GATEways 2001 (Volume 14, Issue 1)

GATEways to Teacher Education . The Journal of the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators Published by GATE and Berry CoUege

Volume XIV (1) Fall2001

Editors Jacqueline M. McDowell, Berry College Kathy R. Gann, Berry College Officers ofthe Association President: Maryellen S. Cosgrove, Armstrong Atlantic State University President Elect: Jennifer Harrison, LaGrange College Past President: Sam Hausfather, formerly at Berry College Secretary: Gwen Middlebrooks, Spelman College Treasurer: Jackie Castleman, Montgomery County Elementary School

Editorial Board Julia Dorminey, Georgia Southwestern (GA) Diane Wiley, Kennesaw State University (GA) April Whatley, University of New Orleans (LA) Marshalita Sims Peterson, Spellman College (GA)

From the Editor Each fall the air turns crisp, the trees change color, and teacher educators travel across the state of Georgia to attend the GATE/GACTE Conference. We come as individuals and groups to touch base with colleagues, discuss educational policy, and share ideas. The GATEways Journal, given to our members each October, provides an opportunity for us to read about what our colleagues have to say about preparing teachers and working in schools.

In the first article, Bischoff, Hatch, and Watford write about their triangulated study on the importance of efficacy issues in teacher education. This study informed these faculty from Georgia Southwestern to modify their field experiences in order to assist the students in overcoming their fears of content and pedagogical incompetence.

Gwen McAlpine shares anecdotes of preservice teachers as they navigate the difficult issues of teaching in a multiethnic classroom. She assures us that there are responsive programs which allow us as teacher educators to model nurturing environments in K-16 classrooms.

What happens when two teacher education faculty members become part of an elementary school faculty for three years and develop a relationship bound together by recycled newspapers and railroad ties? The answer is an outdoor classroom and a binding professional partnership. Drs. Outlaw and Bell discuss how school partnerships can be created and sustained in their manuscript, "Answering the Challenge of College-School Partnerships: What Do You Do After You Say Hello."

The Editorial Board reviewed these manuscripts and highly recommend them to you, our members. So sit back, relax, and enjoy the insights of our colleagues. After all, it is a tradition of fall.

GATEways to Teacher Education Volume XIV (1) Fall2001 Table of Contents Efficacy as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Among Preservice Middle Grades Teachers . • ....•..... S Paul J. Bischoff, SUNY Oneonta Douglas D. Hatch, Georgia Southwestern State University Lettie J. Watford, Georgia Southwestern State University

The Problems with Progress: Confronting Issues of Diversity in the Classroom ....•.....•.19 Gwen McAlpine, Kennesaw State University

Answering the Challenge of College-School Partnerships: What Do You Do After You s~~

JB[.eii() ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• :J~

Mary E. Outlaw, Berry College Steven Bell, Berry College

Efficacy as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Among Preservice Middle Grades Teachers Paul J. Bischoff Douglas D. Hatch Lettie J. Watford Abstract This study investigates qualitative relationships between middle grades preservice teachers' issues of internal self-efficacy prior to teaching a lesson and reflective data obtained while critiquing a video-tape of their performance. Triangulation ofthe data reveal that self-image, professional ability and expectation self-efficacy concerns articulated prior to the lesson were found to reoccur in the lesson self-evaluations. The study discusses the importance ofefficacy issues in preservice teacher education, and recommendations for program enhancement are made.

Self-efficacy is defined as our personal judgments of our own effectiveness (LeFrancois, 1997). Our notions of selfefficacy are extremely important determiners of what we do and not do. In fact, Bandura (1993) reports that measures of selfefficacy are sometimes a better predictor of behavior than our relevant skills. That is, because under most circumstances, adults do not attempt to do things that they expect to do badly.

"Efficacy beliefs," Bandura explains, "influence how people feel,

think, motivate themselves, and behave" (1993, p. 118). In this study, self-efficacy is operationally defined as how an individual judges his/her effectiveness at planning for and presenting content material.

There are a number of self-efficacy issues that are apparent in beginning teachers. This pattern may include the desire to develop content and pedagogical competence, and the pattern may continue throughout one's career including instruction so that all students achieve recognized standards-based goals. This concept implies that before preservice teachers can focus on student outcomes, they must focus on their own personal outcomes of content and pedagogical competence. The development of high self-efficacy in preservice teachers is the immediate responsibility of teacher education colleges.

