying to promote mutual understanding between scholar’s home countries and the United States of America. Grantees are very much encouraged to make individual efforts to serve this goal of the program. One of the ways to do this is to try to make Hungary and Hungarian culture known in the United States and vice versa. At first, I could not see clearly how I could contribute to this significantly with my scientific experience. Then I began to understand that my work done in connection with the infamous cyanide spill in the Hungarian river Tisza that occurred in the year of 2000 probably provides the best opportunity for me to advance such goals. At that time, my home university was heavily involved in related research. One particular possible cyanide treatment method using ferrous sulfate received a lot of popular attention after a story on the News of Hungarian TV2 reported that the massive fish kills could have been avoided using this method. At the Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry of the University of Debrecen I was part of a group studying the possible application of this method. Our final conclusion was negative: the risks of using this method were clearly

unacceptable and the idea itself, although it was without doubt creative, was based on incomplete information about the chemical composition of the cyanidecontaining waste that spilled into the river. However, this negative conclusion was based on experiments and ways of thought that could have been interesting for chemists in general. So I decided to prepare a 50-minute presentation about the cyanide spill and the possible remediation methods. Within this presentation, I had ample opportunity not only to discuss the related chemistry, but also to speak about the geography and history of Hungary. In June 2002, I managed to obtain the footage from the News Program of Hungarian TV2 that ran the story. (I owe an acknowledgement to Mr. György Bernáth, the news director of the channel.) I prepared two different versions of the presentation: one suitable for inorganic chemists with a lot of specific information, and another suitable for the general public requiring no special knowledge in chemistry. I gave this presentation four times during my tenure as a Fulbright Scholar, twice at my home institute in Ames, Iowa, once in Los Angeles and once in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Two of this occasions were for inorganic chemist audiences, the other two were for the general public.

AY 2002-2003

3.2. Kossuth Bicentenary Before leaving Hungary for the US in the summer of 2002, I noticed that 200th anniversary of the birth of Hungarian statesman Lajos Kossuth would be during my visit on September 19, 2002. I was determined to make this fact known at Iowa State University. This attempt was especially fitting because Iowa has a county named after Lajos Kossuth in the northern part of the state. Previously, even Historians not familiar wit this fact would have guessed that the word Kossuth found on Iowa maps had some sort of Native American origin similarly to a number of other county names in Iowa. In late August, I started a small website about Lajos Kossuth, the bicentenary, and the connection to Iowa. I was very happy when Mr. Joseph M. Isenberg, an Iowa State historian contacted me and asked me to talk about Lajos Kossuth at one of the meetings of the local Phi Alpha Theta Association. The meeting was held exactly on September 19 and was a very nice occasion to pay tribute to one of the greatest Hungarian politicians of all times. I was also very happy to find out that the library of Iowa State University holds a copy of a rare book about Lajos Kossuth which was published in America in 1851. I checked this book out and presented it during my talk. At the meeting it turned out that my host, Mr. Isenberg had been an American Fulbrighter in Romania the previous year. At the end of the event, he gave me a book titled â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;A History of the American Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; by Paul Johnson. I enjoyed reading most

of this book and learned a lot about the history of the United States of America. However, it was great disappointment for me to find that the description of the last few decades was heavily biased toward one of the significant political forces in American life and sometimes sounded like a fundamentally partisan judgment on certain politicians rather than a scholarly and objective description of historical events I was expecting.

3.3. The Fulbright Occasional Lecturer Program Fulbright scholars in the United States can take part in the Fulbright Occasional Lecturer Program, which fund trips to visit academic institutions within the United States other than the host institution of the grantee. I had the good luck of being invited to the University of California at Los Angeles by one of its inorganic chemistry professors, Prof. Mahdi Abu-Omar. Following the usual schedule of such visits, I talked to faculty members, students, and gave a presentation in the afternoon. The timing of this trip (February 2003) was chosen so that I could also participate in a conference held close to Los Angeles, the Gordon Research Conference on inorganic reaction mechanisms. I am still in frequent contact with Prof. AbuOmar, who moved to Purdue University in Indiana in the meantime. My second and last trip as a Fulbright Occasional Lecturer was to a minority serving institution, New Mexico State University, on the invitation of Prof. Michael D. Johnson. I had a schedule similar to the one at UCLA, but I gave

Oxidation of Halogenated and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons two separate presentations, one about the cyanide pollution wave and another about my research in inorganic reaction mechanisms. The visit became especially memorable as I also had an opportunity to meet Prof. Ralph Wilkins, who is one of the leading authorities within the field of inorganic reaction mechanisms. I had not met him in person before this visit, but I had known his classic textbook quite well.

3.4. Other Activities In addition to the visits as a Fulbright Occasional Lecturer, I was also invited to present my earlier research at the University of Minnesota at Minneapolis by Prof. Lawrence Que Jr. I was more than happy to drive the three hours from Ames to Minneapolis and had a very good time there. In the summer of 2002, I joined the American Chemical Society (ACS), which is the largest professional society in the world with its membership close to 160000. One of the most important activities of the Ames local section was to organize ACS-sponsored professional lectures. These were very interesting and useful lectures, hopefully also including the one where I was the invited speaker. Another memorable ACS lecture was presented by Prof. Ronald De Lorenzo, who had decades of experience in writing popular essays about chemistry. I thought this collection of short essays was rather impressive and could be very useful in Hungary as well. I decided to translate them into Hungarian and publish them on the World Wide Web. I contacted the author and obtained his permission for

this project. Although I could not spend as much time translating as I originally planned, 101 translated essays are already published on the website of the Chemistry Department at the University of Debrecen.11 I think membership in ACS is a very significant asset in my professional career primarily because of invaluable access to the articles in chemical journals published by ACS. After returning to Hungary, I took part in establishing a Hungarian Chapter of ACS and still serve as the webmaster of its website. An invaluable part of the time spent in the United States was the exposure to an international research community that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. Only within the research group I joined, I worked together with specialists from China, Jordan, Canada, India, Japan, Russia, Croatia, Iran, and Ethiopia. I also enrolled into the new faculty training program of Iowa State and got a taste of what being a professor at an American research university involves. Finally, among the many people I met in Ames, I was very glad to make friends with Prof. Richard Cruse from the Department of Agronomy of Iowa State University, who has regular contact with Hungarian researchers and still works together with a Hungarian graduate student.

AY 2002-2003

4. Summary I feel that the Fulbright scholarship in 2002-2003 is a defining moment in my career. I started my own independent research with great success, I began international collaborations and was invited to a number of universities other than my host institute. After an eventful year as a Fulbright scholar, I returned to Hungary determined to continue my research and my work as a university faculty member and at the same time staying in close contact with those who helped me so much in the United States.

Bibliography

Schramm and T. J. Collins Science 2002, 296, 326. 7. A. Sorokin, J. L. Séris and B. Meunier Science 1995, 268, 1163. 8. B. Meunier Science 2002, 296, 270. 9. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/gc/HotArticles. asp (accessed on 25 May, 2005) 10. I. Kerezsi, G. Lente and I. Fábián J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 4785. 11.

http://www.klte.hu/~wwwinorg/essays/home.html

(accessed on 25 May, 2005) O

H O Cl

l C

TCP

DCQ

Figure 1. Chemical formulas of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) and 2,6-

dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (DCQ) Figure 2. Effect of light on the formation of Cl− during the oxidation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) by hydrogen

1. G. Lente and James H. Espenson Chem. Commun. 2003,

peroxide catalyzed by Fe(TPPS)+. [TCP]0 = 0.83 mM,

1162-1163.

[H2O2]0 = 50 mM, [Fe(TPPS)+]0 = 5.0 µM, T = 25.0 °C, µ =

2. G. Lente and James H. Espenson J. Photochem. Photobiol.

0.1 M (NaNO3); F = fluorescent room light turned on; L =

A.: Chem. 2004, 163, 249-258.

halogen lamp turned on. Inset: part of the curve between 770

3. G. Lente and James H. Espenson Int. J. Chem. Kinet.

and 1000 min showing the accelerating effect of room light.

2004, 36, 449-455. 4. G. Lente and James H. Espenson New J. Chem. 2004, 28, 847-852. 5. G. Lente and James H. Espenson Green Chem. 2005, 7, 28-34. 6. S. Sen Gupta, M. Stadler, C. A. Noser, A. Ghosh, B. Steinhoff, D. Lenoir, C. P. Horwitz, K. W.

TITLE – Bonds Robert Marcz ............................................................................. Apáczai Bilingual Grammar School Pécs, 7632 Apáczai Krt. 1. www.ank.sulinet.hu mercrobi@vivamail.hu

Central Falls High School 24 Summer Street Central Falls, RI 02863 http://www.ri.net/schools/Central_Falls/hs Jeff Schanck

............................................................................. Abstract In my paper I will talk about the personal connections I have developed over the years. I was lucky to have met people who were just as interested in Hungary as I was in the United States. It took me a lot of thinking to decide whether I should (could) write about such, non-academic, things. As I taught in two different schools, and teach in a third one, it could have been an obvious choice to make a comparative study on the educational institutions I used to work and work now. Yes, it might even have been interesting. However, I believe that developing relationships – bonds – amongst people was one of the main ideas Mr. Fulbright was thinking of. The experiences the characters of my little writing had – an in some case have – had an enormous impact on their lives. Having concluded my first year in America I became a different person, nine years later my wife had the same experience. James, my first exchange partner, found the relatives of his ancestors and found love. Andy, my former student, saw Europe when he was only fifteen. And finally, Alicia and Ben are here in Hungary at the moment and plan to teach English in my hometown, Pécs, from September. Two years ago, sitting on a porch in Providence (RI), we were joking about them becoming the godparents of our first-born child. The baby is coming in September.

AY 2002-2003

Bonds Arriving And there I was at seven in the evening, just stepping out of the main building at Dulles Airport, again. For years I’d been wishing to experience this feeling again, this hot and sticky ocean-born air that surrounds you as if you’ve fallen into a hot bathtub. Nine years ago I loved that first experience of America and, I have to admit, there was a touch of sentiment attached to it. I like this weather, when you are never, never cold, even in the middle of the night. To my great dismay the Americans were (are) not so keen on this feeling, so they kept forcing me into very air conditioned spaces where I felt highly uncomfortable and had to acknowledge that, yes, the Americans do indeed have different ideas about comfort. They like wearing long jeans, closed shoes and tucked in shirts in such hot weather and largely spend their time inside in air-conditioning, which necessitates the operation of lot of machines; consequently the capital city in summer sounds like an enormous bee, creating a continuous buzzing background noise colored by the sound of an unlimited, to European eyes, number of cars. That’s it, I thought: I am experiencing the same country, nothing’s changed, this is what I wanted. And this time my wife will see the same.

James James was almost two meters tall, a onehundred-and-thirty-kilo football and wrestling coach, and a teacher of History. He was to become my exchange partner for the year 1993-94. A formidable fellow, I thought first; though as it turned out later, he was also a really kind and caring person. As it is an exchange program we switched schools and positions. He taught History and English, being a native speaker, and I taught History and Geography. I even became an assistant soccer coach, being somebody „from Europe, where people play soccer all the time”. He picked Hungary. He deliberately wanted to come here. I have to emphasize this as not many teachers who come to teach in Hungary put our dear country at first place. They mainly choose England, where they are comfortable with the language, then Spain, or Turkey, or maybe France. James Nemeth put our little country at first place. Why? Because his father was a Nemeth. He had a Hungarian name! It was so obvious that I did not realize it until we met. Yes, James went to visit the country of his ancestors, the country whose language his great-granddad once spoke when he proposed to his greatgrandma. I, on the other hand, went to the US for completely different reasons. I wanted to see the world and to try myself as a teacher in another system. To me that year was rather a way to get to know myself, to gain confidence, and to learn as much as possible. (I had only taught two years before I arrived at Dulles.) Soon after arrival James was introduced to

TITLE - Bonds my family. We exchanged flats, too, so my parents showed him around, and invited him for lunch and dinner. They – especially my dad and the quiet American - became friends. Months passed, James liked the school and the kids liked him. He went to a ski camp with one of the classes in the winter. I also enjoyed my school and coaching, and was on good terms with the kids. When they heard that my plan was to travel extensively in the States, they collected money and handed it over to me at Christmas. For gas – they said. – To see more! So, everything was going well, as Mr. Fulbright had once imagined. My father worked for the city council at that time. In the second semester James approached him and asked for help finding his relatives. He had some kind of document with him, so my father started to make phone calls. By the end of May he succeeded. The relatives were found and plans were made to travel there. After school ended James and Dad took the train and went to the Nyírség, a distant part of Hungary to meet with the relatives. James found what he was looking for, his roots. And he found more! At a meeting organized for the exchange teachers he met a Hungarian teacher who had also had an exchange a year before. In the spring 2003 I visited them. They live near Annapolis (MD) and have three kids. James is a principal of a small high school just across the Bay-Bridge.

Andy Andy was one of my students in Archbishop Spalding High School in Severn, Maryland. It was a Catholic high school that had just

been awarded the Blue Ribbon by the Department of Education. Best school of the region, I was told. Academically, they added. That was to be my school for the year 1993-94. Looking back now, I think, I could not have been luckier. The staff was supporting, discipline was good, and the school ran smoothly. I spent the first three weeks preparing my Course Outline for the year. It included the objectives of my course, the requirements, my expectations and the grading policy. In the last week of August, the soccer training began, and I already met some of my future students. Andy was one of them, though I did not get to know him at that time. School started and I was a „big thing”: The guy from Europe. The first weeks went mostly all right, but then I began to have problems. I was more used to lecturing; they were more used to activities. That was a problem I sometimes managed to solve well, while other times I failed. However, all in all we, the kids and I, had a good time, and there was teaching and learning involved. Andy was in one of my honors World History classes. He and his closest friends were smart, sharp and funny (Andy’s full name is Andy Eye, so whenever he said his name at first the others went: „we do realize that you are Andy but what’s your surname?”). I am a teacher who likes a laugh, so we sort of had a bit more in common. The problem was, at least to me, that the school only had four-minute breaks. What can you do in such a short time? If you are a teacher, you stay in your room; students walk from one classroom to

AY 2002-2003 another. There is simply no time to have long conversations with the students. Fortunately Andy was a soccer player, so we were together in the afternoons, playing and talking, joking and running, and developing a friendship. Towards the end of the school year he asked me to join him playing soccer in an indoor league, where we came out as winners in the end, if I recall it well. Also towards the end of my exchange my students kept telling me that they would come visit me in Hungary. Andy, on the other hand, thought about it seriously. He talked to his Mom, then I talked to his Mom, then decision was made. I was more than touched. There were about eight hundred students in the school and as it was a private school, they all had to pay a tuition fee. However there were two students in every class who were accepted on the basis of their academic achievements and had a scholarship. Andy was one of them. So there were over seven hundred kids who could have afforded to visit Hungary more easily. Andy arrived about ten days after I retuned home, in the first days of August. We spent a bit more than a fortnight together. It might sound strange that a 27-year old man can have meaningful conversations with a 15-year old, but in our case it was true. He enjoyed Hungary, although there was no air-conditioning anywhere, public transportation was slow, he had to eat strange food, and sometimes the telephone did not work. He never complained. He told me that he had decided he would not complain just because he did not find everything comfortable. I took him to soccer training

in Pécs, we traveled to Lake Balaton and to Budapest. On the last night we went to a restaurant and he asked me to order a Hungarian specialty. I can’t recall what we had, but I do remember we had to steal the menu because he could not believe the food we Hungarians eat. (Pig brain for example, though it is rather a question of bad translation.) Next time we met personally was in August 2002, when my second exchange year began, this time in Providence, Rhode Island. Andy was working in Boston then, so I asked him to pick up my wife for me at the airport. When we talked on the phone he still called my Mr. Marcz, which habit we changed soon. Anyway, he had a Saab Convertible at that time, so my wife’s first American experience was to be driven in a convertible amongst huge trucks. We saw Andy a few times during that year, which became a turning point in his life. He moved back to DC, bought a house and a boat, and met his wife. They are expecting their first baby in October. I think they will visit us.

Alicia and Ben August 2002: my wife and I are sitting on a beach at Cape Cod. School begins within two weeks, but I am not worried. What could happen that’s new? I have 14 years of experience, I already taught in an American school, so teaching is going to be easy. Here we are, and we shall have a cross-country trip next summer. What more could I ask for? In some respects I was right. We did have a great cross country trip the following summer, but the ten months between

TITLE - Bonds sitting on a beach at Cape Cod and leaving for Las Vegas was not a piece of cake. This time I ended up in a so-called „inner city school”, Central Falls High School, Central Falls, RI. CF is a small immigrant community, and has been for over a hundred years. Today it is mainly immigrants from South-America who live here, with some from Europe, Asia and Cape Verde. The community is so poor that the state of Rhode Island actually had to take over the operation of the school. Furthermore, I was to teach History and Civics to kids who barely speak English, who have just left their homeland, whose parents are still abroad, and who work six hours a day. It was not easy. This time I did not have to compile a Course Rationale and outline. This time I spent the month of August reading about how to handle these kids. I made classroom rules and a discipline plan for my students: so-called „Positive Notes” that I can send home if the student has good achievements, or yellow and red card warnings if they did not behave. They liked this, because they all came from places where soccer is an important part of life. (I just checked their website and the soccer team became state and division champion in 2004.) All in all it was a different experience to teach in CF, and I was not a „big thing” since there were many teachers from different ethnic backgrounds. It took time to find out what to do with them, how to organize a lesson in a way that they can enjoy. My wife and I spent long hours talking about these things, because she had also studied to become a teacher. However, in the US she had to find a

different kind of work. Luckily she got the work permit by September, and the search began. Luck again. She started to work for Geoff’s, a famous sandwich bar that has been in the heart of Providence for over thirty years. Thirty years and still the same business in America? That is rare. The manager, Ben, hired her and she had to memorize the ingredients of the sandwiches. (There were 86 different sandwiches in Geoff’s…). The “exam day” was Monday and she got the job. But let us see, how the Ben in question remembers it: “For the first few years of this millennium I was managing a small sandwich shop, which was always in need of good help, as are most restaurants. Our menu had over eighty sandwiches, and each employee played a part making them to order, right in front of the customers, so as a simple test we asked applicants to learn the ingredients for ten to twenty of the menu items. More than capability, this assessed dedication and work ethic. One Wednesday, I believe it was, a young Hungarian woman came into the store and said, haltingly, that she had learned some sandwiches. I’d never met a Hungarian before, although I have a few ancestors from that country, so at the time it meant little to me, aside from the obvious fact that she was a foreigner, but I was taken aback when she replied in answer to my questions, that she had learned all of them. She was telling the truth, and I never considered that I might not give her a job. At that time Orsi spoke just a little English, and so our conversations were

AY 2002-2003 limited, but she was pleasant to work with and worked harder than any other employee. As days rolled into months, I learned that she was here with her husband, a Fulbright exchange teacher, who happened to be teaching in a high school just a few blocks from where I lived. I met Rob a few times when he came to pick his wife up, or drop her off, and once, he asked that I and my girlfriend Alicia come to their house for dinner. This was undoubtedly the best thing that happened to me at the deli. Dinner was fantastic, but the conversation we had was even better. We spoke a little of politics, a little of weather of course, and more importantly we spoke of life in our respective homelands, comparing the things we liked and disliked, contrasting common phrases and daily occurrences; I’d never been outside America then, and talking with these Hungarians, went home thinking about the differences, yes, but more about the similarities, imagining myself in a country where I didn’t know the language, with people like my newfound friends walking the streets, and maybe even people who were something like the people I knew. Over the year that Orsi and Rob were in America, we had dinner several times at each other’s houses, and Alicia and I grew to like them very much, so we were understandably sad when they left, and we were also determined to stay in touch. E-mail allowed

us to speak about their readjustment to their country, the way things looked after a time living in a very different land. The following summer, in 2004, we went to visit our friends in their country, and here I think we realized how our hospitality had been lacking, because we met their friends, their family, they showed us their towns and offered information, help with the language – and other Hungarians we met were as welcoming, without knowing us beforehand. I am to this day unable to imagine that my first trip abroad could have been any better. When the time came for us to go home, we were sad again, but pleased with our travels and even more determined to stay in contact. This time it was our turn to look at our homes with new eyes, seeing things in a brighter light, thinking of different lives half a world away. I don’t think we learned to like America less, we rather learned to like Hungary as well. And so, this year, in June, I’m taking a TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) certification course, after which I hope to join Alicia, who has already been teaching English to Hungarians for several months.” So, that is it. “Seeing things in a brighter light, thinking of different lives half a world away” as Ben puts it. I wish everyone could have similar experiences.

Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon in the Light of American Hungarian Relations in the Interwar Period Éva Mathey ............................................................................. North American Department Institute of English and American Studies Debrecen University Hungarian Foundation 4010 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1. POB. 73. emathey@freemail.hu

Center for Russian, East and Central European Studies, and the American Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ www.rutgers.edu Adviser: József Böröcz

............................................................................. The following paper will offer an insight into the results of my doctoral research project I carried out as a Fulbright student in the US. As part of this extensive inquiry, the essay below will asses images Hungarians fostered about the US during the interwar period with the definite purpose to underline their significance in the formation of political and diplomatic relations between the countries. These Hungarian images of America gave rise to popular illusions regarding Hungary’s political expectations toward the US, especially in terms of the revision of the Treaty of Trianon, and within this scope they were to make American views of Hungary, and consequently American action favorable toward Hungary. Such image-making efforts, however, did not yield the expected results. These images had no lasting influence on the American mind, and even less on American politics toward Hungary between the two world wars.

AY 2002-2003

1. Some Preliminary Thoughts When I was honored to become one of the Hungarian grantees of the Fulbright Scholarship Commission for the academic year 2002/2003 to Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, I can say without exaggeration that my dearest academic dream had come true. The Fulbright scholarship meant (and still means) for me a great opportunity. Opportunity, on the one hand to live in the country whose culture and history I have been both learning and teaching for almost seven years by now. Immersion into everyday America, life in a truly multicultural household of seven students of various ethnic backgrounds in New Brunswick, New Jersey, and visits to places from the Niagara Falls through Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Atlantic City to Richmond helped me experience the country and her culture first hand, and understand them better. On the other hand, the Fulbright grant provided me the opportunity to further my academic goals and do research for my doctoral dissertation titled Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon in the Light of American Hungarian Relations in the Interwar Period at various American research libraries, archives and institutions. Due to the very nature of my inquiry, it was imperative for me to carry out research in the US, and get access to archival, as well as library materials otherwise not accessible in Hungary. I was affiliated to the Center for Russian, East and Central

European Studies at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, and the American Hungarian Foundation, both in New Brunswick, NJ, where I could study various primary as well as secondary sources. Besides this, my project included research at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library at Princeton University; at the Sterling Memorial Library, Manuscript and Archives at Yale University; at the Manuscript and Archives of Syracuse University where I had the chance to consult the personal papers of respective American diplomats and ministers to Hungary in the interwar era, among them e.g. Joshua Butler Wright, John Flournoy Montgomery and Nicholas Roosevelt. Research on State Department materials (with special respect to Record Groups 46, 59 and 84), Congressional records, the presidential papers of Warren G. Harding, Calvin C. Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and the personal documents of Secretaries of State Bainbridge Colby, Charles Evans Hughes, Frank B. Kellog, Henry L. Stimpson and Cordell Hull, as well as the papers of other makers of diplomacy during the period in focus, i.e. Senator William E. Borah of Idaho, became possible in Washington, D.C., where both the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress, and the National Archives and Records Administration were abundant treasures for such sources. During my stay in the US I had the chance to attend several academic forums. The regular lectures and panel discussions at Rutgers and the American Hungarian Foundation, the two conferences- the Fulbright Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Conference in

Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon February 2003 in Washington, D. C. and the conference of the American Hungarian Educators’ Association in April 2003 at Columbia University, New York, were excellent occasions to participate in academic exchanges of ideas, meet and learn from internationally acknowledged scholars. Professionally I benefited from the “Fulbright experience” to the greatest extent. Without the Fulbright grant it would have been impossible for me to carry out my dissertation research project in the US, thus without this opportunity I would not be able to fulfill my most important professional aim, the completion of my doctoral dissertation. All of my currently taught courses have also benefited from/been facilitated by my studies in the US. I have collected additional material for my formerly taught courses, and developed curricula for new ones as well. A new survey lecture course on American Studies, and new seminars on US social and diplomatic history in the interwar period are the results of my studies as far as my educational responsibilities are concerned. Besides the numerous professional ones, my one-year stay in the US also yielded benefits of more personal nature. “The American adventure” was an unforgettable lifetime experience for my husband and me. Since we got married shortly before our leave for the US we like to think of it as our honeymoon as well. Both of us consider the scholarship a privilege that made possible for us to enrich our lives, and meet excellent people. Our flat-mates: Chris, Vincenzo, and Wendy;

the Marreros, Lisa, George and Jose, who “adopted” us within the compass of the Rutgers Hospitality Program, and above all Irene and Mickey Schubert who treated us as their daughter and son are still very good friends. It is an honor to belong to the Fulbright Alumni; an honor already earned, and to be earned in the future. I do hope that my dissertation soon to be submitted and defended will prove my professional and personal commitment, and will strengthen my position as a worthwhile member of the Fulbright community.

2. My Dissertation Research Project Academic research on HungarianAmerican relations within the scope of American Studies in Hungary, and in the US is substantial and significant due to the contribution of internationally acknowledged Hungarian and AmericanHungarian scholars like Anna Katona, Julianna Puskás, Béla Várdy, Zoltán Fejôs, Nándor Dreisziger, Péter Pásztor, Tibor Frank, and Tibor Glant, etc. That notwithstanding, the history of American Hungarian relations in the interwar period has only been partly written. Furthermore, although research on Hungarian revisionist policies toward Britain and France has been extensively done (i.e. Mária Ormos, Ignác Romsics, Miklós Zeidler), the (possible) role of the US in the revision of the Treaty of Trianon so far has not been devoted enough attention. My doctoral dissertation titled Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon in

AY 2002-2003 the Light of American Hungarian Relations in the Interwar Period proposes to fill both gaps, and to do a substantial part of the research analyzing American Hungarian diplomatic relations in the interwar era in the light of the revision of the Treaty of Trianon. In the following I intend to offer a short insight into the results of my research project and present one significant aspect of my doctoral inquiry. The following account is the product of my work done at libraries and archives in the US.

2.1. Hungarian Images of the US in the Interwar Period The following analysis will asses images Hungarians fostered about the US during the interwar period with the definite purpose to underline their significance in the formation of political and diplomatic relations between the countries. These Hungarian images of America gave rise to popular illusions regarding Hungary’s political expectations toward the US and within this scope they were to make American views of Hungary, and consequently American action favorable toward Hungary. Such image-making efforts, however, did not yield the expected results. These images had no lastin influence on the American mind, and even less on American politics toward Hungary between the two world wars. As compared to previous images, Hungarian perceptions of the US did not change significantly. The Promised Land image, as well as that of democratic

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America, “the guardians of the laws and humanity,”11 embedded in the Hungarian consciousness by Lajos Kossuth, provided the building blocks. But while the first had lost its attraction, mainly due to strict immigration restriction laws in the US, the second had become even more notable and served a higher national/nationalistic and political purpose, the revision of the Treaty of Trianon. Trianon and the revision of the Treaty of Trianon became the single most important national issue for Hungarians during the interwar period. Regardless of social, economic, or political backgrounds the revisionist cause united the whole nation. The “Trianon syndrome”12 had become a national psychosis, which gave rise to popular yet unfounded beliefs and expectations in terms of the revision of the Treaty of Trianon. Certain Hungarian misconceptions, such as American rejection to sign the peace treaties, Secretary of State Lansing’s resignation, the fact that the American Hungarian separate peace did not mention the Trianon boundaries, 11 See Lajos Kossuth’s speech at the Corporation Dinner at Irving House, New York, December 11, 1851, quoted in Bakó, “Kossuth,” 128; Dedication of a Bust of Lajos (Louis) Kossuth. Proceedings in the U. S. Capitol Rotunda. March 15, 1990. 101st Congress, 2nd Session (U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, D.C., 1990), 51. 12 See Steven Béla Várdy, “The Impact of Trianon upon the Hungarian Mind: The Nature of Interwar Hungarian Irredentism,” in Steven Béla Várdy and Ágnes Huszár Várdy, Eds., The Austro-Hungarian Mind: At Home and Abroad. East European Monograph Series (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989): 149-169.

Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon etc. projected the belief that the United States of America was the sole ally, who sided with the Hungarian cause. This explains why the US had become such an important topical issue in the popular, the academic, the official and political discourse. Although “[a] lively interest has always been felt in Hungary for every manifestation of American thought,”13 after the First World War, due to the above outlined special circumstances, the US got into the focus of attention on a much larger scale, and Hungarians vested even greater interest in America. As previously, during the interwar period one traditional source of information on the US was the travelogues: Dr. László Szabó’s book, Az igazi Amerika [The Real America], Dr. Zoltán Bíró’s travelogue titled Amerika. Magyarok a modern csodák világában [America: Hungarians in the World of Modern Wonders], or Dr. Ferencné Völgyesi’s account Újra itthon. Tanulmányút Amerika és Európa 17 államán át a háború kitörésénak izgalmai között [Home Again. A Study Tour through 17 Countries of America and Europe amidst the Excitements of the Outbreak of the War] were popular readings.14 Some other

contributions to travelogue literature about the US were Elek Máthé’s Amerikai magyarok nyomában [In the Wake of American Hungarians]; and Erzsébet Kol’s Tiszaparttól Alaszkáig [From the Banks of the Tisza to Alaska], which gives account on the natural beauties, the flora and the fauna of the US.15 Serious academic interest in America also rose, which was both the cause and effect of the images Hungarians projected of the US. Subjects on the US were included in the university curricula as well. One good example for this is Pál Teleki’s lectures on American geography, economy and politics. Another significant manifestation of the emerging interest in America is Jenô Horváth’s book titled A modern Amerika története, 1492-1920 [History of Modern America, 1492-1920]16 published by the Szent István Társulat [Saint Stephen Society], a well-established Catholic mainstream publishing house and literary association in contempora-

13 István Gál, Hungary and the Anglo-Saxon World

Study Tour through 17 Countries of America and Europe

[Magyarország Anglia és Amerika] (Budapest: Officina,

amidst the Excitements of the Outbreak of the War] (1st

1944), 36.

and 2nd eds. Budapest: Hornyánszky, 1939).

14 That all these three accounts were popular readings

15 Elek Máthé, Amerikai magyarok nyomában (Budapest:

of Modern Wonders] (1st ed. Budapest: Hungária Könyvkiadó Vállalat, 1929, 2nd ed. Budapest: Hungária Könyvkiadó Vállalat, 1930); Dr. Ferencné Völgyesi, Újra itthon. Tanulmányút Amerika és Európa 17 államán át a háború kitörésénak izgalmai között [Home Again. A

is demonstrated by the fact that all of them had been

Dante, 1942), and Erzsébet Kol’s Tiszaparttól Alaszkáig

published twice in the respective period. Dr. László

[From the Banks of the Tisza to Alaska] (Budapest:

Szabó, Az igazi Amerika [The Real America] (1st ed.

Magyar Királyi Természettudományi Társulat, 1940).

Pallas Irodalmi és Nyomdaipari Rt.: Budapest, 1925,

16 Jenô Horváth, A modern Amerika története, 1492-

2nd ed. Pallas Irodalmi és Nyomdaipari Rt.: Budapest,

1920 [History of Modern America, 1492-1920]

1928); Dr. Zoltán Bíró, Amerika. Magyarok a modern

(publication data not available). Horváth was considered

csodák világában [America: Hungarians in the World

the “official historian of the Bethlen era.”

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AY 2002-2003 neous Hungary. While on the one hand the book was to satisfy Hungarian interest in the US, on the other hand Horváth also wished to make an impression with it on the Americans. In a letter addressed to Joshua Butler Wright, Minister of the US to Hungary between 1927 and 1933, Horváth “offer[s] the book in the interest of the Minister and to his country.”17 The same purposes were served by István Gál’s book, Hungary and the Anglo-Saxon World [Magyarország Anglia és Amerika] published somewhat later in 1944.18 Jenô Pivány’s seminal book titled Hungarian-American Historical Connections from Pre-Columbian Times to the End of the Civil War19 also represents vested interests in America; nevertheless, his book bears even greater importance in terms of our inquiry. Firstly, Pivány’s work demonstrates the significance of Hungarian contributions to American history. This effort was mostly underlined by problems of Hungarian loyalty in the US during the First World War and, at the same time, 17 Eugene [Jenô] Horváth to Joshua Butler Wright on November 29, 1927. Volume 10, RG 84 Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, National Archives and Records Administration. 18 István Gál, Hungary and the Anglo-Saxon World [Magyarország Anglia és Amerika] (Budapest: Officina, 1944). 19

Jenô

Pivány,

Hungarian-American

Historical

by some identity problems of Hungarian Americans and their search for a usable past after the war. In this respect the book was a message to Hungarian Americans. Secondly, Jenô Pivány’s HungarianAmerican Historical Connections from PreColumbian Times to the End of the Civil War, by presenting the historical connections between the US and Hungary emphasized the shared sentiments and past of the two nations. He tried to demonstrate that there was a strong historical and ideological bond between them, which idea in the interwar period, by way of historical example, was one of the cores of Hungarian political expectations toward the US. Such often alluded historical examples and parallels believed to have bound the nations were the following: The American War of Independence, the cause of the colonists to break away from the mother country was put in parallel with the cause of the freedom-fighter Hungarians of 1848/49. Lajos Kossuth,20 who was named the Hungarian Washington and his historical legacy were seen as a powerful bond between the nations. Emphasizing, and at the same time thus appealing to such sentiments were to underpin Hungarian beliefs that the US was to support the Hungarian revisionist cause. Later the American Civil War history also served such purposes, especially so when Hungarian contribution to the victory of the Union

Connections from Pre-Columbian Times to the End of the Civil War (Budapest: Royal Hungarian University

20 On the significance of Kossuth in American Hungarian

Press, 1927). For a comprehensive history of American

relations see Tibor Frank, “Az emberiségnek közös

Hungarians see also Géza Kende, Magyarok Amerikában.

sorsa van. Kossuth az Egyesült Államokban, 1851-52”

Az amerikai magyarság története, 1583-1926. 2 vols.

[Humanity Has a Common Fate. Kossuth in the United

Cleveland: Szabadság, 1927.

States, 1851-52], Rubicon (1992/2): 33-36.

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Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon was highlighted by works such as Ödön Vasváry’s Lincoln’s Hungarian Heroes. The Participation of Hungarians in the Civil War, 1861-1865.21 The Northern cause to get back the unlawfully seceded territories of the South came to be identified with that of Hungary’s revisionist cause. Such Hungarian images of the US, as well as the images Hungary liked to project of herself in America were manifested in popular traditions Hungarians started to observe during the interwar period. All were cordial gestures toward America. The most spectacular of this kind was the annual celebration of Independence Day, that is the July 4th by Hungarians in the City Park, at the statue erected by American citizens of Hungarian origin in 1906 in tribute to George Washington. Washington, just like Kossuth, had become a symbolic figure; and his political career came to be viewed in the eyes of Hungarians as the apotheosis of America’s grand democratic experiment. Therefore, it is not surprising that Washington enjoyed great reverence. Diplomatic documents in the American National Archives and Records Administration provide information on and descriptions of Independence Day celebrations in Budapest.22 Below, a 21 Ödön Vasváry, Lincoln’s Hungarian Heroes. The Participation of Hungarians in the Civil War, 18611865 (Washington, D.C.: n. p., 1939).

presentation and short analysis of three speeches delivered at different Independence Day celebrations illustrates first the importance Washington’s figure and the democratic and liberal ideals he once stood for had among Hungarians, and second, shows how these celebrations served a nationwide revisionist propaganda campaign. The first one is Count Albert Apponyi’s closing speech on July 4, 1921. Apponyi was speaking as president of the Hungarian American Society founded earlier the very same day. Apponyi’s eulogy is a perfect representation of the rhetoric of the above-assessed set of Hungarian images of America. For this reason let us quote the text extensively: No more fitting day could have been chosen for the founding of the Hungarian-American Society than the birthday of American independence. This is a proof that the Hungarian nation is seeking symbolic relationship with 59 Records of the Department of State, National Archives and Records Administration. Hereinafter referred to as RG59, NARA. M709 Records of the Department of State Relating to Political Relations Between the US and Austria-Hungary and Hungary, 1921-1929, RG59, NARA; and M710 Records of the Department of State Relating to Political Relations Between Austria-Hungary and Other States, 1920-1929, RG59, NARA. See also RG84.2 Records of Diplomatic Posts; Austria-Hungary, 1837-1955 and Hungary, 1920-1955; Records of Consular Posts, 1790-1963; Austria, 1866-1955 and

Hungarians, mainly Kossuth émigrés, served both the

Hungary, 1862-1935. Records of Foreign Service Posts

Northern as well as the Southern cause. A good example

of the Department of State.

for the latter is Béla Estván. 22 See M708 Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Austria-Hungary, 1912-1929, RG

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AY 2002-2003 American ideals. The Budapest monument of Washington incorporates two ideas; the clear recognition of the basic principle on which the greatness of the American nation rests and the feeling of the permanent relationship with the American nation. As far as this relationship is concerned the American conception of freedom is probably different from the Hungarian, but the form is not essential inasmuch as it is the coefficient of external circumstances and changed according to epochs and peoples. The essential feature is the identity of spirit and character and this is the bond between the two nations. The common ideal in the character of both nations is their love for freedom and independence. […] Humanity erects monuments in the honor of those whose memory it desires to preserve throughout generations and if this monument immortalizes an idea, as indeed the monument of Washington actually does, it is that we will remain true to this immortal idea in all our misfortunes and distress. This statue stood unharmed and respected in the course of the tragic war just as did the statue of Kossuth in Cleveland during the same time, and here as well as there the people had the feeling that the ideals immortalized by these monuments must outlive the war. […] The fate of a nation which cherishes high ideals is just as immortal as the ideals themselves and nothing can break the spirit which they radiate and if the Americans desire the learn European conditions and ask themselves which people it is whose character shows the most similarity to their own which nation it is which throughout the centuries has fought for freedom, for culture and progress, and has

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made the most sacrifices for human ideals, then there is only one answer to this and upon this answer Hungary bases its claim to the sympathy of America. American benevolence has accomplished wonders in the alleviation of personal suffering. The remembrance of this wonderful work will live on as flame of eternal gratitude in the heart of the Hungarian nation. The nation itself however demands no charity, but justice, and if America does justice to other nations it does justice to itself at the same time because it has remained true to its noble ideals.23 Masterfully applying the art of speech Apponyi appeals to the American sense of legacy for democratic ideals, and while doing so, he covertly expresses the expectations his nation cherishes toward Washington’s nation. The second speech is an explicit expression of the revisionist cause. Ulysses Grant-Smith’s memorandum to the secretary of state dated to July 16, 1920, calls the Department’s attention to a speech delivered by Field Bishop Zadravec, which he addressed to Captain James W. Pedlow, the representative of the American Red Cross in Hungary. In Zadravec’s tribute to Washington “a plea is made to aid Hungary to regain her lost provinces:”24 23 Count Albert Apponyi’s speech at the Washington Monument on July 4, 1921, Budapest. Transcribed on the basis of Ulysses Grant Smith’s Memorandum to the Secretary of State, July 6, 1921, Roll# 21, M708 Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Austria-Hungary, 1912-1929, RG 59, NARA. 24 Ulysses Grant Smith’s Memoranda to the Secretary of State, July 16, 1920, Roll# 21, M708 Records of

Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon We have been robbed, despoiled, ransacked by others. This is why we are hungry, this is why we beg. It is not for us to blush at sinful misery. Let those feel shame who have reduced Hungary to the State of the beggar of the world. A free country is here today, to celebrate its freedom. America, classical home of Freedom, the land of the most awful, most unimaginable oppression turns to thee today. […] When you come home you will relate of the gratitude felt by Hungary [...] to your free country. But you will also relate that our gratitude to your free country would be still greater for help accorded to us to get our free Mother Country back again.25 George Washington’s figure and ideals were merged in a peculiar way to serve the same revisionist aims on another occasion. Reporting to the State Department Joshua Butler Wright accounted on the speech delivered by Consul General Ernest Ludwig, one of the vice presidents of the Hungarian American Society. Wright attached the copy of Ludwig’s speech to his report, in which Ludwig gave voice to the following ideas: […] perhaps some happy day may come when America will be in the position to throw its weight and influence into the balance

in order that Hungary may again be what it was. Perhaps to some of you this may seem preposterous, but we Hungarians feel in our innermost hearts that, had George Washington lived in those fateful days of the war and the peace negotiations which led to Trianon, Hungary would never have been sacrificed on the altar of greed, wanton lust and ignorance. […] When we, therefore, think and speak of George Washington we think of him not only for what he did to his own country, we love him not only for what he gave to mankind, but also because to us he seems to be that symbol of international world justice which we trust will some day return to Hungary what was wrongfully wrested from her. Let me ask you all to join with me in the three rousing cheers for America, the land of freedom, America, the land of ideals and America, the land that has given the world George Washington.26 On the same occasion the Hungarian American Society read its open letter addressed to President Coolidge. Bridging the past and the present in the letter, the speech evoked President Coolidge as “the successor of that great hero [Washington] and the head of the free and therefore happy American nation” whose people “helped to liberate the national hero of Hungary, Louis Kossuth, whom the

the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Austria-Hungary, 1912-1929, RG 59, NARA.

26 Approximate Text of the Speech Made by Consul

25 Bishop Zadravec’s speech on July 16, 1920 at the

General Ernest Ludwig at the Celebration before the

Washington Monument in the City Park, Budapest.

George Washington Monument on July 3, 1927.

Attached to Ulysses Grant Smith’s Memorandum to

Attached to Joshua Butler Wright’s Memorandum to

the Secretary of State, July 16, 1920, Roll# 21, M708

Secretary of State on July 7, 1927. Roll #21, M708

Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal

Affairs of Austria-Hungary, 1912-1929, RG 59, NARA.

Affairs of Austria-Hungary, 1912-1929, RG59, NARA.

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AY 2002-2003 Americans called the “Washington of Hungary […].” Reminding the president and his nation of such bonds, the letter expressed the hope that such reminiscences still had greater meaning for the Americans.27 From the above it becomes clear how desperate Hungarian attempts were at reinforcing favorable images of America and of themselves. The extent to which such ideas were mutually shared by Americans also needs to be looked at. As the July 4th celebrations were cordial gestures toward the US, the representatives of the US Legation were always invited to these events. Interestingly enough, while Ulysses Grant-Smith passes a somewhat vitriolic comment on the Hungarian attitude displayed on one occasion when he says: “[i]t is perhaps characteristic of these people not to be able to refrain from injecting political matters whenever possible, even to the extent of bringing political questions on an occasion so far removed from such matters […],”28 there are examples for utterances that seem to reinforce the assumptions about the strong historical bond and commitments between the two nations. Minister Wright’s words he

shared with his audience at the July 4th ceremonies provide one such example: I trust you will permit me to refer to the factors which we posses in common and the motives toward which we strive together –our devotion to constitutions which we equally cherish, our interpretation of liberty and our mutual hopes and aspirations. The most casual student of history of your country will soon discover that no nation is more devoted to its constitution than is yours […]. The same student of history can not but experience the most profound admiration for a nation which as stood for over a thousand years as a proponent of constitutional liberty and a bulwark of Christianity. 29 At the end of his speech Wright further elaborates on the ideals of liberty and rights, and concludes: “[w]e have […] seen the appalling result of the perversion of liberty into license: may God help us in combating this prostitution of the most precious privilege of mankind.”30 These statements, however, should invite careful interpretation. The thesis of my doctoral inquiry, according to which Hungarian political, that is primarily revisionist expectations were unmet by the US, is also demonstrated by the fact

27 Quoted from “Celebration of Independence Day in Budapest,” Pester Lloyd (July 4, 1927). Enclosed to

29 Joshua Butler Wright’s Speech at the Ceremonies

Joshua Butler Wright’s Memorandum to Secretary of

under the Auspices of the Hungarian American Society

State on July 7, 1927. Roll #21, M708 Records of

before the statue of George Washington in the City

the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of

Park of Budapest, Sunday, July 3, 1927. Enclosed to

Austria-Hungary, 1912-1929, RG59, NARA.

Joshua Butler Wright’s Memorandum to Secretary of

28 Ulysses Grant Smith’s Memorandum to Secretary of

State on July 7, 1927. Roll #21, M708 Records of

State on July 16, 1920. Roll# 16, M708 Records of

the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of

Austria-Hungary, 1912-1929, RG59, NARA.

106

Ibid.

Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon that like expressions of American views fell almost without exception into the category of cordial and polite diplomatic gestures.31 Few personal relationships, as was for example the friendship of John Flournoy Montgomery with some highstanding Hungarian politicians, may have had some effective reciprocal influence on American policies toward Hungary in terms of furthering Hungary’s cause,32 but the most characteristic feature thereof was its scarcity. Besides literature, popular as well as academic, and the tradition of July 4th celebrations, the press in and outside Hungary played an equally important role in projecting and reinforcing, on the one hand positive images of the US, and, on the other favorable images of Hungarians to Americans. The examples below illustrate both kinds respectively. In 1928 a certain Mr. Frank Vojnics, the Mayor of Baja and also member of the Kossuth Pilgrimage to the US in 1928, addressed a letter to the President of the US, in which he congratulated President Coolidge, “the man who stands at the head of an immense state that marches at the head of all nations,” on his article titled “Let Us Have Liberty and Peace” Mr. Vojnics read in Hungarian translation in the Pesti Napló. Vojnics thanked the president for the fact that “modern America values [the ideal of liberty] higher than […] life,” and quoted President Coolidge to have written that

”America feels that it has been called upon to fight for two ideals of the civilized world: for liberty and for peace.”33 When the State Department received this letter, William R. Castle, the East European Desk Officer in the State Department, immediately urged Joshua Butler Wright, then minister of the US in Budapest, to acknowledge receipt of the letter and more importantly to inform Mr. Vojnics that “the President is not the author of the article in question” furthermore, that “the facsimile of his signature was secured and appended to the article without his knowledge or consent; and that the article itself is an inaccurate and misleading distortion of a passage taken from the president’s book.”34 It turned out that the article attributed to President Coolidge was first published in the Berlin National Zeitung on April 21, 1928 under the title “America’s Role in World Affairs,” and purported to be an excerpt from the president’s book, which in Castle’s note was mentioned under the title The Practice of Freedom published by C. Scribner’s Son.35 33 Frank Vojnics to President Coolidge, April 23, 1928, Volume 43, RG84 Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, National Archives and Records Administration. 34 William R. Castle to Joshua Butler Wright, June 5, 1928, Volume 43, RG84 Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, National Archives and Records Administration. 35 Ibid. The Library of Congress Catalogue lists no such book of this title by President Calvin C. Coolidge.

31 See other memoranda in M708, RG59, NARA.

It may be suspected that the wrong title was included

32 See John F. Montgomery, Hungary, The Unwilling

in Castle’s dispatch. The book that might be the one in

Satellite (New York: Devin-Adair Co., 1947).

question bears the title The Price of Freedom, and was

107

AY 2002-2003 Pesti Napló must have slavishly published this article in Hungarian translation of the above mentioned title. In view of Castle’s instructions to Wright, it becomes clear that the article published in Pesti Napló appeared as an original contribution despite the fact that the president never contributed to the foreign press. Sentences were redrafted into a new and misleading context; certain ideas were “badly garbled either intentionally or by translation” and ideas were actually introduced which were not in the text at all. Castle explicitly asks Wright to express the Department’s astonishment at the “publication of this apocryphal article over a facsimile of the President’s signature with apparently no attempt at the verification of the authenticity of the article in question.”36 Obviously, such an affair shed no good light on the Hungarian press in general and Pesti Napló in particular. The incident demonstrates the extent to which Hungarians tended, intentionally or not, to overlook issues in this case the credibility of information, for their purposes. Reinforcing the favorable images Hungarians wanted to have about the US, however, was only one side of the coin. It was equally essential to assure America that Hungary was America’s friend and was of a very high opinion of her. The following cases illustrate this Hungarian attitude.

George A. Gordon’s report on Hungarian affairs to the Secretary of State dated to December 1, 1926 informed the department of an article published in Budapest Hírlap titled “America the Unpopular.” The article reported about the growing unpopularity of the USA in Europe, especially in France, due to America’s unwillingness to, as the article says, “play cards again under conditions where the cards are known from their backs by everyone except themselves.”37 The article goes on to explain that the US did not become member of the League of Nations, which many European powers, especially France, did not like at all. What made America even less popular at that time was her insistence on claiming the payment of the war loans. Debt adjustment was an option, but the total cancellation of the debts was totally out of the question. On these accounts the Hungarian journalist exempted the US from the charges, and clearly expressed his understanding of the American approach.38 Another article most friendly to the United States was published in the Budapest Hírlap commenting on General Peyton C. March’s speech at Denver in which he made the statement that Europe hated America. Theodore Brentano’s report to the secretary of state pointed out 37 “America the Unpopular,” Budapest Hírlap summed up in George C. Gordon’ Memorandum to the Secretary of State, December 1, 1926. Roll# 1, 2, M710 Records of the Department of State Relating to Political

published in London and New York, in 1924, and, as it

Relations Between Austria-Hungary and Other States,

was claimed in the note, by C. Scrinbner’s Son.

1920-1929, RG59, NARA.

36 Ibid.

38 Ibid.

108

Attempts at the Revision of the Treaty of Trianon that the Budapest Hírlap hastened to say that the above statement did not include Hungary which was most grateful for the money lent by the United States for reconstruction purposes.39 In the light of the above we can see that the United States of America had attracted considerable attention and interest in Hungary in the interwar period.40 Hungarians wanted to know more about the economically and politically most powerful nation which was viewed as Hungary’s potential ally for revision. For this very reason Hungarians wished to popularize America in Hungary. Both popular and scholarly literature served 39 The Budapest Hírlap article reported in Theodore Brentano’s Memorandum to Secretary of State on March 1, 1927. Roll# 1, 2, M710 Records of the Department of State Relating to Political Relations Between AustriaHungary and Other States, 1920-1929, RG59, NARA. 40 The fact that the US had become a powerful symbol is demonstrated by the following somewhat farfetched example as well. One of Theodore Brentano’s memoranda to the State Department on July 18, 1924 mentions the fact that in Hungary the American flag is

to meet these ends. The American and the Hungarian past came to be looked upon as histories based on mutually shared ideals and principles of liberty and democracy; the alleged historical bond of the two nations, most often exemplified and symbolized by Kossuth, was believed to provide background for the future, and help further Hungary’s territorial claims to undo “the injustices the country had to suffer in Trianon.” Popular gestures, such as the Independence Day celebrations, were to strengthen the bonds of the nations, as well as create and reinforce favorable images. However, one has to view these images in light of Hungarian expectations toward the US. It was imperative for Hungarians to keep up positive images of the US. At the same time conscious efforts were made to create and (re)-establish a favorable image of Hungary and the Hungarians in the US to further Hungary’s political aspirations and to counter anti-Hungarian propaganda (often expressed by prominent voices such as the British historian Robert William Seton-Watson).

used to advertise a product of the MATU Shoe Factory. Vol. 18. RG 84 Records of the Foreign Service Posts of the Department of State, National Archives and Records Administration.

109

The logical-philosophical basis of logical systems Tamás Mihálydeák ............................................................................. Department of Philosophy University of Debrecen Egytem tér 1. Debrecen Hungary www.unideb.hu mihalydeak@inf.unideb.hu

Department of Philosophy Indiana University Bloomington Sycamore Hall, 1033 E Third Street Bloomington, Indiana 47405-7005, US 4010 www.iub.edu Adviser: Prof. Karen Hanson

............................................................................. The most general questions are what modern logic regards the logical role of compositionality, how it works in two—component logical semantics. After showing different versions of the compositionality of natural language we analyze the possible appearances of the principle of compositionality in two—component logical semantics. Finally, some of the most fundamental notions of intensional logical semantics are given in the way of maintaining the priority of compositionality concerning sense.

1. Background It is more than 125 years that a booklet by a hardly thirty-year old logician/ philosopher was published. So something began. Something, which was not really a continuation, it revealed brand new horizons for thinkers. This booklet is Gottlob Frege’s Begriffsschrift, a formula language of pure thought modeled on that of arithmetic41, which occupies a special place

in philosophical (and not only in philosophical) culture. 20th (and 21st)-century logic cannot exist without Frege’s lifework. In the preface of Begriffsschrift, at the birth of modern logic, Gottlob Frege writes he disregards expressing anything that has no significance from the point of view of consequence. He calls what he finds solely important conceptual

41 See Preface and Part I translated by M. Beaney from

Formelsprachen des reinen Denkens (L. Nebert, Halle,

Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete

1879) in Beaney 1997, pp. 47-78.

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AY 2002-2003 content. Summing up my intentions, I can word my most general questions as what modern logic regards the logical role of compositionality, how it works in two-component logical semantics, how it structures conceptual content. In Frege’s view, one of the most important inventions of Begriffsschrift is the replacement of the subject—predicate decomposition by the functor-argument one. He wrote the following: The very invention of this Begriffsschrift, it seems to me, has advanced logic. … [L]ogic hitherto has always followed ordinary language and grammar too closely. In particular, I believe that the replacement of the concept subject and predicate by argument and function will prove itself in the long run. It is easy to see how taking a content as a function of an argument gives rise to concept formation. … The distinction between subject and predicate finds no place in my representation of a judgement.42 (Frege 1997, pp. 51, 53) Are we aware of the significance of the step? How can we survey and evaluate its consequences? Before Frege it was generally accepted that grammatical structures were also logical ones, and what is more all logical structures had to prove to be grammatical ones. Having replaced grammatical structures by structures relying on the functor-argument decomposition from the logical point of view

the main question is whether there is a theoretical limit of the functor-argument decomposition. The limit can be found in the semantic mirror of the functorargument decomposition, in semantic compositionality.43 The structures which are relevant from the logical point of view (i.e. logical structures) must have been created in a compositional way.44

2. Compositionality What is compositionality, what is meant by compositionality? Each of the following four formulations appears as the principle of compositionality. Different names (used in Szabo 2000) for different versions are appropriate to show small differences between them. • The Principle of Compositionality (in a wide sense): The meaning of a complex expression is determined by the meanings of its constituents and by its structure. (Szabo 2000, p. 475) • The Function Principle: The meaning of a complex expression is a function of the meaning of its constituents and of its structure. (Szabo 2000, p. 484) • The Building Principle: The meaning of a complex expression is built up from the meaning of its constituents. (Szabo 2000, p. 488) 43 Mihálydeák 2003 deals with the formal syntactical and semantic properties of the most general typetheoretical language relying on functor—argument decomposition. 44 Here I am speaking about the compositionality of

42 I use the expression ‘functor’ instead of ‘function’

natural language. The modern version of compositionality

in order to differentiate an incomplete expression of a

appeared tacitly in Frege’s Über Sinn und Bedeutung

language from its semantic value.

(Frege 1892).

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The logical-philosophical basis of logical systems • The Substitutivity Principle: If two expressions have the same meaning, then substitution of one for the other in a third expression does not change the meaning of the third expression. (Szabo 2000, p. 490) First of all I have to note that the principle of compositionality (and each of its versions) is referred to as ‘Frege’s principle’ (or ‘Fregean principle’). Philosophers and logicians dealing with Frege have been discussing for many decades whether Frege accepted the principle of compositionality (or at least one of its versions), and if he did, to what extent.45 I don’t want to analyze the whole story of the discussion, I would like to mention only two attitudes, the first from Hans Rott, and the second from Jeffrey Pelletier: 1. “The principle is certainly very Fregean in spirit … However, as Janssen (1997, p. 421) points out, Frege does not seem to have stated compositionality as a principle in any of his writings.” (Rott 2000, p. 625) 2. “Frege may have believed the principle of semantic compositionality, although there is no straightforward evidence for it and in any case it does not play any central role in any writing of his, not even in the ‘argument form

creativity/understandability’ citations.” (Pelletier 2001, p. 111) Secondly, I have to mention there is a very wide—ranging scientific discussion about the compositionality of natural language.46 The place and role of the principle of compositionality in linguistics is quite controversial. It is regarded as a methodological principle, or a basic linguistic-philosophical law, or supervenience. (See, for example, Partee 1984 and Szabo 2000.) Figure 1 In figure 1 the situation before the mentioned distinction between grammatical structure and logical structure made by Frege can be surveyed. The principle of compositionality holds and works on the level of natural language.

45 Here I don’t deal with the principle of contextuality, but as Janssen (2001, p. 115) mentions many philosophers understand the principle of compositionality as the principle of contextuality. That principle is mentioned at the beginning of Frege’s Grundlagen der Arithmetik in the following way: “never to ask for the meaning of a

46 See for example the thematic issue of Journal of

word in isolation, but only in the context of a proposition”

Logic, Language and Information (Vol. 10, 2001) on

(Frege 1980, p. x).

compositionality.

113

AY 2002-2003 Logical structures originated from natural language directly, based only on the compositionality of natural language. Received logical laws get meaning through associated structures and compositionally joined natural language meanings. Therefore, there is no separated room for the (either informal/pretheoretic or formal) principle of compositionality concerning the logical features of natural language expressions. Natural language compositionality acts not only on the level of natural language but on the level of logical investigation as logical compositionality. It produces the main patterns of logical structures. The logical system is closed, at least in some sense, in the prison of natural language.

3. Compositionality and two—component semantics Frege broke up the identity between the grammatical structure of natural language expression and its logical one. The grammatical structure may only appear as one of the possible logical structures, but an expression (or in a more sophisticated way, the expressed conceptual content) may have, and usually does have logical structures different from the grammatical structure of the expression.

Figure 2

values we have. Naturally, truth values play a crucial role in the system of logically relevant semantic values. It can be said – regarding Begriffsschrift –, that the system of semantic values which is in the informal background is dominated by truth values in the sense that we receive the semantic values of functors from the set of truth values and the set of objects.47 In his semantic writings48 Frege recognized that a more flexible system of 47 As is well—known Frege considers sentences as

In figure 2 there is a special box for informal compositionality (of information/conceptual content). What does it mean? In order to understand it we have to define the notion of semantic value, and specify what kinds of semantic

a special type of names, and he puts the possible semantic values of sentences, i. e. truth values, into the set of possible semantic values of names, i. e. the set of objects. This unification proved problematic later, and therefore the development of logical semantics hasn’t followed Frege in that sense. 48 For example:Frege-(1952a, b, c)

114

The logical-philosophical basis of logical systems semantic values was needed to explain, for example, the origin of information content of identity statements. In his most famous semantic paper, Über Sinn und Bedeutung (Frege 1952c) he introduces an extensive version of two-component semantics, he differentiates sense and reference (or Sinn and Bedeutung).49 Taking the principle of compositionality seriously two questions may arise: 1. How should we modify the principle of compositionality (of the informal level)? 2. How does the functor—argument decomposition producing the main logical structures work with the system of semantic values of two-component semantics? If we try to answer the first question, we will have to take into consideration that many philosophers duplicate the principle and attribute both principles (concerning the reference and the sense of compound or complex expressions) to Frege. “Crucial to Frege’s theory are a pair of principles concerning the referent and sense of complex expressions. These are the Principle of Compositionality (Interchange) of Reference and the analogous Principle of Compositionality (Interchange) of Sense. They hold that the referent or sense of a complex is a function only of 49 There is no standard terminology for different semantic values. In the literature many pairs appear:

the referents or senses, respectively, of the constituent expression.” (Salmon 1994, p. 112)50 Carnap was the first to attribute both versions of the principle explicitly to Frege. He wrote the following in his fundamental semantic book, Meaning and Necessity (Carnap 1947): “Frege Principles of Interchangeability: • … First principle … the nominatum of the whole expression is a function of the nominata of the names occurring in it. • … Second principle … the sense of the whole expression is a function of the senses of the names occurring in it.” (Carnap 1947, p. 121)51 Now let us turn our attention to the second question, i.e. the behavior of the functor-argument decomposition in the case of two principles of compositionality. Anybody may think there is no problem at all, we have two different principles of compositionality, and we can use them in determining logically relevant semantic value. But which of them do we have to take into consideration, and how? In logical investigations we are interested in the truth value of a sentence, i.e. its reference. The reference can be produced by means of the first principle concerning reference, and the function occurring in it is asking for the reference of arguments. Frege recognized that in some cases the reference of the whole expression cannot be determined by means of the references

sense-reference, meaning-reference, sense-meaning, sense-nominatum,

sense-denotatum,

meaning-

50 Quoted by Pelletier (2001, p. 88).

denotatum, intension-extension, intension-factual value.

51 Quoted by Pelletier (2001, p. 89). The principles are

While on the informal level I use sense and reference on

similar to the function principle, which is the second

the formal level I do intension and extension.

version of the principle of compositionality.

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AY 2002-2003 of its parts. Sometimes we need to take into consideration not only the reference of an argument but also its sense. However, at the first glance this contradicts the principle of compositionality concerning reference. How did Frege try to get rid of the problematic situation? As is well-known he differentiates between direct and indirect occurrence, ordinary (direct or customary in Frege) and indirect (oblique) reference respectively and he says if the occurrence of an argument is indirect, then its reference is its ordinary sense. Let us pay all our attention to functors. The output of a function occurring in the principle of compositionality concerning references is the reference of the whole expression. We saw that it might depend on either the reference or the sense of its argument. Two types of functors appear: 1. If a given expression occurs directly in an expression, then the given expression can be taken as an argument and the remaining part of the whole expression, i.e. the functor concerns the ordinary reference of the given expression. 2. If a given expression occurs indirectly in an expression, then the functor (the remaining part of the whole expression) concerns the indirect reference (i.e. the ordinary sense) of the given expression. We can say that the latter type of functors affect the (ordinary) sense of their arguments. Since we attach reference to reference, everything seems to happen according to the first principle. However, indirect reference is ordinary sense, and in order to get ordinary sense the second

116

principle should be applied. Thus we also have to use the second principle in determining the reference of the whole expression, we need the principle not only in the case when we are interested in the sense of the whole expression but also when we determine the ordinary reference. Frege cannot avoid the use of both principles but he didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t mention how to apply the second one, how to get the sense of the whole expression and what the connection is between the principles. At this point we can differentiate two main types of functors and introduce the notions of Fregean intensional and Fregean extensional functor, which will prove very useful further on. Let a functor be extensional or intensional in the Fregean sense if the occurrence of its argument is direct or indirect, respectively. Of course a functor is extensional in the Fregean sense if and only if it is not intensional in the Fregean sense.52 We have to note that all functors in Fregeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s semantic theory (called Fregean functors) affect the reference of their argument and their results are usually a given type of reference. The subtle distinction between direct and indirect occurrence has a very problematic consequence: The reference (and therefore the sense) of an expression depends on the context in which it occurs and, of course, we have to determine not only the indirect reference of an argument, 52 That type of definition of the Fregean intensional and extensional functors is not usual. Generally the notion of extensional functor is defined at first, and nonâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; extensional functors are intensional ones; the defined functors are not always Fregean.

The logical-philosophical basis of logical systems but also its indirect sense. In the Fregean approach reference cannot be identified with sense, thus we have to speak about the sense of an expression occurring in an indirect context and its sense can be the sense of its ordinary sense (etc.). The next question is how the mentioned problem connected with context-dependence (or more precisely occurrencedependence) of the type of reference can be avoided. I would like to emphasize that the problem is not the context-dependence of reference. The real problem is that in a typical fixed situation (where the ordinary reference and the ordinary sense are given) in some cases the ordinary reference is the reference and in other cases the indirect reference i.e. the ordinary sense is the reference. Carnap recognized the problem in Frege’s approach, and tried to choose another way. He characterized the differences with Frege’s method as follows: A decisive difference between our method and Frege’s consists in the fact that our concept, in distinction to Frege’s, are independent of the context. An expression in a wellconstrued language system always has the same extension and the same intension: but [in Frege’s theory] in so me context it has its ordinary nominatum and its ordinary sense, in other contexts its oblique nominatum and its oblique sense. (Carnap 1947, p. 125) The definitions of Fregean intensional and extensional functors apparently need to be modified just a little bit to get ones which are applicable to Carnap’s approach. We only have to transfer the sensitivity of the type of semantic value

from occurrences to functors. The result is that those functors are extensional ones which affect the reference of their arguments in order to get the reference of the output (of the whole expression), and those functors are intensional ones which are not extensional and affect the senses of their arguments. It may seem that we are ready and the problem of contextdependence (or occurrence-dependence) is solved. We may also realize that the notion of extensional functor corresponds to the first principle of compositionality concerning reference; however, the notion of the intensional one doesn’t correspond to the second principle concerning sense because an intensional functor produces not the intension but the reference of its output. Is there any way to embed the second principle in this picture? I think we have to find the way, because the second principle is more fundamental than the first one. Sense is the most fundamental semantic value. In order that an expression may belong to a natural language, in order that it can be an expression of a given language it has to be meaningful. Accepting Kripke’s approach, only proper names can be exceptions in the manner that they may be expressions of a given natural language without having sense. (Usually nobody wants to ‘understand’ a proper name, everybody wants to use it for referring to something.) It can be said that except for proper names there is no expression in any natural language which has reference but no sense because meaningfulness is the crucial characteristic of an expression that belongs to a given language. In twocomponent semantics an expression may

117

AY 2002-2003 have sense without having reference, but we cannot understand an expression which has reference but no sense. Relying on the two principles of compositionality we can say that the reference (nominatum) of a functor is the function which gives us the reference (nominatum) of the whole expression with the references (nominata) of different arguments, and that the sense of a functor is the function which gives us the sense of the whole expression with the senses of different arguments. We can say that every expression has sense, but what about its reference? The reference of an extensional functor is given by the first principle of compositionality directly, but we have to suppose that the reference of the argument is defined. However, for intensional functors the notion of reference cannot be defined because there is no function which gives the reference of the output from the reference of the input. What happens when an argument of an extensional functor is an intensional one? To solve this problem we have to permit semantic value gaps, which means that the sense of a functor is not a total but a partial function. Therefore, the sense of an extensional functor would be a partial function on the possible sense of its arguments that is not defined for the sense of intensional functor53.

53 Compare this case with the functors ‘Peter believes …’ and ‘Peter does not believe …’.

118

4. Conclusion From the logical philosophical point of view, introducing the functor-argument decomposition and accepting its dominance enforce the informal compositionality of conceptual content which differs from the compositionality of natural language. In two-component logical semantics two different principles have to be represented. We showed that the first principle of compositionality concerning references may work in the case of extensional functors. The second one concerning senses is more general than the first. It holds for all functors. In intensional logical semantics we need both principles. It was clear that for maintaining the priority of the second principle we have to permit semantic partiality to introduce the extensional—intensional differentiation. (Figure 3) In figure 3 a new box appears (at least in comparison with figure 2), the box of logical semantics. In order to embed the two principles of compositionality, to represent them formally, to differentiate extensionality and intensionality we have to create the whole system of logically relevant semantic values. As is wellknown, possible word semantics offers a very useful possibility to treat intensionality (and extensionality) in logical semantics. Nevertheless, there are some theoretical differences in the role of the two principles of compositionality, which appear not only in the logical-philosophical background but in the formal system as well.

The logical-philosophical basis of logical systems Figure 3

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The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling Péter Szûcs ............................................................................. University of Miskolc Department of Hydrogeology 3515. Miskolc-Egyetemváros www.hidrotanszek.hu hgszucs@uni-miskolc.hu

The University of Oklahoma School of Petroleum and Geological Engineering Norman, OK 73019 http://mpge.ou.edu/ Advisor: Professor Faruk Civan

............................................................................. Abstract The Most Frequent Value Method (MFV) is applied to groundwater modeling as a robust and effective geostatistical method. The Most Frequent Value method is theoretically derived from the minimization of the information loss called the I-divergence. The MFV algorithm is then coupled with global optimization (Very Fast Simulated Annealing) to provide a powerful method for solving the inverse problems in groundwater modeling. The advantages and applicability of this new approach are illustrated by means of theoretical investigations and case studies. It is demonstrated that the MFV method has certain advantages over the conventional statistical methods derived from the maximum likelihood principle.

1. Introduction One of the main objectives of groundwater modeling is to determine the properly working earth models in order to adequately explain the hydrogeological observations. From the mathematical point of view, such solutions can be found

by optimization (Lee, 1999). Frequently, the inverse methods are used to determine the optimal parameter values of the groundwater models. In Earth science applications, the objective functions may have multiple hills and valleys in the

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AY 2002-2003 multi-dimensional parameter space. The conventional local search algorithms are usually trapped in one of the local minima instead of approaching the global minimum (Sen and Stoffa, 1995). Such limitations of the conventional methods for hydrogeological problems can be circumvented by the application of the global optimization methods. The calculated or theoretical data can be determined from the solution of mathematical models by assigning a set of prescribed values to the model parameters. This constitutes the forward problem. Besides the forward and inversion problems, the applied statistical principle is also a key factor in successful modeling as the objective or error functions are based on different statistical norms and principles. Unfortunately, the old dogma still exists in that the estimation or the measuring errors are approximately normally (Gaussian) distributed (Huber, 1981). Therefore, the application of the least-squares principles based on the maximum likelihood theory has been widespread even in geosciences. However, the efficiency of such classical algorithms is questionable when the actual error is not a Gaussian distribution. The Most Frequent Value (MFV) procedure (Steiner, 1991, 1997) has been introduced as a robust and resistant method for geostatistical data analysis and processing.

is compared with measured data. If the match is acceptable, the model parameter values are accepted as the best estimates. Otherwise, the parameters are modified to generate a new calculated data set and the quality of the match is investigated. This procedure is continued until a satisfactory match between the measured and calculated data is obtained. Therefore, the inverse procedures are usually regarded as optimization. The discrete data used in groundwater modeling is usually composed into a column vector as (Sen and Stoffa, 1995):

2. Theory of Inverse Procedures

A synthetic data set generated from a mathematical model using a set of assumed values for model parameters

Generally, the forward problem operator is not linear in hydrogeology. The objective is to determine the best estimate values

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, (1)

where ND is the number of measured data, and T denotes a matrix transpose. The parameters of a groundwater model are also given in a column vector:

, (2)

where NM is the number of model parameters. The calculated or synthetic data (dcal) can be generated by the solution of the forward problem, namely the goperator, as:

d cal = g (m) . (3)

The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling of the model parameters, leading to the minimization of the difference between the measured (dmeasured) and calculated (dcal) data. The least-square norm, referred to as the L2-norm, is the most common form derived from the Lp norms (Lines and Treitel, 1984):

data is not linear, a suitable linearization method, such as based on the truncated Taylor series expansion, can be resorted to simplify the solution: (6)

. (7) (4)

Weighted L2-norms can also be used when there is additional information about the measurements. The particular type of norm used in modeling determines the effectiveness and accuracy of parameter estimation. As the measured data can be originated from a very wide range of distributions and some errors or outliers can also be expected, the application of the L2norm has certain disadvantages in Earth science applications (Sun, 1994). Hence, the use of the robust and resistant L1-norm is more advantageous under these circumstances. However, the following Pk-norm, based on the Most Frequent Value (MFV) method (Steiner, 1991, 1997), provides additional advantages over the L1- and L2norms, as a robust and resistant measure of the model fitness:

(5)

where ďż˝ denotes the scaling parameter or dihesion of the differences, as determined later. When the relationship between the model parameters and the calculated

where Dd=dmeasured - dcal. G0 denotes a sensitivity matrix, including the partial derivatives of the calculated data with respect to various model parameters. Inverse problems that do not possess uniqueness and stability are called illposed inverse problems. Otherwise the inverse problem is called well-posed. Nevertheless, techniques known as regularization can be applied to ill-posed problems to restore their being wellposed. Te L2-norm yields a solution as: (8) To characterize the model parameters obtained by the inversion, consider the covariance given by: , (9) where sd is the root-mean-square difference between the computed and

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AY 2002-2003 measured data. The measured data can be weighted with a diagonal W-matrix if additional information is available for different observations. Applying the Marquardt – Levenberg algorithm and the weights, Eq. (8) can be modified as following to improve the search properties by an iterative procedure:

, (10)

following simple test problems. For example, consider the two-dimensional sinus cardinalis error function. This errornorm surface has several local minima and one global minimum location (x = 0, y = 0). Their locations are shown in Fig. 1. If the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm is started from x = 3.5 and y = 0 , the local minimum at x = 3.53 and y = 0 will be obtained as the solution. The experiment was repeated several times with different starting values to check the effectiveness of the global minimum search. The global minimum solution was obtained by the Levenberg-Marquardt method only when the starting point remained inside the “big pit”. In contrast, the simulated annealing algorithm, described later, could easily solve this task without being trapped in the local minima locations. The solution x = 0 , y = 0 was achieved in all cases regardless of the start of the model.

where a is called the Marquardt parameter, whose value gradually decreases to zero as the iteration progresses. Thus, initially the Marquardt–Levenberg method, frequently named as ridge-regression, operates based on the gradient principle. It then transforms into the Gauss-Newton method to seek an optimal solution. Although the Marquardt – Levenberg calculation can provide more stability, the effective operation still depends strongly on the initial guess assumed Global minimum Z(X,Y) for the values of the model parameters for starting the iterative search. If the objective function has several local minima, the abovementioned local search algorithms cannot provide the global minimum as a solution in case of a “bad” start of the parameter values search. This can be demonstrated by the Fig. 1. Two dimensional error surface with several local minima and a global minimum at x = 0 and y = 0.

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The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling Complex groundwater models require numerical approaches for evaluation of the partial derivatives in the above-mentioned G sensitivity matrix. Consequently, additional numerical errors would be involved in the inversion process during the inverse matrix calculation of an inverse problem. These drawbacks of the local search algorithms underline the advantages of the global optimization methods for applications not only in hydrogeology but also in different branches of geosciences (Szucs and Civan, 1996).

3. Global optimization and Simulated Annealing Methods Besides the Genetic Algorithms (GA), the Simulated Annealing (SA) methods have been applied widely to seek for global optimum in different engineering and natural science problems (Sen and Stoffa, 1995). The works by Kirkpatrick et al. (1983) has shown that the model for simulating the annealing of solids, proposed by Metropolis et al. (1953), could be used for optimization problems, where the objective function to be minimized corresponds to the energy states of the solid and the control parameter corresponds to temperature, as defined later in the following. There are several modifications besides the classical Metropolis algorithms. The Very Fast Simulated Annealing (VFSA) method introduced by Ingber (1989) seems to be the fastest and most effective in multi-variable problems. Creating a classical Metropolis algorithm for a given groundwater modeling problem

is relatively simple. The initial parameter vector is denoted as mi. Consider the objective function (or error norm) denoted as E (mi). First, a new parameter vector (mj) and the corresponding objective function E (mj) are generated. Then, the change in the value of the objective function, given as following, is examined: DEij = E(m)j-E(mi ) (11) If DEij # 0 , then the new mj parameter vector is always accepted. Contrary, if DEij .0, then the probability of the acceptance of mj parameter vector is determined using the Metropolis criterion, given by: (12) where T corresponds to the temperature. This acceptance criterion provides an opportunity for avoiding entrapment in local minima. The temperature is decreased following a cooling schedule. An appropriate cooling schedule guarantees the convergent behavior of the method. Several studies have shown that decreasing temperature may result very rapidly in entrapment in a local minimum of the objective function (Sen and Stoffa, 1995). Typically recommended choice considers a temperature variation proportionally to 1/ln(n+1) at the n-th iteration (Szucs and Civan, 1996). Usually, the model parameters in practical problems may have different finite ranges of varia-

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AY 2002-2003 tions and may affect the error function differently. Therefore, it is reasonable to allow the various model parameters different amounts of perturbations from their current positions. Hence, Ingber (1989) modified the Metropolis algorithm to elaborate the Very Fast Simulated Annealing (VFSA) method.

4. The Most Frequent Value (MFV) method Besides a suitable optimization scheme, the formulation of an appropriate objective or error function also has a significant importance during any inverse calculation seeking for the best estimate values of the model parameters. The particular form of the statistical norm determines the performance of the optimization for a given error distribution. As proven previously by several geo-science applications and examples (Steiner, 1972, 1988, Ferenczy et al., 1990, Steiner and Hajagos, 1994, Szucs and Civan, 1996), the application of the MFV procedure provides several advantages over the leastsquares or other conventional statistical techniques in hydrogeology and groundwater modeling. The optimization objective of a groundwater modeling problem requires some kind of a norm of the residuals to be minimum. In most cases, the principle of the least-squares is applied. The classical statistics is based on this well-known principle, which can be easily formulated by the Xi residuals. Hence, the best model parameters set fulfils the minimum condition stated by:

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(13) Although this minimum condition is commonly used, it has several disadvantages concerning the effectiveness and outlier sensitivity. Steiner (1965) alleviated this difficulty by introducing a principle of maximum reciprocals as:

(14) where S is a scaling parameter, characterizing the measurement error. A comparison of the above-defined principles reveals that the outliers heavily influence Eq. (13). Large measuring errors associated with one or more Xiâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;s may lead to unreal or misleading results in some cases. The property of the proposed statistical procedure is referred to as resistance. Therefore, in this sense, the least-squares principle is not a resistant statistical procedure. Applying the principle of the maximum reciprocals in a geostatistical analysis leads to the Most Frequent Value (MFV) technique (Steiner, 1988, 1990, Hajagos and Steiner 1991, Steiner, 1991, 1997). A statistical method is called an â&#x20AC;&#x153;MFVâ&#x20AC;? technique if the Xi residuals are most frequently small (or even near zero) values. The condition stated by Eq. (14)

The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling forces the Xi residuals to be as small as possible in the overwhelming majority and it does not matter if therefore some Xi values become eventually very large. For example, also the following condition results in an MFV technique:

(15) The MFV procedures are sometimes called “modern statistical methods” (Steiner, 1997), based on the idea first introduced by Steiner (1965). The hegemony of classical statistics even today can be perhaps excusable with the acceptance of the old dogma that “error distributions are always Gaussian” (Steiner and Hajagos, 1995). Szucs (1994) showed that the frequently used statistical hypothesis tests, like the chi-square test (the χ2-test), might lead to greatly misleading results. Monte Carlo simulations proved that the χ2-test could not be recommended for the normality tests of different distributions occurring in practice. Even when the data samples significantly deviate from the Gaussian distribution, the χ2-test accepts them as normally distributed with high probabilities at the most frequently used significance levels. Assuming the observations to be normally distributed, the classical estimations are based on the maximum likelihood principle (MLE – Maximum Likelihood Estimators). The MFV algorithm follows a completely different theoretical approach. The MFV method tends to achieve minimization of the Idivergence (Steiner, 1997). I-divergence

(information divergence) can be called as relative entropy and Kullback-Leibler distance, or a measure of information loss (Huber, 1981). Dutter (1987) showed that this probability density would be the most representative type in the geosciences. Instead of the classical Lp-norms, the so-called Pk-norms (Eq. 5) can be defined based on the Most Frequent Value method. On the other hand, the MFV method is a very robust statistical procedure. This means that the choice of the k value in Eq. 5 affects the statistical efficiency very slightly. Therefore, only three different k values are proposed here. The value of k = 2 is recommended if no previous information exists about the type of the actual distributions. If short flanks are expected, then k = 3 should be used. If the actual distribution is of the Cauchy type, then k = 1 provides the best statistical efficiency (Steiner, 1991, 1997). It was further proven by Steiner (1991, 1997) that the MFV procedures are not only resistant but also robust. The attribute denoted as being “robust” generally indicates the efficiency of the statistical procedure is not very sensitive to the type of change. The estimates of T have a finite asymptotic variance, i.e. the law of large numbers is always fulfilled for the most frequent value calculations. The least-squares method does not satisfy this law if for example the error distribution is of the Cauchy type (Steiner, 1991, 1997). Steiner (1991, 1997) proved that L1–methods (based on the median principle) have a general robustness (efficiency) of 50.1 % for the

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AY 2002-2003 expected geosciences error distributions. This is much higher than the general robustness of the classical statistics (based on the L2-norm). The latter does not have a higher efficiency than 7.8 %. The general robustness of the MFV–methods are, however, always significantly greater than that of the L1-procedures. The general robustness is higher than 90 % for the Pk-norms. The theoretically most adequate definition of the efficiency of an arbitrary statistical procedure is given by: Statistical efficiency = 100 (extracted information / total information) % Undoubtedly this definition provides a real measure of the statistical efficiency. However, a practically usable definition for numerical calculation of the statistical efficiency, denoted by e, is given by:

100 % efficiency if the error distribution is Gaussian. This is not surprising because the least-squares estimate is the best when the distribution is Gaussian. Unfortunately, its efficiency diminishes sharply to zero for error distributions having longer tails. Therefore, the least-squares principle should not be applied for any type of distribution other than the Gaussian type. In contrast, the MFV procedure is very highly efficient (> 90 %) regardless of the distribution type. The MFV procedure performs the best statistics for the geostatistical distribution (a = 5), where the efficiency value is 100 %. Therefore, the general high robustness of the MFV procedure is unarguable. 100 90 80

Leas t s quares principle MF V principle

e=100 (minimum possible asymptotic variance / asymptotic variance) % The denominator can be calculated for the actual applied statistical procedure. The nominator is the so-called CramerRao bound, which can be found in almost every handbook of mathematical statistics, such as in Huber’s (1981) famous book about robust statistics. Fig. 2 describes these efficiency relationships as a function of t = 1/ (a-1). This simple parameter transformation has a particular advantage in mapping the semi-infinite range of the supermodel parameter “a” value, varying from 2 to � , to the finite range of 0 to 1 for variation of the “t” value. The least-squares procedure works with

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efficiency [%]

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

0.2

0. 4

0.6

0. 8

t = 1 / (a-1)

Fig. 2. Efficiency curves for the least squares and MFV procedures for the fa(X) supermodel

Besides their robustness, the MFV methods are also resistant. It can be seldom guaranteed that data are outlierfree. The appearance of the outliers may be very different (even rhapsodic). Statis-

The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling tical algorithms should be tested about their sensitivity or insensitivity (resistance) against the outliers. The outliers are due to measurement as well as model errors (Valstar et al., 2004). The abovementioned double iteration process of the MFV methods guarantees a convergent solution to find the most frequent value and the dihesion or the inverse problem solution independently from the initial model parameter estimates

weak relationship due to presence of the outliers. Fig. 3 indicates that the linear relationship based on the least-squares principle can be heavily influenced by the presence of outliers (produced artificially by human error in this case). Whereas, the MFV procedure clearly avoids the misleading bunch of data and provides a realistic linear physical relationship instead of a statistically distorted one.

5. Applications for model and field problems

120.00

L2 and MFV fitting

W ater levels in W ell #2 [m]

MFV - fit

Although a natural science approach, that a groundwater reservoir is a general geologic medium, is very important in hydrogeology (Tรณth, 1999), sophisticated mathematical and statistical methods are also inevitable to increase the accuracy and efficiency of the relevant interpretation processes. Marsily at al. (2000) present an outstanding review about the inverse problems in hydrogeology. The MFV procedures may be facilitated for many problems in hydrogeology. Fig. 3 shows an example of a simple linear fitting of the water level data derived from a thick Pleistocene aquifer. Water levels were measured in two different wells, where there was a strong correlation between the levels because of hydraulic communication between the screened layers. This strong relationship was also given by the generalized and robustly correlation factor (Steiner, 1997). The traditional (Pearson-type) linear correlation factor showed only a

80.00

L2 - fit 40.00

0.00

-40.00 0.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

Water levels in Well #1 [m]

Fig. 3. Linear regression for water level data using the least-squares and MFV principles

Szucs (2002), and Szucs and Ritter (2002) applied the MFV procedures successfully for interpretations of several pumping tests. A well-defined geo-statistical method based on the MFV concept has been elaborated to determine the hydraulic parameters and their uncertainties. These are the necessary input

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AY 2002-2003 data for a reliable groundwater modeling. The suggested algorithm is well posed from the point of existence, uniqueness, stability, and robustness. This new evaluation method is proven and validated for different pumping test interpretation methods (Kruseman and Ridder, 1990). The main advantage of the suggested inverse procedure is that the uncertainty or the reliability of the hydraulic model parameters can also be determined by the MFV procedure and Monte Carlo simulations using one set of measured field data (Fig. 4). Artificial measuring errors are superimposed to the original measurements, and the inversion process is repeated several times. The applicability and usefulness of the introduced procedure have been demonstrated by means of several case studies on the ground water modeling problems concerning the Northern Hungarian region (Szucs, 2002, Szucs and Ritter, 2002). Fig. 4. Results of a pumping test interpretation using the MFV method. The uncertainties of the hydraulic parameters (QT and QS) are also determined.

The following case studies give simple examples of the MFV inverse applications to improve groundwater modeling calibration results. The hydraulic head prediction that comes from a flow model is commonly used as the basis for model calibration. Calibration is a process of adjusting the model parameters to achieve a satisfactory match between the predicted (or calculated) and measured hydraulic heads (Hill, 1998). Practically, calibration is an inverse process. Frequently, the objective function used as a calibration criterion is based on the mean error, the mean-absolute error (L1 norm), or the root-mean square error (RMSE error, L2 norm) (Anderson and Woessner, 1992). Szucs and Ritter (2002) introduced the above-mentioned Pk-norm for groundwater model calibration purposes. Because the real data, and the error or residual distribution can never be known in advance, the usage of Pk=2-norm is most favorable for groundwater modeling. To demonstrate the advantage of the MFV procedure and global optimization in groundwater modeling, two main examples are provided here.

5.1 Test problem A simple one-layer unconfined steadystate groundwater model has been facilitated to describe and investigate the behavior of the proposed global optimization (SA) method and the MFV procedure. The x-y dimension of the test model is 1 km by 1 km. The top of the model layer is on 25 m. The bottom of the model layer is 0.0

The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling m. The basic grid size is 20 m. A constant recharge rate at 0.0003 m3/(m2day) was applied on the top of the grid system. Four polygons were delineated to represent the layer heterogeneity in the aquifer. The horizontal hydraulic conductivity is assumed to be constant in each polygon. Specified head boundary conditions were introduced on the west and east borders to simulate the natural groundwater flow from west to east. One production well was seated in each of polygon I (-400 m3/s), II (-500 m3/s) and III (-300 m3/s). There is no well in polygon IV. As overdetermined systems are preferred for any statistical interpretation, 12 observation points were stationed in the model for the groundwater calibration. Creating a flow model based on the actual model parameters is called a forward solution. The water levels could be derived exactly for the 12 observation points. To simulate real measured water level data at the observation points, 2 % percent random geostatistical error was superimposed on the exact water levels. Having a pre-defined hydrogeological model and the “measured data set”, the inverse investigations could be started. The GMS 4.0 system provides three built-in possibilities for automated inverse parameter estimation. These are the PEST (Doherty, 2000), the UCODE (Poeter and Hill, 1998), and the MODFLOW-2000 PES (Hill at al., 2000) procedures. The MODFLOW-2000 PES method has been selected for comparison of the investigations with the present MFV based inverse algorithm using a global (Metropolis Simulated Annealing) optimization (noted as MFV – SA). The

MFV – SA inverse method has been also linked to the popular MODFLOW-2000 package, which provides the forward solution. In addition to the well-described error functions (RMSE and P-norm), the relative model distance (RM) has also been used to characterize the accuracy of the compared inversion procedures. The present application of the MFV procedure utilized the classical Simulated Annealing global optimization search.. For illustration, the Metropolis (SA) algorithm was applied with the parameter values given as follows. The initial temperature is T0 = 1.0. The final temperature is Tf = 0.0001. The temperature reduction constant is a = 0.975. The number of iterations at each temperature is R(t) = 300. Table 1 gives a summary of the most important results obtained by the MODFLOW-2000 PES and MFV+SA algorithms. The results clearly indicate a great difference in the relative model distance (RM) values although the objective function values (RMSE and P-norm) are not far from each other. The relative model distance (RM=0.58, MODFLOW-2000 PES) reduces by half when the MFV based inverse procedure is applied (RM=0.27). Fig. 5 also indicates the advantage of the Most Frequent Value approach. Fig. 5 shows nearly the same flow pattern as that of the original model. Note that even the MFV – SA method was not able to give back the original model parameters. This is truly understandable because a complication in groundwater problems arises when the information about the head distributions is incomplete (Anderson and Woessner, 1992).

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AY 2002-2003 Table 1. The main results of the inverse procedures carried out by MODFLOW-2000 PES and MFV-SA methods in case of 2 % geostatistical distribution error added to the theoretical heads at the observation points.

Test problem investigated by different inversion methods Model Polygon I. II. III. IV. Error function Relative model distance

Prescribed model parameters 25 m/day 35 m/day 15 m/day 10 m/day

Model parameters from inversion MODFLOW-2000 PES MFV - SA 11.52 m/day 18.72 m/day 27.65 m/day 32.14 m/day 6.46 m/day 10.92 m/day 1.90 m/day 7.38 m/day RMSE = 0.203 m P-norm = 0.172 m RM = 0.58 RM = 0.27

5.2 Field problem

In general, the field experts prefer to use the commercially available professional groundwater modeling packages for hydrogeological evaluation and interpretation, such as the above-mentioned Groundwater Modeling System (GMS 4.0) or the Processing Modflow (Chiang and Kinzelbach, 2001). Although these packages have built-in inverse modules like PEST, UCODE or MODFLOW2000 PES, the trial-and-error calibration is still preferred in many cases because the modelerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expertise and experience can be involved in the process easily. In the following, the advantage of the MFVbased inverse groundwater modeling is demonstrated by a field example. There is an ongoing national project supported by the Hungarian government to delineate the wellhead protection zones for vulnerable groundwater resources. The particle tracking MODPATH module (Pollock, 1994) enables the delineation of the wellhead protection zones

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around the investigated production wells. During each step of the trial-end-error calibration, the MFV weights can provide very visible and useful information for every observation point about the actual groundwater model condition concerning the strength of matching. The closer the MFV weight is to 1.0, the better the match between the measured and calculated head data for the actual observation points. Besides the individual weight interpretation, the histogram of the MFV weights can also give useful insight about the state of calibration. Fig. 6 shows that the histogram has high relative frequency values at small MFV weights during the beginning of the calibration when the model parameter values are far from their real values. If the calibration is carried out successfully and the measured data are reliable, the histogram should reflect highly on the relative frequency at the greater intervals of MFV weights.

