M.Arch Thesis Document 2016 - Architecture and Neuroscience

Architecture and Neuroscience: Designing for How the Brain Responds to the Built Environment A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture in the School of Architecture and Interior Design of the College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning by Giovanni Vincent Morabito Bachelor of Arts in Architecture University of Maine at Augusta 2012 gabito.gvm@gmail.com Committee Chair: Associate Professor William Williams Committee Member: Professor Edson Cabalfin, Ph.D. 2016

It is now known that the external environment plays a significant role in the development of the human brain, beginning in infancy and continuing throughout adult life.

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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Architects have long been uncertain about how the spaces and buildings they design affect the people who inhabit these environments on a neurological level. Regardless of this, mankind has long been the biological byproduct of our environmental context and the spaces we inhabit throughout our lives. Fred H. Gage, professor and Research Chair on Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases at the Laboratory of Genetics of the Salk Institute, wrote the following in a forward to John P. Eberhard’s book Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture: I contend that architectural design can change our brains and behavior. The structures in the environment―the houses we live in, the areas we play in, the buildings we work in―affect our brains and our brains affect our behavior. By designing the structures we live in, architects are affecting our brains. The different spaces in which we live and work are changing our brain structures and our behaviors, and this has been going on for a long time.

In an era rich with expansive knowledge into the inner working of our brains and how they continuously develop, the architects of today are challenged to venture deeper in their understanding of design impact on the mind and the resultant development of their fellow man. By harnessing the knowledge of how architecture influences neurons of the brain, future architects can employ a more sophisticated set of design tools to ensure that intended design outcomes result from their work.

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Ever vigilant to the power of implied space, we avoid stepping on the cracks in the sidewalk. The perception of edges sends signals to the brain which translate to the perception of spatial thresholds.

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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Ever since I can remember, I have avoided stepping on the cracks and shadow lines cast on street sidewalks. While subconsciously aware of the space that forms in the mind by the perceptive delineation of an edge, I did not discover my passion for architecture until I began to study it in college. In my design studios, I quickly became fascinated with the anthropological, psychological, and social impact of the built environment. The written works of anthropologist and author Edward T. Hall regarding the culture-specific perspectives of time, communication, and proxemics, the study of personal space, augmented my perception of design and fueled my interest. Upon finishing my second year at university, I began to understand the significance of my subservience to the implied edge.

My passion for architecture has always stemmed from the belief that, above all, a built environment must evoke a psychologically and socially enriching experience for its inhabitants, while responding to the specifically intended activities for which each space is designed. My studio projects often focus on how architectural expression can actually validate an activity beyond simply providing a secure shelter of walls, floor, and ceiling. As my explorations and intrigue of design impact has evolved over recent years, I have developed a more focused ambition to understand the psychological and social impact that architecture has been studied and proven to have on the development of people. I began reading scholarly journals published by the American Institute of Psychology and SAGE publications, which contain many unbiased research findings on various topics of how people respond to specific environmental conditions.

I assert that architects have a continually growing need to develop a more sophisticated understanding of how architecture affects human behavior. By gaining a more in-depth perspective V

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

on the cognitive impact of the environment, future designers can more factually ensure the efficacy of presented design solutions and avoid unintended outcomes. Just as the science and study of medicine has developed increasingly more sophisticated and innovative solutions to treat patients, providing better care, more successful surgeries, and decreasing patient recovery time, I believe that architecture too has the potential to gain a more sophisticated understanding of the impact of environment on the mind and the body.

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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Thank you to my family and friends for their continued support and encouragement throughout my academic explorations. I owe a great deal of thanks to my research chair, Edson Cabalfin, who initially suggested that I investigate the field of neuroscience as an outlet through which to foster my intense curiosity of the phsychological impact of the built environment.

Your inspirations and encouragement throughout this process was critical to my work on this project.

Thank you:

Udo Greinacher: Advisor

Vincent Sansalone: Advisor

Also, thank you William Williams for your insights and support throughout this explorative journey.

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Abstract III Preface V Acknowledgements IX List of Figures XII PART 1: RESEARCH Premise 3 Problem 5 Background 7 Discourse 11 Rita Carter 11 John P. Eberhard 13 Sussman/Hollander 19 John Zeisel 21 Precedent Research 27 Salk Institute 27 UCSD StarCAVE 29 Background Summary 33 Proposition 35 Methodology

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Outcomes 41 Client/Culture 47 Site/Context 53 Architectural Precedents 57 The Parthenon 57 The Salk Institute 59

Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar

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Spaces and Experiences 69 PART 2: Synthesis 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition 79 Proprioception 79 Thigmotaxis 80 Symmetry 81 Biophilia 82 Pareidolia 83 Proxemics 84 Mirror Neurons 85 Mnemonics 86 Curvilinearity 87 Rectilinearity 88 Closing Comments 89 PART 3: appendices Glossary 92 Bibliography 94

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Figure 1

Author unknown, Development of the brain’s architecture. 2016. Digital, 3 x 4.5 in. Source: Harvard University Center on the Developing Child.

Cambridge, Massachusetts. ���������������������������������������������� II

Figure 2

Ryan McGuire, People-Street-Sidewalk-Jeans. 2016.

Photograph. Source: Gratisography.com ���������������������������IV

Figure 3

Rita Carter, Brain Plasticity Diagram. 1998. Digital (reproduced by Giovanni Morabito) 6.5 x 2 in. Source: Rita Carter. Mapping the Mind. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London University: University of California Press, 1998. Pg 18. ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2

Figure 4

Moritz Stefaner, The Emergence of Neuroscience.

2009. Digital. 32 x 21 in. Source: Well-formed Data. net. Neuroscience infoporn. Published September 3rd, 2009. well-formed-data.net ������������������������������������������������� 6

Figure 5

Rita Carter, Mind Map. 1998. Digital (reproduced by Giovanni Morabito) 4.5 x 6 in. Source: Rita Carter.

Mapping the Mind. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London University: University of California Press, 1998. ��� 10

Figure 6

Author unknown, Visual Processing Diagram. 2011.

Digital 3 x 2 in. Source: Salk Institute online resource, InsideSalk: Color Vision Goes Full Circuit. Published February 2011. ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 12

Figure 7

Giovanni Morabito, The Forces of Proprioception.

2016. Digital 10 x 20 in. ������������������������������������������������������ 14

Figure 8

Giovanni Morabito, The Early Days of Mind-Mapping.

2015. Digital 6.5 x 9 in. ������������������������������������������������������ 16

Figure 9

Giovanni Morabito, Thigmotaxis Maze. 2015. Digital 20 x 30 in. ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 18

Figure 10

Trey Kirk, The Human Field of Vision. Digital Print (reproduced by Giovanni Morabito) 5 x 3.5 in. Source: Ann Sussman and Justin B. Hollander. MCognitive Architecture:Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment. New York; Routledge. 2009, Print. ������ 20

Figure 11

Trey Kirk, The Human Viewport. Digital Print (reproduced by Giovanni Morabito) 5 x 3.5 in. Source: Ann Sussman and Justin B. Hollander. MCognitive Architecture:Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment. New York; Routledge. 2009, Print. ������ 20

Figure 12

Trey Kirk, The Human Bifocal Cone of Vision. Digital

Figure 13

Figure 14

Figure 15

Figure 16

Print (reproduced by Giovanni Morabito) 5 x 3.5 in. Source: Ann Sussman and Justin B. Hollander.

MCognitive Architecture:Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment. New York; Routledge. 2009, Print. �����������������������������������������������������

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Giovanni Morabito, Salk Institute - Exterior.

Photograph 6.5 x 4.5 in. Taken December 12, 2015. La Jolla, California �����������������������������������������������������������������

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Bruce Goff, Salk Institute View of the Pacific Ocean. Photograph 6.5 x 4.5 in. Source: Bruce Goff’s Chicago, posted February 28, 2013. La Jolla, California. shredworld.files.wordpress.com �����������������������

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Calit2, Tom DeFanti in the StarCAVE Calit2 01.

Photograph 14 x 9.5 in. Taken June 11, 2008. Source: Flickr.com ��������������������������������������������������������������������������

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Calit2, Tom DeFanti in the StarCAVE Calit2 07.

Photograph 4 x 3 in. Taken June 11, 2008. Source: Flickr.com ��������������������������������������������������������������������������

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Figure 17

Calit2, TCalit2 project scientist Jurgen Schulze inside StarCAVE room. Photograph 6.5 x 4.5 in. Source: UC San Diego Annual Report. 2008. annualreport.ucsd.edu 30

Figure 18

Calit2, StarCAVE Calit2. Photograph 4 x 4.5 in. 2008.

Source: Flickr.com �������������������������������������������������������������� 30

Figure 19

Rita Carter, Sensory Processing. Illustration 5 x 5 in.

Source: Rita Carter, Mapping the Mind. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London University: University of California Press, 1998. ��������������������������������������������������������

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Figure 20

10 Properties of Environmental Cognition have been identified as design considerations for designers of the built environment. These properties will be reviewed further in Part 2 of this thesis document. �������� 34

Figure 21

Eve A. Edelstein, Architecture and Neuroscience: An Inevitable Paradigm in a Complex World. Digital 6.5 x 4 in. Source: eaedesign.com �������������������������������������������� 40

Figure 22

Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, ANobel Prize Research Previewed at ANFA 2014. Digital 6.5 x 5 in. 2014. Source: anfarch.org ����������������������������������������� 42

Figure 23

Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, ANFA Logo. Digital 3 x 1 in. Source: anfarch.org ����������������������� 46

Figure 24

ANFA, Neuroscience Certificate Program at

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NewSchool San Diego. Edited Photograph 6.5 x 5 in.

Accessed March 31, 2016. Source: http://www.anfarch. org/ ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 48 Figure 25

Bill Kreyslers, Design studio at the NewSchool of Architecture and Design in San Diego, California.

Photograph 6.5 x 4.5 in. Source: The AD Journal: March 28 Archive ����������������������������������������������������������� 50

Figure 26

Giovanni Morabito, Aerial View of Proposed Site.

Illustration 6.5 x 4 in. 2016 �����������������������������������������������

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Giovanni Morabito, Site Section. Illustration 6.5 x 1 in.

2016 �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������

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Giovanni Morabito, Site View Looking West.

Photograph 6.5 x 3 in. Taken December 12, 2016. La Jolla, California �����������������������������������������������������������������

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Figure 27

Figure 28

Figure 29

La Jolla, California temperature range climate data.

Source: ClimateConsultant 2.0 ����������������������������������������� 54

Figure 30

La Jolla, California sun shading chart. Source: ClimateConsultant 2.0 �������������������������������������������������������� 54

Figure 31

La Jolla, California wind gust wheel. Source: ClimateConsultant 2.0 �������������������������������������������������������� 54

Figure 32

Artist unknown, The Parthenon in Athens, Greece.

Photograph 6.5 x 4 in. Source: http://www. ancientgreece.com/s/Art/ �������������������������������������������������� 56

Figure 33

Benjamin Blankenbehler, How Greek Temples Correct Visual Distortion. Black and white illustration 6.5 x 4 in. Source: http://www.architecturerevived.com/howgreek-temples-correct-visual-distortion/ �������������������������� 58

Figure 34

Benjamin Blankenbehler, How Greek Temples Correct Visual Distortion. Black and white illustration 3 x 4 in. Source: http://www.architecturerevived.com/howgreek-temples-correct-visual-distortion/ �������������������������� 58

Figure 35

RyansWorld, The basilica of Assisi. Photograph 4 x 4 in. Source: www.assisionline.com �������������������������������������� 60

Figure 36

José Vicente Miguel, Salk Institute. Photograph 6 x 4 in. Source: es.slideshare.net/ �������������������������������������������� 60

Figure 37

Pearson Education, DNA Replication KEY Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine. 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Segment 2 DNA polymerase DNA nucleotide Segment 1 DNA polymerase. Source: www.slideshare.net 62

Figure 38

Nicholas A. Tonell, Louise W. Moore County Park (Revisit) (3). Photograph 3 x 3.5. in. 2014. Source: flickr. com �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������

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Figure 39

Aerial View of Terranea Resort. Photograph 6.5 x 3 in. 2015. Source: www.terranea.com �������������������������������� 64

Figure 40

Resort Map. Photograph 6.5 x 6.5 in. 2015. Source: www.terranea.com ����������������������������������������������������������� 64

Figure 41

Mitch Loch, Vista do Sacatar. Photograph 6.5 x 4 in. 2015. Sacatar Foundation Archive. Source: www. sacatar.org ����������������������������������������������������������������������� 66

Figure 42

Giovanni Morabito, Spatial Proximities Diagram.