The Most Frequent Value Method in Groundwater Modeling

6. Conclusions It has been demonstrated that the Most Frequent Value method can be applied successfully for effective solution of various problems involving groundwater modeling under certain conditions, such as when the measurement errors are not Gaussian and the model concept errors are insignificant. This robust and resistant geostatistical procedure provides a high general efficiency.

Fig. 6 Histograms of the MVF weights during the calibration process. The upper histogram shows an early stage and the lower histogram reflects the end of the trial-end error calibration.

The application of the P-norms based on the MFV principle has been shown to be advantageous over the other types for inverse parameter estimation calculations. The automated parameter estimation method facilitating the Most Frequent Value method and linked to the MODFLOW â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2000-reference flow code has been shown to be effective for deriving the groundwater model parameters. The use of the Most Frequent Value weights of the head residuals readily improves the groundwater interpretation results during traditional trail-and-error calibration processes. The present study has proven that the MFV method provides certain advantages over the conventional statistical methods derived from the maximum likelihood principle. Consequently, the application of the MFV method coupled

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AY 2002-2003 with global optimization is expected to become a more widespread practice in groundwater modeling. The author gratefully acknowledges the Fulbright Scholarship Program, the Bolyai Janos Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and the Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological Engineering at the University of Oklahoma for support of this work.

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Geological Survey finite difference ground-water flow

using the simulated annealing method. Journal of

model: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 94464, 6 ch.

Petroleum Science and Engineering, 14, pp. 209-220. Szucs P., 2002: Inversion of pumping test data for improved

Sen M., Stoffa P.L., 1995: Global Optimization Methods

interpretation. microCAD 2002, International Scien-

in Geophysical Inversion. Advances in Exploration

tific Conference, University of Miskolc, A: Geoinfor-

Geophysics 4. Elsevier. Steiner F,. 1965. Interpretation of Bouguer-maps (in Hungarian). Dissertation. Manuscript. Miskolc, 80-94.

matics, pp. 107-112, March 7-8. Szucs P. and Ritter Gy., 2002: Improved interpretation of pumping test results using simulated annealing optimi-

Steiner F., 1972. Simultane interpretation geophysika-

zation. ModelCARE 2002, Proceedings of the 4th Inter-

lischer messdatensysteme. Review Pure and Applied

national Conference on Calibration and Reliability in

Geophysics, 96: 15-27.

Groundwater Modeling. Prague, Czech Republic, 17-20

Steiner F., 1990. The Bases of Geostatistics (in Hungarian). Tankonyvkiado, Budapest, Hungary, 363pp.

June 2002. Acta Universitas Carolinae – Geologica 2002, 46 (2/3), pp. 238-241.

Steiner F., (Editor), 1991. The Most Frequent Value. Intro-

Tóth J., 1999: Groundwater as a geologic agent: An overview

duction to a Modern Conception Statistics. Akademia

of the causes, processes, and manifestations. Hydro-

Kiado, Budapest, Hungary, 314pp.

geolgy Journal (7), pp. 1-14.

Steiner F. and Hajagos B., 1994. Practical definition of robustness. Geophys. Trans., 38: 193-210.

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Mitochondrial mechanisms of perinatal hypoxic brain injury Ferenc Bari PhD, DSc ............................................................................. University of Szeged Faculty of Medicine Department of Physiology 6720 Szeged, Dóm tér 10 www.phys.szote.u-szeged.hu Bari@phys.szote.u-szeged.hu

Wake Forest University School of Medicine Department of Physiology and Pharmacology Medica l Center Boulevard Winston-Salem,NC 27157 www.wfubmc.edu Advisor’s name: Prof. David W. Busija

............................................................................. Summary Cerebral hypoxic/ischemic injury is a relatively common occurrence in the perinatal period. Using animal models, we have been working on the pathomechanism of the disturbed cerebral blood flow and metabolism. During my 5 month fellowship we studied the role of the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) –sensitive K+ channels (mitoKATP) found on the mitochondrial membrane in the cellular disturbances caused by hypoxia. We used cultured cell-lines, freshly isolated mitochondria from the brain and brains samples for the ex-vivo studies. The subjects of our in vivo studies were newborn piglets and adult rats. We found that diazoxide, a selective mitoKATP agonist depolarizes mitochondria and this effect is accompanied by production of reactive oxygen species. We also found that pretreatment with diazoxide inhibits the damage in blood brain barrier caused by hypoxic stress. In addition, we provided evidence that there are no functional N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors on the cerebral blood vessels derived from newborn pigs. We started new projects and generated several new ideas. I regard my fellowship very successful both on professional and personal level.

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1. Background Perinatal asphyxia - when a baby does not receive enough oxygen before, during or just after birth- occurs in approximately 6 per 1000 term live births and remains the most important cause of neurological injury in the newborn. During asphyxia, the neuronal homeostasis is severely disrupted by the rapidly developing hypoxia, hypercapnia and decreased cerebral blood flow (~global ischemia). These changes initiate a complex sequence of pathophysiological events, culminating in the malfunction of neurons, e.g. seizure activity or neuronal cell death. The mechanisms involved in mediating neuronal impairment in the neonate are complex and poorly understood. Using severe, but clinically relevant periods of hypoxia, global cerebral ischemia or asphyxia in piglets – a widely used and accepted model for human babies- , we found that cortical vascular reactivity – the ability of the brain’s vessels to dilate or constrict- is impaired selectively to various stimuli. A major part of the dilator responses of the cerebral blood vessels are suppressed. In addition, the neuronalvascular coupling which is essential for the appropriate blood supply in the central nervous system is also damaged. Within hours after hypoxic-ischemic stress, characteristic changes in cerebral protein synthesis can be observed. Proteins promoting cell survival are induced as are factors delaying neuronal death. Because of its potential role in neuroprotection, the hypoxia/ ischemia-induced gene expression has been extensively studied.

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We have long been interested in detecting the early changes in expression of a variety of potentially beneficial or harmful proteins. We earlier demonstrated that global cerebral ischemia/reperfusion alters the levels of synthesis and expression of heat shock protein 72. - (Heat shock proteins (HSPs), also called stress proteins, are a group of proteins that are present in all cells in all life forms. They are induced when a cell undergoes various types of environmental stresses like heat, cold and oxygen deprivation. Heat shock proteins are also present in cells under perfectly normal conditions. They act like ‘chaperones,’ making sure that the cell’s proteins are in the right shape and in the right place at the right time)-., endothelial nitric oxide synthase – (endothelial NOS is an enzyme which generates nitric oxide (NO) in blood vessels and is involved with regulating vascular function. A constitutive Ca2+ dependent NOS provides a basal release of NO) - and cyclooxygenase-2 – (cyclooxygenase (COX) is an enzyme that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids (including prostaglandins and thromboxane). Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of and pain; this is the method of action of well-known drugs such as aspirin and ibuprofen. Currently three isoenzymes of COX (-1, -2, -3) are known. Different tissues express varying levels of COX-1 and COX-2. Although both enzymes act basically in the same fashion, selective inhibition can make a difference in terms of side-effects. COX-1 is considered a constitutive enzyme, being

Mitochondrial mechanisms of perinatal hypoxic brain injury found in most mammalian cells. COX-2, on the other hand, is undetectable in most normal tissues. It is an inducible enzyme, becoming abundant in activated macrophages) as early as 2-6 hrs after hypoxic stress. One component of the original insult constituting anoxia/ reoxygenation may be the damage caused by oxygen radicals. - A prominent feature of radicals is that they have extremely high chemical reactivity, which explains not only their normal biological activities, but how they inflict damage on cells. We and others have demonstrated that a significant source of superoxide anion is the impaired respiratory chain in the mitochondria. We have shown that cerebrovascular dysfunction caused by transient anoxic stress can be prevented by administration of oxygen radical scavengers such as superoxide dismutase. The purpose of my Fulbright Award application was to make it possible for me to work in Dr. David W. Busijaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s laboratory at the Wake Forest University School of Medicine, in Winston-Salem, North Carolina and to continue and extend our productive, collaborative relationship. While Dr. Busija had NIH and AHA funds to support the major parts of my research plan, the fund was necessary to pay for my salary and partially covered my travel costs. The purpose of the research effort was to extend our previous, original observations on mechanisms of neuroprotection against anoxic injury in the neonatal pig. This is an important area of research because of the relatively high frequency

of hypoxia-ischemic stress during the perinatal period, which leads to death of babies or to pathologies such as cerebral palsy. The piglet model for studying perinatal hypoxic brain injuries is widely used. In 1999, Dr. Busija and myself made the first observation in the brain showing that potassium channels in mitochondria were a potential therapeutic target for protection of neurons against ischemic stress. Thus, using diazoxide, a drug that specifically targets the ATP-sensitive channels in mitochondria (mitoKATP channels), we were able to completely protect neuronal function against 10 minutes of complete brain ischemia. Ischemia was induced by stopping blood flow to the brain by increasing the intracranial pressure. Intactness of neuronal function was tested using an analogue of glutamate, namely N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), which targets specifically one of the glutamate receptor subtypes. This in vivo assay is extremely sensitive and detects even minor disturbances in the neuronal-vascular coupling. While this was an important first step, there was a need to develop new techniques to study this phenomenon more extensively in the newborn pig. We have focused on this model rather than rodent species because of the similarity of developmental status of the piglet and human baby brains. Unfortunately, study of the responses of the piglet brain to ischemia is difficult because of previously existing technical problems. Dr. Busija and myself have spent the last several years independently developing new approaches. At the time of the Fulbright grant application,

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AY 2003-2004 in 2002, we believed that we were in a position to combine these approaches in new, original experiments designed to determine the mechanisms involved in neuroprotection induced by activation of mitoKATP channels. However, since these approaches were complex, it was necessary for us to collaborate, at least initially, via direct involvement in the same laboratory. While it is well recognized in the heart that mitochondria are a potential target for pharmacological agents in the prevention of cellular damage following ischemic stress, little work has been done in the brain because of technical limitations. Following our initial observation, we have focused on overcoming these technical limitations and at that time we were in a position to continue our studies. The most important advances made by us are as follows: together with my Hungarian coworkers (Drs. Siklos and Domoki, Szeged) I have developed a method for assessing changes in calcium levels in piglet mitochondria following ischemic stress in piglets. This method involves the use of electron microscopy and a reagent that binds to calcium. In this provocative study, we showed that neuroprotection in piglets is associated with a limitation of calcium influx into mitochondria. An influx of free calcium to mitochondria is thought to be a crucial first step in causing immediate damage to mitochondria with subsequent (necrotic or apoptotic) death of neurons. However, until this recent study there was no direct evidence that activation of mitoKATP channels could limit calcium influx following ischemia. In complementary experiments, Dr.

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Busija has showed that activation of mitoKATP channels is able to limit infarct volume in adult rats and rat pups in different models of ischemia. Further, Dr. Busija has developed cell culture methods for neurons and astroglia to address the mechanisms of protection via activation of mitoKATP channels. Additionally, Dr. Busija has developed methods to characterize effects of activation of mitoKATP channels on mitochondria membrane potential and oxygen radical production using confocal microscopy. Based upon our observations and information from the literature, we developed the overall hypothesis and specific aims.

2. Realization of our plans

Of course there was a considerable timegap between the grant application and the realization of my trip to North Carolina. After the positive decision of the Fulbright Board we made more specific plans. I started my work on the 15th of July in 2003 and finished exactly 5 months later. With the help of Dr. Busija and his coworkers we conducted several experiments and started new ones. I spent lot of time in the lab. I started with work at 8:00 am and left around 6-7 pm. During the 5 months period I wanted to explore as many problems as possible. After awhile I had to realize that I was unable to complete the studies I started with. I knew that the goals were appropriate and the approaches also reasonable. Since I left the lab we were able to finish almost all the studies. Furthermore, we were able to publish our results in well respected journal. Now I would like to summarize the most results of the most important studies.

Mitochondrial mechanisms of perinatal hypoxic brain injury

2.1. Study #1:

The purpose of this study was to examine whether the effects of diazoxide on mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and ROS – reactive oxygen species-production were due to the activation of mitoKATP channels or other effects, such as on succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) inhibition. In isolated piglet mitochondria, we compared effects of diazoxide with a newly developed mitoKATP channel opener, BMS-191095, which does not increase ROS production in cultured neurons and apparently does not inhibit SDH. Additionally, we administered 3nitropropionic acid (3-NPA), a specific inhibitor of SDH, which appears to have no direct effect on mitoKATP channels. We used brains from neonatal pigs (1–7 days of age) to isolate mitochondria. Using confocal laser microscopy we investigated the mitochondria in various conditions. Reactive oxygen species generation was assessed using the oxidation-sensitive dye dyhydroethidum (HEt, Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR, USA), which is oxidized to the fluorescent ethidium by free radicals. The major finding of the study was that while both diazoxide and BMS-191095 depolarize mitochondria, diazoxide but not BMS-191095 promotes ROS production. It seems likely that enhanced ROS production is due to SDH inhibition, a well known characteristic of diazoxide, since 3-NPA leads to ROS production independent of changes in ΔΨm. Thus, ROS production by mitochondria is not necessarily linked to mitoKATP channel opening and neuroprotection.

2.2. Study #2:

The blood brain barrier (BBB) is responsible for the limited and regulated movement of plasma constituents into the brain parenchyma. During pathophysiological conditions, damage to endothelial cells and alterations in BBB function can have adverse effects on the brain. BBB disruption was found to precede and may be the initiating event of focal ischemic lesions in hypertensive encephalopathy [38]. BBB injury can worsen the outcome after cerebral ischemia as well [19]. Therefore, it is important to develop approaches to limit BBB dysfunction after cerebral ischemia. One possibility is to use specific drugs which induce protection against the expected hypoxia/ ischemia. When a drug is used in a very low concentration and the beneficial action is still present after the complete clearance from the drug the effect is regarded as preconditioning. The exact underlying mechanisms of the preconditioning are unknown; however, it can be triggered by a variety of other stimuli, including heat shock, exercise, opioids and cytokines. In addition, activation of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium (mitoKATP) channels has been proposed to play a pivotal role in preconditionining. Pharmacological agents that open mitoKATP channels reproduce preconditioning without any other intervention. Moreover, physiological or chemical preconditioning is prevented by blockers of the mitoKATP channels. The beneficial effects of the prototype mitoKATP channel opener diazoxide have been well demonstrated in the heart and other organs and

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AY 2003-2004 have been shown in experimental neurological preparations by our laboratory and by others. The purpose of our study was to determine whether diazoxide pretreatment affects BBB function following ischemic stress in rats. We tested the hypothesis that diazoxide would reduce BBB permeability and decrease brain water content following I/R, and that mitoKATP channel opening would be involved in its action. Experiments were carried out on male rats. The animals were exposed to global cerebral ischemia using combined bilateral common carotid artery occlusion and arterial hypotension. Blood-brain barrier permeability was assessed by measurement of Evans blue and sodium fluorescein content in brain. The main findings of our experiments are that diazoxide treatment applied in a preconditioning protocol (3 consecutive days before ischemia) gave protection against BBB opening and brain oedema in a severe global ischemic model in rat. Diazoxide can depolarize the mitochondria of brain endothelial cells, raising the possibility of direct preconditioning of these cells.

2.3. Study #3:

Dr. Busija and his coworkers were the first to report that glutamate and its synthetic analogue N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) are dilator agents in the in vivo piglet cerebral circulation. These original studies in piglets have been replicated in other species such as rat and rabbit. The mechanism of dilation is not completely understood, but probably involves activation of neuronal NMDA receptors,

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generation of nitric oxide and/or other substances, and subsequent actions on arterioles of these vasoactive factors. Recently, the view that arteriolar dilation in the cerebral circulation to NMDA is secondary to neuronal release and vascular actions of NO or other brain-derived substances has been challenged. The purpose of this study was to compare vascular responses in vivo and in vitro to NMDA in the piglet cerebral circulation. The in vitro experiments were done by two independent laboratories at four different intravascular pressures, and intactness of vascular function was assessed with bradykinin. Bradykinin is an endothelium-dependent dilator agent in piglets. Additionally, we examined whether glutamate dilated isolated piglet cerebral arteries. We worked on isolated arteriolar branches of piglet middle cerebral artery. Branches from both middle cerebral arteries (MCAs) were carefully harvested using a dissecting microscope. These arteriolar branches of the MCA (about 2 mm in length) were transferred to a vessel chamber, mounted, and secured between two glass micropipettes with 10-0 ophthalmic suture. Vascular reactivity was then determined in one of two protocols done by each laboratory: Protocol 1 at 30 and 80 mmHg intraluminal pressures in Dr. Busijaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s laboratory and Protocol 2 at 60 and 100 mmHg intraluminal pressures in Dr. Eckmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s laboratory (Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC). The major finding of the study is that isolated piglet cerebral arteries fail to

Mitochondrial mechanisms of perinatal hypoxic brain injury dilate to NMDA while NMDA dilates arteries markedly in vivo. Isolated arteries were pressurized to four different levels, and experiments on isolated arteries were done in two independent laboratories. Similarly, we were unable to elicit significant dilator responses to glutamate in isolated arteries at doses up to 1mM. In contrast, isolated arteries dilated substantially to bradykinin, thereby establishing intactness of the preparation and viability of endothelial function. Thus, we cannot provide support for the concept that dilation occurs via direct actions of NMDA or glutamate on the vascular wall.

3. Conclusion I initially expected to return to North Carolina simply to conduct research, but I left with so much more. I have gained a rare inside view into the complexities of scientific research and an international perspective on evaluating problems. Through this experience, I have become more mature and have gained a better sense of myself, and therefore, my goals and interests. Besides of working and participating in the university life I took the advantage of being in North Carolina and tried to explore the beauties of the State. We spent nice weekends on the tracks of the Appalachians. The appeal was great and enduring. I participated at the local meeting of Fulbrighters in the North Carolina. We spent very good time together in Asheville in the Great Smoky Mountains. Everything was simple but the feeling was

great. I have gotten to know many people from all over the world and received a rare insight into their many different cultures and backgrounds. Most importantly, this opportunity has allowed me to experience countless things that I might not have attempted to explore elsewhere. I have been working as a full professor at my university. Therefore I do not expect formally too much from the Fulbright in promoting my personal career. In fact, I am only just beginning to understand the value of the professional connections that one can make through the Fulbright. The Fulbright has been of major benefit because itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cross-disciplinary perspective. The experiences I gained during the application period, during the introductory training and during my fellowship period and the fact that I now belong to the Fulbright family reaffirmed my trust in the strength of science. I think organizations like the Fulbright can bring people working in the academic field closer and help in finding solutions in tough economic and political situations in the world. I am thankful to Wake Forest University School of Medicine that allowed me to use the enormous academic potential and the high-tech facilities for studying the mechanism of perinatal hypoxic brain injuries. I think that our joint efforts with Professor Busija and with his coworkers expanded our previous observations and we provided some exciting new discoveries. Since I left the lab in the Wake Forest University my colleagues have been working on the issues I started with. I was happy to realize that the ideas

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AY 2003-2004 generated during my short stay in the lab were useful for my young coworkers. Since then we have been communicating almost every day. This seems to me as an extension of my Fulbright period.

3.1. Publications related to my Fulbright Research Award Nagy K, Kis B, Rajapakse NC, Bari F, Busija DW (2004) Diazoxide preconditioning protects against neuronal cell death by attenuation of oxidative stress upon glutamate stimulation J Neurosci Res 76:697-704 Busija DW, Katakam P, Rajapakse NC, Kis B, Grover G, Domoki F, Bari F (2005) Effects of ATP-Sensitive Potassium Channel Activators Diazoxide and BMS-191095 on Membrane Potential and Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Isolated Piglet Mitochondria Brain Res Bull ( in press) Simandle S, Kerr BA, Lacza Zs, Eckman D, Busija DW, Bari F (2005) Lack of direct dilator effects of N-methyl-Daspartate on piglet pial arterioles Microvasc Res (in press) Lenzser G, Kis B, Bari F, Busija DW (2005) Diazoxide preconditioning attenuates global cerebral ischemia-induced blood-brain barrier permeability Brain Res (in press)

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Trends in American Luther Research. Parallels Between Luther’s Theology and Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Dr Tibor Fabiny ............................................................................. Károli Gáspár University 1088 Budapest, Reviczky u. 4/c www.kre.hu fabiny_ tibor@kre.hu

Princeton Theological Seminary of the Reformed Princeton NJ 08542-0803 Church, www.ptsem.edu Adviser: Prof. Scott Hendrix

............................................................................. The research was, first of all, a „metahistorical” investigation into three tendencies of American Luther scholarship: 1. hermeneutics; 2. theology of the cross; and 3. ecclesiology. I was interested to learn how these three tendencies reflected the changing perspective in American Luther Research in the second half of the 20th century. On the other hand, however, I was interested to demonstrate that Luther’s theology can be applied to interpreting Shakespeare’s plays. Therefore I was investigating how Luther’s understanding of the hidden God can be applied to Shakespearean tragedy, especially Hamlet Prince of Denmark who was also student of Wittenberg. Luther, who called himself “God’s court-jester” (Hofnarr) saw history as one of the “masks of God” (larva dei) and God as hiding himself often in the mask of the Devil, developed a paradoxical theology (theologia crucis) that is, according to the paper, surprisingly compatible with the paradoxical artistic vision of Shakespeare, especially in Hamlet, King Lear and Measure for Measure. In discussing central motifs of Luther’s theology like deus absconditus; indirect revelation; revelation by concealment; revelation under the opposite (sub contrario suo); the “strange acts of God” (opus alienum), God’s “rearward parts” (posteriora); suffering (Anfechtungen and melancholy) we may provoke the latent, even if blasphemeous, theological meaning in Shakespeare.

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Parallels Between Luther’s Theology and Shakespeare’s Hamlet 1. Worm, worms and Worms In Shakespeare’s Hamlet there is one curious and puzzling textual allusion that has long been noticed and deserves our attention. It is in one of Hamlet’s usual puns in Act 4 Scene 3 when he is responding to the question where he put the dead body of the murdered Polonius: Not where he eats, but where he is eaten. A certain convocation of politic worms are e’en at him. Your worm is your only emperor for diet: we fat all creatures else to fat us, and we fat ourselves for maggots. Your fat king and your lean beggar is but variable service, two dishes, but to one table. That’s the end. (4,3,19-251) (it.mine) Critical editors of the drama since the 19th century have not only conjectured but recognized in the „emperor” a direct allusion to the Emperor Charles V., and in the „politic worms” and the „diet” a reference to the Diet of Worms. Harold Jenkins, the editor of the Arden Hamlet says in a footnote: „There is a play on diet, council, with reference to the Diet at the German city of Worms, presided over by

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the emperor. In 1521 it pronounced its ban on Luther after his famous refusal to recant.”2 Hamlet’s witty imagination is immediately expanding this insight: A man my fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and eat of that fish that hath fed of that worm. (4,3,28) The imagery of eating, as has also been observed, evokes the idea of the Eucharist, one of the crucial controversial issues of the Reformation. ”Yet the utter debasement of the ritual in the image of maggots as communicants, ingesting the mingled body of the beggar/king at the common ’table’ of the grave appears to go beyond Luther”- says a recent critic3. However, critics have not yet noticed that Luther, who has been alluded in Hamlet’s pun, was also frequently using the image of the “worm’ when he identified it with Jesus Christ on the cross. For Luther the bronze serpent which signifies Jesus Christ is like a “harmful worm” as “Christ was also looked upon as a venomous worm to be shunned”. Christ endured to be ridiculed when he was regarded as a “vile worm”. (LW4 22,340) He degraded himself so profoundly that he became less than men just a worm that is scorned by men (Psalm 22,26) However, in such physical weakness and poverty He attacks and destroys the enemy. This worm , says Luther in his commentary on Psalm 8,4 “is mocked, spit upon, scourged, crowned, and crucified….His appearance was so marred, beyond human semblance, and His form beyond that of the sons of men…. He was despised and rejected by men”. (LW 12, 123) The American

Trends in American Luther Research Luther scholar Kenneth Hagen says: “The meaning of Christ as worm on the cross carried the connotations of Christ being abject, the object of contempt, foresaken, nauseating, abominable, rotten stench, scandal, offensive or, simply, rotting worm”5 But that is not the end of the story. Commenting on the Genesis story of Sarah’s death Luther remarks: it has pleased God to raise up from worms, from corruption, from the earth, which is totally putrid and full of stench, a body more beautiful than any flower, than balsam, than the sun itself and the stars. (LW 4,190) Both Shakespeare and Luther have provoked our phantasy and stretched our imagination to the utmost with their daring associations concerning the image of the worm. Therefore, it is our hope that it would not be a futile attempt to begin an unsual comparison of the two unique but perhaps not entirely unrelated minds of the Renaissance. Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a German theologian who lived and worked two generations earlier than William Shakespeare (1564-1616) the English poet and playwright. Both Luther and Shakespeare were creative geniuses of the 16th century who overwhelmingly contributed to the making of Early Modern Europe. I hope to demonstrate that in a certain sense the theological worlds of Martin Luther and the dramatic worlds of William Shakespeare are not incompatible with each other.

2. „The Masks of God” and the Dramatic Nature of Luther’s Theology It is a commonplace to suggest that Luther was far from being a traditional systematic theologian. Of his personal dramatic temperament (conversion, temptations etc.) I shall speak later. Now I will argue that there was definitely a dramatic aspect in his theology . Eric W. Gritsch has shown us that Luther’s self image in his address To the Nobility of the German Nation was that of a „court-jester”6 (Hofnarr) and as Gritsch says, Luther appears to have worn his heart on his sleeve, tipping his cap to the troubled consciences of common folk, ringing his bells to warn the mighty in both church and world of God’s unyielding power, and tapping his feet to the tune of the gospel’s cheering and chilling news of Christ’s lordship in a world nearing its end. 7 Indeed, Luther seems to have radically appropriated and even enacted St. Paul’s paradox about wisdom and foolishness especially in his theologia crucis to which we shall return later. Moreover, Luther very frequently used such dramatic terms in his theology as „game”, „laughter”, „theater”, „disguise” and „hiding”. In 1532 he lectured on the „laughter of God” in Psalm 2 suggesting that God’s laughter was a way of hiding his wrath from the stupidities of mankind. This should teach us to see our adversaries as if they were part of a „comical

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AY 2003-2004 spectacle”.8 In Luther’s non-dogmatic dramatic theology comedy and tragedy, laughter and weeping, concealment and revelation, hiddennes and recognition are in a complementary relationship with each other.

2.1. The Various Masks of God Luther never failed to emphasize the difference between the revealed and the hidden God (deus revelatus and deus absconditus). The real God (deus per se), or, the naked God (deus nudus) is never identical with what we experience of him either in his revelation or his hiddenness. Luther frequently mentions with St Paul (1Cor 4, 9) that Christians have become a „spectacle” for the world (theatron to kosmo). In this theatrum mundi where Satan and his angels disguise themselves as angels of light (2Cor 11,14) and the Pope and the hypocrite clergy pose as representatives of God, it is necessary for God also to hide himself under various masks. One of his favourite quote is from Isaiah 45,15: “Verily thou art a God that hidest thyself” and he comments on this passage that “For under the curse a blessing lies hidden; under the consciousness of sin, righteousness; under death, life; and under affliction, comfort.” (LW 4,7). Luther also spoke about creation and history as the „face or mask of God” (larva dei). „Now the whole creation is a face or mask of God. But here we need the wisdom that distinguishes God from His mask. The world does not have this wisdom. Therefore it cannot distinguish God from His mask.” (LW 26, 94) For

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Luther God governs this world by secular roles and authorites: „those masks of judges, magistrates, teachers, doctors, and lawyers are necessary;… it is God’s will that under these masks you should serve His ordinance and man’s need…Without these masks peace and discipline could not be preserved”. The whole world is a Mummenschanz, a masquerade and while a „masked God may frighten others, Christians know that behind every divine mask there is a gracious God.”9 God hides himself beneath human wordly powers (LW 9,41) and even our human achievement: “He uses our effort as a mask under which He blesses us” (LW 9,96) Moreover, God hides himself but in his very word as well. With his promises as masks he protects human beings from the absolute, naked God. Concerning Psalm 51 he says that David is „speaking with God as He is dressed and clothed… in such … a pleasant mask… this God we can grasp and look at with joy and trust” (LW 12,312) One of Luther’s favourite biblical heroes is Joseph from the end of Genesis. Joseph was sold by his bothers and through much suffering and affliction he got to the court of the Pharaoh. “God allows Joseph to be crucified, hurled in prison” (LW 8, 30). “For he saw God’s back and waited until God should reveal and show forth His salvation” (LW 7,103). This Joseph who had been tortured both by his brothers and his God is concealing his identity from his brothers when they come to Egypt. Instead of vengance he, as Luther says, plays a “very pleasant delightful game” by

Trends in American Luther Research hiding a cup in his younger brother Benjamin’s sack (LW 7, 237). The brothers are afflicted just as he was tortured and tried by God. “At the end of the trial, however, they see the greatest goodwill and love.” (LW 7, 237). For Luther Joseph thus becomes a God-figure: “After our liberation we have the same feeling about God, who allows us to be tried and afflicted in order that we may prove what His good and pleasing will is (Rom. 12:2).” (LW 7, 237) Joseph acts in a strange way with his brothers just as God also acts in a strange way with human kind. ”He afflicts us with evils and misfortunes of every kind”. (LW 7,237) God also plays with us and says: ‘Because you are well pleased with your hypocrisy, flatter yourself, and dream that you are cleansed of every sin, I will disclose to you and show you what kind of person you are in My sight and will remove from you that mask of smugness and hypocrisy.’ (LW 7, 237) Thus Joseph played the deus absconditus with his brothers; he tortured them to make them repent. His brothers are frightened they think they are confronted with the devil. But at the end in the recognition scene he reveals that “I am your brother Joseph” just as God reveals his true self and true work (opus proprium) after his “strange acts” (opus alienum). Joseph just as God reveals his mercy and love for his brothers in an indirect way. If the world is a huge masquerade where both God and Satan wear masks to hide themselves the greatest problem for the believer is to recognize God under the mask:

everything seems exactly the opposite of what it should be, and then we see God’s work to be unjust. So God and Satan weary us with masks and external spirits so that we are led to believe that what is of God is Satan, and what is Satan is of God. (LW 17,127) When commenting on Galatians 5,11 Luther again remarks: Thus God wears the mask of the devil, and the devil wears the mask of God; God wants to be recognized under the mask of the devil, and He wants the devil to be condemned under the mask of God. (LW 27, 43)

2.2. Luther’s Theology of the Cross The theatrical metaphor, the idea of the mask or, the notion of revelation by concealment are not accidental images for Luther but they form a coherent theology which scholars have come to call theologia crucis, the theology of the cross. What is then, the subject matter of the theology of the cross? Against many misunderstandings and misconceptions Gerhard O. Forde says: It is a particular perception of the world and our destiny, what Luther came to call looking at all things through suffering and the cross.10 He says that „it is so radical and deep for its time that it is still vital for our time”,11, this is a story that „claims us”12 and wants us to become theologians of the cross13, it

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AY 2003-2004 teaches us „to say what the thing is”, „to call a spade a spade”14. Luther first formulated his theology of the cross in the 1518 Heidelberg Disputation. He called his theses „theological paradoxes” which was the reformers’ new way of forming argument against the traditional syllogism of scholastic theologians. The central notion, the great divide between the way of glory and the way of the cross is described in theses 19-21 of the Heidelberg Disputation. 19 The man who looks upon the invisible things of God as they are perceived in created things does not deserve to be theologian. (Non ille dignus theologus dicitur, qui invisibilia Dei per ea, quae facta sunt, intellecta conscipit.) 20 The man who perceives the visible rearward parts of God as seen in suffering and the cross does, however, deserve to be called a theologian. (Sed qui visibilia et posteriora Dei per passiones et crucem conspecta intelligit.) 21 The theologian of glory calls evil good and good evil. The theologian of the cross says what a thing is.15 The theology of glory wishes, with human achievement and free will, „to see through” the cross in order to find, by speculation, a „transcendant meaning” (virtue, wisdom, goodness etc) and contemplate the invisible greatness of God. But Luther believes that „peering into ’invisible things of God’ only ’puffs up, blinds and hardens’”16 But the cross teaches us to see differently: the cross is

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not transparent, we cannot look behind it; it is a mirror and we have to look at it. We cannot explain the cross but we have to preach the cross. The theology of the cross reveals that things are not what they seem; it makes us recognize that there is a crucial discrepancy between appearance and reality. According to the theology of the cross it is the cross that reverses our way of seeing. Only by faith is it revealed that God concealed himself in the form of its opposite: in the shame of the cross. Luther’s imagination become almost blasphameous when he quotes Moses who wanted to see the face of God, but God showed him only his back, „rearward parts” (posteriora). This was to teachj and humble Moses. The cross likewise cuts down the wisdom of the wise, the vision of the theologian of the glory. It is only through suffering and the cross that we can come to know God. Only through this suffering can we learn what things really are, that the spade is a spade. The idea is that „God’s revelation can take place in the form of opposites, sub contrario. God does his alien and wrathful work before he does his proper and loving work; he makes alive by killing, brings to heaven by going through hell, brings forth mercy out of wrath.”17 The alien work is the opus alienum and the loving work is the opus proprium . In Isaiah 28, 21 it is called „the strange work” and „the strange act” of God. It is God who assaults and inflicts us, he causes the terrors of temptation, the Anfechtungen. In Forde’s words: „Knowledge of God comes when God happens to us”.18 Luther even goes so far as to suggest that God, in his alien work,

Trends in American Luther Research becomes devil for us before becoming God for us: „God cannot be God unless He first becomes a devil. All that God speaks and does the devil has to speak and do first.”19 Alister MacGrath mentions five marks20 of the theology of the cross: 1) theologia crucis a theology of revelation rather than a theology of speculation.; 2) This revelation must be regarded as indirect and concealed; 3) This revelation is to be recognized in the sufferings of the cross of Christ; 4) This knowledge of God who is hidden in his revelation is a matter of faith; 5) God is particularly known through sufferings, he makes himself known through sufferings: God is the source of Anfechtung, he assaults man in order to break him down and thus to save him. It is significant that God is hidden and the Deus absconditus hides his mercy under his wrath.

3. Theological Potential in Shakespeare’s Dramatic Art Now let us see how we can approach some of the tragedies of Shakespeare with Luther’s unique theology of revelation on our minds. A central premise of our argument is that several of Shakespeare’s plays are of epistemological nature both about the selfknowledge and the knowledge of reality. That Shakespeare had probably no access to Luther’s theology and his concerns were entirely different from those of the Wittenberg theologian, needs no justification. Nevertheless his epistemological concerns about the nature of reality; the

discrepancy between appearance reality; show and substance; concealment and revelation; hiding under the mask of the opposite; the world turned upside down; wrong perception (blindness); the deus absconditus (the hidden god);hiding under the mask of the opposite; the paradox of wisdom and foolishness; suffering as means of self-knowledge – these all seem to be very much in common. In what follows we shall approach these issues in some of Shakespeare’s plays and hope to elucidate that the logic or mechanism of Luther’theology is very much present in the plays despite Shakespeare’s apparent lack of interest in such questions as salvation, redemption, justification etc. If we conceive Luther’s interpretation of Joseph as a God-figure in Genesis we may find in Shakespeare’s plays several Joseph-like God figures who hide themselves under a mask or disguise in order to reveal themselves. We shall be concerned with the figure of the Duke in Measure for Measure, and analyse the presence of Luther in Hamlet Prince of Denmark and Student of Wittenberg.

3.1. Duke Vincentio in Measure for Measure The most ancient source of the plot of Measure for Measure according to J.W.Lever’s Arden edition is the Latin letter written by the Hungarian student Macarius in 1547 (in the possession of the Hungarian National Archives). However the story about a wicked man promising not to execute another man provided his wifes sleeps with him and the request fulfilled, he nevertheless executed him,

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AY 2003-2004 also captured Luther’s imagination as early as 152321 and he mentions that the story goes back to St Augustine’s commentary on the Sermon of the Mount of the Lord (De sermone Domini in monte)22 Shakespeare, of course made the story somewhat more complicated than his sources. He invented the figure of the Duke who disguised himself as a Friar to create order out of disorder, to test or even to torture his people so that they should gain a new understanding of themselves. By means of human standards his game was hazardous and even inhuman as he „by direction” was finding „directions out”. The Duke’s figure is interpreted by István Géher as a real madman23 by others he is seen „like power divine” (5,1,367) as he re-enters Vienna and while he reveals the wickedness of the human heart and the end of the play. In an earlier discussion of the play I have suggested that the drama is structured on the principles of hiding and uncovering, concealment and revelation, closure and disclosure. The structure of this play is similar to the structure of a symbol in so far as Duke Vincentio conceals himself in disguise not only to learn about his people, nor to test them, but because he also wants to teach them: he does not merely wish to ‘know’ but he wishes to ‘let them know’. What he cannot achieve directly and manifestly, he will be able to accomplish by concealment and deception, in secrecy and disguise. Only by hiding himself as a deus absconditus can he uncover the

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vices of Vienna, only by concealing his identity can he reveal the truth about the real impulses of the human heart. …Shakespeare’s play is at the same time the Duke’s grand ‘game’ which he is to win although from time to time he might find himself on the verge of losing it. His name (Vincentio) is an adumbration of that victory which he is meant to manifest.24 Now, this image of God does indeed conform to the God of „strange acts” in Luther’s theologia crucis who also puts on „an antic disposition”, wears a mask and plays with human beings by afflicting and torturing them with Anfechtungen but under his opus alienum he is hiding his opus proprium. The Duke does conform to Luther’s interpretation of Joseph’s story as God hiding himself under a mask apparently to confuse, frighten those whom he loves but whom he also wants to be changed from within. The Duke just as Luther’s God acts a strange game with his people for the sake and benefit of his people. Steve Marx in his recent Shakespeare and the Bible remarks: „Like the gods of King Lear and the Book of Job, the God-figures of Measure for Measure and the gospels are hidden from the people they tempt, torment, and test.”25

3.2. Hamlet

Recently some scholars have taken up the „Lutheran thread” in the play’s texture. Raymond B. Waddington published an article „Lutheran Hamlet”26 where he proposed a speculative possibility that

Trends in American Luther Research „Shakespeare used Martin Luther as a prototype in constructing the character of the prince.”27 The most striking parallel is the impact of melancholy on Luther and Hamlet. Luther’s melancholy what he called Anfechtung (spiritual temptation, assault by the devil, insomnia, depression) as it became known from Eric Erikson’s psychobiography28 strikingly corresponds to Hamlet’s frequently discussed melancholy, the Elisabethan malady. Luther said of himself. „Sadness (tristitia) causes disease. For when the heart is ill, the body becomes weak. The true diseases are those of the heart, such as sadness, grief and temptation. I am true Lazarus who is quite tempted by diseases”29. In Hamlet, the King says of the Prince. There’s something in his soul O’er which his melancholy sits on brood, And I do doubt the hatch and the disclose Will be some danger” (3,1,167-169). Luther’s conversion from his Anfechtungen and Hamlet’s conversion from his melancholy has been compared by Steve Sohmer: „Young Martin Luther suffered a long period of guilt and depression (anfechtung), and eventually found conversion through humble surrender to God and his preordained providence. Hamlet undergoes a similar course of spiritual development, from lamenting his ’too sullied flesh’ to believing there’s a ’special providence in the fall of a sparrow’”.30 Moreover, both Luther and Hamlet are

associated with Hercules, who is also an emblem of heroic melancholy after the pseudo-Aristotelean Problemata. Luther was depicted in a cartoon attributed to Holbein as „Hercules Germanicus”. Herder said of Luther: „Like a true Hercules, he attacked the spiritual despotism which undermines or dissolves all free wholesome thinking.”31 Hamlet’s burden to carry out the revenge is as heavy as Hercules’ „load ” and in recognizing his fate he has to fight with Nemeon’s lion’s nerve (1,5,83) as Hercules thus is both the fighter and the victim (5,1,286).32 However, parallel can also be established not only concerning common features of personalitiy but also concerning philosophy and doctrine. Hamlet’s selfundestanding as being being both „scourge and minister” (3,4,175) evokes Luther’s belief in the Christian being simul peccator et iustus (sinful and just at the same time). As it is known Luther rejected the „whore reason”, „hure Vernuft. The Ghost also speaks about Claudius’ „wicked wit” (1,5,44). Luther despised Aristotelean philosophy especially in approaching God (coram deo). Hamlet encountering the Supernatural gives the same „Lutheran” „anti-Aristotelean” lesson to Horatio: There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. (1,5,174-75) Luther epecially warned against applying reason to heavenly matters and thereby confusing the two realms.

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AY 2003-2004 Luther stood for the idea of the priesthood of all believers. In Hamlet the „closetscene” in Act III Scene IV seems to be a fine illustration of this principle. Here Hamlet tries to make his mother repent and thus behaves as a priest in the biblical and Protestant sense of the word.33 My point is that Hamlet is not cruel but rather generous to his mother when he passionately upholds her a looking-glass and tries to make confess her sins. Roland Mushat Frye in an article “Hamlet and the Protestant Confessional”34 says: Within the Protestant frames of reference of the sixteenth century in England, Hamlet’s reproaches of his mother are skillfully designed to express the ultimate kindness, even through a seeming cruelty, or as he put it’ I must be cruel only to be kind’ (3,4,179)...Shakespeare’s dramatization of Hamlet’s private consultation with his mother, in addition to its poetic qualities, provides a fine example of how the ‘priesthood of all believers’ was expected to operate at the end of the first Protestant century.35 Richard Marius in an interesting article36 suggests that the whole play reflects the English understanding of Luther as conveyed through the writings of Thomas More. The play, according to Marius is ”a mirror held up to religious confusion” especially with the idea of Purgatory, a doctrine deliberately rejected by Luther and the English Protestants. Stephen Greenblatt in his most recent book Hamlet in Purgatory has also pointed out that

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Reformation theologians regarded ghosts and supernatural visitations as diabolical.37 Luther even avoided talking about hell and he saw death (just as Tyndale did) as sleep until the day of doom.38 Marius is right in emphasizing that Hamlet never repents, never feels Protestant guilt.and that the play reflects faith and doubt just as the Elisabethan audience also usually believed in contrary things. Marius’ main point is that instead of a pure Protestant faith from Luther’s Wittenberg Shakespeare took the idea of predestination and equated it with Greek fate.39 Luther in his polemics against Erasmus claims that fate is more than the endeavours of men as „no man’s plans have ever been straightforwardly realized, but for everyone things have turned out differently from what they thought they would”40 Marius emphatically says: „Hamlet seems to build on this Lutheran insight.”41 and goes on to demonstrate that the play is nothing but a series of failed projects and at the end of the play Hamlet ”understands to the full that the world is an unintelligible plaything of fate where human beings are incapable of effecting their will.”42 Whether Marius’ thesis is right, or, wrong, it is not my intention to decide. I only wish to show that an important aspect of Luther’s theology, without being misread by More, is still compatible with Shakespeare’s tragedy. This aspect is the idea of the theology of the cross as we have presented it above through the lenses of Forde and McGrath. We should remember that Hamlet also rejected traditional speculation in favour

Trends in American Luther Research of a new type of revelation: „There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, / Than are dreamt in your philosophy” (1, 5,174-75). This is undoubtedly the voice of a Wittenberg man. For Luther God conceals himself in the form of his opposite in order to reveal himself, Hamlet also „plays God”: he acts in a similar manner: he puts on an „antic disposition” and plays the role of the madman, uses indirect means, such as the mousetrap scene, to find out truth: The play’s the thing Wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the King. (2, 2, 600-601). This corresponds to McGrath’s words, that God’s „revelation must be regarded as indirect and concealed”.43 At this point we cannot but recall a parodical mirror of Hamlet’s indirect revelation in Polonius’ advise to Reynaldo when he commissions him to spy on his son Laertes: Your bait of falsehood takes this carp of truth; And does do we of wisdom and of reach, With windlasses and and with assays of bias, By indirections find directions out. (2,1,6366) (it.mine) What is in common between the radical theological vision of Luther and the radical artistic vision of Hamlet? Both of them are radically committed to searching and seeing reality as it is, „things as they really are”, without seam, pomp and circumstances. Hamlet’s encounter with

the Ghost is an initiation into another, a rather naked and chilling reality. Hamlet is passionately driven towards the revelation of this reality. In order to gain new knowledge he is even willing to go to hell just as Luther knew that God was taking him to hell: Be thou a spirit of health or goblin damn’d, Bring with thee airs from heaven or blasts from hell… …I will speak to thee. (1,4, 39-40, 43) For Luther the theology of the cross, the cross is meant to reverse our way of seeing. Hamlet can help us readers and audience to reverse our way of seeing though at the expense of the hero’s tragedy. The time is out of joint. O cursed spite, That ever I was born to set it right. (1,5, 196-198) To conclude, we can say that Hamlet is not a „Christian” play as we hear nothing about Christ or the necessity of the cross in it. Marius is entirely right that Hamlet never repents. Yet, I think, we can find more in it than Senecan fate as suggested by Marius. Patterns of the theology of the cross: knowledge by revelation rather than speculation; the dialectics of concealment and revelation; the paradoxical way of thinking, indirect revelation; suffering (melancholy or Anfechtungen); reversal of seeing and so on. Hamlet is probably an unconscious, literary echoing of some of the schemes of Luther’s theology of the cross - without the cross. Only in retro-

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AY 2003-2004 spect, after understanding the theology of the cross, can we understand that some of its motifs can be discerned in Hamlet. Hamlet does not take us to the cross but aims at twisting us out of our wrong orientations, by challenging the direction of our gaze, by reversing our seeing. Within the play a radical reversal was taking place but not after the encounter with the one „who had no form or comeliness…no beauty that we should desire him” (Is 53,2) or from whom we „hid our faces” but only from a Ghost who revealed the truth but called for revenge. Hamlet has only confronted the opus alienum of God, never the opus proprium. Let me end with a typical provocative and radical insight of Luther. Concerning the identity of the theologian Luther said: „living, or rather dying and being damned make a theologian, not understanding, reading or speculating” (vivendo immo moriendo et damnando fit theologus, non intelligendo, legendo aut speculando)44. With Luther’s theology of the cross and Shakespeare’s tragedy on our minds we may continue our meditations upon the Prince of Denmark and Student of Wittenberg who lived, died and was probably damned. But being damned, says Luther, makes us theologians. While Hamlet lived God did „happen to” him but he hid his real face under a mask and Hamlet thus experienced only the „strange acts” of God, only his back or „rearward part” (posteriora) just as Joseph and Luther first experienced God45. This is perhaps the reason why Luther’s name is looming so enigmatically over the textue of the play.