Digital 6.5 x 5 in. 2015. ����������������������������������������������������� 70

Figure 43

Giovanni Morabito, Property 1: Proprioception. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. ���������������������������������������������������������������

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Figure 44

Giovanni Morabito, Property 2: Thigmotaxis. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. ��������������������������������������������������������������� 80

Figure 45

Giovanni Morabito, Property 3: Symmetry. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 81

Figure 46

Giovanni Morabito, Property 4: Biophilia. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. ������������������������������������������������������������������������

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Figure 47

Giovanni Morabito, Property 5: Pareidolia. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. �������������������������������������������������������������������� 83

Figure 48

Giovanni Morabito, Property 6: Proxemics. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. �������������������������������������������������������������������� 84

Figure 49

Giovanni Morabito, Property 7: Mirror Neurons.

Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. ����������������������������������������������������� 85

Figure 50

Giovanni Morabito, Property 8: Mnemonics. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. �������������������������������������������������������������������� 86

Figure 51

Giovanni Morabito, Property 9: Curvilinearity. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. ���������������������������������������������������������������

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Giovanni Morabito, Property 10: Rectilinearity. Digital 20 x 30 in. 2016. ��������������������������������������������������������������� 88

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PART 1: RESEARCH

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The Brain is a Muscle, Not a Computer Internal referral

External stimulus

Neuroplasticity explains that our brains are constantly and cumulatively adapting to our perceived surroundings. The brain categorizes and stores every single unique aspect of its surroundings and is constantly referencing this database of sensory input when introduced to new stimuli.

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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Contrary to prior beliefs, neuroscientists have recently discovered that the structure of neurons in our brains remain malleable to changes in experience and our physical interactions with the environments around us throughout our lives.1 In spite of this, the architectural profession has remained largely obtuse to incorporating these findings into the very environments which affect our minds and behavior so significantly. Recent trends in the prominent pedagogy of architectural academia and practice have focused design intent primarily on aesthetic presentation of graphic visuals depicting parametrically complex forms, while bearing little to no regard as to how these proposed environments will result in potential changes to our behavior.

By establishing a cross-disciplinary collaboration between neuroscience and environmental experience, the architectural profession can more comprehensibly understand the impact of the built environment on mental and behavioral development, and more assuredly predict that intended design outcomes corroborate with the resultant wellbeing of its users. The creation of a neural wellness and research facility, which simultaneously serves as a wellness retreat facility for the public and as a research facility for the neuroscience and architectural communities, would provide a mutually beneficial platform from which to gain important insight into the emerging interdisciplinary connection of these two fields.

This wellness facility will be designed using incorporated current neuroscience findings relating to the effect of the built environment on areas of the mind with the primary goal being to enhance neural activity and ultimately enhance the user’s mental well-being. The resulting efficacy of this environment will Kempermann, G., Gast, D. and Gage, F. H. (2002), Neuroplasticity in old age: Sustained fivefold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long-term environmental enrichment. Ann Neurol., 52: 135–143. doi: 10.1002/ana.10262

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

be studied by neuroscientists and architects in order to evaluate and strengthen the interdisciplinary connection of these two fields, and ultimately, serve to increase our depth of understanding regarding design’s impact on neural activity in the brain.

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While an ever increasing population growth in the U.S. continues to demand design solutions which provide enriching environments for specific human activities, the practice of design and pedagogical theory of architecture has traditionally relied heavily on the design intuition of architects in the creation of built environments. Although intuition provides a generally beneficial basis for design decisions regarding human experience, the current lack of evidence-based understanding of design poses a significant question as to the actual efficacy of proposed architectural solutions. How do we really know to what extent the spaces designed to encourage sleep, productivity, social gathering, repose, and learning are performing? Further, how might a basis of scientific evidence substantiate design intuition and help architects gain a more quantifiable understanding of how to design environments that support specific human activities? As a result of a recent surge of knowledge in the field of neuroscience, which studies how the human brain is affected by external stimuli, increasing efforts have been initiated which bridge a connection between architecture and the sensory responses of the brain.2

John P. Eberhard. Architecture and the Brain: A Knowledge Base from Neuroscience.

Atlanta: Greenway Communications, LLC, 2007. Print, XII.

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The of neuroscience The emergence Emgergence of Neuroscience

Psychiatry Neurology Psychology Oncology Medicine

Molecular and Cell Biology

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

Although many branches of scientific inquiry have ventured into the study of the mind for almost a century, neuroscience has only emerged as it’s own scientific field in the http://well-formed.eigenfactor.org past decade due to prior limitations in the technology required to see neural activity. This has now been made possible with the use of Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

Figuredocuments 4: This visualization the formation of neuroscience as a field of its own right over the last decade. Originally scattered across related disciplines (such as medicine, molecular and cell biology or neurology), the neuroscientific journals start to define a niche of their own, reflected in the dense cluster emerging in 2005.

First, almost 8000 scientific journals are clustered into groups, based on their citation patterns, and using the map equation. In short, for a network partitioned into groups, the map equation specifies the theoretical limit of how concisely we can describe a trajectory of a random walker on the network. Therefore, minimizing the map equation over all possible network partitions reveals regularities of information flow across directed and weighted networks or, in our case, the structure of how citations flow through science.

Second, using the Eigenfactor™ Score, the journals are assigned a measure of importance – much as Google’s PageRank algorithm ranks the importance of web pages. The Eigenfactor™ Score measures the percentage of time that researchers would spend with the respective journal, if they were to move through the network by randomly following citations in the journals.

This process is repeated in two-year chunks from 1999–2007, in order to capture changes in clustering and shifts in importance over the years. For this diagram, we picked only the clusters relevant to the formation of neuroscience. ve In the visualization, each cluster occupies a vertical column block in the respective year's column, further subdivided into a block for each journal. Each journal is connected with a horizontal band over the years. The height of each journal reflects the Eigenfactor Score. All journals in the cluster that corresponds to the field of neuroscience in year 2007 are highlighted to tell the story of the formation of this field of science. The coloring is based on the cluster assignments in the first year, 1999.

Visualization: Moritz Stefaner (http://moritz.stefaner.eu) Data analysis: Eigenfactor team (http://eigenfactor.org)

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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One inherent problem with architects relying primarily on intuition to design is that intuition is somewhat subjective, which means that actual behavioral response outcomes do not necessarily correspond with design intent. Secondly, the fact that all people foster their own intuitive understanding of which environmental constructs they respond to favorably, the authoritative intuition of architects is often undermined by clients, consultants, and user groups during the design process who all believe that their ideas are equally congruent with reality.

For instance, an architect proposing classrooms designed with windows facing an external courtyard might be questioned by a budget-conscious client who might argue that outside views are a costly distraction for students. However, many scientific studies have proven that natural light and connection to the outside has a measurable positive impact on student comprehension and learning.3 By establishing a scientific basis for proposed design solutions, architects can benefit from a more definitive understanding of how to design correctly for certain activities as well as provide a more substantiated defense of their design decisions.

The study of neuroscience has recently begun to provide many answers to the question of how people cognitively respond to the external stimuli of a built environment. Noted authors Diane Ackerman, Eric Rasmussen, Juhani Pallasmaa, and others have written extensively on how architecture is experienced not just through our sense of sight, but through all human senses, and that the built environment must respond to all of the senses in a balanced way. Science writer Rita Carter provides an in-depth overview of the human mind in her book, Mapping the Mind, Michael S. Mott et al. Illuminating the Effects of Dynamic Lighting on Student Learning. SAGE Open Online Publication (May, 2012): Accessed April 26, 2015. doi: 10.1177/2158244012445585 3

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

explaining how the brain forms certain emotions and behaviors.

In his book, Architecture and the Brain: A New Knowledge Base from Neuroscience, author John P. Eberhard utilizes the published work of Carter, Ackerman, and others to present how the current state of neuroscience research can already begin to inform how architecture directly affects cognition and behavior. John Zeisel lays out fundamental theoretical approaches to design research in his book, Inquiry by Design: Environment/Behavior/ Neuroscience in Architecture, Interiors, Landscape, and Planning.

Zeisel includes a chapter on the relationship between neuroscience and environment-behavior in research and practice. In the book, Cognitive Architecture: Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment, authors Ann Sussman and Justin B. Hollander review new findings in architecture and neuroscience to help architects and planners better understand how the built-in responses humans have to the environment have evolved over millennia. The text suggests new ways to analyze current designs before they are built, allowing the designer to anticipate a user’s future experience.

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TRANSIT MAP OF THE MIND Right Primary Visual Cortex

Left Primary Visual Cortex

V2 Stereo

V5 Motion

Associative Visual Cortex

V3 Depth Vision Hypothalamus

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Math

Emotional Center

Hippocampus Encoding Depot

Face

Emotional Center

Mouth

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Figure 5: Development of research in mind mapping is beginning to provide a clearer understanding of how the brain synthesizes sensory informations.

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Rita Carter Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

“The human brain has been slow to give up its secrets” writes science writer and lecturer, Rita Carter, in the introduction to her book, Mapping the Mind, a book which provides an informative overview of the currently known and speculated body of knowledge presented in the field of neuroscience and brain mapping. Carter continues her introduction by suggesting the potential use of brain mapping in understanding complex human emotions and experience. She writes, “The knowledge that brain mapping is delivering is not only enlightening, it is of immense practical and social importance because it paves the way for us to recreate ourselves mentally in a way that has previously been described only in science fiction.”4 Throughout her written work, Rita Carter takes readers through the “emerging landscape” that is the human mind, providing a descriptive blueprint of the brain’s primary components and how they function. She identifies the five main areas of the cerebrum, or brain; the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobes, the occipital lobe and the cerebellum, explaining each area’s role in processing our thoughts, senses, and emotions.5 Later chapters explore the left and right hemispheres of the brain, explaining how nearly all senses, besides that of the olfactory sense, cross-communicate sensory information with the respectively opposing hemisphere.6 Carter goes on to describe the origins of our consciousness, stating, “If you were to draw a ‘you are here’ sign on our map of the mind, it is the frontal lobes that the arrow would point. In this our new view of the brain echoes an ancient knowledge — for it is here, too, that mystics have traditionally placed the Third Eye — the gateway to highest point of awareness.”7

4 Rita Carter. Mapping the Mind. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1998. Print, 6.

5 Ibid. 10-18.

6 Ibid. 35-53.

7 Ibid. 180.

11

Figure 6:

Color perception diagram illustrates the sensory input of visual information.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

Author Rita Carter provides a comprehensible overview of the current state of neuroscience research, touching on many important facets of mind mapping and what it provides for clues into understanding the complex mental triggers of external stimuli.

Additionally, while the author only makes occasional specific references to the environment as triggers of cerebral responses, she brings up many key aspects of cognition which could begin to inform environmental design decisions. Carter explains how our external experiences are constantly being recreated in our mind’s internal environment. She writes, “The sensory impact of something in the outside world alters our subsequent perception of it, which in turn creates an altered impact, which further alters our perception.”8 An architectural understanding of this principal could inform the way we understand how people internally respond to certain building designs. Author Rita Carter lays down a strong basis of knowledge for understanding the brain’s complexity and circuitry. Many of her writings will be revisited by later authors focusing on bridging a connection between neuroscience and architecture.

John P. Eberhard

Author and architect, John P. Eberhard seeks to initiate a dialogue of inquiry between architecture and neuroscience in his book, Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture. Eberhard presents a diverse range of research findings from the field of neuroscience and identifies how these findings can inform the design of the spaces in which people work, live, and learn. The author provides scientific explanations for how the mind processes and responds to various external stimuli, such as color. He states, “Perceived color is based on the relative activity of ganglion cells whose receptive field centers receive input from red, green, and blue cones. It appears that the ganglion cells provide a stream of information to the brain that is involved in the spatial comparison of three opposing

8

Ibid. 19.

13

Proprioception is our sense of body position in space, allowing us to perceive where we are and what we are doing without the need of visual or even auditory information.

Figure 7:

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

processes: light versus dark, red versus green, and blue versus yellow.”9 Eberhard hypothesizes that “Children who are 5 or 6 years of age respond differently to colors than adults do because their perceptions are different.” He elaborates on this concept by explaining how the mind develops in childhood, taking in all perceptible stimuli from the environment until maturation during teenage years and beyond in adulthood.

Eberhard begins to identify how neuroscience can explain the emotional impact of architecture that people experience.

He writes, “Networks in the prefrontal cortex automatically and involuntarily respond to signals arising from the processing of these images. The prefrontal cortex response comes from the dispositional representations that ‘remember’ how certain past experiences have been paired with emotional responses.”10 Understanding how emotional resonance is created in the mind by an external environment can help architects gain more critical knowledge into the creation of awe- inspiring spaces. Eberhard looks at the neuroscience of workplace design, aiming to identify why and how certain spatial conditions promote collaboration.

The author hypothesizes, “The proximity of laboratories occupied by different disciplines contributes to collaboration because the brain, by seeking novelty, is more attentive to puzzles generated by another discipline.”11

Eberhard also sources data presented earlier by Rita Carter to describe the function of the mind and the development of the senses, including a sixth sense identified by neurologists known as proprioception. He writes, “Most people learned about the five senses in school, but this sixth sense of proprioception is especially important to architects. It tells us where our body is in space — what is up and what is down, how to catch a ball, and

9 John P. Eberhard. Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print, 48.

10 Ibid, 93.

11 Ibid, 148.

15

“...these are the early days of mind exploration and the vision of the brain we have now is probably no more complete or accurate than a sixteenth-century map of the world.” ~ Rita Carter - author of “Mapping the Mind”

Although neuroscience research has already made significant breakthroughs in understanding the complex inner workings of the mind. There is still much to discover in this vast landscape.

Figure 8:

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

how to find objects in the dark.”12 The author further describes this sense stating, “Proprioception is the process by which the body unconsciously varies muscle contraction in immediate response to incoming information from external events or conscious thoughts.”13 As Eberhard suggests, a more in-depth understanding of what cognitively establishes our sense of place in the environment would give architects a much more sophisticated means by which to implement design strategies.

Throughout his book, John Eberhard makes a focused argument for the need and potential benefits that an understanding of neuroscience will provide for architects and planners. In a forward to Eberhard’s book, neuroscientist at the Salk Institute, Fred H. Gage says this of the author’s publication: The different spaces in which we live and work are changing our brain structures and our behaviors, and this has been going on for a long time. John’s book will open a dialogue between architects and neuroscientists to begin to determine how these different disciplines can work together to understand and improve the impact of space on the brain and our lives. This dialogue is a needed first step, and it will require participation of both neuroscientists and the architects; importantly, these two groups need a translator or they need to learn a new language to have this dialogue. This book should provide a foundation to assist both groups to speak together.

Eberhard acknowledges himself that neuroscience is still somewhat nascent in its empirical grasp of how the mind responds to the stimuli of an environment. Nonetheless, he implores that a cross-disciplinary collaboration between the fields of design and science will inevitably lead to a much more sophisticated understanding of how humans interact with the world around John P. Eberhard. Architecture and the Brain: A Knowledge Base from Neuroscience.

Atlanta: Greenway Communications, LLC, 2007. Print, 46.

13 Ibid, 201.

12

17

Figure 9:

spaces.

Human thigmotaxis explains our natural proclivity for defined edges over open

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

them. It is through this approach, he argues, that one day the design of our environments can potentially predict the behavioral responses of its occupants well before the physical foundations are laid.

Sussman/Hollander

Evidence-based theories seeking to define how the built environment affects the psyche are presented in Cognitive Architecture: Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment, a book written by architect Ann Sussman and urban planner Justin B. Hollander. In their writings, authors Sussman and Hollander introduce a central “paradox” in architecture and urban planning which often lead to unintended behavioral outcomes. The authors state that, “Practitioners rarely meet the people who will be most affected by their work. Most buildings outlive their creators. Post-occupancy evaluations are expensive and infrequent.”14 They go on to present recent findings in neuroscience and psychology which prove that people, like many other mammals, are greatly influenced by thigmotaxis, meaning that we generally prefer staying close to defined edges and away from open centers of space. Awareness of thigmotaxis can make pedestrian behavior much more understandable for today’s city designers.

The authors corroborate the argument made by others that patterns play a significant role in cognitive stimulation levels in the brain, stating that facial features are most sought after by conscious mind “Faces are so significant, the brain evolved a specialized program and place for dealing with them”15 In addition to patterns, Sussman and Hollander also begin to define how geometric shapes play a role in how people cognitively perceive their surroundings. “Researchers have learned that looking at symmetrical objects subconsciously activates our smiling muscles

Ann Sussman and Justin B. Hollander. Cognitive Architecture: Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment. New York; Routledge, 2009. Print, 2.

15 Ibid, 62.

14

19

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The human bifocal field of vision overlayed on the Golden Rectangle. These two nearly identical ratios reveal why this proportion is perceived so favorably by humans.

1.618:1

Golden Rectangle, Golden Rectangle,

HDTV, 16 xHDTV, 9 in, 16 x 9 in,

Figure 10:

Figure 11: The human viewport, which evolved for faster horizontal scanning of the environment, approximates the Golden Rectangle.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

more than looking at random patterns.”16 The authors present scientific findings which assert that humans prefer curves over linear edges or straight lines. They explain that this preference most likely originates from mankind’s evolutionary past, stating “Humans evolved to assess their environment quickly. Pointed shapes, such as barbs, thorns, quills, sharp teeth, were everpresent threats in our evolutionary past, so it was advantageous to sense them fast and be able to flee if one had to.”17

The underlying assertion presented by the authors of Cognitive Architecture is that humans are a constant by-product of our evolutionary past. Mankind’s existence is inextricably interwoven with the environments we inhabit, and our psychological response to our surroundings is based on lessons learned by our species throughout our evolutionary development. They provide scientific research which suggests that humans generally prefer defined containment from open spaces. The authors explain how patterns stimulate the mind, a concept which can also be found in the writings of Christopher Alexander, who, in his book A Pattern Language, defines in detail how patterns can greatly influence the way people experience a built environment. They insist that these tendencies of humans have been learned throughout our existence, and that by understanding more closely how our conscious minds engage with the outside world, the designers of these spaces will have a much more specific sense of how architecture can positively affect cognitive development.

John Zeisel

In a chapter titled, “Environment/Behavior/Neuroscience” of his book, Inquiry by Design: Environment/Behavior/Neuroscience in Architecture, Interiors, Landscape, and Planning, Dr. John Zeisel, a medical researcher who also has a background in both sociology and architecture, speaks about the burgeoning influence of current research findings in neuroscience on the 16 17

Ibid, 122.

Ibid, 126.

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Figure 12: Humans naturally walk with their heads tilted forward at aout 10°. Bifocal vision overlaps resulting in binocular vision.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

various design professions. Throughout this chapter, the author emphasizes the significant influence that environmental and behavioral factors of the built environment have on its inhabitants.

Dr. Zeisel asserts that if a new paradigm is to further the discipline of environment-behavior studies, it must shed new light on old concepts, methods, theories, and models. “Place, personalization, territory, and wayfinding are four topics that form the core of E-B theory and practice. They also play a central role in the evolution of the brain in all animals, including Homo Sapiens.

Therefore these concepts are particularly robust and strategic for exploring what a neuroscience perspective can add to traditional E-B approaches.”18

Zeisel elaborates on how relatable environments enhance our sense of place and well-being. He writes, “personalized environments that express who we are to the outside world also cue our memories and feelings about ourselves. Stimulating memories of our past through personalized environments reinforces a sense of who we are.”19 Zeisel also touches on the potential benefit neuroscience research might provide for wayfinding, stating that, “while it is unlikely that neuroscience will determine that humans are hard-wired to fly south in winter, it is certain to uncover which wayfinding cues hold greater meaning for humans and thus have greater effect—and that some may even be hard-wired.” Dr. Zeisel provides evidence which further suggest such a correlation, writing that, “cognitive neuroscience has already uncovered cue recognition information that designers can apply. Knowing that physical cues located below eye level are more readily processed and attended to than those located above it, wayfinding cues that designers place in our lower field of vision are likely to be most effective.”20 In this case, Dr. Zeisel identifies a specific finding from neuroscience research which can clearly be utilized 18 John Zeisel. “Environment/Behavior/Neuroscience,” in Inquiry by Design: Environment/ Behavior/Neuroscience in Architecture, Interiors, Landscape, and Planning. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. Print, 356.

19 Ibid, 357.

20 Ibid, 359.

23

to design a better architectural communication of orientation.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

This chapter makes an informative contribution to the current discourse resulting from neuroscience research, and to what effect these findings will continue to have on the practice and study of architecture and planning. Additionally, Dr. Zeisel offers in this excerpt a new perspective on how the designers of today might start utilizing these findings through the implementation of design research. Zeisel concludes his chapter on neuroscience with the following: “In sum, place, personalization, territory, and wayfinding are critical subjects for studying the convergence of environmentbehavior and neuroscience approaches. Each provides fertile ground to explore how the neurosciences can provide additional insight for E-B researchers and practitioners”. The addition of this new perspective of design research, as presented by Zeisel, introduces another important facet of design consideration for the future of the profession. His insights integrate well into the arguments of Rita Carter and John Eberhard without redundancy.

He states that, “as we progress down this path, we must keep our eyes open for other critical concepts and approaches that are certain to emerge and enrich the field.”21 In addition to his research approach to design inquiry, Zeisel’s background in the sciences as well as in architecture help bolster the credibility of his position on the topic.

21

Ibid, 359.

25

Figure 13:

Salk Institute Exterior View

Figure 14:

Salk Institute View from Plaza

P r e c e d e n t

R e s e a r c h

Salk Institute - La Jolla, California Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

So where and when exactly was this connection of science and architecture first conceived? That would likely be a tough answer to pinpoint. However, perhaps one of the first great moments of the 20th century in which a scientist and an architect united to “create a new paradigm for research and collaboration” occurred in December of 1959. It is on this occasion that Jonas Salk, developer of the polio vaccine, first partnered with architect Louis Kahn to discuss plans for a new research institute in La Jolla, California. As Salk stated to Kahn during their first discussions, he wished for Kahn to ‘create a facility worthy of a visit by Picasso.’ Groundbreaking commenced on the ocean-facing site in La Jolla in 1962, and soon thereafter the Salk Institute for Biological Studies became a reality. The project, which still today stands as one of the great architectural masterpieces in the United States and one of Kahn’s most inspiring works, continues to serve the researchers which it houses.22 It is not surprising that 40 years later the AIA San Diego chapter formed the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA) at the world famous Salk Institute. For the past 12 years, this organization has been fostering collaborative explorations between the worlds of neuroscience and architecture with the common goal of continuing to transcend our understanding of their mutual connections.23

For anyone who has stood in the famous plaza of the Salk Institute and gazed off into the framed view of the Pacific Ocean, the powerful sense of the space delineated by the massive walls of the flanking laboratories is nearly impossible not to sense. The striking surge of stimuli to the parietal lobe, the part of the brain which handles our spatial perception, is nearly palpable. With such a strong and consistent emotional response resonating from 22 “History of Salk.” Salk Institute - About Salk - History of Salk. Salk Institute, n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2015, <http://www.salk.edu/about/history.html.> 23 “History.” ANFA. Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, n.d. Web. 19 Mar. 2015. <http://www.anfarch.org/history/>.

27

(above) StarCAVE Virtual Reality Room combines an immersive virtual 3D environment with brain activity monitoring.

Figure 15:

(left) The StarCAVE can provide researchers the ability to identify changes in brain activity resulting from environmental conditions in real time.