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(Endnotes) 1 If no other indication is given I quote the second Arden edition-series. Jenkins Harold (ed.) Hamlet, The Arden Edition of the Works of William Shakespeare, Methuen, London and New York, 1984. 2 op.cit.,p.340 3 Jennifer Rust, „Wittenberg and Melancholic Allegory: The Reformation and Its Discontents in Hamlet” In, Dennis Taylor and David N. Beauregard, (eds.), Shakespeare and the Culture of Christianity in Early Modern England, New York, Fordham University Press, 2003, p.261 4 LW=American Edition of Luther’s Works (PhiladelphiaSt.Louis, 1955-) 5 Kenneth Hagen, „The Testament of a Worm: Luther on Testament and Covenant”, Consensus 8 (1982) p.19 6 Eric W. Gritsch, Martin – God’s Court Jester. Luther in Retrospect,Ramsey, NJ, Sigler Press, 1991p.33 7 ibid p.viii 8 Quoted by Eric W. Gritsch, „Luther’s Humor as a Tool for Interpreting Scripture” in, Mark S.Burrows and Paul Rorem (eds.) Biblical Hermeneutics in Historical Perspective Studies in Honor of Karlfried Froehlich on His Sixtieth Birthday Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans, 1991, p.188 9 Gritsch, Court Jester, p.191 and p.258, cf. LW 26,95 10 Gerhard O. Forde, On Being a Theologian of the Cross. Reflections on Luther’s Heidelberg Disputation, 1518, Grand Rapids, William B. Eerdmans, 1997, p.xii 11 ibid 12 ibid p.9 13 ibid p.4 14 ibid.p.13 15 The English translation of theses 19-20 is given on the basis of McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1985, p.148.and the thesis 21 on the basis of Forde’s On Being a Theologian of the Cross , p.71. The translation of „posteriora” has caused the same conflict in the English translation as in the Hungarian one (Magyar Luther Füzetek 8. p.28) 16 Forde, On Being a Theologian of the Cross, p.77 17 ibid.p.31 18 Forde, On Being a Theologian of the Cross, p.90 19 ibid p.90 cf.LW 14,31 20 Alister McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1985. p.149-151 21 „This story is told of Duke Charles of Burgundy. A certain nobleman took an enemy prisoner. The prisoner’s

Trends in American Luther Research wife came to ransom her husband. The nobleman promised

an allusion to the keyword Luther employs to describe his

to give back the husband on condition that she would lie

conversion through humble surrender to God: nacktd”.

with him. The woman was virtuous, yet wished to set her

31 Gritsch, Court Jester p.207

husband free; so she goes and asks her husband whether she

32Cf. Zsolt Almási, „Hercules alakváltozásai. Hecules-

should do this thing in order to set him free. The husband

utalások Shakespeare Hamletjében” (Transformations of

wished to be set free and to save his life, so he gives his wife

Hercules. Allusions to Hercules in Shakespeare’s Hamlet)

permission. After the nobleman had lain with the wife, he

Manuscript.

had the husband beheaded the next day and gave him to her

33 See my article: “’The Eye’ as a Metaphor in Shakes-

as a corpse. She laid the whole case before Duke Charles.

perean Tragedy: Hamlet, Cordelia and Edgar: Blinded

He summoned the nobleman and commanded him to marry

Parents’ Seeing Children” in Celebrating Comparativism

the woman. When the wedding day was over he had the

Essays In Honour of György Mihály Vajda eds.Katalin Kürtösi

nobleman beheaded, gave the woman possession of his

and József Pál, Szeged, 1994, pp.461-478

property, and restored her to honor. Thus he punished the

34 Roland Mushat Frye, “Prince Hamlet and the Protestant

crime in a princely way.

Confessional”, Theology Today, Vol.39, 1982, pp.27-38.

Observe: No pope, no jurist, no lawbook could have given

Further sudies on Hamlet and Protestantism (especially

him such a decision. It sprang from untrammeled reason,

Lutheranism):

above the law in all the books, and is so excellent that

Hamlet”, English Language Notes, December, 1989, pp.27-

everyone must approve of it and find the justice of it written

42 and Richard Marius, “Fate and Providence: Hamlet’s

in his own heart. St. Augustine relates a similar story in

Take on Martin Luther” WICK. The Harvard Divinity

The Lord’s Sermon on the Mount. Therefore, we should keep

School Student Journal of Lietarture and Religion, Vol.1/1.

written laws subject to reason, from which they originally

1997, pp.37-50.

welled forth as from the spring of justice. We should not

35 R.M.Frye, op.cit. p.30 and p.32,

make the spring dependent on its rivulets, or make reason a

36 Richard Marius, „Fate and Providence: Hamlet’s take

captive of letters.” (LW 45, 128-129)

on Martin Luther”, In, WICK, The Harvard Divinity School

22 See Geoffrey Bullough, Narrative and Dramatic Sources of

Student Journal of Literature and Religion, Vol.1/1.1997,

Shakespeare, II.Routledge and Kegan Paul,, 1958, pp.418-9.

pp.37-50

23 Géher István, Shakespeare olvasókönyv. Tükörképünk 37

37 Stephen Greenblatt, Hamlet in Purgatory, Princeton,

darabban. Budapest, Cserépfalvi Könyvkiadó, Szépirodalmi

Princeton University Press, 2001.

Könyvkiadó, 1991, 327.old.

38 Cf. Gordon Isaac, „Some Reflections on Luther’s View

24 Tibor Fabiny, The Lion and the Lamb. Figuralism and

of Death”, Manuscript. See esp. LW 25,310

Fulfilment in the Bible, Art and Literature. London, Macmillan

39 Cf. Iván Nyusztay, Myth, Telos and Identity. The Tragic

Press, 1992, p.123-4

Schema in Greek and Shakespearean Drama, Amsterdam-New

25 Steve Marx, Shakespeare and the Bible, Oxford University

York, Rodopi, 2002, pp.63-70

Press, 2000, p.80

40 Luther’s De servo arbitrio, quoted by Marius, p.46

26 Raymond B.Waddington, „Lutheran Hamlet” , In,

41 Marius, p.46

English Language Notes, December 1989, pp.27-42

42 ibid

27 Waddington, p.32

43 ibid

28 Eric Erikson, Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalyis

44 Quoted in McGrath, Luther’s Theology of the Cross, p.152

and History, New York, 1958.

45 Joseph in Genesis, Duke Vincentio and Hamlet in

29 Quoted by Gritsch, Court Jester, , p.147

Shakespeare began to „play this God”: Measure for Measure

30 See Sohmer’s „Certain Speculations…” point 21: „ After

and Hamlet are in a sense the comic and the tragic versions

returning to Denmark, Hamlet declares he was led by a

of Luther’s strangely acting God. There is no sign is Shake-

’divinity that shapes our ends’ to discover the perfidious

speare’s tragedy that Hamlet ever understood who was

commision of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Hamlet

really hiding behind the mask whether it was the Ghost’s

writes to Claudius that he has returned to Denmark ’naked’

or his own „antic disposition”. Therefore, he was ready but

(4.7.50). In this word which so puzzles the king and Laertes,

perhaps not ripe enough to die.

Raymond

B.Waddington,

“Lutheran

Lutherans of the Elizabethan era and our own recognize

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The USA and Hungary in Cleveland: Information processing as a bridge between two nations and cultures in past, present and future GerencsĂŠr Judit ............................................................................. Berzsenyi Daniel College University Library Szombathely, Berzsenyi ter 2. http://www.bdtf.hu/ gjudit@bdtf.hu

Cleveland State University European Documentation Centre 9700 Cleveland, Ohio 2121 Euclid Avenue, 44115-2214 http://www.csuohio.edu/ Carol Zsulya: c.zsulya@csuohio.edu

............................................................................. Abstract Cleveland is one of the most important centres of Hungarian Americans in the USA. The Hungarian population of this very significant American city is about 150Â 000. For the Hungarian Americans it is important to preserve their cultures, traditions, literature and history. In Cleveland my proposed project was during the Fulbright scholarship to do the research on all available documents about the history of Hungarian Americans in Cleveland with special reference to the Hungarian immigration to the USA. My major goal was to create a catalogue that acts as a link between the documents at the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum, the Cleveland State University Library and the other existing ones. I was also responsible for building a website with reference to the Hungarian Americans in order to represent and give more information about their lives in Cleveland.

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AY 2003-2004 I received a Fulbright Scholar Award in the field of library science in order to carry out a research in Cleveland, Ohio for 5 months. It has been ones of my dreams to travel to the USA for a long time, develop my knowledge and gain experience in the field of information and library science in an international environment, and this dream could be realized with the help of this scholarship. I am very grateful to Hungarian-American Fulbright Commission for Educational Exchange and the CIES for making this dream come true for me.

Headquarters of the Fulbright Scholarship In Cleveland, Cleveland State University Library and the Museum of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Society were the two locations of my scholarship and research work.

Cleveland State University Library

Cleveland State University, founded in 1964, is a very significant institution in Cleveland, Ohio. It has five undergraduate and two graduate schools. The university maintains a central commitment to providing quality higher education to primarily commuting students for the Greater Cleveland area. Cleveland State University is a diverse institution with a major international student component as well as being a leader in graduating minority students from professional and graduate programs. The CSU has a very important central library, which was one of

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the most important places of the research. The University Library serves the teaching, study, and research programs of the University. It can be found on the first five floor of Rhodes Tower. The University Library’s collection includes documents in print, audio-visual and digitized formats including more than 900,000 monographs and over 6,000 serials. The Library has made a concerted effort to provide electronic access to bibliographical and statistical databases, library catalogs, and online full text journals both on and off campus. The Library’s Internet website provides users with subject portals to electronic reference materials and collections of databases and Internet resources selected by the Library’s subject librarians. The Reference Center staff is available to assist students in searching databases, identifying resources, and getting started on projects. The collection is further enhanced by membership in OhioLINK, a statewide consortium of academic libraries that provides access to over 31 million items. With online patron requests, OhioLINK delivers print materials within a few days. Additional Library resources are available locally at the Cleveland Public Library and the libraries at Case Western Reserve University and John Carroll University. The central library has a special collection with special interest to ethnic heritage, culture and literature. Those people who migrated from Europe during the 19th and 20th century to the USA and Cleveland want to preserve their own culture and archive their history. So the mission of the library’s Special Collections Department

The USA and Hungary in Cleveland is to develop its local history collections and the Cleveland Memory website into a premier research resource that will be a significant asset in the study and teaching of the cultural heritage of the greater Cleveland area. There is another special collection which worth mentioning. It is The Cleveland Press Collection. It has been collecting newspapers and publications since 1982. This collection is committed to preserve and make available the publications on worldwide, but primarily in the USA relating to the various neighborhoods and ethnic groups that have history in Cleveland. The Cleveland State University also celebrates culture of the area with special events and activities such as eg. the recent Black History Month event which honored Clevelandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s first mayor and the creation of the Notable Blacks of Cleveland website.

Museum of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Society

Hungarian immigrants have been migrating to Cleveland for both, political and economic reasons since the second half of the 19th century. They built churches, social centers and founded organizations and Hungarian-language schools. A lot of Hungarians were outstanding in the religious, political and artistic life of the city; others established businesses, employing many of their compatriots. Unfortunately, the Hungarian part of Cleveland no longer exists, but many Hungarians have not forgotten their origins and roots, and they are not only proud of their

Hungarian heritage, but are also trying to retain and promote their culture and traditions. They realized the significant role that a Hungarian Heritage Museum would have in safeguarding this history. The pastor of St. Elizabeth of Hungary church, assembled a small, but a very enthusiastic group of Hungarians, who established the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Society in 1985. They spelled out the goals and mission of the museum: to present Hungarian culture in general, with a very special emphasis on the contributions of Cleveland Hungarians; to represent the entire Cleveland Hungarian community and to reach out to the Greater Cleveland community to acquaint it with Hungarian culture and traditions. The founders wrote bylaws, obtained tax-exempt status, and decided that both English and Hungarian would be official languages of the organization. It was also decided that officers, board members and workers would volunteer their time without financial remuneration. To this day, the museum is operated entirely by volunteers. The museum received enthusiastic support from the Hungarian community. Its history stated at the St. Elizabeth church. They organized a lot of exhibitions and programs at the church and managed to create a fantastic center for the Hungarian culture, history and literature. Unfortunately the museum had to leave St. Elizabeth church because of on-going renovations. During this time, its collections was put into storage; however, the museum itself stayed active by mounting exhibitions in various locations such as

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AY 2003-2004 the Natural History Museum and Beck Center in Lakewood. Lectures and discussions were organized at various locations around town, for example Cleveland State University. Among the highlights of the museum’s activities is the continuous publication of its newsletter, called The Review. The Museum also produced a video about Hungarian embroidery, entitled Flowers in the Snow. Between 1996 – 2003 the Museum had to move two times. Its whole collections and exhibitions were placed at Richmond Mall Shopping Centre in 1996 and at Euclid Square Mall in 1999. In addition to the galleries and library, the museum opened a gift shop, to promote Hungarian artisans in the Cleveland area, and to give visitors the convenience of being able to buy Hungarian books, music, and gifts at Richmond Mall Shopping Centre. It has been functioning very well and it is one of the most important income sources of the Society since that time. The Museum moved to its present location downtown in the Galleria at Erieview in March, 2003. At this ideal location, easily accessible from all parts of the city, the Museum has a very large space for its exhibition galleries, gift shop and library. Since the opening, there have been several major exhibitions and numerous programs with artists from Hungary. Summing up we can say that the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Society’s mission is to preserve Hungarian culture and the experience of Hungarians in Northeast Ohio. To carry out its mission, the Society operates a Museum and a Library as a center for Hungarian

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historical, cultural and artistic exhibitions, and they sponsor educational and research activities, too.

Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Society The Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum has a reference library which provides resources mainly in Hungarian and English languages about the history, literature and traditions of Hungarians both in Hungary and in the USA. However, some documents are available in French, German, and Spanish on Hungarian topics, too. The Reference Library has more than 3000 books and several manuscript collections.

Objectives and details of the Fulbright Scholar Award It is also worth stating what the main objectives of the Fulbright Scholar Award were: § Cataloguing and registering the manuscript collections of the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum in order to preserve Hungarian American culture, heritage, history and literature. So it was one of the major goals of the research to make usable these documents’ collections. § Studying and analyzing the history of Hungarian Americans in the USA, establishing contacts and partnership in the field of history of Hungarian Americans.

The USA and Hungary in Cleveland § Finding and preserving diaries, letter, old manuscripts, publications, documents, photographs and other memorable information sources, which can inform the old, the present and the next generations of the world about the history of Cleveland with special reference to Hungarian immigration. I also wanted to enrich HungarianAmericans history in literature. § Building a website about Hungarian Americans through the Cleveland Memory Website at the Cleveland State University Library under the following name: Hungarian Americans of Cleveland. § Digitalization of selected documents from the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum and make available them in electronic form on the Cleveland Memory Website. Cataloguing

with the colleagues of the Cleveland State University Library and the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum it was determined that the manuscripts are the most valuable part of the collection. So it was one of the major goals of the research to make the manuscript collections available to the public and, catalogue and describe them with the help of Cleveland State University Library. So during the five months Fulbright scholarship the manuscript collections of the Library of Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum were catalogued and registered. As a result of the work registers have been created which describe the collections in a very detailed way. The registers are available at the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum and in an online form through the Cleveland Memory Website, as well.

and registering the

manuscript collections (archives)

Hungarian Heritage Museum

The manuscript collections of the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum

It was well-known that holdings of the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum have never been registered and catalogued. That is why they were looking for a professional person, who could undertake this challenge and work in order to preserve culture, heritage, history and literature of Hungarian Americans. Since I received 5 months for the scholarship, a decision had to be made. We had to decide which part of the library was going to be catalogued and described. In cooperation

§ Elemér Homonnay`s collection This collection consists of correspondence, newspaper clippings, newsletters, official materials, invitations, and booklets. The whole collection was the result of Elemer Homonnay`s research activity. He collected this very valuable collection with special reference to the history of Hungary, Hungarians and the history of Hungarian Americans in the USA. The time period is primarily between 1930s 1980s. As for the collection geographical

of the library of the

Cleveland

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AY 2003-2004 reference, the following areas can be mentioned: Hungary, the USA, Transylvania, Czechoslovakia, The Carpathian area, Austria with special reference to Burgenland. ยง Collection of the Committee of Hungarian Liberation The documents of the collection were collected by Laszlo Sirchich. The majority of the documents are officials and administrative materials. Among them you can found: correspondence, memorandums, invitations, booklets, reports about the activities, proclamation, announcements, resolutions, application for membership, press publications, newspaper clippings, statutes, news bulletins, speeches and minutes.

the documents were written and typed in 1944 and 1945. They are about damage announcement and about the loss of properties by a lot of Hungarian people. After seizing these properties they went to report it and the result of them were these legal documents. ยง Radio Free Europe materials and documents of the Hungarian revolution in 1956 The Radio Free Europe records include documents and information sources with reference to the Hungarian revolution in 1956. Among the records original tape recorded materials, their text versions; daily monitoring highlights; newspaper extracts and a handbook about the chronological events of the revolution in 1956 can be found.

ยง Laszlo Sirchich`s collection This collection consists of correspondence, newspaper clippings, newsletters, official materials, invitations, and booklets. The whole collection was the result of Laszlo Sirchich`s research activity. He collected this very valuable collection with special reference to the history of Hungary, Hungarians and the history of Hungarian Americans in the USA and the Hungarians in Czechoslovakia, the Hungarian revolution in 1956. ยง Ernest Pereszlenyi`s collection The legal documents of the collection were collected by Dr. Ernest Pereszlenyi in a Hungarian Refugee Camp in Branau am-Inn after the World War II. Most of

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The Cleveland State University Library has an own online library catalog, which is the Scholar Library Catalog. Besides the registration and the description of the manuscript collections, the four major ones were also catalogued at the Scholar Library Catalog, too. It was also a very important objective to publish the results of the Fulbright Scholar Award. The Scholar Library Catalog of the Cleveland State University Library can be accessed from all over the world and with the help of the online interface those users, who are interested in the Hungarian American history, culture and literature, can easily get information about the holdings of the Library of Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum from all round the world. The Scholar Library Catalog of the Library of

The USA and Hungary in Cleveland Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum: http://scholar.csuohio.edu/. Studying and analyzing the history of Hungarian Americans in the USA, establishing contacts and partnership

During the Fulbright scholarship I has also tried to find diaries, letters, publications, documents, photographs and other memorable information sources, which can inform the old, the present and the next generations of the world about the history of Cleveland with reference to Hungarian immigration and the Hungarians’ history. That is why I met people and visited institutions and organizations. (Personal and organizational special collections eg. Miklós Kossányi, Western Reserve Historical Society, the Cleveland Public Library). These collections and documents are also very significant and useful. For example the Western Reserve Historical Society has a large Hungarian collection with reference to the history, culture and literature of Hungarian Americans. They are described and catalogued at the research library, but it is not easy to retrieve them. The archives are available in printed form at the Research Library of the Western Reserve Historical Society, but they should be described in a more detailed way. Hopefully in the future it is going to be possible because they are worth studying and doing research.

Building a website about Hungarian Americans through the Cleveland Memory Website Hungarian Americans of Cleveland A serious link has been also established between the Hungarian Museum’s collections and other existing ones, which are related to Hungarian-American history and culture. The link is a website through the Cleveland Memory Website built by the Cleveland State University Library’s Special Collections Department. This department provides a research facility for the students and the faculty, as well as scholars and visitors from around the world. The collections cover many topics within the field of Cleveland history, with special concentrations on the industrial history of Northeast Ohio, Cleveland journalism, and the built environment of the city. They give also home to collections of rare materials, as well as publications from the University Archives about CSU and its predecessor, Fenn College, including college bulletins, course schedules, newspapers, yearbooks, and budgets. They are committed to sharing this wealth of information and material and help in all kinds of research. The Cleveland Memory Website is also the main source for information about Hungarian Americans and their culture, history and literature. The new website built during the project is entitled „Hungarian Americans in Cleveland.” The website is available at the following internet address: http://www.

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AY 2003-2004 clevelandmemory.org/hungarian/.

in form of bibliographies with reference

The structure and information content of the website is the following: § About this site – about the goals and content of the website § About the Republic of Hungary – facts and details about the country (geography, population, holidays etc. § History of Hungarian-Americans in Cleveland – a historical description § History of Hungarians in America – a historical description § Hungarian Organizations in Cleveland – eg. Cleveland Hungarian Development Panel, Cleveland Hungarian Men’s and Ladies’ Society, Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum, Cleveland Hungarian School, Cleveland Hungarian Self-Culture Society, Hungarian Association, Hungarian Dance Company (Csárdás Dance Company), Hungarian Scouts Magyar Club of Cleveland, St. Stephen’s Dramatic Club § Newspaper Articles from the Press Archive § Nobel Prize Winners § Bibliographies – prose and poetry

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the

Hungarian

american literature

§ Manuscript collections – selected documents from the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum in digitalized form from the major manuscript collections § Pictures – scanned and digital pictures about the history of Hungarian Americans in Cleveland, which are cataloged as pictures, too.

Digitalization of selected documents from the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum and make available them on the Cleveland Memory Website

We are living in the 21st century, where electronic information has very significant role and it serves much better, more appropriate and more effective way of research and retrieval. We have also taken into consideration this new way of

The USA and Hungary in Cleveland thinking during the scholarship. After cataloguing and describing the manuscript collections, a kind of selection also took place. During the assortment the whole manuscript collection of the Museum’s Lbrary were examined work together with Carol Zsulya (Fulbright supervisor at CSU) and Magdalene Meszaros (Librarian of the Library of the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum) and we chose carefully those documents which were worth preserving and making available them in electronic form through the Cleveland Memory Website. The digitalization process was very interesting and challenging and, the colleagues and the student assistants in the Digital Production Unit of Cleveland State University Library helped a lot. The successful digitalization could be carried out only with the help of them. The electronic manuscripts are available in pdf form through the Cleveland Memory Website – Hungarian Americans of Cleveland. Hopefully more and more people who are interested in the history, culture and literature of Hungarian Americans will visit the website and download the documents in the future. With the help of the Fulbright Award I

have also tried to formulate profitable, co-operative and useful relationship with those institutions and organizations, which have pressing and important role with respect to the history of Hungarian Americans both in Hungary and the USA. In my opinion the scholarship was successful and effective since I managed to carry out my objectives and with the help of the Fulbright Scholar Award the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum, the Cleveland State University Library and me built a bridge between two countries, two nations and two cities, which hopefully are going to continue in the future, too.

Other activities and programs During the five month I was also asked to give presentations. They were concentrated on three major topics: n The Fulbright scholarship – objectives and results n The European Union and Hungary n Hungary from different aspects: holiday customs and Christmas traditions in December in Hungary, Budapest the capital of Hungary.

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AY 2003-2004 My presentations in chronological order: n October

11th, 2003. I was an invited lecturer on the Explore Hungary!, a monthly seminar series at the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum in Cleveland under the following title: Hungary and its neighbors, place in Europe, implications of joining of the European Union. n October 31st, 2003. I was an invited lecturer of the Western Campus of Cuyahoga Community College and I gave a lecture under the following title: “THE EUROPEAN UNION. The EU from a European’s perspective.” n November 19th, 2003. The Friends of the Cleveland State University Library invited me to give a presentation about my Fulbright Award and research at the 15th annual Scholars and Artists Reception. n November 28th, 2003. I was an invited lecturer at the XLIII. Hungarian Congress and I gave a lecture under the following title: “The enlargement of the European Union. Hungary and the European Union.” n December 6th, 2003. I was an invited lecturer at the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum and I gave a presentation under the following title: “CHRISTMAS CUSTOMS IN HUNGARY” Folk customs and religious traditions. n December 13th, 2003. I was an invited lecturer at the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum and I gave a presentation under the following title: “Budapest. The Queen of the Danube.” n January 21st, 2004. I was an invited lecturer at the CAMLS Advisory

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Council meeting where I could share my experience with reference to the Fulbright Scholarship with library directors and librarians. n January 22nd, 2004. I was an invited lecturer at the Lake Erie College and I gave a presentation under the following title: “Hungary and the change of the regime. Hungary in the 21st century.” With the help of the Cleveland State University Library I have also managed to participate on conferences, seminar, meetings and forums with reference to library science and information science. On these occasions, I have succeeded in learning a lot of new information about this field of science in the USA and about their strategies and approaches. I have also managed to meet and discuss many interesting topics with many librarians and information specialists at Cleveland State University Library. We also talked about the European and American methods, as well. We managed to create a very excellent working environment. They helped me in many ways. I am very grateful to the librarians of the Cleveland State University Library from the bottom of my heart. Conferences and meetings in chronological order: n September 17th, 2003. I was a participant of the CAMLS (Cleveland Area Metropolitan Library System) Advisory Council Meeting. n November 14th, 2003. Columbus. I was a participant of the Academic Library Association of Ohio 29th Annual Conference in Dublin, Ohio. The

The USA and Hungary in Cleveland conference was organized under the following title: ”Information, innovation inspiration making the connection”. n November 20 – 21, 2003. I participated in the 2003 Ohio Library Council Annual Conference in Cleveland. It was organized under the following title: “Changing and Challenged: Ohio’s Libraries Charge Ahead”. The conference gave the opportunity to meet librarians and information specialist from around the country and from around Ohio. The 2003 conference was about education tracks featuring professional development and training sessions designed specifically to help the librarians address the challenges that they confront in their particular areas of library work. I am also very happy because I was given the opportunity to visit many beautiful and fantastic places in Cleveland and also managed to see a little part of the USA. I visited many places in Cleveland like: Cleveland Botanical Garden, Cleveland Art Museum, Cleveland Natural History Museum, Severance Hall, Institute of Music, Playhouse Square, Tower City, Western Reserve Historical Society, NASA Glenn Research Centre etc. With the help of these visits, I received a picture about the American lifestyle, culture, research, history and literature. In the USA I visited Niagara Falls, Kent and New York for a short visit.

This five-month scholarship has been the best time of my life so far. I have learned many new things which I am sure I can make good use in my work, study and career in the future. I am thankful to the librarians at the Cleveland State University Library, the people at the Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Museum and many other Hungarian American organizations. Without these people I would not able to reach the results. I hope that people in Cleveland, in the USA and all round the world are going to make good use of the registers and resources and will be able to carry out successful research with reference to Hungary and the Hungarian history, literature, culture and traditions in Hungary and the USA. I also hope that the website about Hungarian Americans of Cleveland is going be an excellent source to everybody who is interested in Hungary and the Hungarian Americans. I would like to thank to the HungarianAmerican Fulbright Commission for Educational Exchange in Budapest and the CIES in Washington to make possible for me to win this scholarship and carry out research and work in the USA with reference to the Hungarian Americans and their history. I will do my best to preserve my new friends in the future and continue the professional co-operation with the American colleagues. I am also trying to find all the possible ways to inform the Hungarian librarians and information specialist about the results of the research in Hungary, too.

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AY 2003-2004

Bibliography

Matthias Corvinus Publishing, 1998. § SISA,

Stephen:

America’s

amazing

Hungarians.

Huddleston: Private publishing, 1987.

Printed information sources

§ SZÁNTÓ, Miklós: Magyarok Amerikában. Budapest:

§ CONDON, George E.: Yesterday’s Cleveland. Miami:

§ The encyclopedia of Cleveland history. Edited by

Gondolat, 1984. David D. Van Tassel and John Grabowski. Bloom-

E.A. Seemann Publishing, 1976. § EIBEN, Christopher: Tori in Amerika. The story of Theodor Kundtz. Cleveland: Orange Blossom Press,

ington: Indiana University Press, 1987. § VÁRADY Béla: Magyarok az Újvilágban. Az északamerikai magyarság rendhagyó története. Budapest:

1994. § Ethnic heritage and language schools in Greater Cleveland: a directory. Compiled by Bruce A. Beatie. Cleveland: Cleveland State University. Cleveland

A Magyar Nyelv és Kultúra Nemzetközi Társasága, 2000. § VÁRADY, Steven Béla: The Hungarian Americans. The Hungarian Experience in North America. New

Ethnic Heritage Studies, 1979. § Hungarian Americans and their Communities of Cleveland. By Susan Papp. Cleveland State University:

York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1990. (Peoples of North America)

Cleveland Ethnic Heritage Studies, 1990. § Hungarians in America. A biographical directory of professionals of Hungarian origin in the America. New York City: Hungarian University Association, 1966. § KENDE Géza: Magyarok Amerikában. Az amerikai magyarság

története.

I.,

II.

Kötet.

Cleveland:

Szabadság, 1927. § LEDERER, Clara: Their paths are peace. The story of Cleveland’s cultural gardens. Cleveland: Cleveland: Cleveland Cultural Garden Federation, 1954. § Selected ethnic communities of Cleveland. A socioeconomic study. Karl Bonnuti, PRPIC, George: Cleveland: Cleveland Urban Observatory, 1974. § SIMON, Andrew L.: Made in Hungary. Budapest:

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Electronic information sources § Cleveland Hungarian Heritage Society and Museum: http://www.jcu.edu/language/hunghemu/ § Cleveland Memory Project: http://www.clevelandmemory.org/ § Cleveland State University: http://www.csuohio.edu/ § Encyclopedia of Cleveland History: http://ech.cwru. edu/ § Ohio History: http://www.ohiohistory.org/ § Western Reserve Historical Society: http://www.wrhs. org/

Modeling the neural control and biomechanics of locomotion Jozsef Laczko ............................................................................. Semmelweis University Department Biomechanics, Faculty of Physical Education & Sposrt Sciences laczkoj@mfa.kfki.hu

New York University, School of Medicine Dept. of Physiology & Neuroscience Adviser: Dr. Kerry Walton

............................................................................. A computer-assisted general neuro-mechanical model of limb movements is described. Different kinds of movements, for instance leg movements as walking and arm and hand movements as reaching an object are very important activities in everyday life. Neural control is responsible for the coordinated activities of muscular and skeletal structures. Here a simple neuro-mechanical model is presented to mimic experimentally measured limb movements by simulated motoneuron firing rates. The development of this kind of model applies methods originated from different fields as biology, mathematics and informatics.

1. Introduction Limb movements are controlled by motor commands of the central nervous system (CNS). These commands descend to spinal motoneurons and these motoneurons stimulate muscles. Consequently the muscles exert forces and generate torques in the joints of a limb. The torques generated by muscle forces and the external forces may rotate the joints

and move the limb and lead to motor behaviors like locomotion. The proper execution of limb movements requires well coordinated interaction between neural, muscular and skeletal structures (Gielen et al. 1987, Zajac 1989, Zajac et al. 1990). Thus, models of such movements should incorporate factors from the molecular level to the control

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AY 2003-2004 of entire limbs. Modeling techniques are needed to obtain a deeper understanding of how motoneuron activity drives muscle contraction, joint rotation, limb movement and locomotion. The different parts of the system are widely studied. Our work with Dr, Kerry Walton and Prof. Rodolfo Llinas at the New York University aimed to integrate the different levels and we raised the concept of an integrated model for limb movements control. The model generates muscle forces and joint rotations as a function of activation signals from motoneuron pools. The multilevel control of limb movements and locomotion is known and has already been well studied ((Szekely 1989, Szekely 2001)). The spinal cord with its motoneuron pools is an important level which is capable of sending impulses to muscle fibers to innervate skeletal muscles. We aim to relate such motoneuron pool activities to limb movement patterns while considering the level of the activated muscles and the rotated limb segments. There is a considerable international literature on the modeling of neuromusculo-skeletal systems that integrate neural control of movements, muscle activities and joint rotations. The modeling approaches range from mathematical models of motor control in humans [Zang and Sejnowski 1999] and from the biomechanics of walking in humans [Alexander 1992], to the control of robot arms by neuronal signals [Chapin et.al. 1999] and to the construction of walking robots [Beer et al, 1998]. Models are also applied in research related to functional electrical

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stimulation of muscles and in developing neuroprostheses for paralised patients [Donoghue et.al 1998, Nathan and Tavi 1990, Riener 1999]. At the molecular level muscle activity has been studied by the famous Hungarian born nobel laurate biologist Abert Szentgyorgyi, he studied submolecular processes and suggested to descend from the level of molecules to those of electrones (Szentgyorgyi 1958). Recently the change of calcium concentration inside the muscle fiber as a response to variable neural stimulation frequencies [Otazu et. al. 2001] has been modeled. The dependence of movement performance on the stimulation pattern for different multi-joint limb positions has also been modeled [Van Soest et. al. 1994] and models for reflex mechanisms have been elaborated [Gielen et.al. 1987]. The behavior of single-joint systems has been modeled by applying optimisation criteria [Hogan 1984]. When these models are generalized to multi-joint movements [Flash and Hogan 1985,], the problem of redundancy or overcompleteness becomes an important factor. Redundancy in this context means that the number of muscles and joints participating in the movement are higher than necessary to execute an intended movement and there are many combinations of muscle activities and joint rotations to execute the given motor task. At the level of the central nervous system, the role of the cerebellum in motor control is well known and has been widely modeled [Arbib, Erdi, Szentagothai 1998, Llinas and Wels 1993]. The activity of neurones in the motor cortex has been also studied.

Modeling the neural control and biomechanics of locomotion Planning and execution of voluntary limb movements were represented by the activity of a set of neurones and muscles and as a result, by the orchestrated rotations of joints [Bizzi et.al.1991]. Besides physiological properties, the influence of the physical environment and external forces also play an important role in mammalian motor function.

2. Our modeling method 2.1 Direct model Angular changes in the joints must be computed knowing the firing rates of the musclesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; motoneuron pool. This is called a direct problem. The model considers the initial geometry of an n-joint limb, the intersegmental joint angles, the sites of muscle attachments and the masses of the limb segments. A uniform distribution of mass is assumed in the limb segments. We assume that the limb moves on a plane and the limb segments are represented as lines connecting neighboring joints (Figure 1). A muscle is represented by its midline (action line) that connects its attachment sites in two segments via a given point near the spanned joint. In the case of monoarticular flexor muscles this â&#x20AC;&#x153;pulley pointâ&#x20AC;? is the closest point of the particular muscletendon system to the rotational center of the joint. The geometry of the muscles is provided as two lines that originate on the proximal and distal sites of attachment and are connected at the pulley point. (Figure 2.)

Figure 1. Three-joint limb in a plane. The joint angles (a1, a2, a3) and limb segment lengths (l1, l2, l3) determine the position of the endpoint of the limb: P(x1,x2).

Figure 2. Graphical a1 extensor representation of a single-joint musculo- flexor a c skeletal system with b a flexor-extensor a2 muscle pair. Thick and thin lines show bones and muscles, respectively. As presented for the flexor, each muscle has a proximal (a1) and distal (a2) insertion point and a pulley point (b) close to the rotational center of the joint (c). The motor command for each muscle is described as a sequence of stimulation pulses originating from a motoneuron pool. The output of the model is angular motion in the joints. This output is

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AY 2003-2004 referred to as the generated “movement pattern” and will be represented graphically showing the angular changes in the joints. The frequency of the stimulation pulses (discharge rates of motoneuron pools) is the most important variable in the model. We investigated how the frequencies of the discharge rates of motorneuron pools of flexor and extensor muscles are associated with certain movement patterns. Changing this frequency, the movement can be artificially controlled. Mechanical properties of the muscles are given by biomechanical characteristics. Such characteristics are the relationship between muscle force and muscle length (Fig. 2.) and the relationship between muscle force and neural stimulation frequency (Fig. 3.) The force-length functions applied in this model represent how the total muscle force relates to the whole muscle-length (Enoka 1988). The shape of this function varies among muscles. We applied two hypothetical F-L relations in the model, using the following parabolic functions:

The first relationship (a) reaches its maximum value at resting length and is 50% of the maximal force at the minimal and maximal muscle length (Fig.3 solid line). In the second relationship (b) the force reaches its maximum about midway between the minimal and maximal muscle length but it decreases close to zero near the minimal and maximal lengths (Fig 3 broken line).

F1(L)=

The force-frequency relationships of the muscles are approximated by monotone increasing functions with zero value at stimulation frequency of 0 Hz and maximal value Fmax at the frequency sat where the force saturates. The forcefrequency relation applied in the model:

(-4*Fmax*((L-Lmin)(Lmax-Lmin)-1/2)2+2)/2 (a) F1(L)=4*Fmax*((L-Lmin)(Lmax-Lmin )-1/2)2 +1 (b)

where Lmin is the shortest muscle length and Lmax is the maximum stretched length of the muscle, Fmax is the maximal force.

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Figure 3. Force-length relationship: The active force a muscle can exert as a function of muscle length.

F2(f) =sin (πp(f/sat-1/2))+1 if 0<f <sat; (1)

Modeling the neural control and biomechanics of locomotion ∆t. If we know the muscle maximal shortening velocity vmax and the actual shortening velocity v, then according to the Hill equation (Hill 1938) the muscle force may be computed as: Fa= F1(L)*F2(f)*a*(vmax-v)/(a*vmax+v);

Figure 4. Force-frequency relation. The active force a muscle can exert as a function of muscle length. The velocity of muscle shortening is given in the relationship that describes how the velocity of muscle contraction depends on muscle force. A load parameter that simulates the effect of body weight on limb movements is also included in the model. The motor command for each muscle is modeled as a sequence of stimulation pulses. In each time interval, the command for each muscle is a single element that is the firing rate of the muscle’s motoneuron pool. Using this command, the model generates angular motions in the joints. The total movement time is partitioned into intervals of ∆t and the stimulation frequency f is given in each time interval. First, the active muscle force Fa is computed from the values of the forcefrequency and force-length functions at the actual frequency f and muscle length L. The muscle length is assumed to be constant during the short time interval

If the muscle length increases during the movement then the model generates a passive force. If the muscle length exceeds Lp then a force Fp, is generated that is approximated by the next quadratic function of muscle length L. Fp(L)= 4*(L˜Lp)2, if Lp<L<Lmax and Fs(L)=0 if L˜ Lp

This function is shown at Fig 3B. Its value is 0 if the muscle length is smaller than the optimal length and it shows a quadratic increase if the length exceeds the optimal length. The total muscle force is the sum of the active and passive muscle forces: F = Fa + Fp This force generates torque on the joint. To relate forces to angular motions we must know the inertial properties of the rotated body parts. The body segments are modeled by straight lines assuming that their center of mass is located in the middle of the line. The moment of inertia of such a body segment is computed as m*1/12(h2+r2) where r is the distance between the center of mass and the rotational center, h is the length, and m is the mass of the segment. The inertia

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AY 2003-2004 of the body part that is rotated by a given joint is the inertia of all of the rotated body segments with respect to the given joint. The angular acceleration Am caused by a muscle force is computed as the force F multiplied by the lever arm R divided by the moment of inertia I: Am=F*R/ I

In addition to the muscle force a gravitational force causes torque in the joint. This latter torque Tg is the sum of the gravitational torques of the body segments that are rotated by the joint. The angular acceleration induced by the gravitational force is computed as: Ag=Tg / I.

The total angular acceleration is the sum of the two accelerations: A= Am+Ag = (F*R+Tg)/ I

Applying integral kinematics (Zatsiorsky 1998), the angular displacement caused by the muscle activities in a given gravitational environment is computed from the total angular acceleration by integrating it twice over time. Thus the model computes the joint angle for a discrete point of time (t +∆ t), then updates the configuration of the limb (muscle length, joint angles) and repeats this procedure for the next discrete points of time t +2*∆ t, t +3*∆ t . This computation provides the time course of the joint angle.

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If multijoint systems are considered then the motor command for each joint rotation is computed separately by the algorithm summarized above. 2.2 Inverse model Iterative application of the above model offers a tool to find a motor command to produce desired angular changes. Since this kind of iteration is time consuming and may lead to a solution by chance, we were looking for an efficient way to find an appropriate stimulation pattern. The problem is that an infinity number of different simulation patterns may produce the same angular changes. If a particular stimulation pattern has to be derived from a given desired kinematic movement pattern (angular changes), then we face an inverse problem. The issue is that there are many different muscle activity combinations that will produce the same angular motion. The present inverse model generates an angular motion in such a way that at any instant, one member of each muscle pair (either the flexor or the extensor) is passive while the other muscle may do work. This assumption leads to an angular movement that requires minimal total work from the muscles. If the function α(t) that gives the time course of angular displacement in a joint is differentiated twice then the time course of angular acceleration A(t) is provided. We apply numerical differentiation to approximate the angular acceleration for discrete time intervals (t, t +∆ t). Applying the above given relationship of the force, lever arm, and inertia gives the total muscle force that generates the required rotation in the joint:

Modeling the neural control and biomechanics of locomotion F= (A*I -Tg) / R

After this total muscle force is determined, the active muscle force is computed as follows: F1=(F-Fp)*(a*vmax+v)/(F2(L)*a*(vmax-v)) Where Fp is the passive force, F2(L) is the function of the force-length relation, v is the shortening velocity of the muscle, vmax is the maximal shortening velocity, a is constant (coefficient of shortening heat) and F1 gives the normalized active force. Finally, the needed stimulation frequency f is computed by applying the inverse of the function that gives the force-frequency relationship. The value of the inverse function at F1 gives the stimulation frequency that produces the required angular change in the current time interval, ∆t. For instance, using the function that gives the above written Force-frequency relationship, we obtain the following function to compute the stimulation frequency: f(F1)= (arcsin(F1/Fmax-1)/π+1/2) ∗sat

where Fmax is the maximal muscle force and sat is the frequency at which the force saturates. The model computes a sequence of frequency values that generates the required angular trajectory. First, it is determined for a given angular change in a time interval of ∆t. Then, the configuration of the limb is updated and the new intersegmental joint angles are used to compute the motor command for the next time interval.

3. Result Here we present an example for the application of the model. We applied the model for the simulation of walking in the rat. The joint angular changes required as input parameters for the inverse model were taken from experimental measurements. The masses of the limb segments were calculated as percentages of the whole body mass. To study the role of flexors and extensors in the knee and ankle joints we used one theoretically defined flexor and one extensor for each joint. For each muscle the maximal available force was 300N. The maximal shortening velocity was 0.1m/s. The measured angular changes in the knee and ankle joints during one step and the corresponding flexor and extensor firing rates computed by the inverse model are shown in Fig. 5. The force-length relationship that is used to simulate this step is given by (b). During the stance phase the extensor muscles are activated to work against gravity because the weight of the animal is loaded on the leg. The extensor motoneuron firing rates show a slow increase followed by a decrease during this phase. At foot lift a sudden increase in flexor motoneuron firing rate ensures the required impulse for joint flexion then the flexor motoneuron firing rate slowly decreases as the joints are flexed. At the end of the swing phase the extensors are activated and the limb is extended with a small flexion before foot contact. These activity patterns ensures the use of minimal total work.