Figure 16:

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

a designed space, it would be difficult for people who study how the brain functions not to wonder what exactly it is about Kahn’s work that resonates with our emotional triggers so powerfully. That is what ultimately led to a group of neuroscientists, architects, and planners to form the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, also known as ANFA, at the Salk Institute. As is written in ANFA’s mission statement, the goal of the organization is to “promote and advance knowledge that links neuroscience research to a growing understanding of human responses to the built environment.”24 Since its inception, ANFA has continued to pursue their mission, presenting new research findings each year and providing insights into how humans mentally respond to architecture. In our time, a vast new territory of cognitive neuroscience will be revealed.

With these insights into the architecture of the mind, a much more refined understanding of the experiential qualities of architecture will undoubtedly change the way in which we define spaces for working, eating, gathering, socializing, resting, and living.

UCSD StarCAVE - San Diego, California

In tandem with the burgeoning body of research being explored in the fields of cognitive and psychological neuroscience, technological advances in virtual reality have opened doors to the possibility for new immersive environments which could one day provide new methods of design evaluation. Just down the road from the Salk Institute, student and faculty researchers at the University of California San Diego have recently built a fivesided virtual reality, or VR room which can project digital models and animations in a truly immersive, stereoscopic, 360-degree environment. In an article titled, “Form Follows Function: Bridging Neuroscience and Architecture” Eduardo Macando and Eve Edelstein write, “With this technology, scientists can freely traverse through digital worlds as small as nanoparticles and as big as the cosmos, giving them immersive ways to explore science not previously possible.”25 The authors contend, “we expect this to 24 25

http://www.anfarch.org Eduardo Macagno and Eve Edelstein. “Form Follows Function: Bridging

29

Figure 17: Researcher testing the StarCAVE Virtual Reality Room at the University of California San Diego.

StarCAVE Virtual Reality Room at UCSD

Figure 18:

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

become a valuable tool for the architectural profession to design and evaluate complex designs in full-scale and ultrahigh quality visualizations”, adding that, “In addition, experts, clinicians, and clients are collaborating to use this virtual reality design laboratory to evaluate operational use and programmatic functions within the VR models.” The combination of VR environments with stateof-the-art brain mapping technology can together provide an even more clear view of how brain activity changes with the receptors of external stimuli. Authors Macagno and Edelstein conclude by stating that, “in order to measure the neurological and associated psychophysiological and behavioral responses to design, the immersive and interactive capabilities of the VR environment are augmented with simultaneous monitoring of the subject’s responses to enable a new class of controlled experiments to test design before the first brick is laid.”26 The potential capabilities of combining these technologies, although its full potential is still being explored, has already been utilized as part of neuroscience research to uncover brain activity changes resulting from environmental alterations in real time.

Because the utilization of brain mapping technology and digital, environmental immersion is still a very recently explored form of neuroscience research, it is difficult now to gauge just how broad and reaching these studies will permeate the unanswered questions of neuroscience. However, many believe that the fields of neuroscience and architecture will inevitably experience a vast and mutually enlightening expanse of discovery over the next few decades. A professor in the Laboratory of Genetics at the Salk Institute, Fred H. Gage, makes the following statement in Eberhard’s book Brain Landscape, “I contend that architectural design can change our brains and behavior. The structures in the environment—the houses we live in, the areas we play in, the buildings we work in—affect our brains and our brains affect our Neuroscience and Architecture” in Sustainable Environmental Design in Architecture: Impacts on Health. S.T. Rassia & P.M. Pardalos, (Eds.). NY: Springer Publishing. 2012.

Print, 33.

26 Ibid, 32.

31

Figure 19: The vast majority of the brainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cerebral cortex is utilized for sensory perception.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

behavior.”27 The coming years will undoubtedly see a continual growth of knowledge in both cognitive and psychological neuroscience. It is important that the architecture profession take note of what new discoveries about the mind’s response to the environment might provide, and how they might be utilized for the betterment of people which the built environment serves.

B a c k g r o u n d

S u m m a r y

The field of neuroscience is now uncovering substantial evidence suggesting that the brain is incessantly and cumulatively responding to the various stimuli of the outside world. Since most humans spend the majority of their lives inside built environments, the responsibility of architecture to provide spaces which foster beneficial sensory experiences is critical to ensuring positive design results. Rita Carter stresses the significant impact that new discoveries in brain research will potentially have on what we know about our own emotions and state of being. John P. Eberhard utilizes Carter’s foundation of brain mapping knowledge and derives empirical data from the fields of neuroscience to demonstrate that a significant connection of interest exists between architecture and the brain’s response to the built environment.

Authors Sussman and Hollander continue the dialogue initiated

by Eberhard, asserting that human cognition is a byproduct of our evolutionary past and that the way in which we perceive our surroundings today is deeply influenced by what we have experienced in the past, both individually and as a species. On the topic of design research and evaluation, Dr. John Zeisel contends that empirical research in neuroscience will likely continue to revolutionize our understanding of architecture and help to ensure effective implementation of intended design outcomes.

John P. Eberhard. Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print, xiv.

27

33

Proprioception

Thigmotaxis

Symmetry

Biophilia

Pareidolia

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Mirror Neurons

Mnemonics

Rectilinearity

10 Properties of Environmental Cognition have been identified as design considerations for designers of the built environment. These properties will be reviewed further in â&#x20AC;&#x153;Part 2: Synthesisâ&#x20AC;? of this thesis document.

Figure 1:

Curvilinearity

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

As population density and overcrowding throughout the world continues to demand that our built environments provide both physical security as well as psychological and social enrichment, architects have an ever increasing responsibility to provide design solutions which foster positive growth and prosperity for its users while minimizing unintended negative consequences caused by prolonged psychological exposure to discordant design solutions.

A more quantifiable understanding of how architecture affects behavioral response will aid in ensuring that future environments will have the best chance at positively enhancing lives.

P

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In response to the presented research and evidence which support the assertion that architecture and neuroscience are intrinsically interconnected, the proposition of this thesis is to utilize pertinent empirical data that has been gathered in the field of cognitive neuroscience and apply this data to architectural design applications. In order for these two fields to continue to develop a provable connection of interest, efforts must be made to implement applicable neuroscience findings into architectural designs and evaluate the resulting behavioral outcomes. The latter of which will not be possible to complete within the scope of this thesis project, as it would require a physical manifestation of the proposed design as well as a post-occupancy evaluation of the inhabitants of the project. Because of this limitation, the thesis research will venture to identify key factors of human cognition which neuroscience research has shown to be affected by architectural design decisions. Once these factors have been identified, the evaluation of concept will be completed by implementing these concepts into the design of a brain wellness center. Concept diagrams and illustrations will be used to depict precisely how each identified key concept has been implemented into the design of the project, and evaluation of the design efforts 35

will be completed based on these diagrams.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

As a specific example of how this proposal will be realized, one identifiable key factor could derive from Dr. Zeiselâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s explanation that wayfinding signs located below eye level are more readily processed cognitively than signs located at or above eye level. As part of the implementation of this key factor in a design solution, diagrammatic illustrations of this concept will be created as part of the design solution. This illustration could be depicted through a sectional drawing of the project, showing scale figures and the relation of their eye level to that of the design intent for wayfinding. Another example of this approach could be to hypothesize that a design factor is impacted by a neuroscience finding. For example, utilizing the neuroscience finding that thigmotaxis is a universal cognitive trait in humans could lead to the hypothesis that circulation through space can be controlled simply by increasing the enclosure along a path in contrast to adjacent open space. As before, this concept would be diagrammed in the final design documentation of the project.

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Because neuroscience research has only recently been able to expand rapidly as a result of advancements in brain mapping technology, there are vast areas of the mind which remain largely unexplored. Additionally, the growing interest among neuroscientists and architects to find answers as to how architecture impacts cognitive perception will likely continue to push, but not surpass, the pace at which research uncovers the remaining unknowns of cognition. At this juncture, what can and will be done as part of this thesis is to compile as much existing neuroscience research as is currently available and to identify within that body of knowledge which identified concepts can be utilized in the design of architecture. Therefore, the 37

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

underlying goal of this research will be not to identify the reactive nature of every single aspect of spatial cognition, but rather to provide an assertively convincing argument that further research between these fields are both beneficial and essential to the positive evolution of architectural practice. During the process of furthering research on the subject, it is also anticipated that limitations of architectureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s influence on the mind will likely be found. Discoveries such as these will aid in refining the areas of inquiry within the general subject of neuroscience and strive to identify only pertinent information.

In addition to conducting research through various written sources, explorations of the topic will be completed through direct investigative inquiries with experts on the subject. John Eberhard, for instance, is currently a professor of architecture at the University of California San Diego. Establishing a correspondence directly with him as part of the conducted research will very likely provide further insight. Establishing contact with the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, including participation in ANFA events, lectures, and conferences will likely provide the most current information available regarding the state of neuroscience research and its influence on architectural design considerations.

A connection with ANFA is also likely to provide the most effective avenues for continuing investigations of the subject not currently realized. Seeking insight and guidance from the faculty of the neuroscience graduate program in the University of Cincinnatiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s College of Medicine will help support and enlighten efforts made throughout the research and design process. Independently conducted experiments could be executed in order to help validate the efficacy of stated claims resulting from research findings. These experiments could be realized through interviews, questionnaires, and on-site observations. Utilizing as many different methods of inquiry as possible will help support and advocate for the validity of identified hypotheses.

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Neuroscience and architecture: An inevitable paradigm in the future of the design profession.

Figure 20:

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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As more investigative research is conducted as part of this thesis effort, a more comprehensive and focused concentration of employable design outcomes will be identified. With these identifications made, a concise array of design considerations supported by neuroscience will be presented and realized in the final thesis design solution. At this juncture, although more investigations are necessary in order to more accurately understand the extent to which architecture influences brain activity and behavior, it seems most logical that the building type best chosen to evaluate the implementation of design theories would be one which has the greatest influence on people. Thus, the proposed building type for the final thesis project will be a wellness resort dedicated to the strengthening and conditioning of brain activity using architectural spaces design-informed by neuroscience.

To be specific, this wellness resort will provide temporary housing accommodations during the clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stay, evidence regarding the psychological impact of overcrowding is anticipated to provide evidence cautioning against overly dense living conditions. Also, the way in which our brains transmit behavioral responses when socializing will likely be a positive contribution to the research findings, so the final design project will be better served by developing a social program for the building type. Therefore, this project will incorporate some type of social interaction programs, such as painting, sculpting or dance programs, in addition to introducing various gathering spaces throughout the project as deemed adequate by conducted neuroscience research.

Since research findings collected throughout the inquiry process intend to provide neuroscience driven architectural solutions which are not culture-specific, a city in America with a high amount of cultural diversity is the desired site location for the proposed project. In addition to diversity, relative climate 41

Figure 21: John Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Keefe, May-Britt Moser and Edvard I. Moser were awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries of nerve cells in the brain that enable a sense of place and navigation.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

neutrality is also desired since the scope of investigation this thesis proposes does not include environmental factors which are not part of physically built architectural conditions. Finally, although not critical to the continuation of progress, a site within a reasonable proximity to a source of neuroscientific resources would be a beneficial amenity for continued research as well as evaluation of design solutions. In response to these considerations, the site is proposed to be located in La Jolla, California, in an area just north of the Salk Institute and the University of California San Diego. The city of San Diego is culturally rich and weather neutral, which are both ideal conditions for implementing and evaluating developed design hypotheses. Additionally, the city’s available research resources, including the Salk Institute, the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture, and the department of Neuroscience at the University of California San Diego will be beneficial to the development of the design solutions presented.

To outline the specific design goals based on the current state and level of research conducted, an expected outcome of gathered research will most likely lead to the establishment of how many architectural conditions are affected by the properties of brain function. At this time, it is anticipated that findings will provide answers to the following: • A foundational understanding of how the brain transmits perceived external information.

• The ways in which neural activity affects behavioral and emotional tendencies.

• The occipital lobes and our reliance on visual stimuli in neural perception.

• Proprioception: the way in which humans identify their state of being/sense of self.

• Our species’ desire to be protected by edges, known as thigmotaxis.

• The effect of patterns and facial recognition on neural activity in the brain.

More evidence gathered within each of these areas of inquiry 43

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

will lead to the identification of potential design solutions. These design solutions will then drive the design of the neural wellness project proposed for this thesis. As part of the final presented documentation of the realized project, various diagrams developed throughout the process graphically depicting neurological and behavioral responses to the designed environment will be utilized to illustrate design intent and as a means of evaluating the potential merits of research findings.

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Figure 22: Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture(ANFA), located in the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California, seeks to continue its mission to link neuroscience research to â&#x20AC;&#x153;a growing understanding of human responses to the built environmentâ&#x20AC;?.

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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While the potential benefits that will undoubtedly result from further explorations into the role of the built environment on the continued development of the brain is far reaching, there is an organization that, for the past twelve years or so, has dedicated specific inquiry into furthering this area of expertise; the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture. This organization, which was founded by the San Diego chapter of the AIA at the Salk Institute in the spring of 2003, holds bi-annual conferences in which its members, comprised of scientists, architects and others who share a curiosity and interest in this emerging world of discovery.28 During these conferences, which are typically comprised of a series of topical presentations relating to new research findings in areas of cognitive neuroscience which could be relatable or translated to the built environment, presenters share their recent discoveries with the organization so that all can benefit from the spreading of this developing knowledge base. Based on its mission and history, this proposed thesis project would be both relatable and beneficial to the continued progress of ANFAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s efforts. Creating a new building type which ventures to implement and evaluate new architectural methods seeking to address questions regarding how design strategies can affect behavior and brain function will offer a new avenue through which ANFA can continue their research efforts.

Although the field of cognitive neuroscience has just begun to see a surge in research capabilities in the past twenty years due to technological advances in brain image scanning, the premise of designing buildings with human perceptive cognition in mind has been around for centuries. The ancient Greeks for example, recognized the way in which the human eye perceives the environment in a slightly distorted way. In response to this,

28

http://www.anfarch.org/history/.

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Figure 23: NewSchool of Architecture and Design now offers a certificate in Neuroscience for architecture.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

when designing the Parthenon in the Greek Acropolis, the Greeks designed every column to taper slightly towards the column’s crown in order to counteract the visual distortions caused by the eye in perspective. This response to our eye’s optical illusion known as “entasis” is meticulously responded to throughout the design of the building, including the seemingly rectilinear floor, which is actually slightly concave and built wider toward the back of the building in order to appear perfectly straight and plum by the eye when viewed from the front entrance. These concepts, as well as this building, will be analyzed more in depth later in this paper as part of precedent analysis, however, for now it is pertinent to understand that humans have long had a general notion of the environment’s impact on the minds of its inhabitants.

According to their website, the mission of the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture is “to promote and advance knowledge that links neuroscience research to a growing understanding of human responses to the built environment”. The Academy fulfills this mission by benefitting from an expanding body of knowledge that has evolved within the neuroscience community over the past twenty years.29 The Academy’s mission statement speaks highly of the promising future discoveries that the field of neuroscience is poised to make in the coming century; “Some observers have characterized what is happening in neuroscience as the most exciting frontier of human knowledge since the Renaissance”. They also state that “All humanity stands to benefit from this research in countless ways still to be determined”.30 Undoubtedly, the profession of architecture benefits from utilizing this research to increase its ability to be of service to society.

In addition to ANFA, there are other entities who can benefit from the creation of a facility which promotes the further exploration of architecture’s role in neuroscience. Just over a couple miles southeast of the Salk Institute, the NewSchool of 29 30

http://www.anfarch.org/mission/.

Ibid.

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Figure 24: Design studio at the NewSchool of Architecture and Design in San Diego, California.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

Architecture at the University of California San Diego has already begun to incorporate neuroscience concepts into the university’s design studios.31 Within the NewSchool of Architecture, the Center for Healthy Environments aims at “promoting the school’s established leadership and expertise in the fields of neuroscience in architecture, healthy urbanism and sustainable architecture”.32 “The school has been at the forefront of the field since its founding, through close partnership with the American Institute of Architects (AIA)” as is described in the center’s written mission statement.

In 2003, AIA granted an award for the establishment of the first offices of Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA), housed at NewSchool and today, NewSchool’s faculty continue to contribute as key participants in ANFA, which supports studies, workshops, and university-based educational programs designed to explore research that integrates neuroscience and architecture.33 According to the center, the school’s “expertise in the field continues to be widely recognized” further stating that in December 2015, The American Institute of Architects (AIA) together with AIA Foundation and the Association for Collegiate Schools in Architecture (ACSA) named NewSchool as one of the 11 charter members of its first AIA Design & Health Research Consortium.

The Center for Healthy Environments continues to conduct research within their department as well as provides training in the field for architecturally-pertinent neuroscience research.34 The implementation of a facility such as the one proposed in this thesis would benefit the efforts of UCSD’s architecture program by providing a new platform from which neuroscience research could be conducted.

http://newschoolarch.edu/academics/center-for-healthy-environments/. http://newschoolarch.edu/academics/center-for-healthy-environments/.

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

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PACIFIC OCEAN

TORREY PINES GOLF COURSE

PROPOSED SITE

SALK INSTITUTE FOR BIOLOGICAL STUDIES/ANFA Figure 25:

Aerial context view of proposed site

Figure 26:

Site Section

Figure 27:

Site view looking West

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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The proposed site for this thesis is located just north of the Salk Institute, where the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture is housed in La Jolla, California. The site currently consists of mostly dirt parking areas and an archery field for the neighboring University of California San Diego. The site is bound

by Torrey Pines Golf Course to the north, the Salk Institute to the south, the Pacific Ocean borders the west end of the site, which drops in elevation approximately 350 feet from the center of the proposed site.

Elevation changes on the site occur most drastically at the site’s west edge which faces the Pacific Ocean. At this edge, the site drops approximately 300 feet to the water. Within the confines of the site boundary being proposed for this thesis project, there is a variable rise in elevation from west to east of approximately 145 feet. This significant, yet gradual incline in grade change offers the potential for natural water drainage from the site, although rainfall is marginal to minimal in this area of the country.

According to online source rainfall.weatherdb.com, La Jolla and the greater San Diego area recieves an average annual rainfall of 10.34 inches, 74% less than the nationwide average. La Jolla also has no snowfall anytime of year, making it an ideal location for a resort offering year-round accommodations. 35

The temperature range in La Jolla, California remains fairly consistant, ranging between an annual low of around 38° to a high of 82° on average annually. As can be seen in the chart (figure 28), monthly high temperatures occur between the months of April and October. The months with the lowest temperatures happen between December and April.

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Average sunshine in La Jolla remains warm/hot throughout http://rainfall.weatherdb.com/l/44/San-Diego-California

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Figure 28: (left) La Jolla, California temperature range climate data.

(right) La Jolla, California sun shading chart.

Figure 29:

Figure 30: (left) La Jolla, California wind gust wheel.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

the year, especially between the hours of 8am and 4pm. During these peak hours of sunshine, the sun in this region of California is risen at an altitude angle between 30째 and 80째 which can be a cause for concern regarding the possible overheating of the largely open and unobstructed site. Incorporating solar shading or other available strategies to ameliorate potential solar gain during the day will likely be a necessary consideration in this climate.

Wind gusts on the site remain, to a large extent, constistant in velocity in all directions with a slight surge of prevaling wind coming from the south and from the northeast on occasion. Top wind speeds reach over 30mph and average gusts range around 20mph depending on the time of year. Currently, this mostly open site is used for extra parking spaces. The University of California San diego also uses a part of the site as an archery range.

Apart from these two entities, however, the site remains largely underutilized. (Figure 27) is a photo looking directly west from the east end of the site. In the background, the Pacific Ocean can be seen in the distance. The potential to connect aspects of the project to the water, either visually or physically, is a design consideration made possible by the context of this proposed site.

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Figure 31:

The Parthenon in Athens, Greece

A r c h i t e c t u r a l

P r e c e d e n t s

The Parthenon - Athens, Greece Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

As mentioned previously, the idea of creating architecture which responds directly to the way in which our eyes perceive the world around us is a long sought endeavor, dating back to ancient Greek and Roman eras. The Parthenon, for example, a building which has been regarded as the very symbol of western philosophy, was designed and built to appear to the human eye as having perfect proportions. Ancient Greek architects counteracted the deformity inherent with visual perspective, such as the appearance of objects farther away appearing smaller.

Since temples were ‘buildings in which merits and faults usually last forever’ according to the ancient Greeks, it was important that all parts of the temple be seen in their correct size. In order to achieve this visual sense of perfection, the entire building was designed with slight distortions to the size, shape and curvature of every single piece of marble that makes up the columns, floor, and pediment. 36

According to an online article about the Parthenon on architecturerevived.blogspot.com, the author writes that an ideal building in ancient Greece “would be seen as a whole object, with parts that fit perfectly”. 37 The article’s author also cites Vitruvius’ thoughts on temple design, stating that “unless it displays correct proportions, ‘there can be no principles in the design of any temple; that is, if there is no precise relation between its members’”. 38 Greek and Roman builders sought to “counteract the ocular deception by an adjustment of proportions.” Thus, objects that were farther away were enlarged so that they matched the objects around them. Distortion of the eye’s perspective causes a floor built perfectly flat in reality to appear to sag. In the Parthenon, the floor of the building was made slightly convex 36 37 38

http://architecturerevived.blogspot.com/2014/01/how-greek-temples-correct-visual.html Ibid.

Ibid.

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Figure 32: (above) Illustration of the use of corrected visual distortion in the construction of the Parthenon.

Figure 33: Illustration of entasis as designed in the columns of the Parthenon.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

in the center so that, when viewed from a distance exactly sixtimes the height of one of its columns, the floor would appear to be perfectly flat and the building would appear correct as a whole. “This precise viewing distance related the viewer to the architecture and made him part of it” writes the article’s author.

Another example of how Greek temples were designed to counter perspective distortion can be found in the columns of the Parthenon. Utilizing a design principle known as entasis, the shafts of the columns swell slightly outward before narrowing slightly at the crown. This counteracts a feeling of slenderness that results from visual perspective, much like the effect of curving the floor. The Greeks and Romans enlarged columns using entasis proportionately to its overall height, so taller columns required greater enlargement because perspective causes more distortion on them. 39

Although it would take centuries for technological advancement to allow man to unlock many of the secrets of cognitive neuroscience and how the mind processes the various senses, man has long had an intuitive sense of self-awareness for the way in which humans perceive the world around them.

With this vast new area of scientific discovery at our disposal, we can now seek to better understand specifically why our senses process the environment as they do and how each of our senses interact together to form holistic environmental experiences.

The Salk Institute

The neuroscience of nature and our sense of place within a highly ordered built environment has a dramatically stimulating effect on brain activity. In a chapter titled “Architecture and Neuroscience: A Double Helix” from the book Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design, Author and architect John Paul Eberhard recounts the events which connected the experiential power of the Basilica of Assisi in Italy 39

http://architecturerevived.blogspot.com/2014/01/how-greek-temples-correct-visual.html

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Figure 34:

The basilica of Saint Francis and the Sacro Convento. Assisi, Italy

Figure 35:

Plaza at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

to the conception of the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California, two buildings separated by centuries of time and thousands of miles of geographic distance.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

Dr. Jonas Salk was convinced that architectural settings profoundly influence our mental and physical welfare, a conviction that stems from his personal experience. While he was working in his laboratory at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Dr. Salk faced the problem of brain overload. In 1948 he set out to quantify the different types of polio virus, he and a skilled research team addressed what most people at the time considered the most frightening health problem in the United States…Dr. Salk realized the importance of his work while he was watching children playing and recognizing that thousands of them might never walk again if they contracted polio. He accepted this awesome responsibility, and drove himself at a frantic pace. It was at this point he felt his brain was ‘overloaded’ and that he needed to get away to reinvigorate himself…Though the motives for his choice of destination are unknown, Dr. Salk decided to go to the basilica at Assisi for his retreat…Architecturally, the exterior of the basilica appears united with the friary of St. Francis, since the lofty arcades of the structure support and buttress the church in its apparently precarious position on the hillside…His experience at Assisi left such a deep impression on him that many years later, Dr. Salk credited the architectural setting there with helping him make the intellectual breakthrough that ultimately led to the creation of the polio vaccine.40

Basilica di Assisi

These events, he describes, also led to the partnership of polio vaccine creator, Dr. Jonas Salk and architect Louis I. Kahn in the creation of the Salk Institute. Eberhard writes, “It is interesting Robinson, Sarah, and Juhani Pallasmaa. Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2015. Print, 124125.