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length relationships. First we applied the F-L relation (a) to simulate individual steps of the walking rats (Fig. 6 solid lines). Then we simulated the same steps applying the F-L relation (b). (Fig. 6, broken lines). We found that using relation (a), the required discharge rates of the motoneuron pools were smaller than using (b). This is presented in Figure 6. for the flexor and extensor muscles for the knee and ankle joint.

Figure 6. Effect of forcelength relationship on predicted motoneuron 10 firing frequency. A: Two 5 5 force-length relationships. 0 0 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 Comparison of predicted Time (sec) Time (sec) knee flexor (B) and extensor (C) motoneuron pool activity Figure 5. Measured knee joint angle (A) for F-L relationship a (solid line) and b and predicted knee flexor (B) and knee (broken line). D&E Same as B&C for the extensor (C) motoneuron pool activity ankle. Higher frequency is predicted for during the step. Measured ankle joint the same joint movement when the force (D) and predicted ankle flexor (E) and is zero at minimum and maximum muscle ankle extensor (F) activities. Note that length. From Laczko J., Walton K., Llinas onset of flexor activity corresponds to the R.: A 54 neuro - mechanical transducer model for controlling joint rotations and beginning of the swing phase. limb movements. Clinical Neuroscience, As an example to determinate the sensi- In Press tivity of the model to model parameters we present the effect of change on the force-length relation here. Knowing the experimentally measured time course of the joint angles, we computed firing 54 Correspondance to: J. Laczko (email: laczkoj@mfa. frequencies assuming different force- kfki.hu) 20

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Modeling the neural control and biomechanics of locomotion The co-contarction of the participating muscles and the synergy of joint rotations must also be considered in the modeling methods. We extend our model taking into account these factors. Based on the presented model we plan common American-Hungarian research projects.

The application of the model to hindlimb movement of the rat during walking has previously been presented in abstract form (Laczko et al. 2003, Laczko et al. 2004) and in a detailed form in the Clinical Neuroscience (Neurologiai Szemle) in Press, in Budapest.

3. Conclusion and perspectives We initiated a modeling technique for studying limb movement control. Neural control of limb movements is much more sophisticated involving fine interaction of excitatory and inhibitory spinal neuronal activities and reflexes.

The model can generally be applied for mammalian locomotion and specifically for human locomotion and it provides a research tool that can be applied in medical rehabilitation. The output of the model can be compared to experimentally measured angular changes and torques in the joints. Thus the model may predict experimental outcomes in research and the effect of therapeutic techniques on medical application. This kind of research relates to the control of devices that help to replace movement abilities of people with motor dysfunction. One particular application is the functional electrical stimulation. This approach helps to develop control algorithms for neuroprosthetic devices for spinal cord injured patients: surface electrodes are placed on the skin above the muscles of the paralised limb and these electrodes may stimulate motoneurons of the muscles by the computed stimulation pattern. Mathematical modeling and computer simulation helps to choose the required stimulation pattern

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AY 2003-2004 for a desired limb movement. Before the stimulation pattern is applied in reality the effect of the stimulation may be studied using the computer model. The model helps to indentify movement parameters and biomechanical characteristics like the presented muscle force - muscle length relationship or other intrinsic properties that can not be measured experimentally.

reared from P14 to P30 in microgravity). no. 2003 Abstract Viewer, Program No. 493.11. Society for Neuroscience. Laczko, J., Walton, K. and Llinas, R., (2004). A neuromechanical model for the motor control of walking rats). no. 2004 Abstract Viewer, Program No. 601.5. Society for Neuroscience. Llinas, R. and Welsh, J. P. (1993) On the cerebellum and motor learning. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 3:958-965 Nathan, R. and Tavi, M. (1990): The influence of stimulation

References Alexander, R.M. (1992): A model of bipedal locomotion on compliant legs, Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 338.189-98. Arbib MA, Erdi P, Szentagothai J (1998): Neural orgnization, Structure, Function and Dynamics. Publ. The MIT Press. ISBN 026201159x Beer, R.D., Chiel, H.J., Quinn, R.D. and Ritzmann, R.E., Biorobotic approaches to the study of motor systems, Curr Opin Neurobiol, 8 (1998) 777-82. Bizzi E., Mussa-Ivaldi, F. A. and Giszter, S. (1991) Computations underlying the Execution of movement: a biological perspective. Science 253:287-291 Chapin JK., Moxon KA., Markowitz RS., Nicolelis MA. (1999): Real-time control of a robot arm using simultaneously recorded neurons in the motor cortex. Nature Neuroscience. 2(7):664-70. Donoghue JP. Sanes JN. Hatsopoulos NG. Gaal G. (1998): Neural discharge and local field potential oscillations in primate motor cortex during voluntary movements. Journal of Neurophysiology. 79(1):159-73. Flash T. and Hogan N. (1985): The coordination of arm movements: an experimentally confirmed mathematical model, J Neurosci, 5 1688-703. Gielen C.C. and Houk J.C. (1987): A model of the motor servo: incorporating nonlinear spindle receptor and muscle mechanical properties, Biol Cybern, 57 217-31. Gonzalez RV. Abraham LD. Barr RE. Buchanan TS. (1999): Muscle activity in rapid multi-degree-of-freedom elbow movements: solutions from a musculoskeletal model. Biological Cybernetics. 80(5):357-67. Hogan, N. (1984): An organizing principle for a class of voluntary movements, J Neurosci, 4 2745-54 Laczko, J., Walton, K. and Llinas, R., (2003): A model for swimming motor control in rats

pulse frequency on the generation of joint moments in the upper limb, IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, 37 317-22 Otazu, G. H., Futami, R. and Hoshimiya, N. (2001) A muscle activation model of variable stimulation frequency response and stimulation history, based on positive feedback in calcium dynamics. Biological Cybernetics 84:193-206 Riener R.( 1999): Model-based development of neuroprosthesis

for

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patients.

Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society of London â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Series B: Biological Sciences. 354(1385):877-94. Szekely, G., 1989. Ontogeny and Morphology of Neuronal Structures Controlling Tetrapod Locomotion. In: G, W. D. R. (Ed.), Complex Organismal functions: Integrator and Evolution in Vertebrates. John Wiley &Sons, pp. 117-131. Szekely, G. (2001) An approach to the complexity of the brain. Brain Research Bulletin 55:11-28 Szent-Gyorgyi, A.. (1958): Muscle Research. Science 128,: 699-702. Van Soest, A.J., Bobbert, M.F. and Van Ingen Schenau, G.J. (1994): A control strategy for the execution of explosive movements from varying starting positions, J Neurophysiol, 71 1390-402 Zajac, F. E. (1989) Muscle and tendon: properties, models, scaling, and application to biomechanics and motor control. Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering 17:359-411 Zajac , F. E. and Winters, J. M. (1990) Modelling Musculoskeletal Movement Systems: Joint and Body Segmental Dynamics, Musculoskeletal Actuation and Neuromscular Control. Springer Verlag. Zhang, K. and Sejnowski, T.J. (1999): A theory of geometric constraints on neural activity for natural three- dimensional movement, J Neurosci, 19/3122-45.

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Researching Literature in Minnesota

How Updike’s Fiction Meets Life in the Upper Midwest Molnár Ádám ............................................................................. University of Debrecen 4032 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1. Hungary http://www.unideb.hu E-mail: adammol@index.hu

University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN 55455-0213 USA http://www.umn.edu Adviser: Prof. Kent Bales

............................................................................. Abstract My paper summarizes my experiences in the United States during my Fulbright grant from a double perspective. I first look at my professional achievements during the nine months spent at the University of Minnesota, delineating the framework of the project I am working on and assessing the progress I made by the end of the grant. Then I write about my personal and non-academic experiences: the way of life I became part of, the places and people I got to know and met, and the manifold ways in which I feel I benefited from this opportunity. My paper is illustrated by photos I took during the grant period.

1. Academic Achievements I applied for the Fulbright Research Grant in the hope that a nine-month period spent at an American research university would help me progress considerably with my dissertation and give me the chance to gather material for finishing the paper later, possibly after the end of

the grant period. As for my host university, I chose the University of Minnesota for two reasons. Firstly, it has a huge research library (with more than 5 million volumes in total) including an exhaustive collection in humanities and literature. Secondly, my would-be supervisor, Professor

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AY 2003-2004 Kent Bales, works there at the English Department. I thought working under the supervision of Prof. Bales would be ideal because he is an authority in the fields I am also working in, he has published and lectured about aspects of the topic I was going to investigate, and, finally, I had known him from a trip he had taken to Debrecen to speak about Hawthorne and Updike a few years before. The choice proved to be right and very fruitful, and I grew to be grateful to both Prof. Bales and the library for their help with my project—equally crucial, albeit somewhat different in nature. At the beginning of the grant period, my dissertation was in the stage where its framework, principles, and building blocks had been carefully thought over, I had done some research and written a sample chapter, but I needed a lot of time, substantial background literature and a good advisor-critic to proceed. Luckily, the Fulbright grant provided me with all three. My project’s full title is “The Interaction of Discourses in John Updike’s ‘Scarlet Letter’ Trilogy.” The dissertation is based on the assumption, somewhat simplified here for the sake of brevity, that Updike’s three novels, which other critics have already named the “Scarlet Letter Trilogy,” have more in common than just the theme (the depiction of life in modern America from a certain point of view and employing similar characters) and Hawthorne’s classic The Scarlet Letter to which all three allude at various points. I state that the three most important themes, raised by Hawthorne

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and rewritten, updated and further illuminated by Updike; namely, religion, sexuality, and science, are the manifestations of deeper linkages among the three books than being merely shared topics. I explain these deeper linkages by borrowing Michel Foucault’s influential theory on discourses (or modes of argument) and the interdisciplinary criticism that has grown out of Foucault’s ideas on language, society, and social interactions. I understand the three main discourses operating in Updike’s chosen novels as essential social practices, legitimizing processes of language, and ways of gaining power. The novels show the intricate ways in which different discourses manipulate the characters (as individuals): the battles between characters’ views or as conflicting ideas within one character are staged by different discourses which turn out to be the sources of the ultimate antagonism in the texts. In other words, the characters are all created and articulated by certain discourses, and thereby the novels become the loci of clashing methods and modes of argument. Characters and plots can also be analyzed as sum totals of intertwining discourses, whose aim is to validate themselves and to discredit and refute other discourses. My dissertation first identifies the textual behavior of discursive formations in the novels. The main body of my study is devoted to three central issues: (1) the triad of religious, scientific, and sexual discourses, as constantly clashing and thus weaving a continuously changing relationship among characters. The sites that the characters inhabit in the texts

How Updike’s Fiction Meets Life in the Upper Midwest appear as coherent subtexts created by these discourses. However, much as they strive to, the subtexts cannot be synthesized to form a metanarrative, and emerging meanings are partial and mutually exclusive; (2) at times, traditional discourses are deconstructed when a metaperspective appears and the narrators show their own texts to be unreliable, manipulative, and paradoxical; (3) finally, Updike’s discourses also show remarkable vitality in creating the discursive identities of characters. Thus characters break up, multiply when doubles or antagonistic counterselves are introduced. Parallel to this process, the notion of seemingly unified subjects is dismantled: the characters are controlled by (and not in full control of) the language(s) that they speak. This interplay of discourses works against a coherent and unified sense of interpretation and meaning. All three novels, albeit to a different degree, agree in denying the possibility of a synthesis of discourses and in suggesting the fragmentation and relativity of truth claims. Moreover, this shared distrust of language’s signifying processes is another link with Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter—a relationship that Updike’s novels constantly confirm by casual intertextual references. As a consequence, an interpretative model can be established which shows the texts of the “Scarlet Letter” trilogy as a uniquely and specifically rewritten and extended corpus of Hawthorne’s text. When investigated from this critical perspective, The Scarlet Letter itself also shows remarkable intertextual openness as a “writerly text,” and, thus reread, it yields new meanings

much in line with the postmodernity of Updike’s texts. Besides focusing on Updike’s novels, my dissertation will have a chapter on a possible rereading Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter. With this chapter I intend to shed a new light on why Updike was able to successfully expand and update Hawthorne’s writing for the audience of late-twentieth-century America. I also hope that the dissertation will call attention to some neglected aspects of Hawthorne’s original work. Trying to put this proposal into practice, during the Fulbright grant period my working method was intensive reading and regular consultations with Prof. Bales, who would comment on my ideas about the literature and its significance in light of the dissertation. He was also kind enough to read my writings—sketches, sample chapters and presentations that I prepared during the research period. Moreover, he also offered his help beyond that and we are in contact even today. I feel that professionally these nine months were very fruitful. I tested, as it were, the results of my research in May 2004, towards the end of my term, by presenting a paper at the Second Annual Cultural Studies Association Conference in Boston, MA. The paper was entitled “Mirage in the Desert: Topography, Identities and Community in John Updike’s S.” It focused on some aspects of discursive identity and their relationship to different concepts of community through the close reading of S., an Updike novel which is also part of the “Scarlet Letter Trilogy.” Relying on Foucault’s theories about

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AY 2003-2004 discourse, power, and the self, my essay interpreted this composite view of success versus failure, as related to the discursive construction of new selves, by a tripartite process. I first looked at the place; namely, Sarah’s (the protagonist’s) interpretation of the desert as an attractive locale. Then I examined the relationship of the individual and the group, as related to the possibility of building up the ideal community in the Arizona desert. Thirdly, I explored the role of language and narrative in constructing and deconstructing the textual image of self and community. Finally, I concluded that in Updike’s S., however competent the individual is in manipulating the discourses which present her in public, she, ultimately, is lost in the web of alternative identities which she tries to adopt. The novel therefore places the discourse of the organic, self-created subject and the Utopian community in an ironic context, showing the prospect of creative selfrenewal a mirage.

2. Non-Academic Adventures 2.1 The Twin Cities I spent the nine months of my scholarship at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. Although I have been to the United States before, I have never visited the Upper Midwest: My sole experience of this area was a previous layover at Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport. Now, when flying to Minneapolis/Saint Paul for the first time on August 28, 2003,

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I also changed planes in Chicago, but this familiar experience was soon to give way to something very new. The Twin Cities proved to be a very attractive locality to live in. This conglomerate of two large and a number of smaller cities has altogether two million inhabitants, so in size it is comparable to Budapest; however, it occupies a much larger area. I lived in Saint Paul, but worked on the Minneapolis campus of the “U of M” (as it is colloquially called); the daily bus ride took about 20 to 40 minutes, depending on the traffic. Though literally twin cities, Minneapolis and Saint Paul have quite a different character: the former looks younger, rougher, more vibrant, more energetic—in short, more Western; the latter, the state capital, has a lot of preserved 19th century architecture, has a more refined atmosphere and more of a peaceful small town feeling about it—it is said that Saint Paul is the westernmost European-style city in the United States. The Twin Cities have a rich literary heritage—I visited the hills which serve as the setting for the opening of Sinclair Lewis’s novel Main Street, and I went to see Francis Scott Fitzgerald’s house in an elegant block of Summit Street in Saint Paul. I also found Fitzgerald’s bronze statue in Rice Park, standing at the edge of the sidewalk very casually, almost lost among passersby (he was a short man, it turned out, at least by today’s standards). The university is shared between the twin cities, having a campus in both, and therefore equally influential in some of their neighborhoods. It is a huge research university with a student population that totals 45,000—roughly, the double of

How Updike’s Fiction Meets Life in the Upper Midwest my home university of Debrecen. The campuses are also very large—there are three bus lines, free and run by the University, connecting the two campuses or running around their peripheries. I grew to like both campuses very much, partly for their distinctly different feel: the Minneapolis campus is very much urban, with the downtown skyline clearly visible in the vicinity; it has modern highrise buildings, busy roads intersecting it, and a lot of students in any time of the day during term time; but it also has the Mississippi river cutting it in half and the nicely preserved riverbank serves as a pleasant backdrop and a peaceful place for a good afternoon’s reading. The Saint Paul campus, on the contrary, feels distinctively rural: its historic buildings are scattered amid large meadows, parks and the University-owned pastures used by the departments of agriculture. Of course, it took me quite a long time to discover all this and more: the Gopher Way—that is, the heated subway system that connects almost all the buildings so you do not have to go outside in the chilly winter weather; the variety of restaurants, pubs, and bars which serve the huge student population; the abundance of cultural programs, free movies, talks, lectures, and even theater performances organized by either the student union or one of the numerous student societies. All these, sometimes, made it unnecessary to leave campus even after I finished my daily work, so I would stay for some evening program and would go home only later in the evening or at night. I was quite lucky because I managed to find accommodation even before leaving

Hungary. With the assistance of the University’s housing services website, I found the ad of a house which seemed to meet my expectations so I applied to be one of the tenants. Thus, upon arrival, I at least had somewhere to go. The house was located in a quiet street in Saint Paul, and by moving into my upstairs bedroom with a window to the street, I became member of a very colorful household community consisting of three Americans, a Chinese, and a Jordanian, all of them students of a sort. Although some of them moved out and others took their places as the year went on, the house provided an interesting mix of international-American atmosphere all along where cultures met and were constantly interacting. Once every week, one of us cooked an international dinner for the others, partly to introduce part of his/her culture in a graspable (tangible? delectable?) way to the others, and partly to provide an opportunity for socializing. This practice proved to be highly successful, not only because of the variety of food we got to experience, but also because it meant a motivation to improve one’s cooking skills—as for me, improvement was badly needed and I missed Hungarian food anyway, so, fortunately, this practice forced me to prepare my favorite dishes once in a while. My greatest feat in the culinary arts, perhaps, was the “bejgli” that I baked for Christmas; just as at home, it came in two varieties, one roll with poppy seeds, the other with walnuts. It took me two days to bake it (I had to start all over a few times), but when it was ready it was just like it had to be. It met unanimous success, especially the poppy seed-filled variety.

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AY 2003-2004 Perhaps I spent as much time in the library as at home—after all, it was the books that I came for. During the nine months of my scholarship, I got to know the library’s five floors, if not all of its 5.5 million books, pretty well. On a typical working day, I would leave home by bus that dropped me off right on campus, a short walk from the library building; I would spend the day by reading, working, and making notes, these long periods interspersed by a quick look at the newspapers and the inevitable lunch break. When the sun set, I usually left for home or for some social event that could include friends, films, or beer, depending on the occasion. Getting around the Twin Cities is easy—if you have a car, that is. I did not, nor did my housemates, for a while, so I wholly depended on the bus. Fortunately, public transportation in the Twin Cities is relatively well-developed, and my accommodation lay near a good bus line, with buses running even during the night. I got to know the bus system quite well, and, as a university employee, I could buy monthly passes at a discounted price (not nearly as cheaply as students, though) which certainly contributed to my mobility. Besides buses, mass transit includes the Twin Cities’ first new tramline (old ones were discontinued back in the 1950’s), but, sadly, it was still under construction in 2003-2004 and opened a few months after I left, so I could not try this attractive means of getting around the city. This would have been all well had not a bus drivers’ strike occurred in March 2004, which lasted for six weeks and left the whole metropolitan area without public

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transportation. The strike forced me, as any other bus-dependent city dweller, to find alternatives. I got my bike out of the shed and rode it despite the still minus temperatures and the chilly wind. Not that I do not like cycling: in fact, one of the first things I bought upon my arrival in town was a used, but well-kept bicycle. During the subsequent months, I learned that the Twin Cities are an ideal place to cycle in: the terrain is relatively flat, the streets are wide, bike lanes and paths are abundant, and biking is very popular among residents, especially students. Besides, one can always find attractive, green city parks or lakes to stop by. (The Twin Cities have about a dozen major lakes within the city limits, all of them being beautifully preserved recreation areas.) I did exploit these favorable circumstances to go by bike wherever I could, which also familiarized me with many neighborhoods of the city, besides keeping me physically fit. There were just two main obstacles to biking: cars and cold weather. While the first could be avoided by carefully selecting the route (quiet side streets, bike lanes), the second was inevitable, so during the long and cold winter I took to riding the warm and comfortable buses. Besides work and the long days spent in the library, I tried to discover as much of the city and the area as possible. Fortunately, my housemates were largely outdoor people as well, so it was easy to find company for my trips. Our first major excursion took us to one of the most beautiful corners of Minnesota: the north shore of Lake Superior. Going in early October had the advantage that we

How Updikeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Fiction Meets Life in the Upper Midwest could marvel at the bright fall foliage. The weather was crisp but not cold yet, and the skies mostly clear. We rented a car and during a weekend we traversed state parks and winding country roads, while visiting little towns and lighthouses in the area.

2.2. Winter in Minnesota Not much later, at the end of October, winter has begun. After Halloween, soon we had snow falling. In general, among non-Minnesotans Minnesota winter has quite a reputation, and I have to admit that it was indeed long, with lots of snow and occasional really cold periods. But it was not unbearable, with winter days being a bit longer than in Hungary and the temperature seldom falling below -20 C. When it did, though, it tended to fall way below, but, with the crisp sunshine usually accompanying such situations, it did not feel extremely cold. Strangely enough, Minnesotans are quite proud of their winter, and most of them even seem to enjoy it. Having seen the abundance of winter sports and outdoor events, however, this is understandable. For example, the city of Saint Paul organized its annual Winter Carnival at the end of January, the greatest attraction being a complete Ice Palace with high, crenellated walls, ramparts, and towers, built of the ice bricks from nearby lakes. An outdoor ice sculpture exhibition completed the picture, and, judging from the number of visitors on any given weekend day, people do love to go outside in the winter in Minnesota, rather than being confined to their warm and cozy houses.

2.3. All Around

A Fulbright Personal Enrichment Seminar, which I was selected to participate in, meant a quick and profound change from Minnesota winter as I flew to Houston, Texas, for a long weekend at the beginning of March. Together with about one hundred other Fulbrighters representing dozens of nationalities and coming from all parts of the US, we were learning about the interaction between individuals and civil society. This meant that we had lectures telling about the history of civic society in the US, the ways and means of participating in the work of NGOâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, and volunteering. The theme of the seminar, I felt, was a very wise choice, as many participants came from a corner of the world with new and sometimes unstable forms of democracy, places where the concept of civil society is not fully operative yet. Interestingly enough, I myself had another glance at the working of civil society, and this happened in Saint Paul. My landlady is an active member of the Catholic Church, so she frequently participated in charitable activities organized by the church or went to lectures offered on current social issues. She was always ready to speak to me in detail about these events, and once I even attended a film club organized by her church which also included a series of mini-lectures by ministers of different denominations, delivered after the films shown. It was illuminating to see how important a role churches play in organizing civic society in the United States, especially when compared to the situation in Europe.

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AY 2003-2004 Turning back to the Houston seminar: I have to add that it did not just mean lectures and roundtable discussions. The organizers laid an equally important stress on acquainting us with everyday aspects of American culture in general and Texas lifestyle in particular. In this spirit, they organized a sightseeing tour of Houston for us, they took us to the Houston rodeo, and they found local families who invited us to a dinner in their own homes. This way we not only had a chance to meet people living in Houston and get a firsthand glance of their lives, but also got to know the other participants better. A trip to the NASA Center completed this rich program, before we said goodbye to sunny Houston and I, for my part, flew back to wintry Minnesota. However, even long winters end one day, and, when spring eventually came, it meant new opportunities for trips and outings. On a late April weekend we set out to discover southeastern Minnesota, which is a rolling, green land of farms and apple orchards, interspersed by forests, and bordered by the mighty Mississippi river. Climbing a riverside promontory, we took a look at the wide, meandering river and at neighboring Wisconsin, but then turned the other way back to Minnesota to drive along the valley of the Root River, crossing little towns on the way which seemed to be still living in the 19th century with their wooden houses, colorful storefronts and clean, wide, empty streets. This is an area of the state where there is a sizeable Amish population, and we examined a number of stores selling their handmade artifacts.

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At the beginning of May, I flew to Boston, Massachusetts for a cultural studies conference. The generous support of the Fulbright Professional Enhancement Grant, which made my trip possible, also provided me with the opportunity to discover one of the emblematic cities of the East Coast. The Cultural Studies Association conference, which I attended, lasted for five days, so I had ample opportunity to satisfy my professional curiosity in the dozens of thematic sessions offered besides spending some time of my own outside the lecture hall and the seminar rooms. I had my very own presentation on the very first day, before a meager audience, I have to say, but later I learned that many participants only arrived on the second or even on the third day. Few people could afford the time and money required to stay for the whole duration of the event—luckily, I was such a person. Early May proved to be a wonderful time to explore Boston—the parks, the treelined streets, the small front yards were all at their most beautiful. Boston and the area around are very much linked to John Updike, the author whose work my dissertation centers on, so I tried to look at the city through his eyes—with the help of the passages I remembered from his books. Although for me it was near to impossible to visit his hometown, I did travel a bit in the countryside north of Boston, an area which also features prominently as an inspiration and physical setting for much of Updike’s prose fiction. May also meant that my stay in the US was drawing to a close. I found myself thinking more and more about my trip back to Hungary. Just before I left,

How Updike’s Fiction Meets Life in the Upper Midwest however, with most of my things ready for packing and some heavy stuff as well as my books (amounting to several dozen) sent before me in cardboard boxes, I set on a very last trip to another emblematic city of the country: Chicago, Illinois. The distance between the Twin Cities and Chicago does not seem large on the map, but it took me more than six hours of driving to get there—another lesson in how vast the interior of the United States is. My landlady’s family hosted me in Oak Park, a very attractive suburb of Chicago, during the four days of my visit. Oak Park has a very distinct literary importance: this is the town where Ernest Hemingway was born, and it was also his hometown through his early childhood. So one of the first sights I visited was his family’s house, well preserved and functioning as a museum today. Then I spent a whole day just discovering downtown Chicago’s architecture, starting with the very first steel-framed “skyscrapers” (pathetically short by today’s standards), going through the art deco elegance of the Chicago Stock Exchange and the Federal Reserve Bank building, and ending the walk on the 95th floor of the Hancock Observatory (the second highest building in Chicago after the Sears Tower), looking around from the observation deck which offers a fantastic view of the city skyline giving way to the open space above Lake Michigan. In that evening, I had a taste of Chicago’s jazz life by attending a live jam session in one of its jazz bars, listening to music inspired by a variety of African influences, yet being characteristically American.

When my time was up and I boarded my plane exactly nine months after I landed in Minnesota, I was reluctant to leave the Twin Cities, feeling that I would be happy to stay another nine months, if not more. Yet I knew that I had quite a lot to do at home, as I was assessing the ways I could utilize my American experiences at home. The most direct beneficial result of the grant, of course, was my doctoral dissertation that got its shape during the Minnesota months. I researched most of the literature that needs to be used for writing the dissertation, I bought some very useful books, and I brought with me an invaluable library of scholarly books, articles and electronic materials which is aiding me as I am continuing to write the actual text of the dissertation. However, I feel I could profit from the grant period also in other ways: I am currently working as an International Relations Officer at the University of Debrecen, and my experience in having been an international student and scholar helps a lot in my daily contact with visiting colleagues. In the US, I familiarized myself with several aspects of American higher education—in short, how universities work—and I have found this experience very useful in my present job. Moreover, I plan to build on it all through my future career, as I feel that my understanding of American higher education might help me also in dealing with its Hungarian counterpart. And, last but not least, I made a lot of friends, personal contacts, people who would welcome me back to the United States and whom I would be happy to meet in Hungary. This is, I am certain, something that the Fulbright Program is also about.

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Determination of the hallmarks of gangs and drugs Dr. Judit Szabo Kovacs Ph.D. ............................................................................. Hungarian National Police Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department H-1139 Budapest 4700 Ramona Boulevard Monterey Park, Teve utca 4-6. CA 91754 judytailorsmith@yahoo.com www.lasd.org Leroy D. Baca Sheriff & Capt. Mike Ford

.............................................................................

1. The research goals, objectives: I started my Fubright Research Program with an extraordinary international educational background and relevant references. As a criminologist I have dealt with transnational crime for twenty years. My recent research project- titled: „Determination of the hallmarks of gangs and drugs”- is referring to an enormously timely criminological topic- namelycriminal activity of the organised crime groups. The objective of this project was to determine what factors actually hallmarks the gang problem. How could we describe this phenomenon? What is the general definition of gang? What constitutes a gang and the gang-related incident?

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The research goals to clarify the gang problem with a multi-disciplinary perspective, making a comparison between US and Hungary. My first hypothesis was that the term gang has a narrow interpretation in Hungary. Even among the law enforcement administrators, research workers, policy makers and officials the word gang has a limited meaning. The criminal offences committed by organised crime groups are of law enforcement interest, but the connection between organised crime and gang problem is not recognized properly. The under-evaluation and denying of the presence of gangs is significant in my country.

Determination of the hallmarks of gangs and drugs The second hypothesis was, that among a number of Hungarian researchers, police and other professionals a strong belief has kept itself: that Hungary is a „ the island of peace”. Apparently it is a mere disbelief. The criminal activity of gangs affects in negative way the societites worldwide. These violent criminal groups decrease the public safety, couse insecurity, fear of crime in different communities and raise enormous economic costs. The gang problem in our days is much more pervesive than any time in history. The gang crime is one of the most dangerouse phenomenon all over the world.

2. Gangs in the United State: The so called gang problem affects American society at all levels, causing heightened fear. Over the past 20 years, gang memberships has crossed all socioeconomic, ethnic, and racial boundaries and now permeates American society. Gangs today are increasingly multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic.

Culturally and racially mixed gangs are growing. In the absence of strong family and community support, gang values have replaced traditional ethics and standard. The most common definition of the gang the following: „A gang is a group of three or more persons who have a common identifying sign, symbol or name and whose members individually or collectively engage in a definable pattern of criminal acitvity, creating an atmosphere of fear and intimidation within the community.” This definition used by law enfercement agencies especially for intelligence purposes.

3. My host institution: First photo My host intstitution was the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. I would like to take this opportunity to thank repeatedly Sheriff Baca and captain Mike Ford for their continued support of my studies during my Fulbright Scolarship

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AY 2003-2004 program, for providing office space at the Sheriff’s Department’s Safe Streets Bureau Headquarters. The LASD is the largest sheriff’s department in the world, with primary law enforcement jurisdiction of over 4,000 square miles and a direct servise population of over 2.6 milion residents. Nearly 15,000 sworn and professional members staff 23 patrol stations that respond yearly to more than 500.000 calls for service. In addition to the direct service areas, the LASD also provides emergency tactical response, specialized detective support, crime lab services, and mutual aid for many of the smaller cities within the County. The department organization is well structured, has a good tranparency and an effective hierarchy. An undersheriff and two assistant sheriff support the sheriff. The detective division, field operations regions and the office of Homeland Security are under the controll one of the assistant sheriffs’. The other assistant sheriff has supervision over the admi-

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nistrative services division, correctional services division, court services division, custudy operations division, technical services division. The leadership and training division has a direct contact to the undersheriff.

4. My „sweet home” namely, the Safe Streets Bureau: Second photo My hosting agency was the Safe Streets Bureau Headquarters. This bureau belong to the Office of Homeland Security which is headed by a well- trained, ambitious femal chief. I am very impressed by the reform which is in process in the US. The new initiative and creation of the Office of Homeland certainly will provide significant and fruitful experiences for Hungary and other countries. The development of the statewide california antiterrorist Information Center, chaired by Sheriff

Determination of the hallmarks of gangs and drugs

Baca, has given to LASD the responsibility of coordinating the Los Angeles County’s homeland security efforts with other agencies and entities. Procedures and protocol were developed to ensure timely distribution of critical information trough the use of Homeland Security Bulletins. In March 2003 the Office entered into the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department’s „Operation Liberty Shield”, working in conjunction with the national program

with the same name. The combined goal was to improve homeland security by increasing preparedness and awareness, improving and identifying resources, acquiring equipment, and expanding and improving relevant training. 3-4-5-6 photos

5. Gangs, drugs and violent crime:

As I mentioned LASD consist of 23

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station areas. I visited majority of them however my favourite stations were Century Station, Compton Station and Lennox Station. This region is full of habitual criminals, has a massive prvevailing tradition in criminality, especially drug- related crime. Shooting, murder, homicide, assault are the everyday actions. This area is absolutely dangerous and demanding from the criminal aspects. This area is the homeland of the different street gangs. A street gang is an ongoing group, club, organization, or association of five or more persons that has one of its primary purposes the commission of one or more criminal offenses. All department that reported the presence of gang-related crime problems keep some kind of official record of these gangs, their members, or their specific gang-related criminal activity. Gang members are increasingly young and violent. Most gangs have members who are involved in drug trafficking. Gang involment in drug trafficking ranges from

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street-level sales to wholesale distribution. The drug trafficking by gangs primarily involves cocaine and marijuana, however gangs in California are increasingly involved in heroin trafficking. Street gangs are located throughout the country and vary in size, composition, and srtucture. Large national srteet gangs pose the greatest threat because they smuggle, produce, transport, and distribute large quantities of illicit drugs throughout the country and are extremely violent. Local street gangs in rural, suburban, and urban areas pose a low but growing threat. Local street gangs transport and distribute drugs within very specific areas. These gangs often imitate the larger, more powerful national gangs in order to gain respect from rivals. I participated in several ride-alongs with the gang units and special antigang task force. I escorted them in night service because the gangs took into action especially by night. The ride- along is a wonderful chance to take part as an observetor in the crime

Determination of the hallmarks of gangs and drugs

scene operation, to see the activity of the law enforcement and other emergency personel. Los Angeles is famous for the very skillful, well- organized first responders. The ride-along provides for excellent media access to the releasable information facts and circumtances of the criminal act and investigation, guarantees the public disclosure of crime and arrest reports. LASD has a respectful mass media connections. I realized my desire to be at the front line and be involved into the outstanding, highest level law enforcement functional activity. I gained relevant knowledge on gang criminality in the real life. I got acquainted with the gang activity, gang structure, recruitment, gang communication and the causative factors of the gang problem. During the ride-alongs I have seen several graffities. One form of gang communication, and certainly the most observable, is graffiti ( wall wrintings). Photos of graffities

Graffiti is often the first sign of gang activity in an area. Each gang has its own style of writing and colors, and the crips and bloods are no different. With the division of crips and bloods gang members into certain sets, each set has developed its own identifying graffitti. Some authorities have become experts at interpreting this graffiti as stories of what has transpired or what is going to happen ( e.g. who is at odds with whom, what individual or gang may be the next target of a drive-by shooting.) I had to be familiar with some prominent street gangs in Los Angeles area, for example with Bloods and Crips. The LASD continues to focus national attention on the criminal behavior attributed to the Crips and Bloods street gangs. The activities of these gang members are turning increasingly violent. The extensive use of firearms and explosives are now becoming part of their daily routin.

7. Visits at other branches

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of the LASD I visited different divisions, units within the LASD e.g. Civil Management Unit, Homicide Bureau, Family Crimes Bureau, Child Abductions and Amber Alert Network, Gang Violence Planning Authority, Detective Division, Court Services and Correctional Services Divisions as well. LASD has 8 custody facilities with a daily inmate population averaging more than 19,000, and a total of 52 court buildings with more than 600 courtrooms. I completed my knowledge in the courtroom testimony by the aid St. Petersburg College in the Multijurisdictional Counterdrug Task Force Training. I visited several times the Central Jail and conducted the initial interviews of a dozen self-admitted gang members incarcerated in the County Jail. The interviews were incredible constructive namely one of my research aims targetted to focus on the change of ethnic compo-

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sition and social judgement of the gangs. The research pays distinguised attention to the recruitment base of gangs: juvenil offenders, etnich groups, deprived school students etc. Furthermore examines the motives of constant refillment and its social-economic background. The so called prison gangs are very dangerous. A prison gang is an organization that originated within the prison system and operates in the prison and on the street as a self-perpetuating criminal entity. Such gangs consists of a select group of inmates who have an orgamized hierarchy and are governed ba an established code of conduct. The mexican Mafia is the oldest and one of the most violent prison gang in the United States. Photos

8. Training, education: As a result of the Sheriffâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commitment, the LASD University ( LASDU) was formed. The University consist of a consortium of

Determination of the hallmarks of gangs and drugs colleges and universities whose mission is to provide department employees with accessible, multi-varied learning programs. The LASDU graduated the first twoo classes in 2003. There are currently more than 700 Department members attending courses on Department facilities. The LASD is currently the first and only law enforcement agency in the United States with a corporate university. As a college professor I’m an enthusiast of this educational program initiatives. I’m familiar with the clue management program, which was created in the Homicide Bureau in order to clarify current situation or trends of criminality. The large scale, complex, high profile criminal investigation generated volumes of information and clues which must be properly managed and analyzed to ensure a succcessful investigation. This program was developed for proper utilization of resources. I’m very interested in criminal analysis. I planned a profound, comprehensive analysis on the gang-related crime of past decads. At LASD the professional staff ensure the distribution and tracking of incoming reports and the proper record management of all cases. Crime analyis supports investigative personnel by identifying trends, patterns, series and suspects, as well as providing operational support. I made an overview on East LA Resource Assistance Program, and the Long-term Strategic Plan of LASD. I realized a comparison with the Middle and long term objectives of scientific activity in the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Hungary. At LASD I have been well received by all.

The LASD and its personnel have been of tremendous help and are an excellent professional organization and resource.

8. California Gang Investigators Association I’m grateful to Mr. Wesley McBride for his letter of invitation and for indispensible professional assistance in my research program. He is the president of the California Gang Investigators Association which was founded in 1977 to foster better relationships among the units working gang in the various angencies in Los Angeles County. The CGIA has expanded during the past 20 years to include members troughout the US, Canada, England, France and Australia. From the former socialist countries I has become the first member of this association. The CGIA and its affiliates conduct monthly meetings to exchange information regarding the activities of gangs. These meetings were very useful and informative for me and provided a magneficient chance to meet law enforcement personnel including Prosecutors, Correction, Probation, Parole, and members of other related agencies. I took part at the regular annual gang conference. The Thirteenth Annual National Gang Violence Conference offered the most current information regarding gangs, gang trends,investigation and informationgathering techniques. The instructors were specialist in gang-related topics. The general sessions, sections and the optional

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AY 2003-2004 class on basic gang awareness covered the most typical conferences topics.: gangs and drugs, asian gangs, black street gangs, hispanic street gangs, skinheads/hate groups, sociology of gangs, officer safety and motorcycle gangs. It was a target point in my research project. The international gangs, for example the dangerous outlaw motorcycle clubs, such as the Hellâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Angels-HAMC- although originally from California, US, now have developed international networks of chapters or branches around the world. Canada, Australia, Germeny, France, Denmark,the Netherlands, United Kingdom, Austria and Switzerland all have chapters of the organization, which retains its headquarters in Oakland, California. In addition to profit-oriented illegal activities such as manufacturing and distribution of metamphetamin, and other drugs, HAMC has been known to shelter fugitives from one country to another. The HAMC has grownfrom a small group of gang members to a multinational criminal organization with over 1300 members. It has more than 100 chapters worldwide. Expansion of this OC organization makes threat to former socialist countries, regarding money laundering and infiltration into legitimate business in the first place. I am very eager to continue my studies and believe there is a great need for a global oriented approach in dealing with gang-related and organised crime issues. I also believe that we need to apply more

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fundamental international study and focus to this increasingly global phenomenon. To this date, I have enjoyed the benefits of the International Law Enforcement Academy professional base. I finished the ILEA in 2000 and its director was onfe of the persons who recommended my application for the Fulbright grant. Earlier I was one of the members of the International Task Force which was established by the FBI in Budapest some years ago. One of my colleagues arrived from Los Angeles. I supported him professionally during his existence in Budapest. In spite of these facts I had difficulties in keeping contact the FBI in Los Angeles. To reach the goals of my work I need in future stronger cooperation and support of the FBI as well. Recently I belong to the International Law Enforcement Cooperation Centre at Hungarian National Police. This Centre incorporate the Interpol National Office, Europol National Unit, International and EU Integration Department, Front office and liaison officers( both national and international), plus the SECI National Focal Point. The Fulbright Scholar Program has been a wonderful opportunity, it has enriched my scientific background, practical experience and has been both professionally and personally rewarding.

Jefferson Davis’s Hungarians: Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study István Kornél Vida ............................................................................. The University of Debrecen,

The University of Maryland

Institute of English and American Studies. University of Maryland, North American 4010 Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1., HUNGARY Department.College Park, MD 20742, USA www.umd.edu www.unideb.hu

vidaik@yahoo.com Leslie S. Rowland, Ph.D.

............................................................................. As a Fulbright postgraduate grantee I conducted research in one of the most neglected areas of Hungarian-American links and contacts: the first major wave of Hungarian political immigrants, who sought refuge in the United States after the defeat of the Hungarian War of Independence of 1848/49 and their participation in the American Civil War. This subject has been dealt with by only three amateur historians, who often applied unhistorical approaches and their works served not historical purposes but as a device to create cohesion in the dispersed Hungarian-American community and justify its presence in America. Therefore, an objective analysis of the subject is yet to be accomplished, which is the ultimate goal of my doctoral dissertation. The comprehensive summary of my investigations would go much beyond the scope of this paper, therefore, I propose here to write just about a tiny fragment of them: the life of Hungarians in the Antebellum South and their involvement in the Civil War on the Confederate side. To illustrate the difficulties a researcher has to face, I also include a case study: a summary of my investigations about the career of Estván Béla, Hungarian cavalry colonel, who served in the Confederate army. “[…]Exile is the Emptiness – for however much you brought With you, there’s far more you have left behind. Exile is the Ego that shrinks, for how you can prove What you were and what you did? Exile is a Song that only the singer can hear […]”

Anon. Song of Exile

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AY 2003-2004 Upon reading the three existing works of the subject, those interested in the Hungarians’ involvement in the American Civil War, can easily come to the conclusion that soldiers of Hungarian origin supported only the Northern cause and wore the blue uniform of the Union army. The three amateur historians (Eugene Pivány, Edmund Vasváry and Tivadar Ács), who entertained the subject, paid very little attention to the Hungarian immigrants who chose to settle down South of the Mason-Dixon line, and devoted at the outmost a single chapter in their books to the Hungarian soldiers in the Confederate army.55 There are two possible reasons for this negligence. The overwhelming majority of the official documents of the Confederate government – including those of the War Department – were destroyed, when the capital, Richmond, Va. was abandoned towards the end of the Civil War; the remaining ones – regimental rosters, payrolls etc. – do not make the identification of Hungarians easier either, as the soldiers’ country of birth was generally not written down by the recruiting officers. However, 55 These three books are: Eugene Pivány, Hungarians in the American Civil War. (Cleveland, 1913); Edmund Vasváry. Lincoln’s Hungarian Heroes. The Participation of Hungarians in the American Civil War., (Washington, D.C., 1939); Tivadar Ács: Magyarok az észak-amerikai polgárháborúban 186165. [Hungarians in the North-American Civil War 1861-65.] (Budapest, 1964.) Hereafter cited as: Ács, Magyarok.

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there was another reason as well. To the Hungarian-American historians, the fact that several Hungarians supported the secession from the country, which provided shelter to them after the defeat of the Hungarian War of Independence of 1848/49, seemed to weaken the legitimacy of the Hungarian-American community. Therefore, historians, who would like to study the history of people of Hungarian origin in Dixie and the Confederate Army, have no other option, but virtually start from the scratch. The subject of this paper is a just a tiny fragment of a work-in-progress research project, the intended end-product of which is the first comprehensive study of scholarly quality of the first major wave of Hungarian immigrants to the U.S. in the 1850’s in general, and the Hungarian involvement in the American Civil War in particular. Here I take the career of one participant, Béla Estván, as a case study, because it is not only adventurous, but shows the difficulties the researcher of the subject has to face as well. First of all, it is essential to say a couple of words about the Hungarians living in the Southern states around the time of the outbreak of the Civil War. (When I refer to the ‘South’ thenceforward, I have the would-be states of the Confederate States of America in mind.)

Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study

1. Hungarians in the Land of “Dixie” By making use of the geneological research aid software named Heritage Quest Online, which makes all the census data accessible and allows us to search for the country of birth in the database, which is the only possible way to confirm one’s nationality, in the Census of 1860, we can find 1,141 Hungarian household heads in the United States. About 11% per cent of them settled down in the Southern States, and in these family units there were 310 people, including those under-age and the elderly. The two centers of Hungarians in the Confederacy were Louisiana (New Orleans was the only possible major Southern port of entry for immigrants) and Texas. More than half of the Southern Hungarians lived in these two states, whereas in most of the others one can find sporadic Hungarian presence, particularly in Mississippi and North Carolina. The majority of them were single males in their early thirties. Most of the married had non-Hungarian spouses, which is not surprising at all, considering the fact that there were hardly any single females in this first wave of Hungarian immigrants. It is worth examining the occupation patterns of Hungarians as well. 37 per cent of them worked as skilled craftsmen (in the food-preparing indutry, or as construction and metal workers), one out of five earned his living from agriculture as farmers or agricultural laborers; and the rate of white-collar workers (clerks, members of business life, bankers etc.) reached similar proportions. 10 perc cent

had academic professions (professors, teachers, physicians, lawyers), and an equal number of Hungarians worked in the service sector. In order to able to place the Hungarians on the contemporary social spectrum, we have to investigate the real and personal estate properties of Hungarians. As far as real estates are concerned, there were huge differences, as some had only a couple of tens of dollars worth property, whereas the value of László Újházy’s estate in Texas was above $10,000. On a per capita basis, the average Southern Hungarian was worth $2,344, consecutively, considerably poorer than the average Southerner ($3,978). This was partly due to the fact that the Southern society was less receptive towards people of foreign birth than that of the North, and not a single Hungarian had a job linked directly to the plantation system, which proved the most profitable sector.

2. Hungarians in the Confederate Army As a Fulbright visiting researcher in Washington, DC, I have carried out research in the National Archives and the Library of Congress, investigated the service records of the Civil War, the rosters of the individual regiments and the pension files – and I have come to the conclusion that the earlier-mentioned works about the subject are riddled with errors and misconceptions, no wonder that German historian Martin W. Öfele, in his recent book dealing with the German

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AY 2003-2004 soldiers in the U.S. Colored Regiments, called for a comprehensive study of the Hungarian involvement in the conflict, which “has so far received only scarce attention in historical literature.”56 On the basis of my research, I have found 106 confirmed Hungarian participants in the Civil War, and I established that earlier historians had exaggerated this number a whole lot. (Ács, for instance, estimated that there were 5,000 Hungarian soldiers in the Civil War, whereas the total number of people of Hungarian birth living in the US was considerably lower at the time.57) 13 per cent of the Hungarian soldiers sprang to arms in support of the Confederate cause, among them 5 officers (two colonels, one captain and three 2nd lieutenants). This number is considerably higher than it was suspected earlier. It is, therefore, worth examining their possible motivations for joining the Confederate army. Some of them must have felt sympathy with other law-abiding people who felt contempt for the Federal Government’s failure to afford loyal Southerners aid and support. They did not want to be treated as cowards in their local communities either. Moreover, the love of adventure was undoubtedly in the heart of every volunteer. Some historians argue that the Confederate Conscription Law, 56 Martin W. Öfele, German-Speaking Officers in the U.S. Colored Troops, 1863-1867. Gainesville, FL: The

which was passed in May 1862, meant a change in the attitude of the foreigners, as many thought that this measure had been oppressive and despotic. However that may be, all but one Hungarians enlisted before May 1862, and what is more, upon the expiration of their terms of service, all of them re-enlisted, which shows their determination and commitment to the cause. As far as the institution of slavery is concerned, most European immigrants were in general anti-slavery, at the same time they were also against the recognition of the Negro. In San Antonio, TX, where there were very strong links between the German and the Hungarian community, a resolution was adopted declaring slavery an evil, and its removal absolutely necessary, but they held it the problem of the individual state in which the Federal Government should not interfere. Many Southerners saw a parallel between their cause and that of the Hungarians’ back in 1848/49. A Confederate captain explained it to Emeric Szabad, a Hungarian prisoner-of-war that “he found it incomprehensible how a Hungarian could fight with the d---d Yankees against the Southern people who were fighting for what Hungarians had fought for in 1848.”58 The motivations of some others were described by historian Ella Lonn as follows, “Sometimes voluntary enlistments came from men so out of sympathy

University Press of Florida, 2004. My gratitude goes to Irene and Mickey Schubert for sending me a copy of

58 Quoted in Stephen Beszedits, The Libby Prison Diary

the book.

of Colonel Emeric Szabad. (Toronto: B&L Information

57 Ács, Magyarok, p.23.

Services, 1999.), p. 75.

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Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study with the cause that their presence in the Confederate States army can be only explained by the phrase ‘drifiting along with the tide’.” One of the longest-lasting myths in connection with the Civil War that ”Yankees recruited foreign mercenaries to do their fighting.” The Richmond Examiner declared that the Union army was composed mainly of ”the riff-raff of Germany and Ireland” and many Southern historians accepted the idea that ”the majority of Yankee soldiers were foreign hirelings.”59 Indeed, among Hungarians – similarly to the sons of other nations – there were soldiers of fortune. George Klapka, former commander-in-chief of the Hungarian army during the Hungarian War of Independence, offered his services for a bonus of $100,000 in cash and a salary of $25,000 per annum as the commanderin-chief of the Union forces.60 In a letter to Ellen Ewing Sherman, William Tecumseh Sherman described another Hungarian, Anthony Vallas, professor of mathematics and philosophy at the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and Military Academy, as a “foreigner who doesn’t care [too much about] the Confederacy, but will follow his immediate self-interests,” and referred to him as a “hypocritical foreigner who would serve the Devil for his pay.”61

William Harris wrote the following about Col. Adolphus Adler, Hungarian engineer-in-chief of the Wise Legion in the Confederate Army, who was imprisoned at Richmond for not carrying out orders of his superiors-in-rank and was accused of Northern sympathies and was thence sentenced to death: “he would have turned Turk, Secesh, and Unionist alternately, in order to escape his portending doom.”62 In this second part of my paper, I propose to take one of the “Southern” Hungarian’s career as a case study, and examine whether he can be considered a soldier of fortune who was indeed “drifting along with the tide” or he was an ardent supporter of the Confederate cause.

59 Quoted in James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The

and December 1860. In Sherman’s Civil War: Selected

Civil War and the Reconstruction. (N.Y.: McGraw-Hill

Correspondence of William T. Sherman, 1860-65. (Eds.

3. International Fraud or Southern Hero?: Col. Béla Estván, Hungarian Cavalry Officer in the Confederate Army

At the centennial of the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1961 the Kossuth Foundation resolved to commemorate the participation of Hungarians in the War Between the States and published a booklet titled Béla Estván: Hungarian Cavalry Colonel in the Confederate Army written by András H. Pogány. This book

Publishing Co., 1982.), p. 358.

Brooks D. Simpson and Jean V. Berlin) (Chapel Hill: The

60 George B. McClellan, McClellan’s Own Story: The

University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p.4 and p.

War for the Union. (New York: Charles L. Webster Co.,

1887), p.143.

62 William Harris, Prison-Life in the Tobacco Warehouse

61 Sherman to Ellen Ewing Sherman. Nov.3, 1860

at Richmond. (Philadelphia: G.W. Childs, 1862.)

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AY 2003-2004 was entirely based upon Estván’s own War Pictures from the South and the author hardly added anything to the facts in the Hungarian officer’s book. Although the volume is rather thin, it is riddled with errors. (For instance, Pogány claims that George B. McClellan became the commander-in-chief of the Confederate Army!)63 However, Pogány’s gravest mistake was taking everything for granted that Estván had stated, in spite of the fact that even his contemporaries doubted the validity of most of Estván’s statements. Merton E. Coulter voiced his own opinion of the Hungarian as follows: “There is some reason to believe that Estvan was a fraud, and was never in the Confederate army. His account is of little value since most of it is not about personal experiences, but is an attempted history of the Confederate military campaigns.”64 Edmund Vasváry, an ardent student of the history of the Hungarian-American community and author of Lincoln’s Hungarian Heroes, also mentioned Estván among the Hungarians who supported the South in the War between the States in his articles published serially in the monthly of the William Penn Fraternal Association between 1961 and 1964. Yet,

he himself called for further research, which, he indicated, “would be able to discover some favorable testimony about the life of this mysterious and elusive individual.”65 My own findings, summarized here, support the conclusion that Estván was a Münchausen-figure, a soldier-of-fortune who made use of every opportunity to advance his own position without caring much for which side he supported. Little is known about Estván’s early life. According to Pogány, he was born in 1827, although in the Census of 1860 the date of birth he gave was 1815.66 Pogány managed to identify a family of lesser nobility in Hungary named Estván, but cannot give proof of the fact that the person under our scrutiny was indeed the descendant of that particular family.67 Béla became an officer of the Imperial Army of Austria-Hungary and later he wrote that he had “served the king of Hungary for fourteen years.”68 He served in Italy under Radetzky as a captain of cavalry and participated in 65 Edmund Vasváry, “Lincoln and the Hungarians” in William Penn Fraternal Association: Pittsburgh, PA. 1961-64. p. 30. 66 Pogány, Béla Estván, p. 5. Pogány possibly gained this information from the Catalogue of the Library of

63 András H. Pogány, Béla Estván: Hungarian Cavalry

Congress; The Census of 1860. Richmond, VA. National

Colonel in the Confederate Army. (New York: Kossuth

Archives, Washington, D.C., m-653.

Foundation Inc., 1961) Hereafter cited as Pogány, Béla

67 Pogány, Béla Estván, p. 4. He refers to the following

Estván; Béla Estván, War Pictures from the South (New

book:

York: Appleton and Co., 1863); Pogány, Béla Estván,

[Hungarian Noble Families]. (Budapest, 1911)

p. 6.

68 Béla Estván to Jefferson Davis. June 10, 1861.

64 Merton E. Coulter, Travels in the Confederate States.

National Archives, Washington, D.C., Letters Received

(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1948), pp.90-

by the Confederate Secretary of War. RG 109. M-437,

91.

Reel 3, f1378.

206

Béla

Kempelen,

Magyar

nemes

családok

Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study the Italian campaign of 1848. Having heard of the outbreak of the Hungarian revolution, he returned to Hungary and Governor Kossuth appointed him colonel of cavalry. After the Hungarian forces laid down their arms at Világos in 1849, Estván had to leave the country in order to escape persecution and – similarly to many of his comrades – sought refuge in England. The exact date when he left for the United States is not known, but it is highly probable that he sailed for the “Land of the Free” in 1850-51 right before or during former Hungarian Governor, Lajos Kossuth’s tour of the country. None of the sources mention him as a member of Kossuth’s escort and the reasons why he wound up in Richmond, Virginia are not clear either. That notwithstanding, in his letter to Confederate President Jefferson Davis in 1861, he wrote that he had been the citizen of the city for eight years, so since 1853.69 The most mysterious part of Estván’s adventurous career was yet to come. In his book he boasted of having participated in the Crimean War and called himself the Hero of Sebastopol. No sources support the validity of these statements. As a matter of fact, Hungarian refugees in the United States were organizing an expeditionary force which was to sail over to Europe and help the Turks against

the Russians.70 There is no evidence to prove that organized Hungarian units participated in the war, although there were some individuals who did. None of them, however, sided with the Russians, except for Col. Estván if his claims can be believed. Nevertheless, one clue shows that at least some credit could be given to Estván’s words. The would-be Union Commander-in-Chief, Gen. George B. McClellan was present in the Crimean War as a military observer and it is possible that he met the Hungarian adventurer there. It is known that he had shown great interest in the Hungarian fight for freedom against the Habsburgs back in 1849 and asked to be sent to Hungary as a military observer, but his plan came to nothing because of the victory of the joint Austrian and Russian forces. He might have met Estván there and this might provide an explanation to the surprising fact that, when his War Pictures was published for the first time in Britain in 1863, Estván dedicated it to McClellan, in spite of the fact that the Hungarian colonel had served in the Conferederate Army. (The 1864 issue was dedicated to the soldiers of both armies.) After the Crimean War Estván returned to the United States and settled down in Richmond. There is only sporadic reference to his Pre-Civil War years. Hermann Schuricht in his significant 70 The reason for this was the fact that Turkey had

69 Béla Estván to Jefferson Davis. June 10, 1861.

afforded asylum to the Hungarian political refugees who

National Archives, Washington, D.C., Letters Received

left Hungary after the defeat of the War of Independence

by the Confederate Secretary of War. RG 109. M-437,

by Austria and Russia. The New York Times (November

Reel 3, f1378.

17, 1853.)

207

AY 2003-2004 book on the Germans living in Virginia writes the following, not too flattering lines about Estván: “He (the so-called Count) lived there (in Richmond) upon the earnings of his two ladies, his wife and his sister-in-law, who gave lessons. (…) He himself was a very good-looking jovial man and knew how to play the part of an upright Austrian country nobleman to perfection.”71 The Census of 1860 indeed supports Schuricht’s claims. One can find two ladies living in Estván’s household: Marie Estván, 25, and Laura Lacey, 22, both of whom made their living as French teachers. Béla and Marie had a two-year old daughter, Mary.72 However, we can just guess what sort of enterprise he was involved in. Ella Lonn, one of the foremost scholars of the field, states that Estván reached prominence in the Virginia militia and, mainly due to his experience gained in European battlefields, obtained a colonelcy by the time of John Brown’s raid on Harper’s Ferry in 1859.73 According to Pogány, Estván took part in the suppression of the rebellion as well.74 There is a 5-page sheet music titled Chicora, the original name of Carolina; Chicora, the Indian name of Carolina from 71 Hermann Schuricht, History of the German Element in Virginia. (Baltimore, 1898-1900). pp. 88-89. Hereafter cited as Schuricht, History

1861 in the possession of the Rare Book, Manuscript and Special Collections Library of the Duke University in Durham, South Carolina, on which the name of C. B. Estvan is mentioned as the publisher. It is dedicated to the patriotic ladies of the Southern Confederated States of North America, so we have every reason to believe that Estván was a rather enthusiastic supporter of the Confederate cause.75 The outbreak of the Civil War found the Hungarian in Richmond, the would-be capital of the newly-born Confederate States of America. Estván states in his book that he served as a commander of cavalry in the Confederate Army, and participated in a number of engagements including the first battle at Bull Run and Fair Oaks. Estván belonged to Longstreet’s staff in the battle of Seven Pines and Gaines’ Mill and claimed that he was the one who changed the outcome of the latter engagement. A glorious military career. The only problem is that no evidence of any sort can be found which validates his statements. No Confederate commander mentioned his name in their memoirs and letters, and there is no trace of him in the Official Records of the Civil War either. Considering this fact, no words will be wasted here upon the military deeds of which he boasts in his book. Instead, I suggest that we take a look at the docu-

72 The Census of 1860. Richmond, VA. National Archives, Washington, D.C., M-653.

75 Chicora, the Original Name of Carolina; Chicora, the

Ella Lonn, Foreigners in the Confederacy.

Indian name of Carolina. Barhamville, South Carolina,

(The University of North Carolina Press, 1940), p.175.

1861. Conf. Music #132, Rare Book, Manuscript, and

Hereafter cited as Lonn, Foreigners

Special Collections Library, Duke University, Durham,

74 Pogány, Béla Estván, p. 7.

N.C.

208

Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study ments which can be found in the archives and try to ”take the measure” of Estván on the basis of these. In his War Pictures Estván writes the following about his alleged enlistment: “circumstances led me to take service in the confederate army – my long residence in the Southern States being, however, the main inducement thereto.”76 His unwillingness is emphasized elsewhere too: “It was now 13 years that I had been away from my native home and now, drawn into the whirlpool of events, I found myself, almost against my will, serving in the ranks of a foreign army, and fighting for a cause, with which neither my head nor my heart could thoroughly sympathize.”77 However difficult Estván found it to identify with the Confederate cause, on June 22, 1861 he wrote the following letter to Confederate President Jefferson Davis: To His Excellency

Being widely known amongst my countrymen and hoping to meet with ultimate success, I should be highly flattered if his Excellency would give me the permission to furnish me with the necessary means to establish a foreign Legion. I refer to Hon. [illegible name] of Charleston. I have the honor to remain Your Excellency’s most obedient servant: C. B. Estván78 Upon reading these lines one hardly has the impression that Estván was not more than willing to offer his services to the Confederate cause. But even so, barely a fortnight after the first letter Estván wrote another one to Davis:

The undersigned most respectfully begs have to [sic] offer his services to his Excellency the President of the Southern Confederated States. I served the king of Hungary for fourteen years as a captain of cavalry and fought the victories in Italy under Radetzki. Governor Kossuth of Hungary appointed me afterwards to Colonel of cavalry and served him in that capacity for two years. For the last eight years I have been a citizen of Richmond Virginia.

I, the undersigned most respectfully submit to your Excellency the following plan which if it should meet your approbation will be carried into execution as soon as I am furnished with the necessary permission. I propose to raise in the states of Virginia, Tennessee and Kentucky recruits for two foreign regiments: one of cavalry and one of infantry which if formed will be subject to the command of Brigadier General Wise. The two regiments would be mustered in for the duration of the

His Excellency, President Jefferson Davis.

76 Estván, War Pictures, iii.

78 National Archives. M-437. Letters Received by the

77 Quoted in Lonn, Foreigners, p. 58.

Confederate Secretary of War. RG 109. Reel 3, f1378.

209

AY 2003-2004 war; – the soldiers to be allowed to elect their officers captains included. In [illegible] you will please allow me to give some details of my military life: I have served fourteen years as captain of cavalry in the Austrian army and afterwards as colonel under Gov. Kossuth in Hungary. For the last eight years I have been a citizen of Richmond Virginia. I have the honor to remain Your Excellency’s most obedient servant: B. Estván79 Davis handed over both letters to Confederate Secretary of War Leroy P. Walker, who inquired of opinions of Robert E. Lee and other military leaders in Richmond. These two letters are the only documents which reveal some direct connection between Estván and the military apparatus of the Confederate States. It cannot be confirmed that Estván had been commissioned as his name cannot be found in any of the rosters of regiments. Therefore, one cannot escape approaching all his statements in War Pictures with extreme caution, especially the parts about his own role. Even his contemporaries could not agree on how much his analyses of the events of the Civil War can be taken for granted. The New York Herald, for example, wrote that Estván had started a military school in Richmond, consequently, he undisputedly was a military

expert.80 As opposed to this, his reviewer in The New York Times wrote that Estván was “unimportant as a historian and probably insignificant as a commander” and “his claims as a military critic are not likely to be accepted by either side.” In conclusion, he maliciously remarks that “[Estván] gazes on the battlefield with the calm indifference of the woman who witnessed the conflict between her husband and a bear,” which is the “correct temperament of a soldier, but it is also the characteristics [sic] of a mercenary.”81 There is, however, another documented side to Estván’s career: together with Louis Froehlich, Estván embarked on making cavalry sabers and bayonets in Wilmington, North Carolina.82 As early as January 20, 1861, their firm (Froehlich&Estvan or C.S. Arms Factory) had a contract with the state of North Carolina and made 61 cavalry sabers and 133 saber bayonets which three days later was followed by an order for another 35 cavalry sabers and 97 saber bayonets; the two orders combined were worth of $5,267. Between January 20, 1861 and March 1, 1862 the firm produced 479 cavalry sabers, 1054 saber bayonets and a couple of artillery bayonets. In 1862 cavalry sabers cost $24.50 apiece, whereas for the saber bayonets the Ordnance Office of North Carolina at Raleigh paid $10.50 apiece. Confederate Secretary of War J.P. Benjamin received a letter dated 80 The New York Herald. (July 29, 1863). 81 The New York Times. (July 19, 1863.), p. 3. 82 For the firm see, L. Froehlich & B. Estvan. National

79 National Archives. M-437. Letters Received by the

Archives. M-346. Confederate Papers Relating to

Confederate Secretary of War. RG 109., Reel 4, f475.

Citizens or Business Firms. Roll #287.

210

Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study March 11, 1862, from Henry T. Clark on behalf of the Nineteenth North Carolina Cavalry Volunteer Regiment from Raleigh, N.C., in which he complains that the regiment is just partly armed and is “yet without sabers, although we spared neither effort nor money. We engaged from the Eastvan & Froelich [sic] sword factory at Wilmington, and paid high prices, but three-fourths of the swords proved worthless.”83 It was around then when the firm started to face serious financial difficulties. So much so that on April 23, 1862, The Weekly Standard of Raleigh published an ad seeking people who had claims against Froehlich&Estvan or C.S. Arms Factory were sought.84 It seems very probable that Estván quit very soon thereafter.85 Ella Lonn also confirmed this by stating that Louis Froehlich continued making swords alone at Kenansville, N.C. after his unsuccessful venture with Estván. He employed about 15-20 hands in his manufactory which was closed down in 1864.86 No other details of Estván’s Civil War career can be supported with documents. In War Pictures he states that after 18 months of campaigning with the Confederate Army he got yellow fever 83 War of the Rebellion. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. 128 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1880-1901.) Series IV. Vol. 1., p. 987.

and resigned his commission.87 In the eyes of Ella Lonn his resignation was rather due to the fact that promotion for the foreign-born was not easy at all in the Confederate Army. She wrote that “probably this slowness of recognition had much to do with Estván’s disgruntled attitude toward the Confederacy and ultimate departure in the midst of the war.”88 Confederate President Jefferson Davis said to a visitor in Richmond: “Our service offers but little inducement to the soldiers of fortune, but a great deal to the men of principle.”89 Hermann Schuricht offered an entirely different explanation for Estván’s leaving the Southern states: “When the Civil War commenced, he pretended to have recruited in North Carolina a regiment of Lancers and was authorized to draw from the Ordnance Department the necessary equipage” which he took to North Carolina and sold there. He also said that Estván tried to gain popularity in the North by claiming that he had deserted, gone to Washington, D.C. in full Confederate uniform and, according to him, Estván was even received by President Lincoln.90 No records support any of his statements. Whatever Estván’s real reasons for leaving the Confederate States might have been, on September 13, 1862 he applied for a passport to the authorities in Washington and left America for Britain soon after.91

84 The Weekly Standard (April 23, 1862.) 85 For the firm’s contracts with the Ordnance Office at

87 Estván, War Pictures, p. 175.

Raleigh, see, National Archives. M-346. Confederate

88 Lonn, Foreigners, p. 166.

Papers Relating to Citizens and Business Firms. RG109,

89 Quoted in ibid. p. 33

Roll #327.

90 Schuricht, History. 2:88-89.

86 Lonn, Foreigners, p. 333.

91 National Archives. M-1371: Registers and Indexes

211

AY 2003-2004 Once in England, Estván wrote his War Pictures from the South, which saw three editions within slightly more than a year.92 This shows its relative success, although even the contemporary American press was divided over the book – Northern and Southern alike. Of course, the Confederate press treated him as a deserter and a foreign mercenary. The Daily Richmond Examiner described him in these words: “In these war times, they [the deserters] are plentiful under the uniform of military officers. Estván, the soi-disant count, who ran to the North after playing out his calls here, was one of a particular class.”93 The New York Times reviewer of his book was hardly less critical, claiming that Col. Estvan belongs to the large class of warriors who can “be sharked up for any enterprise that hath a stomach in’t.[…] We should prefer that he stood up more manfully either for the North or the South.”94 Estván’s impartiality is what was particularly emphasized by The North American Review. His reviewer adds, “His book seems to us eminently wise in its judgements and opinions, is in its tone friendly to the people of the North.”95 for Passport Applications. Roll #03, No. 8325. 92 War Pictures from the South was first published in Britain by Warner and Routledge in 1863. Under the same title in the United States it was published by D. Appleton in 1863, which was soon followed by

This is the point where most sources finish Estván’s story. Schuricht suggests that he revisited his old fatherland, Austria, and he was arrested and prosecuted as a criminal in Vienna.96 No sources again support these claims. There are, however, other details concerning the Hungarian’s career which have been revealed only recently. In the summer of 1864 the Emperor Maximilian arrived in Mexico, intending to create a new imperial order in the country. He enjoyed the military and financial support of Napoleon III, but he soon had to face grave financial difficulties as the French emperor lost interest and gradually withdrew his support. He also found an avowed enemy in the person of President Andrew Johnson, who wanted to get rid of the French as soon as the Civil War in the United States was over. The Monroe Doctrine became a subject for public discussion and the American public demanded its enforcement. Maximilian decided to meet this challenge by counter-propaganda. He sought recognition and he did not think that he was playing a losing game. He established an agency in New York, which served as the center for imperial intrigue and propaganda. In 1865 the emperor appointed Luis de Arroyo consul general for the Mexican empire. His primary task was to secure recognition by the United States.97

the German translation under the title Kriegsbilder aus Amerika. Von B. Estvan, oberst der cavalerie der

(October 1863), pp. 583-584.

Conföderirten armee published in Leipzig by F.A.

96 Schuricht, History. 2:89.

Brockhaus in 1864.

97 Robert W. Frazer, “Maximilian’s Propaganda Activities

93 Daily Richmond Examiner, February 5, 1864.

in the United States, 1865-1866,” Hispanic American

94 The New York Times, July 19, 1863, p.3.

Historical Review, Vol.24, No.1 (Feb., 1944), pp. 4-5.

95 The North American Review Vol.97, Issue 201,

Hereafter cited as Frazer, “Maximilian”

212

Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study It was in his New York office that Arroyo was visited a number of times by Béla Estván. Arroyo recalled that “he gave the impression that he was a man of some consequence, and spoke encouragingly of the imperial prospects of recognition.”98 He was told by Estván that he had been the special correspondent for the New York Herald, and was sent to Mexico by James Gordon Bennett in October 1865. He managed to secure an audience with the emperor and later he summed up his motivations: “(…) despite my seventeen years of absence from my homeland I still preserved a deep affection for the imperial Family of the House of Habsburg, I took the opportunity with vivid interest to indirectly serve an imperial Prince, thus redeeming the political debt which I still had to pay to the Austrian House from previous years.”99 Upon reading these lines we fully have to agree with historian Robert W. Frazer, who remarked that “it was doubtful that he desired to serve an imperial prince as much as he wished to serve Béla Estván.”100 Nevertheless, Estván’s plan of subsidizing the American press was backed both by Maximilian and Arroyo. The emperor retained Estván for two years at $ 5,000 a year. In addition, the Hungarian was provided a whopping $40,000 a year 98 Arroyo to Castillo, October 24, 1865. Hausarchiv, Archiv

Kaiser

Maximilians

von

Mexiko,

for expenses, which was still only half of what Estván had hoped for.101 Estván returned to New York and his task was to prepare the material furnished by others for publication. He had to account for his expenditures at the end of each month, which displeased him very much. Whatever his feelings about these restrictions, he got down to opening offices in Washington and New York at once and employed several assistants. He spent only on this more than $40,000 during the first year. In addition, his budget called for an additional $35,000, well above the sum provided for that year.102 Both Louis Borg, head of the Mexican consulate, and Maximilian’s agent, Mariano Degollado were amazed by Estván’s budget. They hesitated to provide the Hungarian with additional sum he requested. Finally they agreed to give him $7,500, but refused to give him more. Estván made extensive use of propaganda in New York, whereas in Washington he was more interested in developing personal contacts and planning petty intrigues. According to his own account, he managed to bribe – among others – three New York newspapers and paid $750 each to the Herald, Tribune and Times. However, none of the three published articles favorable to the empire, save some sporadic ones in the Tribune which was probably rather due to Horace Greeley’s opposition to

Karton

146, Arroyo, fol. 76. Library of Congress facsimiles

101 Estván to Fischer, January 12, 1867, Hausarchiv,

from Austrian archives. Hereafter cited as Arroyo,

Archiv Kaiser Maximilians von Mexiko, Karton 144,

Hausarchiv.

Berichte von B. Estvan aus New-York, fols. 685-687.

99 Quoted in Frazer, “Maximilian”, p. 19.

Hereafter cited as Estvan, Hausarchiv.

100 Ibid.

102 Frazer, “Maximilian”, pp. 20-21.

213

AY 2003-2004 the administration.103 Therefore, it is not at all unlikely that Estván pocketed the subsidies himself. The Hungarian spent most of his time in the capital trying to form acquaintanceships. For example, he became acquainted with the leaders of the Fenian movement and soon boasted that he had won almost a million voters for the empire.104 Estván fought vigorously for a free hand as far as the expenditure of money was concerned, but his pleas were rejected. When one of his installments failed to arrive, he turned to George Francis Train, one of his Fenian acquaintances, and a candidate for the U.S. Senate from Nebraska, for aid and was lent $15,000; in return he gave Train a bill of exchange on the imperial government. Estván’s drafts, however, returned unpaid and he could not turn Maximilian’s order into cash either.105 Arroyo was not satisfied with the output of Estván’s bureau. A number of articles treating the Mexican question appeared in the press, but most of them were partisan in nature (the Republicans were for the peaceful settlement of the question, whereas the Democratic press favored measures against the empire), and not the product of the Hungarian and his assistants. In April, 1866 Arroyo finally decided not to provide Estván with additional funds. Estván was forbidden to call himself an employee of the imperial government and he could not make offers and concessions concerning Mexico. The 103 Frazer, “Maximilian”, p. 22.

documents regarding his activities were sent to the imperial foreign office, and the press campaign was terminated. He followed Castillo, who was in Europe with the Empress Charlotte, to Paris and Rome, but he could not achieve anything. He returned to New York, but his part in Maximilian’s propaganda activities had ended.106 Meanwhile, the emperor’s days in Mexico were numbered. In May 1867 he was captured by the soldiers of Juarez and – despite the objections of European diplomacy – he was executed on June 19. Soon thereafter, on July 6, The New York Times published an open letter to the editor written by Béla Estván, who titled himself as director of the Imperial Bureau of Mexico in the United States. In this letter, Estván accused the United States Government of a “reprehensible and selfdishonoring hesitation” and questioned why the United States failed to defend the life of Maximilian. He remarked that it was the United States which forced France and other European powers to leave Mexico referring to the Monroe doctrine and should have had “the moral power, supported by an invincible military force, to protect, in the interest of our modern civilization, the life of a Christian Prince, from whom it had taken the means of self-protection and even of escape.” The Hungarian called it the last act of his official duty to the murdered Emperor to give this solemn protest to the American people.107 Not much is known about his life thereafter. At the end of 1867 he wrote a letter to Cassius Marcellus Clay, the American

104 Estván to Castillo, February 23, 1866. Estvan, Hausarchiv, Karton 144, fols. 629-631.

106 Frazer, “Maximilian”, p.27.

105 Frazer, “Maximilian”, pp. 24-25.

107 The New York Times (July 6, 1867)

214

Soldiers of Hungarian Birth in the Confederate Army with a Case Study ambassador to Russia, from London. 108 This indicates that soon after the tragic end of Maximilian he returned to Europe. It is not clear how well Clay and Estván knew each other, but the informal parts of the letter show that they had been acquainted with each other for some time. It is not clear either what Estván was doing in St. Petersburg, Berlin and London. No documents have been found so far which would reveal any more details of Estván’s life. There is a trace, however, which may serve as a starting point for further research. In the database of WorldCat one can find a book written by – according the catalogue – B(éla). Estván. The work titled, Der badische Entwurf einer Wertzuwachsteuer; eine kritische Studie [The Draft of a Value Added Tax in Baden; A Criticial Study], was published in Mannheim, Germany around 1911.109 However, it is highly probable that there is some confusion about the author as – according to the catalogue of the Central Library of Mönchengladbach, Germany – the author of the work is a Dr. Heinrich Peter. This name is included in WorldCat as well, labeled as the person responsible for the publication. If it is taken into consideration that Estván 108 Estván to Cassius Marcellus Clay, Dec. 13, 1867. Cassius Marcellus Papers Special Collection, Abraham

would have been well over 80 by 1911, and no detail in the book refers to the writer, we have no reason to suspect that the author was Estván himself, especially as the book is of highly theoretical nature and to our knowledge the Hungarian had no economic qualification whatsoever. Basically that is all we know about Béla Estván. There is one more thing, however, which would be interesting to track down. In 1872 a book titled Harry Delaware, or, An American in Germany was published in New York, which was written by a Mathilde Estvan.110 It would be necessary to confirm whether she was in any kind of relationship with Béla or not. Unfortunately, I have not been able to find any further detail about her life so far.111 As one can see, there are still a number of uncertainties concerning the life and career of Béla Estván. Although several so far unknown documents have been revealed which shed light on many aspects of the Hungarian’s personality, and, in my opinion, prove that Béla Estván was indeed a soldier-of-fortune, an adventurer whose primary aim was to make personal profit of every possible situation. Nevertheless, Estván was the only Hungarian participant of the American Civil War who wrote a book about what he experienced (if he did), and it became a real bestseller of the day. Every now and then, excerpts from

Lincoln Library and Museum of the Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee. 109

Estván,

B.,

Der

badische

110 Mathilde Estvan, Harry Delaware, or, An American Entwurf

einer

in Germany (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1872)

Wertzuwachsteuer; eine kritische Studie (Mannheim:

111 For basic information on Mathilde Estvan see,

J. Bensheimer, ca. 1911). I would like to express my

John Foster Kirk, A Supplement to Allibone’s Critical

gratitude to the Interlibrary Loan staff of the Bloomington

Dictionary of English Literature, Vol. I. (Philadelphia:

Library of IU for securing the only existing copy for me

Lippincott & Co., 1891.), p.562. Unfortunately, no

from Mönchengladbach, Germany.

details of her family background are given.

215

AY 2002-2003 his book are re-published in books and magazines and his War Pictures is really a thrilling experience to read – even if its credibility is highly questionable.112

4. Concluding Remarks Having been able to spend six months in the United States was indeed the (Ful)bright side of life for a me as a researcher. The subject of my doctoral dissertation by its nature requires investigations a considerable proportion of which cannot be carried out elsewhere, but in archives and libraries in the United States. Therefore, I have to emphasize my appreciation to the William J. Fulbright Commission for making this possible for me. Their generous support enabled me to gather enough (actually, being in the phase of writing my dissertation, I feel that more than enough) material to give an objective analysis of the Hungarians’ involvement in the War Between the States, which is so much missing from the otherwise vast literature of the American Civil War. However, there is another – in my judgement – equally important aspect of the grant. Although being a university instructor teaching courses on American culture and institutions and various issues in 19th-century U.S. history, I had never had the opportunity to visit America. The importance of first-hand information about a particular culture does not need to be emphasized, and I was lucky enough to get acquainted with a lot of people, both 112 Béla Estván, “The Yankee Wounded, “ in The Romance of the Civil War. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1903). The same article has been just recently re-published in Skedaddle, Vol. I, Issue 2 (March 3, 2004), pp.1-3.

216

from in- and outside the academic sphere who helped my work in many ways. Let me, therefore, acknowledge my debt to at least some of them. I would like to acknowledge the generous support of the Hungarian Bureau of the William J. Fulbright Commission, whose staff members provided me with all possible help throughout the whole period, which enabled me to concentrate entirely on my work. I am indebted to Prof. Leslie Rowland from the Department of History at the University of Maryland for her academic supervision. I am particularly grateful to Irene and Mickey Schubert for their kind hospitality, to Steve Beszedits for his valuable pieces of advice. Of course, I would not have been able to achieve my goals without the expertise of the librarians and archivists of the institutions which I had the opportunity to do research at, my thanks, therefore, go to them as well: The National Archives and The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., The McKeldin Library of the University of Maryland, the various libraries of Indiana University in Bloomington, IN and the Chicago Historical Society in Chicago, IL. Since my returning to Hungary, it has always been a special occassion for me to meet fellow Fulbrighters (luckily enough, there are a number of colleagues of mine among them including the supervisor of my dissertation), and it fills me with pride to be a member of the ‘Fulbright family’ – as Director Huba Brückner refers to us quite affectionately. I sincerely hope that one day I will have the opportunity to return to the United States as a Fulbright visiting researcher or perhaps a lecturer.

Half year as Fulbright grantee at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Zsuzsanna Balázsné Langó

............................................................................. Eötvös LorÁnd University Department of Microbiology 1117 Budapest, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C mikrobiologia.elte.hu langozsu@ludens.elte.hu

The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Public Health Chapel Hill, NC 27599 www.sph.unc.edu Adviser: Dr. Robert Wetzel

............................................................................. As Fulbright grantee I was the last guest researcher in doctor Wetzel’s team, working together with the giant of aquatic science. Unfortunately he became very ill in this period and we lost him in April 2005. He helped my life and work with frankly friendship which I never forget.

Recollection

Robert George Wetzel was born on 16 August 1936 in Ann Arbor (Michigan). His parents immigrated to the United States from Germany and as a small child he learned German before he learned English. He graduated in 1959 in Ann Arbor and got Ph.D. degree at Davis University of California. From 1965 to 1990 he taught as Associate Professor and Professor at Department of Botany and Zoology of Michigan State University.

From 1990 to 2001 he was Professor of University of Alabama and from 2001 Professor of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. For 36 years he served as secretary of International Society of Limnology and from 1994 was elected as member of American Academy of Arts and Science. “His thoughts, and the brilliant synthesis of all aspects of lakes and streams in his writings – 23 books and 400+ publications,

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AY 2004-2005 including the definitive book of this fieldcompletely changed scientific understanding of how freshwater ecosystems work.” (JoAnn Burkholder). He called attention to protection of water supply at every forum. At the end of eighties he was invited to Hungary and visited the Hungarian Limnological Institute Tihany. He appreciated the Hungarian limnologists as Olga Sebestyén or Béla Entz, as young scientist had worked with them in International Society of Limnology. Talking about this visit, he liked very much the special atmosphere of the Lake Balaton. He was artist, loved to create paintings of the lakes and streams he studied. Hungarian Professors appreciated his scientific work and he was elected as Honorary Member of Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 2004. His humble manner, great education and endless humanity affected all people.

First appointment with Dr. Robert Wetzel in the United States 08.03.04. Raleigh

Late afternoon on August 3rd our plane landed at Raleigh Airport. After the long period of official administrative work, we were looking forward to the meeting. Getting off the escalator I immediately recognized the Professor who was standing quietly near the window and reading a newspaper but paying attention to the arriving passengers. Fortunately I remembered vividly his face because three years ago I was introduced to him in Australia

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at SIL conference. I discovered a smile on his face when I stepped toward him, and we greeted each other with friendly warmth. While my husband and son were waiting for our luggage, we started talking. Although the sunlight was shining hard through the enormous window of the waiting hall, the temperature was pleasant inside because of the air- conditioning. I was tired but enthusiastic after the long journey from Europe to the New World. Waiting at the luggage desk, Professor Wetzel pointed out the golf clubs and added “In the United States lots of people are fond of golf.” – “Do you play golf too? “– I asked back. – “No, I do not, my favorite hobby is the painting,” he replied smiling. This was very interesting for me because one of my presents for Professor Wetzel – Bob - was a painting by my artist friend. Our luggage arrived safely so we could start toward Bob’s car, which was near in the parking garage. After leaving the waiting hall, we were touched with humid, tropical pressed warm air; it was hard to breathe. “For some days we have got this warm weather, said Bob. Meantime we put our luggage into the boot of the car and started toward Chapel Hill. We were driving on wide, multilined highways. The never-ending forest was all around. The traffic did not go fast, everything was peaceful and calm. Bob told us that he sometimes drove with higher speed, so he had to pay attention to the velocity. Before coming here at home I had read at home about the agriculture

Appointment with Dr. Robert Wetzel in the United States and industry of North Carolina, so I was looking for the famous tobacco fields. Bob told me that productivity of tobacco industry had decreased because of the health campaigns, so the large tobacco fields have disappeared. At twilight time we reached the boundary of Chapel Hill. Looking at the mobile houses along Airport Road. Bob explained us that though Chapel Hill’s citizens were rich there were poor people, too, who live in these houses, without electricity or water or health insurance--mainly Mexican families, and Afro-Americans. Bob took us on a sightseeing tour before delivering us to our apartment. In the downtown we could glance at the historic district with university buildings from the car. The first state university was established in Chapel Hill more than two hundred years ago. The old well that supplied students with water is now the symbol of the University. Nearby, there is the famous Wilson Library, which has the richest manuscript collection in the southern states. In Kenan Stadium a soccer match was going on; though it was only early August, lots of students had arrived back in their university city. In the main street Bob pointed out a restaurant. “This is ‘Top of the Hill,’ the favorite meeting point of the students.” During our tour we reached the new wing of the Public Health School building; Bob was very proud of it “The next year we will move into this building,” he told us with a hopeful voice. It was dark when we arrived at our apartment in Northampton Plaza. Bob

led the way, because he had got the key a day before. After taking our luggage from the car, treasures came out, which Bob gave us. He and his wife, Carol offered us everything, from bed cloths to towels. Our astonishment became bigger and bigger in the apartment. The refrigerator was full of food, with apples, bread, milk, sausage, jelly. Their welcome was so kind and friendly, we will never forget it. Opening my suitcase I immediately gave him the painting. He held it in his hands, and we looked at it together, discovering together the leaves of the water plants and the movement of the yellowish-green water. He told me that he loved impressionist pictures. I was very happy that I had chosen the best present for Bob. It seams the spirit has such tiny vibrations which do not know borders, oceans, seas and many miles. As he left, he wished us good night.

Last appointment with Dr. Robert Wetzel in the United States 01.25.05 Chapel Hill

On that January afternoon there was bright sunshine and I started forward Bob’s house. I wrapped the Hungarian present for him and collected my results on six month work. During twenty-minute walking lots of reflections run through in my mind. We met two months ago in November –“In what kind of condition I will find him? Will he be interesting in my results?”

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AY 2004-2005 I arrived at 1 oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; clock pm to the entrance of his houseâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s door. After some seconds of the ring Bob stood in front of me. I was pleased that his condition was not so bad on this day. We entered to the study and he offered me a seat, near the painting stand. The walls were decorated with his nice, favorite pictures. Music was sounded, such soft, body and spirit tranquil classical Vienna music in the room. Before I arrived he had been working on his manuscript, it seemed a good signal. When I asked about his health condition he answered pessimistically, his voice was full of quiet sadness. He lost a lot weight and his hair began to fall because of chemotherapy treatment. He told me that he was very ill and would not be able to work in new university building very ill. He absolutely knew all on his condition so I could hardly tell him that there always was chance. Glancing at the painting stand I asked

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whether he painted. He nodded, but added that his arms were very week and had to stop it quickly. I tried to encourage him that after the chemotherapy treatment he would get more and more powder. I was not really frank, but I wanted to be optimistic. I realized a deep sadness in his eyes. When I gave him the report on my results he suddenly began to read it and asked me. Explaining him the figures he coughed more times. I suggested that I brought a little water but he indicated, did not need. During our talking he remembered his Hungarian visit and Lake Balaton whose climate and atmosphere impressed on him very much at the end of nineties. After half hour being here I felt that he became tired. I was very sad to say goodby, but I hoped the miracle.

Contemporary Hungarian Literature Enikô Bollobás ............................................................................. Eötvös Loránd University Department of American Studies 1146 Budapest, Ajtósi Dürer sor 19-21. www.btk.elte.hu/das ebollobas@freemail.hu

University of California, San Diego Department of Literature La Jolla, CA 92093 literature.ucsd.edu Adviser: Prof. Donald Wesling

............................................................................. My Fulbright research grant allowed me to have a very productive five-month stay at the University of California, San Diego. It was a rare privilege not to have any other academic responsibilities but research and writing; I could really focus on my theoretical project on the performative and performance aspects of identity construction in American literature. Having worked at UCSD on several occasions earlier (in 1981-82 I was there on an IREX grant, later, in 1986, 1987, and 2002 on short research visits), UCSD was familiar territory for me, with many friends and professional contacts. Everything and everyone on campus contributed to an optimal work environment: the library had the best resources, books, journals, and electronic services; my sponsor, Professor Donald Wesling, has devoted a lot of time to working with me; the faculty were friendly and accessible; the campus was beautiful, the days were long, the weather was perfect. Also, visiting classes, having consultations with several faculty members, and attending the department’s various events, especially public lectures and readings, my attention was drawn to some critical and theoretical issues that I had not been familiar with, or had not considered, previously. Among the benefits I should also list my being able to buy books (I spent over $2,500 on books) and bring them home so that they could be used in research and teaching. (Given the poor library facilities in my home university, in some cases I had to buy multiple copies for students back home.)

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1. Research projects completed 1.1. Az amerikai irodalom története [A History of American Literature] I spent the first six weeks or so of my Fulbright grant doing the last touches on my manuscript just going into printing. This was A History of American Literature in Hungarian, published later in the fall (Budapest: Osiris, 2005, 874 pp). I had to survey the most recent critical literature; get an update on the most recent surveys (literary histories, period & movement histories); get a distance from my six year research and check dates of death. Having had discussions with faculty, looked into syllabi, and visited classes, I came to do major revision over the manuscript (such as rearrange the chapters). I also had to find a good image for the cover, one that could be read as the metaphor of how American literature has been continually restoring and reconstructing American values. The image of the Statue of Liberty in scaffolds does, I trust, convey this message. A grand survey of American literature from its native pre-colonial beginnings to end of the 20th century, my book sets out to uncover the pluralism of American literature and the multiplicity of literary and interpretive canons. In addition to the traditional canon representing the culture of dominant social groups and producing the all too familiar national narratives, this History portrays the multicultural canon of representation as well as the canon of avant-garde experimentation. In other words, side by side with the familiar “Great Books,” the writings of previ-

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ously muted minorities – women, African Americans, Native Americans, Chicanos, gays and lesbians, and others – are treated as integral and representative works. At the same time, the history of avantgardism – the impulse to innovate, renew, change, and experiment even at the expense of being “difficult” or inaccessible – is being surveyed with similar scrutiny. The ultimate thesis of the book concerns one of the most exciting questions of U.S. literature: how representational diversity and experimentation compete for furnishing its unique “Americanness.”