40

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DNA Replication Prior to Cell Division Complementary New Strand

Parent Strands

Complementary New Strand Figure 36: (above) Illustration of DNA replication – When cells divide, the new strands to develope retain remnants of the genetic makeup of its parent cell. This means that, even centuries later, aspects of our mental and physical senses of the world are still influenced by mankind’s earliest ancestors.

(left) The Savannah Theory hypothesizes that humans are naturally calmed when provided with the opportunity to visually place themselves in an image or view of a natural open space with trees, water, and other natural elements. This experiential cue stimulates our hippocampus, the part of our “survival brain” which registers stress levels and triggers our fight or flight response.

Figure 37:

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

that the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California−built in 1963, with Louis Kahn as the architect−has the same relationship to the sea as Assisi has to its surrounding landscape”. 41 The author elaborates on this connection, stating that the Salk “also functions very much like a monastery, having quarters that enable the senior scientists who work there to retreat to a place of silence”. 42 In 1994, during the ceremony held to award the Salk Institute with the American Institute of Architects twenty-five year design award, Dr. Salk told the story of his trip to Assisi to the AIA Executive Board and suggested that they begin to explore how architectural settings influence the brain and, by consequence, human behavior. It was this thread of events which eventually led to the forming of the Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture at the Salk Institute in 2003, an organization which continues to take on Dr. Salk’s challenge to this day. 43

John Eberhard delves further into the science of how our DNA passes on behavioral, personality, and even physical traits between generations of humans. “Nature provides a relatively simple method for one generation to pass on the next generation a ‘blueprint’ for each person via the DNA contained in each cell.”

The structural formation of DNA was discovered in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick, who determined that the structure of DNA is a double-helix polymer consisting of two DNA strands wound around each other. In DNA strands, four nucleotide units; adenine, which always pairs with thiamine, and guanine, which always pairs with cytosine, combine to comprise the strand. “It is this feature of complimentary base pairing that ensures an exact duplicate of each DNA molecule will be passed to its daughter cells when a cell divides” Eberhard writes. 44

John Eberhard later explains that, in much the same way

41 Robinson, Sarah, and Juhani Pallasmaa. Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2015. Print, 126.

42 Ibid, 126.

43 Ibid, 126.

44 Ibid, 127.

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Figure 38: Figure 39:

(above) Aerial view of Terranea resort. Rancho Palos Verdes, California (below) Site plan of Terranea resort.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

that it has become possible to read the “architectural” design of individuals contained in DNA blueprints, “we use our brain structure to calculate proportions in buildings and related objects.”45 This includes how the neurons in our brain represent architectural artifacts like the pyramids as well as the development of neuroscience constructs like DNA. “The neurons that accomplish this feat are more or less identical, but they are arranged in billions of networks of untold variety” Eberhard concludes. 46 Essentially, the author’s point is that our current state of environmental cognition, as well as our state of physical being in the world are not only constantly being influenced by the environments which we inhabit throughout our lives, but also partially by environments which shaped our earliest ancestors. This understanding can begin to explain why, even for people who have lived their entire lives in dense urban and man-made environments, that a connection to nature often evokes a sense of calm and serenity.

Terranea Resort

There is a coastal wellness resort called Terranea, located thirty miles south of Los Angeles in a town called Rancho Palos Verdes, which fits, in many ways, as a functional typological precedent for this thesis project. According to the resort’s website, Terranea is “a 102 acre private peninsula paradise”. The resort is surrounded on three sides by the Pacific Ocean and offers a variety of short-term residential options for clients, including Bungalows, Casitas and Villas, all of which are secured by a 24-hour concierge. 47 In addition to over 582 guestrooms and suites available, the resort offers a variety of activities for guests, including eight unique dining experiences, a 50,000 square foot full- service spa and fitness center with 25 treatment rooms, an oceanfront yoga and Pilates studio, a golf course, four swimming pools, a kid’s club, ecological enrichment programs and 135,000 square feet of indoor and outdoor wedding and event space.

45 Robinson, Sarah, and Juhani Pallasmaa. Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2015. Print, 127.

46 Ibid.

47 http://www.terranea.com/palos-verdes-hotels

65

Figure 40:

Instituto Sacatar artist retreat - Bahia, Brazil

Terranea also offers many outdoor wellness activities on its grounds, including boutique retail shops, horseback riding, tennis, ocean kayaking, paddle boarding and water sports. 48 Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

The Terranea resort fits the general programmatic typology of this proposed thesis project in terms of available accommodations and general environmental conditions. As can be seen in Fig. 19, the resort is divided programmatically into four residential quadrants, with the main hotel building situated centrally to the site. North of the main building is the golf course, and the “villa” residences, to the east is where the “casita” residences are located, to the south there are “bungalow” residences, the spa, and the fitness center. To the west of the site is another grouping of “casita” residences. This grouping of housing options is a specific aspect of the Terranea which is likely similar to how the neural wellness resort will be laid out in terms of spatial program.

Some of the Terranea’s available accommodations, such as the spa/fitness center, yoga/pilates studio, outdoor trails, boating, and housing options will be incorporated into the program spaces of the proposed thesis project.

Instituto Sacatar

As a typology precedent for the artist’s retreat atmosphere intended for the project, the Instituto Sacatar artist retreat located in a coastal town of Brazil provides quiet residences, engaging oceanic views, and enriching spaces for painting, sculpting, ceramics and writing. The retreat’s website states that the goals of the facility are “to provide artists a place to live and create, to generate opportunities for artists to interact and collaborate with the local and regional community, and to encourage art that returns us to where art began – to a wordless silence before all of creation.”49 The Sacatar offers each artist their own private bedroom with attached bath as well as a separate multifunction work studio where each resident can engage in their 48 49

http://www.terranea.com/resorts-in-southern-california http://www.sacatar.org/

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

chosen discipline of work. The facility intentionally functions in a minimalistic way, so that residents avoid too many distractions and are allotted environments designed for optimal focus on creative tasks. 50 Similar to the Terranea and the site chosen for this thesis project, the Instituto Sacatar is located on a coastal site facing the South Atlantic Ocean to the east.

Programmatic differentiations will be made in this thesis project, however, which diverge from some aspects of the Terranea resort, catering more toward the atmospheric serenity and calming presence of the Sacatar artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s retreat resort. The ultimate goal of this proposed building typology being to create a resort which enriches and enhances brain activity for its clients. Fitness and spa activities will be incorporated into this proposed wellness resort, including some sort of outdoor garden space and access to the oceanfront. There will also be a research workshop building incorporated in the project where continued spatial/experimental architectural methodologies can be conceptualized and built on the premise before being implemented and evaluated elsewhere on the grounds of the site. More specific descriptions of intended activities of this thesis project, including experiential qualities of the designed resort will be discussed next.

S p a c e s

a n d

E x p e r i e n c e s

Based on the research and exploratory findings presented in earlier chapters of this document, the proposed thesis building typology will be a mind and body wellness center which uses neuroscience-informed architectural environments to stimulate brain activity in the users of the facility. The first and primary goals for this project being to utilize and evaluate neuroscience findings relating to the human brain and how the brain extracts stimulation from the surrounding environment. The secondary goal of this 50

Ibid.

69

SPATIAL PROXIMITIES DIAGRAM PARIETAL LOBE TRAINING

FRONTAL LOBE TRAINING

ACTIVITY SPACES WHICH TRAIN MOTOR FUNCTION AND PHYSIOLOGICAL WELLBEING

ACTIVITY SPACES DESIGNED TO TRAIN FUNCTIONAL LOGIC AND REASONING

THALAMUS CENTER

OCCIPITAL LOBE TRAINING

GREEN SPACE USED FOR SOCIAL GATHERING

ACTIVITY SPACES DESIGNED TO FOSTER VISUAL STIMULATION AND DEPTH PERCEPTION

TEMPORAL LOBE TRAINING HYPOTHALAMUS CIRCADIAN REGULATION LIVING UNITS DESIGNED TO RE-REGULATE THE BRAIN’S NATURAL SLEEP CIRCADIAN SLEEP CYCLE

Figure 41:

ACTIVITY SPACES DESIGNED TO IMPROVE MEMORY THROUGH MUSIC AND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Thesis design solution - Spatial proximities diagram

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

facility is for it to serve as a an architectural “test tube” wherein members of the neuroscience community, ANFA, and architecture students from the nearby University of California San Diego’s NewSchool of Architecture can continue to employ and evaluate new hypotheses and methodologies for designing environments with neuroscience in the hopes of ultimately advancing these collaborating fields into future discoveries.

Programmatically, this thesis project will incorporate many of the typical living units and amenities found in wellness resorts such as the Terranea mentioned previously. This thesis project will include spaces designed to enrich the following functions and activities: Short-term living units, artist studios and work spaces, a fitness center, dining and food preparation, a spa with additional treatment spaces, an open exterior courtyard or gathering green space, and tranquility spaces for quiet meditation or yoga.

Additionally, the facility will include indoor and outdoor “neural fitness” spaces where clients can train and stimulate targeted areas of their brain. For example, an outdoor courtyard maze could lead users through using ambient sound to strengthen neural connectivity between the occipital and temporal lobes which govern our coordination of perceived sights and sounds and can help raise a person’s level of alertness. The proposed facility will also include administrative staff offices and living quarters, as well as 24-hour security for the protection of the facility and its clients. Finally, an allotment of program spaces will be included to achieve the facility’s second primary goal of providing further research and experimental opportunities for future neuroscience based design methodologies. Spaces included in this research component of the facility will include offices, conference space, an augmented reality room similar to the system owned by UCSD. Workshop space for designing and implementing new architectural methodologies, which later could be transported elsewhere on facility grounds for evaluation of its efficacy of intended user influence.

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

As a further breakdown of the spatial requirements is needed for each presented activity of this facility based on the area of the site and through direct analysis of similar existing facilities. Based on the approximately 28.7 acre site, the housing units will provide accommodations for 100 short term living units of 400sf per unit including bathrooms. In total, about 100,000sf of space will be allotted for the housing of all 100 residents of the facility, a footprint which will likely be divided up into four separate housing clusters for purposes of scale. Music classrooms and studio spaces will accommodate class sizes of 20-30 people per session, providing 300-400sf of work/storage space per person at a total of 20,000sf of studio space for artistic pursuits. The fitness center will incorporate the latest workout, cardio, and calisthenics equipment available and spatially provide an occupancy of up to 40 people to use the facility at any given time. The fitness center and spa spaces, including treatment rooms, will total approximately 20,000sf of space. Approximately 35% of the site will be utilized as open green space as a connection to nature triggers our proclivity to natural outdoor environments. This should account for about 350,000sf of landscaped gathering space, which would also include any outdoor activities, meditation, yoga quiet spaces and spaces for communal interaction. 10,000sf of dining and eating space will be provided on the site for clients, which should adequately accommodate the staff with necessary storage and culinary equipment required to serve all clients of the facility.

The exact spatial requirements for featured â&#x20AC;&#x153;neural fitnessâ&#x20AC;? activities, at this point in the process, remains somewhat illusive.

However, the facility will accommodate 60,000sf of space for these program spaces, which should prove to be more than adequate for these activities. This spatial estimate will be revisited during the design process and refined to fit the needs of the facility as necessary. Approximately 5,000sf will be provided for necessary mechanical/service spaces for the facility, including grounds maintenance and janitorial/utility rooms. Offices and 73

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

administrative spaces for the wellness facility will include 8,000sf of office, administrative and staff space. The research experimental building facility will consist of a main reception and gallery space, sized at around 800sf, there will be a 2,500sf fabrication lab where architectural features and other experimental built environments can be built. This space will sit adjacent to the main green space in a section which could accommodate temporary built spaces built in the lab. A 1,200sf virtual reality room utilizing the latest StarCAVE technology will be housed in this area of the facility for continued evaluation of designed environments before they are built in physicality.