1.2. Speaking Acts and Performing Texts: Reading Gender, Race, Sexual, and Non-Human Identity through the Performative in American Literature

This was my major research project, being written into a new book with a similar title. Here I focus on how acts are performed in literature, creating an interaction between writer, text, and reader. Acts are therefore understood as being performed by both writer and reader; both writing and reading are considered forms of doing. It is also about how these acts bring about changes in both the textual and the actual world we inhabit. My assumption is that while text is the locus, the primary existence of these acts – they are performed in the text through the participation of writer and reader– they interact with context in both determining and being determined by it. In other words, they bring about changes not only in their immediate texts, but also in their contexts, textual and otherwise.

Comparative Hungarian Literature Moreover, these acts always engage the large contexts, of cultural narratives which serve as common ground in communication; by this engagement they either affirm or revise the contexts that frame them. I have been interested in a particular set of difficult authors and texts, where the difficulties arise not from representation but performance, framing, and the crossing and revision of frames. Certain poems seem to be difficult not because of what they mean but how they mean. Iconic and concrete, as well as objectivist, gestural, and visual poetry, for example, makes the claim of not just being about things but the thing itself. Emily Dickinson seems to play an elusive game with the reader, who is allowed to see masks and poses as her supposedly real self. Even her metaphors are enigmatic, blocking rather than allowing access to herself: typically, she will empty out the concrete part of her metaphors and make, instead, the abstractions concrete and tangible. Henry James’s In the Cage presents the telegraphist who lives in a world she has constructed out of the telegraphs that pass through her hands. Her reading of the telegraphs is fictioned by her own assumptions, while James helps (manipulates?) his readers to construct (fiction?) a different reading of the events – and ultimately of his text – by allowing a very different set of frame assumptions to emerge within the context. The Beast in the Jungle holds up textual tension by both revealing and not revealing the secret: the ghost of homosexuality makes its performance around the silence of the empty signifier. Not

only is the boundary between the real and the fictioned worlds always crossed in Mark Twain’s The Mysterious Stranger, but it becomes clear that what we experience as real is only a matter of performance. At the end it turns out that it is this world, the physical one, that does not exist; reality loses its ontological grounding and will be swallowed by or collapsed into the constructed-performed world of dream and imagination. Edward Albee’s Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf lays bare the linguistic basis of dramatic acts: artifice and artifact have a high visibility as the drama openly deploys rhetorical and pragmatic processes that violate some basic rules and assumptions of communication, while Robert Lowell’s The Old Glory and Paula Vogel’s And Baby Makes Seven presupposes certain textual knowledge on the part of the reader. In Gertrude Stein’s Three

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AY 2004-2005 Lives, H. D.’s HERmione, Djuna Barnes’s Nightwood, and Willa Cather’s My Antonia the characters perform acts of identity which invalidate common ground frame assumptions; while the performative acts cite these assumptions, they revise them too. In Robert Duncan’s The H.D. Book the poet uncovers the hidden scripts of female intellectualism and female sexuality by some transgendered performative sympathy, whereby he both makes these scripts visible and playfully assumes their identities in a performative manner. James Weldon Johnson’s The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man presents a plot of racial, sexual, and gender transgression. A boy of mixed racial ancestry, feminized in his homosexual relationship to his white patron, the protagonist passes, by performance, as a white heterosexual male by the end of the novel. Non-human identities are peformatively assumed in such diverse pieces as Edward Albee’s The Goat, D.H. Lawrence’s The Fox and St. Mawr, William Faulkner’s The Bear, Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis,” Gabriel García Márquez’s “A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings,” Mikhail Bulgakov’s The Heart of a Dog, John Steinbeck’s “The Chrysanthemums,” Richard Wright’s Native Son (woman as black cat), and Frank Norris’s “Lauth.” The texts perform acts in these pieces, and meanings come about through performative textual processes and/or the evocation of presuppositions and other frame assumptions. I identify performatives and presuppositions as tools that help explain what happens inside texts: what texts do, as opposed to what they

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refer to. They shed light on how meanings are constructed when acts are performed in texts and other text are cited. My interest in these texts goes beyond the challenge posed by their difficulty. Several of these texts have new critical readings, and these readings seem to be taken for granted as much as contrary readings were before. I am interested, therefore, in the mechanics and background of this interpretive tide change. What is it that triggers revisionist readings of the American canon, and what is it that can overwrite or nullify previously current readings, which were considered as obvious at their time as the new readings are today? To answer these questions, I identify the performative processes in texts and their dynamic interaction, dialogue, with presuppositions and other frame assumptions. These pragmatic processes will be seen to characterize both the literary text and its reception, hence the performative and the presuppositions will be helpful tools in both exploring the nature of these difficult texts and understanding the reasons for why competing readings have evolved. Performatives and presuppositions, linguistic and pragmatic concepts I will define early on, are tools for exploring how meanings are produced by the interaction of text and context, the dialogue of writer and reader. Indeed, textual acts brought about by such interaction account for a new readerly involvement too. Texts will be meaningful for those who participate in the interactional process between reader and text, who respond to the textual acts and citations performed.

Comparative Hungarian Literature Obviously, the reader’s subject position will play an important role in this interaction, for every reader will have different responses to the acts and the citations. Indeed, not only does the reader emerge as active participant but the same text can have different meanings for different readers in different situations. And these different responses to the text will create different experiences of the text too. As such, language becomes force: something that happens. In my book I first give a short survey of linguistic pragmatics. Next, I explore the relevant pragmatic concepts applicable to the study of literature. I then investigate how performatives are seen to act in, and interact with, contexts and frames, in the literary text. I discuss the phenomenon commonly called word magic, iconic and concrete poetry, the material text, visual and performance poetry, the wounding power of speech. The next chapter explores the verbal construction of alternative realities in some 19th century American poetry and fiction. When describing the dramatic use of speech acts I investigate various language games such as irony and deceit, as well as intertextuality. Exploring the ways the performative has recently entered the contested ground of social construction theories, I provide instances of the performative construction of gender, racial, and sexual, identity and boundary crossing thereof, and show how presuppositions form a key component of such identity constructions and transgressions. Of this book I managed to complete 180 pages during my Fulbright grant (ca. 75%

of the book); the remaining chapters are there in a synopsis form, but supported by a huge collection of research materials. Hopefully I can finish it over the next few months. I also have two chapters accepted for publication by The Journal of Pragmatics.

2. Lecture trip to Montana and Oregon

My lecture trip to Oregon and Montana was sponsored by the Occasional Lecture Program. At the University of Oregon, Eugene, and at the State University of Oregon, Corvallis, I gave talks about women in post-communism, gender studies in Hungary, and the feminist perspective in literary criticism in EastCentral Europe. I gave two lectures at the University of Montana, Missoula, (English and Women’s Studies); both grew out of my Fulbright research project, the performative-discursive constructions of gender, race, and sexuality.

3. Guest-editing a Hungarian issue of Tó Tópos During my lecture trip I had a meeting with the editorial board of the journal Tó Tópos (Poetry International), where I agreed to be guest editor of a special issue devoted to Hungarian poetry. This issue has since come out, with a rather comprehensive overview of contemporary Hungarian poetry. Here is an excerpt from my Introduction.

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AY 2004-2005 “If there were to be a national vote still read poems just for fun, and they among Hungarians as to what part of still go to bookstores to browse through their culture (if anything) they are most poetry sections and then to buy the books proud of, their difficult language, their that caught their attention. Of course, the tragic history, and the grim pessimism of world would be a better place with less the Hungarian character would surely be television and more poetry in Hungary among the top-ranking objects of national too, but I’m afraid this is yet a moment pride. in history we will be nostalgic about later. Joking aside, somewhere in these Like the “average year” for a Hungarian: possible self-images would lie, I suggest, worse than the previous one, but better the centrality for Hungarian culture, of than the one coming after . . . literature, and of poetry in particular. With the poetry gathered here we tried For it is a culture that both reflects and to provide a glimpse into the variety that is produced by a history peppered with so characterizes contemporary poetic oppression, failed revolutions, and a writing – of men and women, formalists strange (Finno-Ugric) language related and experimentalists, realists and surreonly to Finnish and Estonian in Europe, alists, Roma poets and “minority poets” hopelessly difficult for speakers of (Hungarian poets living as minorities in Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages countries surrounding Hungary), those (just about everyone else in Europe). Its preoccupied with space and those preocpsychological disposition to hopelessness cupied with time.” is evinced in its consistently top rank in the world’s suicide’s rates. I returned to Hungary with fresh ideas, In spite of the successive waves of intellectually recharged after five months “modernization” or “Westernization” on the campus of a very fine American this Central-European country has gone university. I felt full of energy and deterthrough in the past mination to continue century, poetry is still my work of importing a highly respected American ideas – in intellectual enterprise, the form of American with poets whose word Studies and American Poetry seems to count even Literature – from the International when they are not U.S. to my home writing poetry. People country.

τó τóπος

Contemporary Hungarian Poets Kortárs magyar költészet

Winter 2006

Guest Editor

Eniko˝ Bollobás

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Tapasztalatok az Egyesült Államokban a Fulbright Ösztöndíj (2004 szeptember-2005 június) során Kállay Géza egyetemi docens – ELTE, Angol-Amerikai Intézet

............................................................................. Három megjegyzést szeretnék elôrebocsátani. Az elsô kettô esetleg különösen is kézenfekvônek tûnik, ám talán mégsem felesleges. Az elsô, hogy Amerika roppant sokféle, a tapasztalatokat tehát elsôrendûen az határozza meg, hová pályázott, illetve hová került az ember. Nagyon másféle benyomásai lehetnek annak, aki – mint én – egy egyetemi kisvárosban töltött el kilenc hónapot, ahol pl. autó nélkül szinte lehetetlen a közlekedés, és annak, aki pl. New Yorkban volt, ahol még a helybeliek sem igen használják a kocsijukat városon belül. A törvények, a szokások stb. államomként változnak, s ahogy szinte minden éghajlat és idôjárás megtalálható az USÁban, olyan sokszínû az élet is. A második fontos meghatározó tényezô, hogy egyedül vagy – mint én – családostul (nevezetesen feleségemmel, Katával, és leányainkkal, Zsuzsannával, Eszterrel és Máriával) érkezik-e az ember. Ugyanakkor, harmadik megjegyzésként, szeretnék mindenkit megnyugtatni: a Fulbright majdnem mindenütt igen jól ismert és nagy megbecsülésnek örvendô ösztöndíj, amelynek jól bejáratott útjai vannak, és magyar oldalról éppúgy, mint az amerikairól, nagyszerûen van szervezve. Ezért nagy valószínûséggel megjósolható, hogy minden jól fog sikerülni, mindenki meg tudja valósítani kitûzött feladatait és életreszóló élményekkel fog feltöltekezni, melyeknek pozitív hatása érezhetô lesz jóval az ösztöndíj lejárta után is. Bizonyos értelemben az ösztöndíj a hazaérkezés után új életre kel, „újra kezdôdik“, amikor a hazaitól nagyon különbözô tapasztalatok teljesen más megvilágításba helyezik azt a rutint, amit az ember hónapokra otthon hagyott, és az ember azon kezd gondolkodni, hogyan hívja meg Magyarországra azokat, akikkel szakmai kapcsolatba került, sôt, akik a barátai lettek.

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AY 2004-2005 A következô beszámolót úgy igyekeztem elkészíteni, hogy elsôsorban annak legyen hasznos, aki még sohasem volt az Egyesült Államokban. Tapasztalataimat bizonyos, nekem fontosnak tûnô alcímek (vízum, bank, stb.) mentén helyeztem el. Persze minden kérdésre szívesen válaszolok, legjobb tudásom szerint: kallay@melania. hu.

VÍZUM Itt a tényleges teendôket Gottwald Éva remekül elmondja, annyi bizonyos, hogy a vízumfénykép méretét (ami az amerikai szabvány) komolyan kell venni. A vízumkérô lap kitöltése éppúgy online történik, mint késôbb a végsô, a washingtoni CIES irodának küldött Fulbright beszámoló az ösztöndíj végén: nekem csak az egyik vízumkérô lap „ment el“ kitöltés közben, de másodjára az is sikerült. Nem ördöngösség, én nem vagyok különösebben komputer-orientált ember, és ment. Egy lap kitöltése viszont legalább két óra, legalábis nekem ennyi volt, majdnem egy egész nap csináltam. A vízum tényleges megszerzése a Követségen ötünknek egy teljes délutánt jelentett, de a Fulbright név hallatán sokkal gyorsabb volt az ügyintézés (ujjlenyomatvétel, stb.) és soron kívül szólítottak, amikor a vízum elkészült. Ezt alaposan át kell nézni, és azt a formulát is (borítékban betûzik az útlevélbe), amit mindenkinek adnak, ez talán fontosabb, mint a vízum. Enélkül pl. nem lehet beíratni a gyerekeket az iskolába, stb. (Nálunk minden rendben volt). Az egyetlen kellemetlenség, hogy csak kettesével engednek be az Amerikai Követségre, és a napon kell várakozni, kint az utcán, de idôpontra hívnak be, és vegül is nem kell olyan sokat várni. Már a

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repülôn ki kell tölteni egy boarding cardot -- ennek egy részét azután az immigration officer a belépéskor betûzi az útlevélbe. Az ujjlenyomatvétel, stb. ekkor megismétlôdik, de roppant kedvesek és udvariasak, nem sürgetnek (velünk majdnem egy háromnegyed órát töltött egy kedves hölgy). Ekkor nem árt tisztázni, valaki igénybe veszi-e a vízum lejárta utáni egy hónapos „kegyelmi idôszakot“ (grace-period).

REPULÓJEGYEK Az ösztöndíjasnak (de nem a családtagoknak) a jegy felét fizeti a Fulbright, Nagypál Csanád számla ellenében roppant kedvesen rögtön ki is pengeti, még az elindulás elôtt. Repülôjegyet jó elôre kell rendelni (akár „hazardírozva“, mert lemondani könyebb, ha mégsem utazunk), és nagyon sok ár van – érdemes körülnézni, több utazási irodába bemenni, vagy az interneten nézelôdni. Mi nagyon messzire jöttünk, Santa Cruz, Californiába Bostonon át, és ötünknek a jegy majdnem egy millió forint volt, olcsóbbat nem találtunk, de – még csak az idefele útról vannnak tapasztalataim – a Lufthansa bevált és remek a Mammut 2ben fellelhetô utazási iroda, ha valakinek nem lenne. A visszatéréskor legalább 10 nappal elôbb, de nem korábban mint egy hónap, a visszafelé jegyet „konfirmáltatni“ kell, azaz felhívni a megfelelô légitársaságo(ka)t és lehetôleg nem egy hangdetektoros masinával beszélni, bár ez nehéz, mert már minden gépesítve van. De amikor lehet, egy assistantot kell kérni, ilyenkor elvben ülôhelyet is lehet foglalni, ám ha igazán biztosra akarunk menni, korán kimegyünk a reptérre (úgyis két órával elôbb kell ott lenni, és

Tapasztalatok általában sok a csomag). Az európai légitársaságok rendszerint egy amerikaival vannak megegyezésben (nekünk United Airlines), ezt külön fel kell hívni. A súlyhatárt a Ferihegyen kívül fontban (pound) mérik (70 font a határ egy bôröndre és 16 egy kézicsomagra, amit beviszünk az utastérbe: minden személy, aki teljes árat fizetett a repülôjegyért, két bôröndre, egy kézicsomagra és egy laptopra vagy nôi retikülre jogosult). A repülôtéren nekünk volt egy kis vitánk a kiló fontra való átszámításánál, ráadásul nagyon szigorúak, úgyhogy nekünk Bostonban át kellett, ott helyben csomagolni egyik kofferbôl a másikba.

Szállás az USÁ-ban Persze a „jóelôre“ itt is érvényes. Még otthonról kell elkezdeni a kutatást, és az egyetemi contact-personûnket kell megkérni, küldje el annak a websitenak az adatait, amelyiken fogadó egyetemünk hirdet lakásokat-házakat. Mindig vannak ugyanis olyanok ott is, szintén egyetemi emberek, akik elmennek hosszabbrövidebb idôre, és kiadják a lakásukat. Nekünk szerencsénk volt, mert épp a contact-personünk ment Magyarországra és Ausztriába (Fulbrighttal) és kiadta a házát, de nem nehéz szállást találni, mert általában nagy a mozgás. Arra számítani kell, hogy sokan egy havi bért elôre kérnek és kérhetnek még egy havi díjnak megfelelô „depositot“ is (tôlünk épp nem, de szokás, ezt aztán visszaadják, ha nem tettünk sok mindet tönkre). Van, aki ilyenkor az (egy vagy két) autóját is hátrahagyja, és akár azt is engedi, hogy ingyen vagy még egy kevésért használjuk, ezt le kell levelezni. Tehát az egyetemi szállásoknál (faculty housing) érdemes kezdeni. Ez lehet, hogy néha egy kicsit drágább,

mintha messzebb laknánk, de megéri, mert egyrészt jobban benne van az ember az egyetemi körforgásban (kollegák között lakik), másrészt nem kell annyit közlekedni, harmadrészt sokszor van iskola vagy óvoda is – a mi esetünkben a két kisebbik leánynak a Westlake Elementary School öt percre volt gyalog úgy, hogy csak egy parkon kellett átsétálniuk, és együtt voltak sok kollegám gyermekével, sokszor iskola után is. Minden esetre szálláshelynél sem árt az óvatosság: lehet, hogy egy lakás azért olcsó, mert olyan helyen van, ahol nagyon rossz a közbiztosnság (errôl ld. lejjebb). Santa Cruz nagyon drága, mi 1400 dollárt fizettünk házbérként, és ehhez járult az itt nagyon drága víz és egyéb díjak („rezsi“+ telefon), ami megint kb. 150-200 dollárt jelentett havonta. Ennél olcsóbban nem lehetett Santa Cruzban bármi lakhatót bérelni: egy diáknak egy házban egyetlen szoba 600-800 dollárba kerül, az egyetemi dormitorykban 800-nál kezdôdik. Ennyiért pl. Texasban 3-4 bedroomos házat lehet bérelni (a miénk 2 és fél bedroomos volt, de nagyon kellemes). Santa Cruzban meg kellett fizetni (és mindenkinek meg kell) a tényleg festôi tájat: a város a CsendesÓceán partján terül el, a Monterey Bayben, télen is enyhe éghajlatú (hó nincs), az egyetem, a University of California Santa Cruz (UCSC) pedig a világ egyik legszebb campusán, a Redwood Forestben van, amelyben pumától és coyote-farkastól a roppant szelíd, campuson legelészô ôzekig minden megtalálható (hajnali futás közben találkoztam is egy coyottal, pumával (itt mountain lionnek hívják) nem, de az nem is kellemes). Bobcatet (ami egy kisebb hiúz), az amerikai nemzeti szimbólummá vált hatalmas sast, és vadmacskát viszont sûrûn lehet látni.

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Ki lehet-e jönni az ösztöndíjból? Ezt a kényes, de nagyon fontos kérdést legjobb, ha rögtön felteszem, már úgyis benne vagyok a házárakat tárgyalva. A rövid válasz: igen, de beosztással és meglehetôsen „purtán“ életvitellel (természetesen egy másik államban egy család nélkül utazó ösztöndíjasnak ez lehet teljesen másképpen). Mi kaptunk még a dependensek címén 300 dollárt havonta, de ez egy maximált összeg, tehát pl. Máriáért már nem kaptunk (mert jár a feleség és két gyerek után 100-100 dollár). Ez sokat segített, de a mi példánk azért jó, mert mi maximális terhelést jelentettünk: sokan is voltunk és nagyon drága helyen. És ne felejtsük, hogy még a hozzátartozóknak biztosítást is kell vennünk (ld. lejjebb). A pénzt tehát nagyon be kell osztani, de az élelmiszer viszonylag olcsó: egyrészt minden nagyobb élelmiszer áruházlánc (nálunk volt Safeway, Trader Joes és Costco, utóbbi mint a magyar Metro áruház) kibocsát kártyákat, s ezekkel én néha egy hétvégi bevásárlásnál 100 dollárt is megspóroltam, másrészt mindig van mindenbôl minden héten egy márka (pl. cornflakesbôl a Kellogs vagy a Rheeses Puff, gyerekeim nagy kedvence), amit azon a héten leszállítva árulnak (hogy „rákapjunk“). Így legalább végig lehet próbálni minden márkát, mi ezt tettük pl. kávéból. Az élelem tehát a legkevesebb: én az egész családnak egy teljes heti bevásárlást átlagosan 150 dollárból meg tudtam oldani a Safewayben. (Pédák: kenyér: egy loaf 1-3 dollár, tej, egy gallon 2,5-4,5 dollár, száraztészta, egy csomag 1-3 dollár, stb.). A ruhanemû is olcsó, a lányoknak kénytelenek voltunk venni ezt-azt, mert sok mindent kinôttek.

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Nekem az egyetem ingyen adott egész évre buszbérletet (de a családtagoknak már nem), és a campus shuttle buszait természetesen ingyen használhattuk (ezt mindenki), de ha parkolni akar az ember az egyetemen, az heti 20 dollár. És bár az (állami) iskola mindenkinek ingyenes, tehát magyar állampolgárnak is, lépten nyomon érkeznek -- különösen itt, ahol a kaliforniai kormányzó, az akcióhôs Arnold Schwartzenegger nagyon visszavett az oktatásra szánt pénzbôl – az adománykérô (donation) levelek (ahogy sok más is kér pénzt postán és e-mailben, de ezekre nem kell reagálni. Engem egyszer a santa cruzi tûzoltóegyesület hívott fel, hogy vegyek jegyet a futball mérkôzésükre, az se baj, ha már nem leszek akkor Amerikában. Ezek kedvesen háríthatók). S minden tanulmányi kirándulás a gyerekeknek (kirándulásból örvendetesen sok volt) is 10-20 dollárba kerül személyenként, meg az osztályfénykép, stb. Persze sokat lehet tenni az anyagi helyzet javításáért: pl. kiadhatjuk (megbízható személynek) otthoni lakásunkat. A családtagok J-2 vízumával (az ösztöndíjas J-1 vízummal ellentétben) munkát elvben lehet vállalni, de ez sajnos rókafogta csuka: a munkahelynek kell igazolnia a munkavállalási engedélykérés jogosságát, de az engedély átfutása (amit a városházán kell kérni) legalább három hónap, tehát tulajdonképpen otthonról kellene intézni, ami viszont jórészt lehetetlen. Ugyanakkor az alkalmi munkát rendszerint „azonnalra“ hirdetik, nem fognak várni három hónapot senkire. És a munkavállaláshoz is ki kell váltani a Social Security Numbert, ami azonban az ösztöndíjasnak is mindenképpen szükséges (ha még nincs): ennek formanyomtaványát már Magyarországon megkapjuk, az átfutás egy hét és egy

Tapasztalatok hónap között mozog, külön irodába kell menni, elôtte idôpontot kérni, legakább egy fél nap. Viszont az egyetemnek lehetnek ösztöndíjai, vagy felajánlhat honoráriumot akár az az egyetem, amin vagyunk, (egy külön public lecture-ért) vagy az, ahová meghívnak vendégelôadásra. Ezeket a washingtoni CIES irodával (a mi contact-personünk Holly Williams) jóvá kell hagyatni, tehát elôzôleg kérni. Én ilyenekkel nem éltem, feleségem, Kata azonban elnyert egy ösztöndíjat a UCSC Jewish Programjától (többek között amerikai zsidó irodalommal foglalkozik a Károli Egyetemen) és ez sokat segített. Tehát érdemes egyrészt pontosan tisztázni, mit tud nyújtani az egyetem, másrészt a helybeliektôl érdeklôdni, de summa summárum, a munkavállalást nemigen lehet otthonról elintézni.

Autó-közlekedés-rendôrségközbiztonság Autót venni mindenképpen kockázatos: tapasztalatom szerint a car-dealerek, azaz autókereskedôk betesznek 500-800 dollárért egészen jól kinézô autókat a katalógusukba, csak azért, hogy felhívjuk ôket, majd közlik, hogy azt az autót épp most adták el, de van egy 1500 dollárért. Ismeretlen magánszemélytôl pedig könnyen lehet, hogy ócskavasat (“junk“) veszünk, amit nem lehet eladni ösztöndíjunk végén (Nekem magánszemély, de hirdetés alapján ajánlott egy Volvot 700 dollárért, amit, mint kiderült, csvarhuzóval lehetett csak beindítani, de a kuplungja is cserére szorult volna, ami majdnem ugyanannyiba kerül, mint az autó, – nem kértem). És az autóhoz biztosítás is kell, amelynek összege sok faktortól függ, de elérheti a havi 400

dollárt. Vannnak nagyvárosok persze, ahol nem kell feltétlenül autó, vagy ha rövid idôre (egy hétvégre) igen, akár 10 dollárért is lehet bérleni, teljes biztosítással. Nekünk nagy szerencsénk volt, mert a szomszédaink és kollegáink szinte versengtek azért, ki adja kölcsön az autóját hosszabb-rövidebb idôre és az utóbbi két hónapban egy kedves kollegám harmadik autója (egy öreg, de roppant megbízható, automata Volvo) „felszabadult“, és ideadta úgy, hogy csak benzin kell bele (melynek gallonja itt most 2.35 és 2.88 dollár között mozog, és egy gallon kb. 4 liter, tehát nekem egy tankolás kb. 25-30 dollár). Bevásárolni itt nem lehetne autó nélkül, de legnagyobbik lányom szinte végig a városi busszal járt a Santa Cruz High Schoolba, a buszok szépek és kényelmesek, de nagyon ritkán (gyakorlatilag óránként) járnak. A nemzetközi jogosítványt Californiában épp kilenc hónapnál nem hosszabb ideig elfogadják, de ez – mint oly sok minden -- államonként változik. Sok elônnyel jár, ha itt is letesszük az autóvezetôit (csak 12 dollár): van egy „Department of Motor Vehichles“, azt kell felhívni, de autót vinni kell, azon vizsgáztatnak egy „KRESZ-teszt“ kitöltése után (egy teljes nap, sok várakozással). Az itteni jogosítvány pedig – mint már otthon is – teljes rangú „sorurce of identification“, ami nélkül pl. bizonyos ruhaáruházakban nem lehet kedvezményes kártyát kapni. A közlekedési szabályok nem sokban különböznek az európaikatól, két nagyon fontos különbség azonban van: piros lámpánál jobbra (de csak jobbra) akkor is lehet kanyarodni, ha ezt külön nyíl nem jelzi (persze csak akkor, ha balról nem jön semmi) és hogy rengeteg a STOP tábla: szinte minden útkeresztezôdés úgy van lefedve, hogy mindekinek minden irányból

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AY 2004-2005 teljesen meg kell állnia, és az mehet elôször tovább, aki elsônek (másodiknak, stb.) érkezett. Egyébként a megszokott jeleken kívül vagy helyett minden ki van írva betûvel is (pl. „SLOW -- CHILDREN AT PLAY“). A californiaiak a szabályokat elég könnyedén kezelik, bár udvariasan és igen jól vezetnek (majdnem mindenki 16 éves korától), de a könnyedségnek ára van, mert a rendôrség mindütt jelen van, és keményen birságolnak. Öt mérföldes sebességtúllépést még elnéznek, de többet nem: az elmúlt év során hat barátunk mesélte, hogy megbüntették súlyos száz dollárokra, úgyhogy nekünk okosabb mindenütt betartani a szabályokat és a STOP táblánál nemcsak lassítani (ami a „California stop“) hanem teljesen megállni („complete halt“), akármennyire is unalmas. Californiában minimális alkoholt (egy pohár sör, egy fél pohár bor) lehet fogyasztani akkor is, ha az ember vezet, de a „drunken driving“ itt is nagy probléma, és nem érdemes kísérletezni az alkoholszinttel. Engem, ittlétünk második hetében, megállított a rendôr: ez úgy megy, mint a filmekben, hogy az ember mögött szirénáznak és villogtatnak teljes reflektorral. Iyenkor ki kell húzódni a jobbszélre és meg kell állni. Akkor Roger, a kedves közvetlen szomszédunk, Vokswagenjét vezettem, legnagyobbik lányunkért mentem, aki itteni elsô osztálypartyján volt a tengerparton. Nagyon bizonytalanul mentem, persze, szokatlanul lassan, mert sem az utat nem ismertem, sem az autót, de mint kiderült, az engem megállító az egyetemi rendôrséghez tartozott, ismerte a kocsit és a gazdáját is, és azt hitte, elloptam. Ha a rendôr megállít, tilos kiszállni a kocsiból: az ablakot le kell húzni, míg a

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rendôr a kocsink mellé ér, a kezet a volánra kell tenni, és mikor a forgalmi engedélyt és jogosítványt kéri, meg kell kérdezni, szadad-e belenyúlni a kesztyûtartóba vagy a belsô zsebünkbe. Ez nem vicc, mert akár lôhetnek is egy félreértett mozdulat miatt. Tehát hagyni kell, hogy mindent a rendôr kezdeményezzen. Nem szabad elfelejteni, hogy Amerika végül is hadban álló ország, a rendôrségnek is ki van adva a terrorostákkal szembeni küzdelem, és pl. a nagysikerû „24“ címû filmosorozat, amlynek negyedik évadját izgulhattuk itt végig januártól májusig a Fox csatornán, nem teljesen légbôlkapott. Tehát kezeimet a kormányra tettem, és udvariasan, de határozottan válaszoltam a rendôrnek, aki nem büntetett meg (nem is volt miért), de „visszakísért“ a rendôrautóval Roger barátom háza elé, aki „igazolt“, pedig nálam volt a forgalmi engedély. Ha hosszabb útra kapunk kölcsön autót, érdemes kérni egy aláírt papírt az autó gazdájától, címmel, telefonszámmal, és akkor nincs félreértés. Santa Cruz teljesen biztonságos hely, még éjszaka is, de egy kisváros, ahol az egyetemnek külön rendôrsége is van. De bárhová kerüljünk, meg kell kérdezni a helybelieket, milyen napszakban hová mehetünk, és ez nagyon komoly. Amerikában ugyanis „lokalizálni igyekeznek a bûnt“, mintegy hallgatólagos megállapodást kötve, hová megy be a rendôrség és hová nem. A határ sokszor csak egy utca, amelynek az egyik oldalán még az autót is nyitva lehet hagyni, a másik oldalán pedig akár meg is ölhetnek. Nyilvánvalóan a nekünk tilos zónákban azokból élnek, akik nem tudják, hol húzódnak a határok. Tehát itt nagyon fontos az elôzetes tájékozódás.

Tapasztalatok

Bank, pénzügyek Ma már több lehetôség is nyitva áll az ösztöndíjasok elôtt (errôl Nagypál Csanád remekül tájékoztat és roppant pontosan küldi az esedékes részleteket): az ember a saját otthoni bankszámlájára kéri a pénzt, vagy készpénzben és travellers cheque-ben kéri, és Amerikában nyit bankszámlát. Én kb. 1000 dollárt kértem készpénzben, a többit travellers cheque-ben (ezt nem Csanád adja közvetlenül, hanem megmondja, melyik bankba kell elmenni otthon). Santa Cruzban egy helyi banknál, a campushoz legközelebb levô Bay Federalben nyitottam számlát (ehhez két source of identification kell), amihez két nap múlva küldték a VISA kártyát és a csekkönyvet: a számlát azután így az ösztöndíj vége felé érdemeik elismerése mellett felmondtam, és a maradékot átadták kézpénzben. Kilenc hónap esetében nincs igazi jelentôsége, hol nyitunk számlát, bár mint most már otthon is, minden bank ajánl mindenfélét, de fôleg kölcsönök tekintetében, ami minket itt nem érint. A fôdolog, hogy sok helyen legyen automata („teller“) és maga a bank is közel legyen. Kártyával majdnem mindenütt lehet fizetni, csekkel is sok helyen, de ehhez gyakran kell két source of identification, pl. a (nemzetközi) jogosítvány vagy az egyetemi ID card, vagy az útlevél: én azt tapasztalatam, hogy mindenki akkor nyugodott meg, mikor az Amerikai Nagykövetség által kiállított, útlevelembe beragasztott színes vízumot meglátta. S ha egyezett a kép az útlevélképpel (márpedig egyezett), akkor tovább nem is érdeklôdtek. Valami keveset kamatozik a pénz, de ez kezelési költcségre el is megy: nekem a checking account mellett savings accountot is nyitnom kellett a Bay Federalnél, de az utóbbin elég volt 5 dollárt tartani, és a pénzlevételért, ha az

ô automatájukról történt, semmit sem számoltak fel (s a campuson is volt automatájuk, sôt volt a Wells Fargonak és az Bank of Americának is). Ez ma már meglehetôsen zökkenômentes.

Iskola Ha az ember gyermeke iskolaköteles, iskolába kell járatni itt is, ami persze nagyon jó, mert nekem mindhárom leányom remekül megtanult angolul. Eleinte persze sokat kellett velük tanulni, de itt is a lehetô legjobb tapasztalataink vannak: mindhárman remek tanárokhoz kerültek, barátságos, segítôkész környezetben. Ezt – e-mailen -- el lehet kezdeni intézni Magyorországról, lehetôleg júniusban, amikor még tart az elôzô tanulmányi év. Nekünk egy itteni barátunk elôzôleg rengeteget segített: felhívta az iskolákat, puhatolózott, kiválasztotta a szerinte számunkra legjobb variációkat, és végül egy „akciótervet“ küldött, mi válszthattunk és én majdnem mindent elôre lelevelezhettem az iskolaigazgatókkal, miután megnéztem az iskolák websitejait. Az Amerikába érkezés után mihamarabb jelentkezni kell az iskolákban (mi két héttel az itteni iskolakezdés után jöttünk, de ezt át lehet hidalni) és elôször elküldenek a „megye“ (Santa Cruz county) ún. „assessment centerébe“, ahol a gyerekekkel mindeféle ún placement tesztet töltetnek ki, de roppant vidám és barátságos módon, és a szülôk is jelen lehetnek, segíthetnek. Egy keveset minhárom gyermekünk beszélt angolul, s ezért eleve angol nyelvû osztályba kerültek, és nem olyanok közé, akik az angolt második nyelvként tanulják (ezen a tájon sok ilyen spanyol anyanyelvû gyerek van). Ellentétben az általános hiedelemmel, a mi iskoláink

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AY 2004-2005 nagyon komolyan vették a tanulást, de mindezt roppant stressmentes módon, rengeteg lehetôséget adva a javításra és az „extra credit“-re. A házi feladat kevesebb, mint otthon, viszont rengeteg a „project“, amikor egy csoportnak vagy egyénnek fel kell dolgoznia egy híres személy történetét, vagy elôadást kell tartani az osztály elôtt a Harlem reneszánszról (mint Zsuzsannának), stb. Dolgozat, különösen helyesírásból, rengeteg van. Zsuzsanna olyan iskolatípusba járt, ahol – majdnem mint egy „college“-ban – választhatott (egy külön erre sepcializálódott, roppant kedvdes advisor segítségével), hogy egy fél évig milyen tárgyakat tanul (ô amerikai történelmet, képzômûvészetet és fizikát tanult az elsô félévben, amerikai irodalmat, felsôbb algebrát és drámát a másodikban), ez tölti ki minden nap a másfél órás ún. first, second és third periodot (tulajdonképpen órát). Eszter, középsô lányunk az ötödik osztályban minden hónapban mást tanult az állandó matematika és angol mellett: hol biológiát (az emberi test), hol Amerika összes államát, hol az amerikai polgárháborút, stb. A harmadik osztályos Mária iskolai anyaga állt a legközelebb az ittenihez, az oszályában ô, persze eleinte technikai értelemben, jobban írt és számolt, mint a többiek, de olvasásból és helyesírásból az elsô két hónapban szinte semmit sem tudott. Itt azonban szokás, hogy a szülôk közül néhányan egész délelôtt bent vannak az osztályteremben, segítenek a gyerekeknek, ellenôrzik a munkájukat, és Kata és én az elsô két hónapban gyakran éltünk ezzel a lehetôséggel, meg is volt az eredménye. Máriának is voltak projectjei, írhatott képeskönyvet Corvin Mátyás királyunkról, készített egy rajzos beszámolót a humming birdrôl, stb. Mi csak az elônyét láttuk az amerikai könnyedebb, a diákok

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egyéni képességeit és különbözô társadalmi-kulturális hátterét jobban szem elôtt tartó, nem teljesítményelvû, nem versenyszellemû iskolarendszerének. De persze ez Santa Cruz, egy egyetemi város, a környéken is rengeteg az egyetem (pl. Stanford), és semmiféle „felmérést“ vagy „kutatást“ nem végeztem errôl (bár a szomszédos Watsonville gimnáziumáról rémtörténeteket meséltek, ahol rendôr kíséri a tanárt az osztályterembe, mert különben megkéselik). Annyi bizonyos, hogy mindhárom lányunk nagyon szeretett iskolába járni és kb. az ötödik hónap után rengetegszer jöttek hozzájuk barátnôk és megfordítva.

Biztosítás Az ösztöndíjast a Fulbright biztosítja, s nekem nem kellett ezt igénybe vennem, a hozzátartozókat azonban az Amerikában töltött teljes idôtartamra biztosítani kell. Erre már otthon több ajánlat van, de én itt elmentem a santa cruzi egyetem külkapcsolatokkal foglakozó osztályára (amúgy is jelentkeznem kellett), és érdeklôdtem, volt-e már hasonló eset, mint az enyém. Volt, és rögtön megadták egy ún. „broker“ nevét, akinek mindent (e-mailen) pontosan leírtam, s ô ennek alapján a Gatewayt ajánlotta, akikkel 1300 dollárért az egész család (persze rajtam kívül) nyolc hónapra biztosítva volt (az elsô hónapot, éppen hogy legyen idô intézkedni és választani, Magyarországról, az Atlasszal biztosítottuk, ôk viszont – nekünk legalábbis -- nem vállaltak többet egy hónapnál). A Gateway 50 dollár felett vállal minden költséget, elég jól ismert, és pl. az Urgent Care (ahová egyszer influenza miatt Esztert vittük) közvetlenül intézte vele a tranzakciót. Fogászati kezelésre külön kell

Tapasztalatok biztosítást kötni, erre az én biztosításom sem jó (kivéve, ha balesteben kiütöm a fogaimat), itt egy lyukas fog esetében ki kellett fizetnem a teljes árat, ami nagyon sok (majdnem 300 dollár). Szemüvegesek jól teszik, ha otthon csináltatnak tartalék szemüveget, mert azt sem lehet felíratni ezzel a biztosítással. Nincs benne a biztosításban a kötelezô védôoltás sem, amibôl kellett adatni a gyerekeknek, mert itt eltérô a rendszer, mint otthon, de ez eleve nem drága (egy oltás 10 dollár). Tehát a legjobbnak tûnik az Atlasszal egy hónapra biztosítást kötni a családtagok számára, majd az egyetemen érdeklôdni.

A Fulbright Amerikában és az amerikai adó Megérkezésünk után azonnal el kell küldeni egy bejelentkezô lapot (a hozzátartozókról is) a washingtoni CIES irodába: egyrészt Magyarországon kapunk egy csomagot, amiben van ilyen lap, másrészt egy vaskos paksaméta vár bennünket az amerikai egyetemen, további kitölteni valókkal. Mint Csanád elmondja majd, az ösztöndíjunk Magyarországon adómentes, de ki kell töltenünk egy „tax ecxemption“ formulát (vagyis adómentességi nyilatkozatot) az amerikai hatóságoknak. Én kaptam egy ilyet Csanádtól otthon, és egy hasonlót küldött a washingtoni CIES a paksamétában: mindkettôt kitöltöttem, és attól függôen, kitôl kaptam az eredetit, másolatot küldtem mindkét félnek a másik formuláról (persze magamnak is megtartotam egy-egy másolatot). Ezt szinte azonnal az Amerikába érkezésünk után meg kell tenni, különben felesleges bonyodalmaknak tesszük ki magunkat. De ez a procedúra változhat és itt minden tekinteben Csanád a mérvadó.

Az amerikai Fulbright irodától kell engedélyt kérni, ha szakmai útra megyünk az USÁ-ban, pl. meghívnak egy vendégelôadásra vagy egy konferenciára jelentkezünk és utazási hozzájárulást kérünk a washingtoni CIES irodától, és/vagy honorároum elfogadására kérünk engedélyt. Én kaptam egy levelet, hogy csak akkor adnak hozzájárulást az utazási költségekhez, ha egy konferencián elôadok, „csak úgy, hallgatóként“ csupán saját költségemre mehetek (a sûrû tanítási programom miatt én nem éltem ilyen lehetôségekkel). Minden nagyobb területnek, így San Francisconak, Bostonnak, stb. van saját Fulbright kirendletsége, de ôk adminisztratív feladatokkal nem foglalkoznak, ellenben két konferenciát is szerveztek külön Fulbrightosoknak a „Monterey Bay Area“ területén, valamint múzeum- és városnézô kirándulásokat, elôadásokat, partykat, stb., ezek szinte szimbolikus összegekért igénybe vehetôk. Mi két órára voltunk San Frenciscótól, a közlekedés meglehetôsen nehézkes, és annyira inkább a gyerekek iskolai programjaihoz és kirándulásaihoz voltunk kötve (nem beszélve arról, hogy nekem hét közben óráim voltak), hogy ilyenekre nem mentünk, ezt el is magyaráztam az itteni roppant helyes Fulbright-felelôsnek, aki teljes mértékben megértette. De biztos vagyok benne, hogy aki teheti, roppant jól érzi magát ezeken az ún. „enrichment“ programokon.

A „mindennapi élet“ Mindenfajta sztereotipizálás és esszencializálás természetesen hamis és káros, és az ez elleni harcban épp itt járnak sokan az élen. Nem ezt szeretném tehát tenni, hanem csupán egy-két beny-

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AY 2004-2005 omást rögzíteni, ami talán segíthet az eligazodásban. A nyugati parton az emberek általánam kedvesek, mosolygósak, ismeretlenül is köszönnek a diákok és kollegák, ha a campuson elhaladunk egymás mellett („Hi, how are you? Fine and you? Good, take care“, stb.). Ezt sokan felületes udvariaskodásnak veszik, ahol a kérdest sem teszik fel komolyan, pedig ez itt tulajdonképpen egy hosszabb köszönés, semmi más. Ha az ember valamit cipel, vagy épp sántít, ismeretlenek is megkérdezik, segíthetnek-e, és ez számít normálisnak. A pontosság fontos, a tanórák kezdése szempontjából éppúgy, mint a vendégségek esetén. A megjelenés és az érintkezés azonban „highly infromal“: komoly, idôs egyetemi tanárok tartanak shortban, pólóban, saruban-mezítláb órát, vagy mennek vendégségbe, és általában mindenki mindenkit a keresztnevén szólít, azaz „tegezôdik“, kivéve a diákok a tanáraikat, ameddig nincsenek erre felhatalmazva, de nagyon élvezik, ha igen. Én a diákokkal itt tegezôdtem, de mindig zakóban és nyakkendôben jártam, ahogy otthon: valami idioszinkráziával kívülrôl is jelölni szerettem volna, hogy az én bölcsômet egy más kultúrában ringatták, és ezt persze mindenki elfogadta, sôt jó humorral értékelte is. A gyerekek az iskolában a tanáraikat így szólítják: Mr Silvers, Mrs Miller (Mária, ill. Eszter osztályfônökei), de a boltban vagy a vendéglôben sokszor mondják nekünk: „Hi guys, how are you“? És néha minden „cool“ (kb. „klassz“) és „awsome“ (kb. „király“), de sokszor tényleg az. Az én tapasztalatom szerint a diákok és a kollegák egyaránt nagyon nyitottak más kultúrák iránt, könnyen barátkoznak, ôszíntén érdekli ôket, mi történik Európában, és nagyon

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félnek, hogy Európa most elítéli az amerikaiakat (ez különösen egy gyakorlatilag 100%-ban demokrata kampuszon nagyon felerôsödött a novemberi választások után), és hogy most már végleg lemaradtak Európa mögött. Én mindig azt válaszoltam, hogy én világéletemben úgy érzetem, hogy le vagyunk maradva és éppen Amerika mögött, de többek között azért vagyok itt, hogy minden „trükköt“ eltanuljak, és legjobb képességeim és lehetôségeim szerint ezeket otthon megvalósítsam. Mondanom sem kell, persze, hogy a legtöbb amerikai kollegánknak és diákunknak sokáig mi fogjuk megtestesíteni a „magyart“ és a „Fulbrightost“, tevékenységünk tehát akarvaakaratlan egy „kultúrdiplomáciai misszió“, azaz nagy felelôsség is. A vendégszeretetet szívesen gyakorolják Californiában, ha vacsorára vagyunk híva, a szokás egy üveg bor és/vagy virág a háziasszonynak, ám megbeszélhetjük, hogy pl. mi visszük a salátát vagy a desszertet, ez nem különös, sôt. Dohányozni viszont már szinte senki nem dohányzik egyetemi körökben, gyakorlatilag sehol sem lehet rágyújtani amúgy sem, úgyhogy én inkább leszoktam, és ez sok egyéb mellett a pénztárcánkra is kihatással volt. Talán az egyetlen „cultureshock“, ami igazán fenyegethet bennünket abból fakad, hogy az anyagi lehetôségek – minden itteni „budget-cut“ ellenére is – mind az egyetem, mind pedig tanárai számára egészen másutt kezdôdnek, mint nálunk: ezt persze mindenki tudja, de „telibe“ szembesülni talán nehezebb vele. Azonban ezzel itt szinte mindenki úgyanúgy tisztában van, és annyit segítettek nekünk, amennyit csak tudtak.