The initial consideration regarding spatial proximities of these various programmatic activity spaces has led to the solution that the site could organize itself around the central green space. Furthermore, by clustering the activity spaces based on the area of the brain each space is designed for, the facility and site could function spatially in a way similar to the functions of the brain. For example, the central green space could be considered the “thalamus” area of the site since it would serve as a connecting juncture where all other activity spaces would share adjacency. The housing units would then be designed as the circadian centers of the site, since these spaces are intended to serve as a cognitive “home base” for clients. This is where the major experiences of the facility are reflected on and thus, the place in which long-term memories are created for the building’s users.

75

PART 2: Synthesis

77

ARCHITECTURAL PRECEDENT Tenryu-ji Garden Kyoto, Japan. 1345.

PrOPriOcePTiOn GraviTy GrOunds us Our sense of place is not determined primarily by visual feedback, but rather by our sense of weight.

Proprioception is our cognitive ‘sixth sense’, using tiny proprioceptors embedded in the muscle tissue throughout the body to determine our position and physical state in the environment.

THE NEURosCIENCE Part of the brain that tracks limbs in space discovered* JULY 15, 2010: Scientists from UCL (University College London) and Barcelona (Pompeu Fabra University, ICREA and University of Barcelona) have identified an area of the human brain called the parietal cortex that constructs this body model from the combination of tactile information from your skin (for example, where the mosquito is on your hand) with “proprioceptive” information about the position of your hand relative to your body.

In an experiment they found that impairing the parietal cortex, using a brief pulse of magnetic stimulation, significantly impaired volunteers’ judgements about the spatial relationship between their face and arms, but not their perception of touch or location alone. The research is published in the journal Current Biology, and was funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC). *Citation: “Limbs in Space – Brain Mapping Research Identifies Key Brain Area for Body Mapping.” Neuroscience News. Neuroscience News.com, 15 July 2010. Web. 29 Nov. 2015.

Figure 42:

Proprioception

10 Properties of Environmental Cognition

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

Through some distilation of available data on architecturally relevant research in the field of neuroscience, ten properties of environmental cognition have been identified as a precursor the design portion of this thesis. Beginning with the image to the left and over the following pages, these properties represent design considerations which neuroscience research has already discovered to be significant to human experience, regardless of race, cultural background, or geographic context. An architectural precedent has been provided with each of these properties to further demonstrate itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s significance to environmental experience, as well as to suggest that a pattern of intuitive utilization of these concepts is evident in typically well-regarded works of architecture throughout history.

79

arcHiTecTuraL PrecedenT reignac-sur-indre Reignac-sur-Indre, France. 1996.

THiGmOTaxis

THe waLL-HuGGinG TraiT People tend to behave differently when inside a room than when outside in an open space. edges and defined spaces put our amygdala, the fear center of the brain, at ease.

The tendency for humans to stay close to defined edges is particularly common when entering a new environment.

the neuroscience cognitive and affective aspects of thigmotaxis strategy in humans* FeBruary 26, 2007: The present article describes the cognitive and emotional aspects of human thigmotaxis (a wall-following spatial strategy) during exploration of virtual and physical spaces. The authors assessed 106 participants with spatial and nonspatial performance-based learningâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;memory tasks and with fear and anxiety questionnaires.

The results demonstrate that thigmotaxis plays a distinct role at different phases of spatial learning. The 1st phase shows a positive correlation between thigmotaxis and general phobic avoidance, whereas there is no association between thigmotaxis and general phobic avoidance during later phases of learning. Furthermore, participants who underperformed in working memory tests and in a spatial construction task exhibited greater thigmotaxis and a higher potential for fear response. Findings are interpreted in the framework of interactions among emotion-, action-, and knowledgecontrolled spatial learning theories. *Citation: Cognitive and affective aspects of thigmotaxis strategy in humans. Kallai, Janos; Makany, Tamas; Csatho, Arpad; Karadi, Kazmer; Horvath, David; Kovacs-Labadi, Beatrix; Jarai, Robert; Nadel, Lynn; Jacobs, Jake W. Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 121(1), Feb 2007, 2130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7044.121.1.21

Figure 43:

Thigmotaxis

ARCHITECTURAL PRECEDENT Taj mahal Agra, India. 1648.

symmeTry

sHaPes carry weiGHT we have evolved to register and investigate and prefer certain forms over others in fractions of a second. in those brief moments our brain can subconsciously determine whether or not to flee or step forward well before our conscious mind gets involved. across civilizations, the bilaterally symmetric plan and facade is often used to evoke power and convey worldly as well as spiritual might.

THE NEURosCIENCE a biologically plausible model of human shape symmetry perception* JANUARY 19, 2010: Symmetry is usually computationally expensive to encode reliably, and yet it is relatively effortless to perceive. Here, we extend F. J. A. M. Poirier and H. R. Wilson’s (2006) model for shape perception to account for H. R. Wilson and F. Wilkinson’s (2002) data on shape symmetry. Because the model already accounts for shape perception, only minimal neural circuitry is required to enable it to encode shape symmetry as well. The model is composed of three main parts: (1) recovery of object position using large-scale non-Fourier V4-like concentric units that respond at the center of concentric contour segments across orientations, (2) around that recovered object center, curvature mechanisms combine multiplicatively the responses of oriented filters to encode object-centric local shape information, with a preference for convexities, and (3) object-centric symmetry mechanisms. Model and human performances are comparable for symmetry perception of shapes. Moreover, with some improvement of edge recovery, the model can encode symmetry axes in natural images such as faces.

*Citation: Poirier, F. J. A. M., & Wilson, H. R. (2010). A biologically plausible model of human shape symmetry perception. Journal of Vision, 10(1):9, 1–16, http://journalofvision.org/10/1/9/, doi:10.1167/10.1.9..

Figure 44:

Symmetry

81

arcHiTecTuraL PrecedenT Thorncrown chapel Eureka Springs, Arizona. 1980.

BiOPHiLia

naTure is Our cOnTexT Our evolutionary past resonates daily with how we respond to our present environment. evolving in the african and later european and asian savanna, places with grassy plains with scattered trees, our hunter-gatherer ancestors were consistently in contact with the natural world.

The complexity of nature is the matrix where we, our genes, and our brains, came into their humanness.

the neuroscience Happiness and Feeling connected: The distinct role of nature relatedness* AUgUst 6, 2012: Subjective connection with nature, or nature relatedness, is similar to other environmental worldview measures in predicting sustainable attitudes and behaviors, yet is unique in predicting happiness. In two studies, the authors assessed the overlap between nature relatedness and other subjective connections (e.g., with friends or country) and examined these connections as a possible confound in explaining the link between nature relatedness and happiness. Study 1 adapted a measure of general connectedness and administered it to student (n = 331) and community (n = 415) samples along with multiple nature relatedness and happiness indicators. Study 2 examined more established measures of subjective connections in another community sample (n = 204). General connectedness predicted happiness well, yet nature relatedness remained a significant distinct predictor of many happiness indicators, even after controlling for other connections. Results support the notion that nature relatedness could be a path to human happiness and environmental sustainability, though confirming this causal direction requires additional research. *Citation: Zelenski J. M., Nisbet E. K. (in press). Happiness and feeling connected: the distinct role of nature relatedness. Environ. Behav. 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;21 10.1177/003916512451901.

Figure 45:

Biophilia

ARCHITECTURAL PRECEDENT swanston square apartment Tower Melbourne, Australia. 2015.

PareidOLia

Faces are PriOriTy The senses are not equal. evolution and survival have conditioned humans to prioritize facial recognition from all visual stimuli we process.

Beginning at infancy, the brain develops and adheres to a specific set of rules.

THE NEURosCIENCE The Fusiform Face area: a module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception* JUNe 1, 1997: Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we found an area in the fusiform gyrus in 12 of the 15 subjects tested that was significantly more active when the subjects viewed faces than when they viewed assorted common objects.

This face activation was used to define a specific region of interest individually for each subject, within which several new tests of face specificity were run. In each of five subjects tested, the predefined candidate “face area” also responded significantly more strongly to passive viewing of (1) intact than scrambled two-tone faces, (2) full front-view face photos than front-view photos of houses, and (in a different set of five subjects) (3) three-quarter-view face photos (with hair concealed) than photos of human hands; it also responded more strongly during (4) a consecutive matching task performed on three-quarter-view faces versus hands. Our technique of running multiple tests applied to the same region defined functionally within individual subjects provides a solution to two common problems in functional imaging: (1) the requirement to correct for multiple statistical comparisons and (2) the inevitable ambiguity in the interpretation of any study in which only two or three conditions are compared. Our data allow us to reject alternative accounts of the function of the fusiform face area (area “FF”) that appeal to visual attention, subordinate-level classification, or general processing of any animate or human forms, demonstrating that this region is selectively involved in the perception of faces. *Kanwisher N, McDermott J, Chun MM. 1997. The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. J Neurosci. 17:4302–4311..

Figure 46:

Pareidolia

83

identification distance: 400m(1,312ft.)

Depending on light conditions, the typical distance at which our eyes can distinguish another human from a background object or animal.

recognition distance: 35m(115ft.)

Hightened sense of body position and initial facial readings occur within this distance.

social distance 4m(12ft.) Multisensory communication and visual processing is the most rich within this threshold as a full range of communication opportunities arise.

social Field of vision: 100m(328ft.)

The typical distance at which basic body movement and body language can be seen in broad outline.

emotional Field of vision: 25m(80ft.)

The distance at which facial expressions become more distinct and discernable.

Personal (critical) distance: 1m(3ft.)

This critical distance offers the most vivid and detailed sensory interactions between people. However, because of the potential threat it is rare for complete strangers to interact at or within this proximity initially.

Public distance: 7m(23ft.) Multisensory communication begins at this distance, as verbal communication becomes possible.

PrOxemics

disTances aFFecT BeHaviOr dimensions are merely a measurement of distance, but our perceptual apparatus does not experience them neutrally. Because humans are so innately a social species, the extent to which we are able to recognize a human body, or another personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s face more specifically, plays a considerable role in the spaceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s impact on our behavior.

the neuroscience spatial proximity amplifies valence in emotional memory and defensive approach-avoidance* DecembeR 21, 2014: We hypothesized that the valence of social cues scales with egocentric distance, such that proximal social stimuli have more positive or negative valence than distal stimuli. We tested this hypothesis across four experiments using 3-D virtual reality simulations. Experiment 1: confirmed that proximal social stimuli facilitate defensive responses, as indexed by fear-potentiated startle, relative to distal stimuli.

Experiment 2: revealed that interpersonal defensive boundaries flexibly increase with aversive learning. Experiment 3: demonstrated that fear memories for social threats encroaching on the body were more persistent than those acquired at greater interpersonal distances, as indexed by startle. Experiment 4: confirmed while fearpotentiated startle increased with proximity when participants actively avoided receiving shocks, startle decreased with proximity when participants tolerated shocks to receive monetary rewards, implicating opposing gradients of distance on threat versus reward.

Thus, proximity in egocentric space amplifies the valence of social stimuli that, in turn, facilitates emotional memory and approach-avoidance responses. These findings have implications for understanding the consequences of increased urbanization on affective interpersonal behavior. *Citation: F. Ă&#x2026;hs, J.E. Dunsmoor, D. Zielinski, K.S. LaBar Spatial proximity amplifies valence in emotional memory and defensive approach-avoidance. Journal of Neuropsychologia (2015).

Figure 47:

Proxemics

mirrOr neurOns THe Brain’s emPaTHy ceLLs mirror neurons explain our empathy for others and our perceptual response to the external environment. These neurons activate in identical areas of the brain when an action is conceived, performed or witnessed being performed by another person or object.

the neuroscience The mirror-neuron system* mARch 5, 2004: A category of stimuli of great importance for primates, humans in particular, is that formed by actions done by other individuals. If we want to survive, we must understand the actions of others. Furthermore, without action understanding, social organization is impossible. In the case of humans, there is another faculty that depends on the observation of others’ actions: imitation learning. Unlike most species, we are able to learn by imitation, and this faculty is at the basis of human culture.

In this review we present data on a neurophysiological mechanism—the mirror-neuron mechanism—that appears to play a fundamental role in both action understanding and imitation. We describe first the functional properties of mirror neurons in monkeys. We review next the characteristics of the mirror-neuron system in humans. We stress, in particular, those properties specific to the human mirror-neuron system that might explain the human capacity to learn by imitation. We conclude by discussing the relationship between the mirror-neuron system and language. *Citation: Giacomo Rizzolatti and Laila Craighero. The Mirror-Neuron System. Annual Review of Neuroscience, Vol. 27: 169 -192 (Volume publication date July 2004)

Figure 48:

Mirror Neurons

85

ARCHITECTURAL PRECEDENT neuschwantstein castle Schwangau, Germany. 1886.

mnemOnics

menTaL memOry PaLaces The method of loci, a powerful memory technique used by most memory athletes, utilizes the brain’s vast visio-spatial capacity to effectively “trap” random information in a vividly imagined spatial environment. an ancient mnemonic device, the method of loci uses familiar environments, real or imagined, to effectively commit vast amounts of information to long-term memory.

THE NEURosCIENCE routes to remembering: the brains behind superior memory* DecembeR 16, 2002: Why do some people have superior memory capabilities?

We addressed this age-old question by examining individuals renowned for outstanding memory feats in forums such as the World Memory Championships. Using neuropsychological measures, as well as structural and functional brain imaging, we found that superior memory was not driven by exceptional intellectual ability or structural brain differences. Rather, we found that superior memorizers used a spatial learning strategy, engaging brain regions such as the hippocampus that are critical for memory and for spatial memory in particular. These results illustrate how functional neuroimaging might prove valuable in delineating the neural substrates of mnemonic techniques, which could broaden the scope for memory improvement in the general population and the memory-impaired.

*Citation: Maguire EA, Valentine ER, Wilding JM, Kapur N (2003) Routes to remembering: the brains behind superior memory. Natural Neuroscience 6:90–95..

Figure 49:

Mnemonics

1

8 2

7 3

4

5

6

arcHiTecTuraL PrecedenT GrOTTO sauna Toronto, Canada. 2014.

curviLineariTy curves are caLminG

Humans are curve-biased; we evolved to assess the environment quickly. Pointed shapes, such as barbs, thorns and sharp teeth were ever-present threats in our evolutionary past, so it was advantageous to sense them fast and be able to flee if necessary.

the neuroscience visual elements of subjective preference modulate amygdala activation: mARch 12, 2007: What are the basic visual cues that determine our preference towards mundane everyday objects? We previously showed that a highly potent cue is the nature of the objectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contour: people generally like objects with a curved contour compared with objects that have pointed features and a sharp-angled contour. This bias is hypothesized here to stem from an implicit perception of potential threat conveyed by sharp elements. Using human neuroimaging to test this hypothesis, we report that the amygdala, a brain structure that is involved in fear processing and has been shown to exhibit activation level that is proportional to arousal in general, is significantly more active for everyday sharp objects (e.g., a sofa with sharp corners) compared with their curved contour counterparts. Therefore, our results indicate that a preference bias towards a visual object can be induced by low level perceptual properties, independent of semantic meaning, via visual elements that on some level could be associated with threat. We further present behavioral results that provide initial support for the link between the sharpness of the contour and threat perception.

Our brains might be organized to extract these basic contour elements rapidly for deriving an early warning signal in the presence of potential danger. *Citation: Bar and Neta, 2007 M. Bar, M. Neta. Visual elements of subjective preference modulate amygdala activation Methods, 45 (2007), pp. 2191â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2200

Figure 50:

Curvilinearity

87

arcHiTecTuraL PrecedenT Painter’s studio Bahia Azul, Costa Rica. 2014.

recTiLineariTy edGes are aLerTinG

edges and rectilinear environments have been shown to increase alertness and engagement in people. this is due to activation of the amygdala in the brain, which is the part of the brain’s fight or flight response system. this response system has also shown to increase a person’s sense of place, however, and thus rectilinear spaces can be utilized to enforce a sense of order and place.

the neuroscience Thinking Outside the Box: rectilinear shapes selectively activate scene-selective cortex mAY 14, 2014: Fifteen years ago, an intriguing area was found in human visual cortex. This area (the parahippocampal place area [PPA]) was initially interpreted as responding selectively to images of places. However, subsequent studies reported that PPA also responds strongly to a much wider range of image categories, including inanimate objects, tools, spatial context, landmarks, objectively large objects, indoor scenes, and/or isolated buildings. Here, we hypothesized that PPA responds selectively to a lower-level stimulus property (rectilinear features), which are common to many of the above higher-order categories. Using a novel wavelet image filter, we first demonstrated that rectangular features are common in these diverse stimulus categories. Then we tested whether PPA is selectively activated by rectangular features in six independent fMRI experiments using progressively simplified stimuli, from complex real-world images, through 3D/2D computer-generated shapes, through simple line stimuli. We found that PPA was consistently activated by rectilinear features, compared with curved and nonrectangular features. This rectilinear preference was (1) comparable in amplitude and selectivity, relative to the preference for category (scenes vs faces), (2) independent of known biases for specific orientations and spatial frequency, and (3) not predictable from V1 activity. Two additional scene-responsive areas were sensitive to a subset of rectilinear features. Thus, rectilinear selectivity may serve as a crucial building block for category-selective responses in PPA and functionally related areas. *Citation: Nasr, S., C. E. Echavarria, and R. B. H. Tootell. “Thinking Outside the Box: Rectilinear Shapes Selectively Activate Scene-Selective Cortex.” Journal of Neuroscience 34.20 (2014): 6721-735. Web.

Figure 51:

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Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

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The empirical data articulated throughout this document has been presented with the hopes of identifying some specific “tools” of environmental design. Tools which can be used to more affirmatively ensure that architects reliably design spaces which foster positive responses in the cognitive development of its users. However, the search for a more quantitative “toolbox” of design considerations is not intended in any way to impose a formulaic or prescribed approach to the design process, but instead to offer a more refined approach to an otherwise selfembodied service to humanity. Just as the surgeon’s tools can only perform with the relative percision of its wielder’s steady hand, architecture has long been, and hopefully will continue to be, a profession of artistic and humanitarian sensibilities. As fellow human beings, architects must continue to strive for their most robust comprehension of human experience, while retaining a humble understanding that all things created, by man or nature alike, result in the making of a life that is known by its own nature. It is the ambition of the architect, and ultimately of this exploration into the cross-disiplinary pollination of neuroscience and architecture, to try and better understand the life of the environment being created for the betterment of humanity.

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PART 3: appendices

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AMYGDALA - Regulates heartbeats and acts as the fear center of the brain Basal Ganglia - Control system for movement and cognitive functions.

BIOPHILIA - An innate love for the natural world shared universally by humankind.

Brain Stem - The brain’s warning and alertness system.

Cerebellum - The brain’s oldest and most primitive area. Controls movement, coordination, balance equilibrium, and posture.

Cingulate Gyrus - The area of the brain involved in survival behaviors, including pain, hunger, and “fight or flight” response.

Corpus Callosum - Large band of nerve fibers through which information flows between the hemispheres of the brain.

CURVILINEARITY - Formed or characterized by curves of planar or linear nature.

Frontal Lobe - Area of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions, including concentration, planning, judgement, emotional expression, creativity, and inhibition.

Hippocampus - Located in the limbic system near the temporal lobe, the area of the brain where long-term memories are stored.

Hypothalamus - Area in the brain that regulates sex hormones, blood pressure and body temperature.

Motor Cortex - Initiator of voluntary muscle movement.

MIRROR NEURONS - Neurons that fire both when an animal acts and and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron “mirrors” the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in primate species. THIGMOTAXIS - The movement of an organism toward or away from any object that provides a mechanical stimulus.

Occipital Lobe - Visual processing center of the brain. Responsible for sight, image recognition, and perception.

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

Olefactory Bulb - Smell receptors in the brain located in the lower frontal cortex.

PAREIDOLIA - The imagined perception of a pattern or meaning where it does not actually exist, as in considering the moon to have human facial features.

Parietal Lobe - Area of the brain responsible for the evaluation of weight, texture, and temperature as well as object recognition.

Pituitary Gland - Hormone-producing center of the brain. Regulates hormone production of the other glands in the body.

PROPRIOCEPTION - Perception governed by proprioceptors, as awareness of the position of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s body in space.

MNEMONICS - A device such as a pattern of letters, ideas, or associations that assists in remembering something. Also, the study and development of systems for improving and assisting memory retention.

RECTILINEARITY - Contained by, consisting of, or moving in a straight line or lines.

Sensory Cortex - Receives sensory signals from muscles and skin.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus - Area of the brain responsible for controlling circadian rhythyms.

Thalamus - Relay hub for most sensory signals entering the brain.

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Diane Ackerman. A Natural History of the Senses. New York and Toronto: Random House, Inc., 1990, Vintage Books, 1995.

Gaston Bachelard. The Poetics of Space. Boston: Beacon Press, 1994.

Rita Carter. Mapping the Mind. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, 1998.

John P. Eberhard. Architecture and the Brain: A Knowledge Base from Neuroscience. Atlanta: Greenway Communications, LLC, 2007.

John P. Eberhard. Brain Landscape: The Coexistence of Neuroscience and Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

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J.A. Scott Kelso. Dynamic Patterns. Cambridge and London: The MIT Press, 1997.

Mario Livio. The Golden Ratio. New York: Broadway Books, 2002.

Eduardo Macagno and Eve Edelstein. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Form Follows Function: Bridging Neuroscience and Architectureâ&#x20AC;?. In Sustainable Environmental Design in Architecture: Impacts on Health. S.T. Rassia & P.M. Pardalos, (Eds.). NY: Springer Publishing. 2012.

Michael S. Mott, Daniel H. Robinson, Ashley Walden, Jodie Burnette, Angela S. Rutherford. Illuminating the Effects of Dynamic Lighting on Student Learning. SAGE Open Online Publication (May, 2012): Accessed April 25, 2015. doi: 10.1177/2158244012445585 Robinson, Sarah, and Juhani Pallasmaa. Mind in Architecture: Neuroscience, Embodiment, and the Future of Design. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2015. Print.

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Ann Sussman and Justin B. Hollander. Cognitive Architecture: Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment. Routledge, 2009. Print.

John Zeisel. Inquiry by Design: Environment/Behavior/Neuroscience in

Cover Abstract Preface Acknowledgements List of Figures Premise Problem Background Discourse Rita Carter John P. Eberhard Sussman/Hollander John Zeisel Precedent Research Salk Institute UCSD StarCAVE Background Summary Proposition Methodology Outcomes Client/Culture Site/Context Architectural Precedents The Parthenon The Salk Institute Basilica di Assisi Terranea Resort Instituto Sacatar Spaces and Experiences 10 Properties of Environmental Cognition Proprioception Thigmotaxis Symmetry Biophilia Pareidolia Proxemics Mirror Neurons Mnemonics Curvilinearity Rectilinearity Closing Comments Glossary Bibliography

Architecture, Interiors, Landscape, and Planning. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. Print.

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“Cognitive and affective aspects of thigmotaxis strategy in humans”. Kallai, Janos; Makany, Tamas; Csatho, Arpad; Karadi, Kazmer; Horvath, David; Kovacs-Labadi, Beatrix; Jarai, Robert; Nadel, Lynn; Jacobs, Jake W. Behavioral Neuroscience, Vol 121(1), Feb 2007, 21-30. http://dx.doi. org/10.1037/0735-7044.121.1.21 Poirier, F. J. A. M., & Wilson, H. R. (2010). A biologically plausible model of human shape symmetry perception. Journal of Vision, 10(1):9, 1–16, http:// journalofvision.org/10/1/9/, doi:10.1167/10.1.9..

Zelenski J. M., Nisbet E. K. (in press). Happiness and feeling connected: the distinct role of nature relatedness. Environ. Behav. 1–21 10.1177/003916512451901.

Kanwisher N, McDermott J, Chun MM. 1997. The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. J Neurosci. 17:4302–4311..

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