Tapasztalatok

Egyetem, munka Voltaképpen ironikus, hogy azzal zárom, amiért mi, ösztöndíjasok igazán jövünk, de talán ez a legkézenfekvôbb abban az értelemben, hogy mindenki külön-külön programmal és nagyon más tudományterületeken érkezik, amit egyeztetett a fogadóegyetemével, ezért itt ér legkevesebbet a „közös tapasztalat“. Én a kilenc hónap (három quarter) során öt kurzust tanítottam az itteni diákoknak, hármat irodalomból és kettôt filozófiából. Az ösztöndíjam tanításra szólt, azonban végül is kb. 25%-ban kutatásra is futotta az idômbôl. A Californiai Egyetem tíz campusának (Berkeley, Los Angeles, Riverside, Davis, Santa Barbara, Irvine, Santa Cruz, stb.) tulajdonképpen egy könyvtára van 13 millió dokumentummal és vizuális anyaggal és bárki bárhonnan az inteneten megrendlehet bármit (csak az ID számát, a nevét és „telephelyét“ kell megadnia), és a könyv két nap múlva az asztalán van. Csodálatos szolgáltatás, az ún. Melvyl katalóguson át. De a santa cruzi könyvtár a McHenry Library maga is a legjobbak között van (saját „Cruzcat“ katalógussal), tehát sok remek könyvet lehet találni egyszerûen a szabadpolcos rendszert kihaszálva, a polcok közt sétálva. Talán ez fog legjobban hiányozni. Ami esetleg általánosabb: a mi contact personünk rendszerint megadja a tanszékvezetôk e-mailjét, akiknek jó elôre el kell küldeni a course syllabusokat (ha hazárdjáték is, talán még azelôtt, hogy biztosan tudnánk, utazunk-e, mert órát törölni lehet, de újat hirtelen meghirdetni szinte lehetetlen.) Az órákat egy fórummal az egyetemen jóvá is kell hagyatni, erre is számítani kell a tervezésnél. Gondolni kell arra is, hogy a kurzusanyag, ha olyan jellegû, a hallgatók rendlekezésére álljon

évkezdéskor, ezért ajánlatos a kötelezô olvasmányokat elôre kiküldeni, mert ezeket az egyetemi könyvesboltban kurzuskódok szerint rendszerezve másolatban, összefûzve árulják a diákoknak „reader“ formájában. (Persze ha regényekrôl van szó, jobb megadni a címeket és akkor az egyetem rendel belôlük elegendô példányt). Másik módszer, hogy beszkennelt anyagot acrobat render formátumban teszünk fel ez egyetemi internetre (egy ottani ismerôsünk segítségével), és ezt a diákok egy belépôkód segítségével letölthetik. Itt sok tanár követi ezt a gyakorlatot, de a diákok szerint ez nekik költségesebb, mint a reader, mert általában ki kell nyomtatniuk az anyagot –– képernyôn olvasni pl. egy regényt elég bajos. Én mindig a readert használtam, a diákok szerették, kezükben van a teljes elolvasandó anyag 20-30 dollárért, ebbe én belefûzettem a kurzusleírást is. Az utóbbinak nagyon fontos része a követelményrendszer – pontosan rögzítenünk kell, mit várunk el, mire osztályzunk. Általában két vizsga van, egy az ötödik hét után (a Midterm) és egy az utolsó, itt tizedik héten (a Final), mindkettôrôl a diákok jó elôre várnak tájékoztatást. A dolgozatokra elvárják, hogy a jegyen (A, A-, B+, B-, B, stb. F(„Fail“-ig) kívül kommentárokat is írjunk és a diákok nagyra értékelik, ha lehetôséget adunk arra, hogy a dolgozatokat külön-külön megbeszélhessék velünk. A kurzus vége felé itt kötelezô a tanári munka diákok által történô értékelése, amit csak akkor kapunk meg másolatban, ha a jegyeket (és Santa Cruzban a diákok szöveges értékelését) online megadtuk. De ezek kézenfekvô dolgok, amiket talán említenem sem kell. Legalább egy napot kell szánnunk, lehetôleg megérkezésünk másnapján, hogy

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AY 2004-2005 regisztráltassuk megunkat az egyetemmel. Erre feltétlenül szükség van -- bár nem az egyetemtôl kapjuk a „bérünket“ --, azonban „nem létezik“ az, aki nincs rajta a „listán“. Kell vinnünk minden dokumentumot és legalább nyolcféle ívet kell kitölteni. E-mailcímet, ID kódokat, bizonyos internetes folyóiratokhoz és könyvekhez belépési jogot is csak így kaphatunk. Nekem itt a lehetô legjobb tapsztalataim vannak: kedves és segítôkész hölgyek és urak kézrôl kézre adtak, tudtak rólam, sôt nagyon vártak, kezükben tágas, világos irodám és a Kresge College kulcsaival, melyekkel éjjel-nappal szabadon jöhettem-mehettem, minden itteni szolgáltatást (másolás, posta, nyomtató) használhattam, ugyanazokkal a jogokkal, mint itt bárki más. Az irodámban -- ami a Redwood Forestre néz -- számítógép is van (most is azon írom ezeket a sorokat). Én jobbára nem is dolgoztam otthon, csak itt. Ez az iroda („office“) is nagyon fog hiányozni. Szóval a munkakörülményeim ideálisak voltak. Mondanom sem kell, hogy mint mindenütt, rengeteg volt a vendégelôadó, errôl e-mailen küldtek tájékoztatást, pl. nagyszerû volt a Filozófiai Tanszék „colloquium“ sorozata, majdnem kéthetenként kedden vagy csütörtökön délután négy órakor jött valaki (sokszor komoly híresség) elôadni, és a tanszéknek sikerült olyan légkört teremtenie, hogy a Silvers Conference Room mindig zsúfolásig megtelt, és diákok is sûrûn kérdeztek és hozzászóltak, és nem volt „ciki“ alapvetô kérdéseket sem feltenni. Én ezek majd

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mindegyikén részt vettem, sôt mindig hozzá is szóltam, ez volt az egyik legnagyobb tanulás-élményem. Érdemes körülnézni a tágabb környzetben is. Nekem itt megint szerencsém volt: Hayden White professzor átvitt a Stanfordra (ez egy óra innen), beszélhettem az irodalomelméleti szemináriumán, és ennek kapcsán összeismerkedtem egy Brett Bourbon nevû, nagyszrerû stanfordi tanárral, akivel szinte teljes mértékben azonos az érdeklôdási körünk. Ô is filozófia és irodalom kapcsolatát kutatja, de nem Shakespeare, hanem Joyce kapcsán. A UCSC Filozófia Tanszéke június elején meg is hívta, hogy tartson itt egy elôadást, és vele – mint santa cruzi kollegáim jó részével is – hosszútávú szakmai kapcsolatnak nézhetünk bizakodóan elébe. Nem marad más hátra mint mindezt nagyon megköszönni, a Fulbrightbnak éppúgy, mint a University of California Santa Cruz-nak, és mindenkinek, aki lehetôvé tette nekünk ezt az utat. De most hadd emeljem ki, a sok név közül, Dr. Brückner Hubát, a magyar Fulbright Comission igazgatóját, aki mindezek mögött mindannyiunk számára ott volt és van. Kívánom, hogy minden leendô ösztöndíjasnak és hozzátartozóinak legalább olyan tartalmas, tanulságos, sokszínû, kellemes és hosszútávú perspektívákat megnyitó legyen az útja, mint a miénk volt. És – mint az elején mondtam – nagyon valószínû, hogy így is lesz.

Comparative volcano geomorphological studies in the San Francisco, Springerville, Hopi Buttes and Mount Taylor volcanic fields Dávid Karátson .............................................................................

Eötvös Loránd University Dept. Physical Geography H-1117 Budapest, Pázmány s. 1/c http://geogr.elte.hu/ dkarat@ludens.elte.hu

Northern Arizona University Geology Dept., Northern Arizona Univ. PO Box 4099 Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA http://www4.nau.edu/geology/ Michael Ort

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During my Fulbright research period I was affiliated at Northern Arizona University in Flagstaff, to study old, eroded volcanic landforms of Arizona and New Mexico. In addition to these states, I visited six more ones (”volcanic states” such as Oregon, California, Washington, and ”canyon states” of Colorado, Utah and Nevada). Most of the states were visited by professional field trips. In addition, mostly with my family I visited a number of national parks and monuments. During my Fulbright period, I attended two conferences (n international volcanological congress in Chile, and a Fulbright meeting in Washington DC), and gave three invited talks at various universities (NAU, UNM, and ASU) in Arizona and New Mexico under the Occasional Lecturer Program. Although due to the severe winter my field work was limited, I could go ahead with writing scientific papers, and eventually I completed or prepared four publications. Scientific work related to the Fulbright, among others a high-precision radiometric dating project supported by the Hungarian Fulbright Commission, is in progress. During most of my Fulbright period my family stayed with me; in particular, my children obtained significant experience in going to American elementary school and learning English.

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AY 2004-2005

1. Scientific purposes, activity and results 1. 1. Scope and goals of my Fulbright Research Grant in Arizona

In my Fulbright research period I planned to study selected volcanic fields in Arizona and New Mexico. The regional tectonic framework of my major research area, the Carpathian mountains (subduction-related volcanic arc and extension-related back-arc basin) provides many types of volcanic edifices to investigate. However, the prevailing temperate continental climate means that volcano degradation is constrained by moderatehigh rainfall and dense vegetation conditions. In the volcanic fields of the Southwestern USA, volcano types occur that are similar to those in the Carpathians: e.g. stratovolcanoes and pyroclastic cones, and many of them are similar in age to the Carpathians. Also, volcanoes of Arizona and New Mexico mostly evolved under a semiarid climate, including minor glaciation at highest places during the last Ice Ages (Fig. 1). This may have resulted in different erosion rates and erosion patterns. The similarities and differences (1) may make the comparative approach very useful; and (2) case studies in the selected volcanic fields can contribute to better understanding of individual volcanic edifice history. I expected from my Fulbright period that joint research with my hosts and other cooperating scientists will result in important contributions to the above questions. Moreover, I anticipated that the obtained experience can be incorporated into my physical geography and volcanology courses after returning home. At my university, Hungary, I have

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two subjects (endogenic-exogenic forces of Earth, and volcanology special course) that have been newly introduced with the credit system. I expected that these subjects should be strenghtened by studies done under different climates. In addition to these scientific expectations, I planned to give presentations at several Southwestern US institutions, mostly universities, on my Hungarian research work. I assumed that my Carpathian case studies on volcano evolution under humid climates and having not only continental, subaerial, but also shallow-water submarine to emergent paleogeography can be interesting for the local scientific community. Apart from all these professional objectives, I arranged my Fulbright to be spent mostly together with my family (wife and two sons). Not to mention a minor English of my wife, none of them had language skills and, more importantly, none of us had experience in living abroad for a longer time. Therefore, the planned Fulbright period was a big “undertaking” for all of us.

1. 2. Scientific activity

The 9 months I spent in the USA was unquestionably “quintessential”, full of events, changes, journeys and useful work. My base was Flagstaff, at Northern Arizona University (NAU: Fig. 2), where I was introduced to the Geology Department by my host, associate professor Michael Ort. I got considerable help both from him and from Larry Middleton, head of the department. Most importantly, I had a separate workroom with internet access, it was actually a lab, but I was not disturbed at all for most of the time. I did not know Michael earlier, but we knew from previous e-mail contact that our interests overlap. Unfortunately, Michael’s

Comparative volcano geomorphological studies in San Francisco timetable was very busy in 2004/2005, and it turned out that his current projects were not related to my main interest, which was the closest volcano to Flagstaff: San Francisco Mountain. However, he introduced me to his colleagues who already worked in that area. In particular, with retired associate professor Richard Holm I built up a very good personal and professional relationship. Also, I got considerable input from discussions and conversations with Drs. Wendell Duffield and Nancy Riggs. I joined some volcanological field trips in the vicinity organized by them, and those were quite useful in getting acquainted with the San Francisco Volcanic Field (Fig. 3). As it turned out during my staying in Flagstaff, the most important factor I did not and could not calculate with in advance, was wheather. Unfortunately, winter came earlier than normal and it was extremely wet. I was told we had a winter which happens once in ten years. Due to the high elevation of Flagstaff and my target volcano, San Francisco Mountain (which is the highest point in Arizona, over 3,800 m), the precipication was mostly snow, and actually from November 2004 till late May 2005 the volcanic mountain was covered by thick snow, making it impossible to work or even to hike in high altitudes. Fortunately, during October I could take some field trips in and around the volcano, partly with Richard Holm, from which I greatly benefitted. In addition to these early fall trips, in October I also visited another one of my target volcanoes, Mt. Taylor in New Mexico. That volcano was planned to be studied in cooperation with Dr. Larry Crumpler, research curator in volcanology and space sciences at New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. Taking field trips to that volcano was greatly helped

by Larry, whose interest and concept of the volcano was the same as mine. Thanks to the smaller elevation (3,500 m) of Mt. Taylor, I could work there for some days in May 2005, too (Fig. 4). Due to the severe winter, I could not access to the remote area of Springerville Volcanic Field at all, the third target volcano in my research plan, and for the same and other reasons, I could not visit Hopi Butte Field either, except for one tourist trip in Spring 2006. Consequently, most of the winter months had to be spent indoor. In my project proposal, however, I also aimed at computer work on the target volcanoes, using DEM (digital elevation model). With the help of the local USGS office in Flagstaff, I obtained detailed DEMs on my study areas, and started to work with them. In addition, I continued some of my Hungarian research (i.e., writing papers). In addition to these activities, I attended two conferences and gave four talks during my Fulbright. The first conference was the International Congress of the IAVCEI (International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior), held in Pucón, Chile, in early November. In addition to the meeting itself, I participated at a pre-congress field trip (A1) studying Parinacota and Taapaca, these being among Chile’s most exciting and interesting active volcanoes (Fig. 5). All in all I spent almost three weeks in Chile and obtained much volcanological experience and built up very important personal relationships. The other conference was an international Fulbright meeting held in Washington DC in April 2005. There, I met more than 50 Fulbright grantees from all over the world (none of them from Hungary!), and in addition to changing ideas and experience throughout the

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AY 2004-2005 USA, we listened to interesting lectures on society, higher education, political issues etc, of the USA. From Fall 2004 to Spring 2005, I participated in the Occasional Lecturer Program, and gave three invited talks at three universities, organized or initiated by Michael Ort, Larry Crumpler and myself. In these lectures (21 October 2004, University of New Mexico, 31 January 2005, Arizona State University, and 22 March 2005, Northern Arizona University), the topics were erosion of volcanoes, their contrasting pathways, structural and climatic control, and volcanism of the CarpathoPannonian Region, its time-space activity, various trends, volcano types, growth and destruction. These talks attracted a number of colleagues and students, and I learned much from the related discussions. Finally, I gave a fourth talk at NAU, in the framework of a regular class, about the volcanism of Etna. A volcanological field trip to the High Cascades, planned well before my Fulbright, became also very successful (Fig. 6). The trip, including famous and well-known volcanoes such as Mt. St. Helens, Crater Lake, Newberry Caldera, Mt. Hood, Mt. Shasta, etc., was organized by myself, with the help of distinguished volcanologists Drs. Jon Major and Willie Scott at Cascade Volcanological Observatory, and retired professor Nicholas Bariss (Univ. of Omaha, Nebraska). The field trip was arranged in late May (as late as possible with regard to my Fulbright period), in order to avoid wheather problems.

1. 3. Results and further plans San Francisco Mountain is the major volcano of a polygenetic field comprising a large, silicic stratocone and a number of lava domes and cinder cones. Simi-

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larly to other large fields in and around the Colorado Plateau, these could form along faults in response to the thinning and young uplift of the plateau (Wood & Baldridge, 1990, Parsons & McCarthy, 1995). The Late Pleistocene San Francisco Mountain stratocone is characterized by a prominent outlet valley, which is wide and flat enough that one can exclude a fluvial origin. Although some authors stated previously that the valley may have been formed by an explosive sector collapse that truncated the cone (e.g. Wolfe 1990), details of this collapse as well as further valley evolution of the cone flanks are not known. In a recent paper, Richard Holm (2004) published an analysis of boreholes, in which he revealed old volcaniclastic successions, among others gravitational sector collapses. A major problem is that in the field, debris avalanche deposits of neither explosive nor gravitational origin can be found. In a joint field trip with Dr. Holm, we discussed that effusion of the final-stage low-viscosity andesite lava flows could not be associated with explosive collapse(s), whilst, on the other hand, deposits of gravitational collapses (if occurred) could be covered by subsequent products. Alternatively, or in addition, some authors proposed that glaciation contributed to valley enlargement, but there is only little evidence of glacial moraines in the field. All in all, after clarifying the possible role of the mentioned volcanic and exogenic (erosional) processes, in my studies I started to focus on the ancient, or if a collapse occurred, pre-collapse volcanic morphology, namely, how many centres/cones in what configuration may have existed. With one of the best preserved calderalike depressions in the region, the Pliocene â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Early Pleistocene (3.5-1.5 Ma)

Comparative volcano geomorphological studies in San Francisco Mount Taylor is a typical continental stratocone (Crumpler 1982, Perry et al. 1990). Apart from approximately 250 vents (cinder cones, maars, domes) of the Mesa Chivato (extending northeastward from Mount Taylor), surface evolution of the stratovolcano is perhaps of greatest interest from the geomorphic point of view (Fig. 7). As for its almost closed central depression, glacier erosion, unlike at San Francisco Mt., has not been documented, whereas the fluvial origin of the present-day outlet valley is obvious. Especially early in its history, fluvial erosion and downcut was significant (Love and Connell 2005). L. Crumpler (1990, and personal communication) first invoked Mt. St. Helens-type sector collapse and later an erosional widening by removal of loose pyroclastics from the interior over subsequent geologic time. G. A. Smith (personal communication) cannot find evidence for a sector collapse, making the erosional hypothesis more likely. A detailed geomorphological study to refine these concepts has not been carried out. With the help of a high-resolution DEM, I also started to carry out a detailed analysis about the volcano’s original cone configuration. To summarize the previously known and during my Fulbright the field-checked information, similar features of the eruptive activity of the two volcanoes are (1) summit structures of stratified andesitic or trachyandesitic lava flows and breccias, (2) subordinate pyroclastic deposits in the cone-building successions, (3) presence of more viscous dacitic parasitic domes, (4) concave-up ”stratovolcano” slopes, with enlarged central depressions, and (5) welldeveloped volcaniclastic aprons. Differences between the two volcanoes are the ages of volcanic activity and

geomorphic details of the central depressions. Eruptions at Mount Taylor occurred between 3.9 and 1.7 Ma (Lipman, P. W. and Mehnert, H. H. 1979); the stratovolcanic activity possibly constrained to 3.0-2.5 Ma, but relatively little known about the entire volcanic stratigraphy. San Francisco Mountain erupted between 2.8 and 0.22 Ma (Damon et al. 1974), with the principal cone constructed 0.92-0.43 Ma. That is, while the former volcano is Late Pliocene age, the latter is late Pleistocene. San Francisco Mt. is about 400 m higher and much better preserved than Mt. Taylor. The central depression of San Francisco Mt. is more open relative to that of Mt. Taylor, the latter having a bottleneck morphology at the outlet. Sector collapses were put forward for both volcanoes, although the highly dissected interior of Mt. Taylor in addition to the narrow outlet argues for that fluvial erosion was significant in excavating, or even creating, its depression. At both volcano, due perhaps to the finalstage cover deposits and to substantial erosion, it is difficult to identify and document collapse materials separately from the common, smaller-scale debris flow deposits. These latter deposits were field-checked by our field trips. Preliminary results of DEM analysis of San Francisco Mountain can be summarized as follows: the original volcano may have been a complex edifice with a number of vents and possibly lava domes, instead of a simple ”stratovolcanic” cone. Contrasting aspects of the slopes as well as directions of ridges point to several (at least three) centres (Fig. 8). Since there is no geologic record of an explosive (final) stage, or hydrothermal activity resulting in edifice weakening, the only cause of a gravitational cone collapse

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AY 2004-2005 might be tectonic activity. The NE-SW alignment of post-stratovolcanic cones is in accordance with the NE-SW-elongated caldera shape. Glacial modification of the truncated cone is obvious, whereas fluvial erosion, given the lack of fixed water courses and downcut in the interior, should have been insignificant. Based on a newly built acquaintance with associate professor Brad Singer, I initiated a dating project with the University of Wisconsin in Madigan. After returning Hungary I could find financial support by the Hungarian Fulbright Commission, and started to work with Richard Holm on a high-precision (Ar/Ar) radiometric dating project of the final activity of San Francisco Mountain. Our goal is to reconstruct the volcano-geomorphic configuration of the latest cone-building eruptions, prior to development of the central depression. We would like to determine the shape and distrubution of late-stage summit vents and craters in order to conclude the final morphology prior to volcano degradation. As referred to in the above, the available K-Ar dates were measured in the 1970s, and no Ar/Ar ages are available.

2. Life in the USA 2. 1. Settling down and managing ourselves in Flagstaff, Arizona In order to prepare our settling down, I arrived some weeks earlier than my family to resolve administrative issues. Although, as I mentioned above, my host gave me a considerable help and also there was a Fulbright coordinator at NAU, each task required for a normal family life (housing, schooling, bank account, driving license etc.) should have been managed sepa-

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rately, taking much time. Obviously, some specific problems were due to the relatively small size of Flagstaff. However, these could be resolved eventually, and no serious conflicts arose. While bureaucracy could not be avoided, I wish to report that in schooling as well as health care we experienced remarkable help as well as moral support. In particular, in the school which was the only appropriate choice for foreign children in Flagstaff, i.e. South Beaver School (named for the street it is located, near NAU campus), both the director and the teacher staff showed the maximum treatment and empathy toward our sons. It was not easy at all at the beginning to start their work in the classes. With no English, only the younger one (2rd class) could find suitable occupation; the elder one (4th class), with more skillfullness required, was faced by serious problems in understanding the tasks. However, thanks to the teachers, these problems were overcome gradually. In math and computer work, as well as doing sport (especially soccer [European football] and basketball), they both were among the best, and this had a serious push on their further learning. Although they still had emotional problems for many weeks, after progressive improvement in understanding, at the end of the third months they started to speak (Fig. 9). Their pronounciation has been excellent and we strongly hope that the basic English will be enough for the future, when getting a more developed language skill. Also, as for health care, we experienced great respect and treatment in smaller to bigger issues. To mention one example, it occurred twice that our kids were treated with urgency care, regardless of what health insurance we had.

Comparative volcano geomorphological studies in San Francisco Due to the preferred location of Flagstaff (i.e. near the Grand Canyon) and probably due to its small size, housing rates are relatively high, and it would have been difficult to find an appropriate solution. Fortunately, with the help of the university administration, we could find relatively good apartments on campus, with the only problem that we had to move from one place to another in the middle of winter, because of apartment rebuilding.

2. 2. Travelling in the USA During the time my family stayed with me, mostly we visited the vicinity of Flagstaff, as well as some neighbouring spectacles, especially national parks and monuments. As we learned well in advance, we had to purchase a car, and it was worthy. We bought the one-year valid Eagle family card for National Parks, and using that card we visited famous canyonlands such as Grand Canyon, Bryce and Zion canyons, small but similarly spectacular canyons, e.g., Antelope and Walnut canyons, and other geologic and historic places of interest such as Petrified Forest, Sedona Red Rock Country, and Montezuma Castle (Fig. 10). Also, we visited big towns such as Phoenix and Las Vegas. Unfortunately, together we did not have time and opportunity to visit farther away, so the basic impression my family obtained was about the canyonlands of the Southwest USA. As for myself, partly connected to the previously mentioned professional trips, I was able to visit much more places of interest in a number of other states. Altogether I visited eight states (Arizona, New Mexico, Oregon, California, Washington, Colorado, Utah, Nevada); in addition to Phoenix and Las

Vegas, two other big towns (Denver and San Francisco), and during my Fulbright meeting two metropolises (Washington DC and New York). Eventually I was in 11 National Parks (Grand, Bryce, Zion, Antelope and Walnut canyons, Perified Forest, Monument Valley, Mesa Verde, Sequioa, Yosemite and Crater Lake National Parks), and a number of national monuments. I flew more than 46 000 km (from and back to Europe, to and back from Chile, and domestic flights during the Fulbright meeting), drove at least 13 500 km (the two longest trips being the High Cascades up to Washington, and Colorado up to Boulder-Denver) and took 2500 km by bus (Greyhound). Driving in the USA was very easy, but ironically too easy for a European. I had serious problem not with the physical demand, but with time. Especially toward the end of my staying in the USA, in order to drive extremely long distances in 12 to 14 hours totally alone, I needed an extreme concentration and self-discipline to moderate loneliness. The final, most spectacular and professionally most useful journey to the High Cascades (10 days) needed a very careful planning to maintain myself in the best state, in order to see and learn as much as possible. Hereby I wish to thank again the CVO colleagues Jon Major and Willie Scott for their generous help, and especially Nicholas Bariss for his ideas, help and kind hospitality, lending his summer house to me in Eugene, Oregon.

2. 2. Personal relationships

and experience

Two “levels” of American behavior was experienced by us, which had not been obvious and known for us earlier. The first level was the “professional” one, i.e.

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AY 2004-2005 a great empathy and treatment of any kind of employees toward the foreigners. As I reported in the above, behavior of particularly the health care staff and the teachers in the primary school should be appreciated here. We experienced the same attitude in shops, pharmacies, national park service, fuel stations etc. The other “level” which cannot be distinguished in Hungary and most European countries is the more personal sphere, i.e. the possibility to get acquainted with somebody, a guest from far abroad, especially with whom one spends a longer time jointly. In this respect we were not too successful, and the average experience was not the one we expected. Partly probably due to language problems, largely we could not build up close relationships to colleagues, co-parents, families etc. Personal or family invitation, and shared activities were relatively rare, and for us it turned out eventually that the personal “isolation” is quite normal at least in the Southwest USA, unless somebody belongs to special circles, groups, organizations of the society. As we understood – also from conversations with some “exceptional” colleagues and friends who confirmed our evaluation – all this peculiarity is related to the interpretation of freedom, i.e. nobody wants to interact with other people if it may be evaluated as disturbance. This attitude can be very useful for many, but especially during the long winter months indoor, when we suffered from home-sickness many times, this was not too helpful for us.

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Of course, as indicated in the above, there were many exceptions, and very likely if we had selected another place, probably in the east or west coast with a longer-lasting culture and variegated tradition, we would have got different experience. For example, we visited many times Phoenix, where we found other Hungarians, and they introduced us to local friends with whom we spent pleasant days. I should mention here Richard Holm again, who and whose wife were very kind to me, and who showed a real interest toward Hungary. Also, hereby I would like to thank Maria and Ben, our good friends in Flagstaff, for their kind help with me and my family (Fig. 11). The Fulbright conference held in April 2005 was a very nice journey for me, and I enjoyed it to a great extent. The Fulbright staff was very nice and kind, the organization was excellent, and I wish to express my thanks again for the opportunity of participating. To sum up, the 9 months spent in the USA was an unforgettable period for all of us. I benefitted a lot from the professional point of view, both in terms of volcanology and my university subjects. I took some 4000 slides, and after returing to Hungary I already gave 5 talks, among them professional reports, about my experience in America. Last but not at least, I would like to thank again the Fulbright Commission for the opportunity in participating in the Fulbright program.

Comparative volcano geomorphological studies in San Francisco Fig. 1: Central part of the San Francisco Volcanic Field, wih the most prominent stratrocone San Francisco Mountain in the middle. Its central, elongated depression open to the northeast is attributed to sector collapse(s), subsequently enlarged by glacial erosion. Note the SW-NE alignment of the depression and also some parasitic vents to the east! Fig. 2: My work place, the buildings of Geology Department of Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona Fig. 3: Panoramic view of the northern cones of San Francisco Volcanic Field, with the intact SP Crater in the foreground and the Late Pleistocene, eroded San Francisco stratocone, highest point of Arizona (3,853 m), in the background

N. V., Swann, G. A., Eastwood, R. L. (eds.), Geology of northern Arizona, Part I – Regional Studies. Geol. Soc. Am., Rocky Mountain Section Meeting, Flagstaff, Arizona, Guidebook, p. 221-235. Lipman, P.W. And Mehnert, H.H., 1979, Potassium-argon ages from the Mount Taylor Volcanic Field, New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1124-B, 8 pp.

Fig. 4: Mount Taylor, a Late Pliocene stratocone, with its erosionally enlarged central depression and narrow outlet valley in the background. Fig. 5: Parinacota stratovolcano, over 6,300 m high, experienced a major collapse ca. 8000 years ago. Hummocky surface and dammed lakes between the hummocks, related to the catastrophic event, are well preserved on its western slopes (to the left) Fig. 6: Mt. Shasta, 4317 m high, is a dormant compound stratovolcano composed of overlapping cones, mostly lava domes, centered at four or more main vents Fig. 7: Shaded relief image based on the high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) of Mt. Taylor. The stratovolcano is located in the southwestern part of Mesa Chivato, comprising small parasitic vents (well visible to the northwest) Fig. 8: DEM-derived images of San Francisco Mountain. a: ridge and valley map, b: slope category map, c: aspect map (azimuths of slope exposure) draped on a shaded relief image. Note the complex morphology of the inner basin! Fig. 9: In the primary schol playground: our younger son (in the back) together with its 2nd class schoolmates Fig. 10: One of the little known but highly spectacular canyons: the ”Red Rock Country” near Sedona. Our two kids in the foreground. Fig. 11: A party organized on my birthday: conversation about recent politics with a good friend of us.

Holm, R. F., 2004: Landslide Preconditions and Collapse of the San Francisco Mountain Composite Volcano, Arizona, into Cold Debris Avalanches in Late Pleistocene. The Journal of Geology, 112, No. 3, p. 335-348 Love, D.W. and Connell, S.D., 2005: Late Neogene drainage development on the southeastern Colorado Plateau, New Mexico: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 28, p. 151-169. Parsons, T., McCarthy, J. 1995: The active southwest margin of the Colorado Plateau: Uplift of mantle origin. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 107 (2), 139-147. Perry, F.V., Baldridge, W.S., DePaolo, J., Shafiqullah, M., 1990: Evolution of a magmatic system during continental extension: the Mount Taylor volcanic field, New Mexico: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 95, p. 19327-19348.

Bibliography

Wolfe, E. W., 1990: San Francisco volcanic field, Arizona.

Crumpler, L.S., 1982: Volcanism in the Mount Taylor

In: Volcanoes of North America (eds: Wood, C.A., Kienle,

region: New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook 33, p.

J.), Cambridge University Press, 278-280.

291-298. Wood, C.A., Baldridge, S. 1990: Volcano tectonics of the Damon, P. E., Shafiqullah, M., Leventhal, J. S., 1974: K-

Western United States. In: Volcanoes of North America

Ar chronology for the San Francisco volcanic field and rate

(eds: Wood, C.A., Kienle, J.), Cambridge University Press,

of erosion of the Little Colorado River. In: Karlstrom, T.

147-154.

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Journalism, Culture and Government in America Sándor Orbán .............................................................................

The Phillip Merrill College of Journalism, University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742 www.umd.edu orbas@ceu.hu Adviser: Ms. Lucinda Fleeson

.............................................................................

Abstract Coursework at the University of Maryland, internship at the International Center for Journalists in Washington, DC, and study tours at US government, media and cultural organizations – these were the three main components of the Humphrey fellowship program, which I completed during the academic year of 2004/2005 in the United States. Eleven other media professionals at a midpoint in their careers from Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin-America also participated in the non-degree program at UMD. This provided a unique opportunity to obtain first-hand experience about their countries and cultures, as well. The Humphrey fellowship program is not research oriented. Its main objective is to give the possibility to the participants to develop professionally through academic study and direct work experience. As a consequence, this paper will not tackle a single project. Instead, it intends to summarize the activities which were part the Humphrey fellowship program during the year.

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Journalism, Culture and Government in America

1. Course work at the University of Maryland As a Humphrey fellow, I had the opportunity to audit two courses per term at any department of the University of Maryland. In the fall semester of I took the following courses: • Theories of Journalism and Public Communication • American Studies: The Body, Sexuality, and Society For the journalism theories class I made a presentation on the concept of public sphere and German social scientist, Jürgen Habermas. In the spring semester I got enrolled in the following courses: • Intercultural Communication Theory • Journalism Ethics For the communication theory class I prepared a presentation on the Cultural Schema Theory, focusing on the adjustment of sojourners in different cultural environments. In both terms, together with the other ten Humphrey fellows residing at the University of Maryland, I attended a weekly seminar on media and politics, supervised by Humphrey program director, Professor Lucinda Fleeson. During the sessions each fellow gave a lecture on the state of the media in his/ her country, thus I prepared an in-depth presentation on the challenged encountered by Hungarian media 15 years after the collapse of communism. In the framework of this series of seminars we also had discussions with experts from

US media organizations and government agencies. These sessions tackled the functioning of government and media. During the fall semester a special emphasis was placed on the then ongoing US presidential election campaign and the outcome of the elections. At UMD I also participated in a panel discussion on press freedom issues in Central and Eastern Europe which was open to the whole college community. I talked about the situation of the Hungarian media including ownership, legal framework, content, professional standards, self-regulation. The group of UMD Humphrey fellows was involved in social work, as well. We gave presentations about our countries to high school students in the Washington DC area and helped homeless people in a downtown shelter.

2. Internship at the International Center for Journalists In order to develop professional skills and obtain first-hand experience in an American work environment each Humphrey completed a two-month internship at a US business entity, governmental office or non-for-profit organization. I worked at a Washington-based media NGO, the International Center for Journalists (ICFJ). The Center is dedicated to helping journalists worldwide raise the standards of journalism, especially in places with little tradition of a free press. ICFJ was founded in 1984 in the belief that vigorous, independent media are essential building blocks on

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AY 2004-2005 which democracy, freedom and human rights must be based. During the internship I worked in close cooperation with ICFJ vice-president, Susan Tallalay who was responsible for fund-raising activities. I also assisted project managers dealing with programs in Central and South Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. I was focusing on the following fields of activities: I identified funding opportunities and potential partner organizations in the European Union for the International Center for Journalists. I assisted to write grant proposals, including a major Middle East media development project. I collected feedback on completed ICFJ projects from former course and workshop participants. I conducted research and collected data for www.ijnet.org, the ICFJ website specializing on media training. Finally, I gave presentations to American media professionals before they started to train journalists overseas. Coming from the media development field, I profited greatly from the internship at ICFJ, because I had the opportunity to learn about new fundraising tools and management methods, improve my grant writing skills and make new professional contacts.

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3. Visits and meeting at government, media and cultural organizations During the Humphrey year fellows were encouraged to participate in field trips, visit US institutions and attend public lectures and workshops. The Washington DC metro area and the closeness of New York provided an extremely wide range of opportunities for professional enrichment and exploration. Regarding governmental and legislative institutions, the Humphrey group from the University of Maryland visited the White House, the State Department, the Supreme Court and the US Congress in Washington. In New York we made a field trip to the UN headquarters and attended Secretary General Kofi Annanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and former US president Bill Clintonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s joint press conference. In New York we also met with editors at several news organizations, including The New York Times, ABC Television, CNN, and the Bloomberg news agency. In Washington we attended public lectures, panel discussions and briefings at the Foreign Press Center and the National Press Club. We had access to the programs organized by the World Affairs Council, and I took part in several events at the School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University, including the presidential election party, November 2, 2004. My fellowship had a special emphasis on American culture. Thus, I attended numerous performances and exhibits at the following institutions: The Kennedy

Journalism, Culture and Government in America Center, the Studio Theatre, the Shakespeare Theatre, the Wolf Trap, the American Film Institute, the National Gallery of Art, the Museum of the American Indian, the Smithsonian International Gallery, the Phillips Collection in the Washington area. I also visited the Museum of Modern Arts, the Metropolitan Museum, the Guggenheim Museum, the Whitney Museum, and the Neue Gallery in New York, and the Museum of Modern Art in San Francisco. In November 2004 in Washington DC a conference was held for the nearly 200 Humphrey fellows residing on different campuses all around the United Sates. The sessions tackled issues on public education in the US. In May 2005 the graduation ceremony of the Humphrey program took place in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.

I profited tremendously from he Humphrey fellowship program both personally and professionally. It gave me an opportunity to obtain further knowledge on media, communication and culture though academic coursework. I also gained substantial professional experience by interning at a top US media NGO. I equally had the opportunity to be part of a wide range of cultural and social events, and get a deeper understanding of US society, politics and history. Simultaneously, I shared experience with fellows from Russia, Montengro, Bosnia, Benin, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Morocco, Afghanistan, India, Nepal, and Brazil. This allowed me to get more insight into international, regional and global issues.

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Division of Nephrology László Rosivall ............................................................................. LÁszló Rosivall Semmelweis University Department of Pathophisiology 1089 Budapest, NagyvÁrad tér 4. www.sote.hu rosivall.laszlo@net.sote.hu

University of Southern California Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute Los Angeles, CA 90089 www.usc.edu/zni Adviser: Janos Peti-Peterdi MD

............................................................................. Institutions: - Division of Nephrology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Professor Darwin P. Bell (March) - Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Associate Professor Janos Peti Peterdi, (April-May)

Activities: I. Taking part in education: - serving as judge for student scientific poster competition in physiology at UAB - serving as judge for student scientific poster competition in medicine at USC - serving as mentor for American Physiological Society Minority Travel Fellowship Awardees during the International Union of Physiological Sciences Meeting, San, Diego - teaching whole animal experimental methods for PhD students at USC

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II. Scientific lectures: - Invited lecture at an official satellite symposium of the XXXV Annual Congress of International Union of Physiologic Sciences (IUPS): Coordinating Hemodynamic, Filtration, and Reabsorptive Functions of the Kidney, La Jolla, CA, (April) Lecture title: “Function of the endothelial fenestrations in afferent arterioles” - Invited Hans Selye Visiting Professor lecture, Medicine Grand Rounds at Southern California Institute for Research and Education and University of California,

Division of Nephrology Irvine (May) Title: “Morphology and function of juxtaglomerular apparatus, a small yet powerful regulator”. - Research seminar at the Physiology Department of Keck School of Medicine, USC, title: “Short loop mechanism in regulation of GFR”.

III. Research activity; - Imaging of glomerular, tubular and vascular elements of mice in vivo by laser multiphoton technique. - Tracing of angiotensin uptake by different cells in the rat kidney measured by multiphoton microscopy in rat. - Study the mechanism of renin secretion by granular cells in cell culture by intracellular calcium ion measurements. - Study the permeability of endothelial fenestration in afferent arteriole by multiphoton microscopy imaging.

IV. Most important meetings with scientists, agreements: Anupam Agarwa MD, Head of NRTC, UAB The 25 year standing cooperation between the Nephrology Research and Training Centers of UAB and Semmelweis University, Budapest will be reinforced. Anupam Agrawal will start to organize the establishment of an official bilateral agreement between the two Universities in order to further foster the development ongoing cooperation with mutual benefit. We are going to try to get a Fogarty (FIRCA) award together. Lisa M. Guay-Woodford, M.D. Pediatric Nephrologist, Professor of Medicine Director, Division of Genetic and

Translational Medicine, UAB She accepted the invitation to take part in a symposium organized by Laszlo Rosivall at ISP Congress in Beijing 2006 together with Professor Darwin Bell and L Gabriel Navar. She also accepted the invitation to lecture at the 13th Budapest Nephrology School and at the International Pediatrics Congress in Budapest 2007. She offered to apply for a joint project fund to NIH. David Warnock, Head of the Department of Medicine UAB and Jim Schafer, PhD Emeritus Professor, UAB and Steve Rostand, Professor at UAB, and Bruce Julian MD, Nephrologist, UAB. They agreed to have a special UAB faculty at the Budapest Nephrology School. George Olah, Nobel laurate, USC. He has offered his support for Universitas Pax et Veritas (UPV), the International University of the Central Europe. UPV is the first Harvard-style, multi campus international university in Hungary which was conceived back in 1994 by the Harvard faculty and in the past year has been revitalized and will soon be fully established with the help of the US and Hungarian professionals. Sandor Szabo, MD, PhD, Chief of Staff, VA, Long Beach, Vice dean of Dean of UCI. He has offered his active support for UPV. He is also involved in joint research projects.

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AY 2004-2005 Roland Blantz, MD, PhD, USC, La Jolla. The president of the American Kidney Foundation. He agreed to lecture at the Budapest nephrology School. L Gabriel Navar PhD, Head of the Dept. of Physiology, Tulane University. He provided a chapter for â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nephrology, Hypertension, Dialysis, Transplantationâ&#x20AC;?, edited by: T. E. Andreoli, E. Ritz and L. Rosivall, to be published in 2005.

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In Summary: I should like to emphasize that this fellowship was indeed a unique scientific, social and cultural experience. I am grateful to the Fulbright Scholar Program for having provided me with this opportunity. I am also grateful to those who assisted me with my stay in USA specially in California with respect to my housing. I hope that the Fulbright will consider a rise in the fellowship fund for the next scholars, as otherwise it would be difficult for the scientists to live in USA with the very limited money allocated.

J. William Fulbright William Fulbright was born on April 9, 1905 in Sumner, Missouri. His mother was a teacher. William inherited his mother’s curiosity for the world. He was educated at the University of Arkansas where he was awarded the B.A. degree in Political Science in 1925. He applied for, and was granted, a Rhodes Scholarship. Fulbright’s passion for knowledge began at Oxford and never really ceased. When Fulbright returned to the United States he was an exceptional student at George Washington University Law School. In 1936, Fulbright returned to Arkansas where he was a law professor and three years later, from 1939 to 1941 the president of the University of Arkansas - then the youngest university president in the country. In 1942, Fulbright began his career in politics - entering Congress at the age of 37. Being both passionate and astute he went on to a 30-year term in Washington. He was entering Congress in January 1943 and becoming a member of the Foreign Affairs Committee. Fulbright stood up for his beliefs - even if it was politically risky. In the mid-’50s, he opposed Senator Joseph R. McCarthy, he was the only Senator who vote against an appropriation for McCarthy’s Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. In this highly politicized environment, Fulbright was constantly calling for sympathy and understanding. As Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Fulbright worked hard to understand the nations that dealt with the United States. He never fell prey to the stereotypes of the cold war. He resisted to popular tendency of his times to belligerence and treated Soviet leaders with respect as he sought to reach understanding between peoples. It is in this spirit that the House adopted a Fulbright resolution encouraging participation in what would later become the United Nations.

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Senator Fulbright always stood by his convictions. He faced opposition in the Senate. Yet despite popular opposition, Fulbright never gave up hope for a better world. “If one believes that we are aggressive inherently, it makes it almost impossible to feel that we will ever get over this tendency to periodically destroy ourselves, our accumulated wealth and our lives. Or, is this tendency to aggression environmental, a result of experience and training? Of course, I belong to that school.” This last statement goes without saying, as does Fulbright’s position in American history as one of the country’s great humanitarians. In 1963, Walter Lippman wrote of Fulbright: “The role he plays in Washington is an indispensable role. There is no one else who is so powerful and also wise, and if there were any question of removing him from public life, it would be a national calamity.” Fulbright’s humanity was a constant throughout his career. Nowhere is this clearer than the educational program that bears his name. The Senator believed that “education is the best means - probably the only means - by which nations can cultivate a degree of objectivity about each other’s behavior and intentions….Educational exchange can turn nations into people, contributing as no other form of communication can to the humanizing of international relations.” Without the conviction and passion of Senator J. William Fulbright there could be no Fulbright Program. He received numerous awards from governments, universities, and educational organizations around the world for his efforts on behalf of education and international understanding. In 1993 he was presented the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Clinton. The Hungarian Government awarded him the Silver Cross of the Republic of Hungary in 1994. Senator J. William Fulbright died on February 9, 1995 at the age of 89.