A review of the literature identified several self-efficacy studies that reported the relationship between teacher expectations and student achievement pertaining to both content and attitudes as a type of self-fulfilling prophecy (e.g., Babad, 1985; Chandler, 1994; Gipe & Richards, 1992; Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). Brophy and Good (1974) and Ross (1995) reviewed the literature related to teacher expectations and student performance and concluded that teacher expectations are probably connected in strong ways to student self-concept and self-esteem, as well as to the academic achievement of the students. The consistent findings of self-efficacy studies appear to form a framework for the development of an accepted theorem regarding the positive impact of teachers' sense of efficacy on students' affective and cognitive growth.

A related study (Bischoff, Hatch, & Watford, 1999) described the lesson planning, implementation, and self-reflective data of a highly successful preservice middle grades mathematics and science teacher in comparison to her less successful peers. In that study, minimal attention was given to the less successful teachers who were the majority of the subjects. AI-

6 GATEways Volume XIV (l) Fall 2001 Teather Education

Efficacy as 11 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

though there were noticeable strengths in data from each participant, this study highlights the weaknesses in preservice middle grades teachers' abilities to plan, implement and evaluate their lessons. The purpose of this study is to document, through an analysis of lesson planning, lesson implementation and selfevaluation data, the characteristics of self-efficacy as a selffulfilling prophecy exhibited in preservice middle grades teachers while planning and teaching a sixth grade physical science lesson.

The major goal is to provide insights that will serve to guide the remaining eighteen months of their professional training.

Method Subjects Nine first-semester junior level preservice teachers, majoring in middle grades education at a rural southern university were the subjects of this longitudinal qualitative study. They were enrolled in both a mathematics and science methods course and were at the same curricular level. The data from the nine preservice teachers described here all exhibited extensive weaknesses, and an in-depth analysis of extensive qualitative data revealed the existence of behaviors that predicted the instructional planning and delivery weaknesses later observed in the preservice teachers' lessons.

Data Collection A four-step qualitative research approach was used to acquire in-depth information on each individual. A linear content analysis of the lesson plans, lesson plan interviews, videotaped

Bischoff, H11tch, & Watford

lessons, and evaluations by the preservice teachers enabled the identification of efficacy issues as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Step 1. A lesson-plan writing period where each preservice teacher was provided with the following sixth grade physical science objective was taken verbatim from the state curriculum.

"Compares and contrasts speed, velocity and acceleration" (Georgia Department of Education, 1998).

Preservice teachers were asked to write a lesson plan describing how they would teach that objective to a class of sixth graders. They were not provided with any particular lesson plan format and were asked to write down all their thoughts. They were each provided with a sixth grade science book, a middle grades mathematics book and a variety of physical science reference texts. Additionally, they were encouraged to use the Internet computer services and were free to use the materials available in the school math and science teaching labs. They were allocated two hours to complete this task. The goal was to provide a realistic setting.

Step 2. After three days, each preservice teacher was interviewed using a standard set of interview questions. The questions were designed to probe deeper into the thought processes that supported the written lesson plan without providing the respondent with directive, critical, or evaluative commentary. Specifically, they were asked: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Tell me more about why you choose these lesson objectives?

Tell me more about the teaching strategy you intend to use?

Tell me more about how the lesson is going to go?

Why did you choose this learning activity?

What are the strengths of the lesson? and What problems do you anticipate with the lesson and what can you do in advance to reduce the significance of those

8 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall2001 Teacher Education

E/flCilcy as a Self-Fulfdllng Prophecy

problems? The taped narrative data were transcribed for later analysis.

Step 3. Arrangements were made with three local school systems for the middle grades preservice teachers to observe and teach their lessons. The lessons were video recorded by graduate assistants or classroom teachers who were not participating in the study.

Step 4. Preservice teachers were provided with a Georgia Teacher Observation Instrument (GTOI, 1993) and asked to as- _ sess and reflect on their videotaped lessons. The GTOI was helpful in that it provided them with specific evaluative cues that enabled them to describe what they liked about their lessons, what they didn't like, and what they would improve. The GTOI was not used as a numerical assessment tool.

Data Analysis Each videotaped lesson and supporting documentation was examined for instances of efficacy as a self-fulfilling prophecy by three education professors, each having expertise in one of the fields of middle grades mathematics, science, and materials and methods. Each professor also has experience in critiquing teachers' performances in the classroom using the GTOI for formative evaluative purposes.

Consistent with Bandura's (1993) definition, efficacy as self-fulfilling prophecy was operationally identified when data pertaining to issues of self-image, professional abilities and expectations in the lesson plan or post lesson plan interview were found to resurface in the lesson self-evaluation. The videotaped lessons were critiqued separately and without interaction among the three professors in order to triangulate and support the identification of efficacy issues. The data brought forth from these critiques suggested that issues of self-efficacy existed. Moreover,

DISCnOU1

nlllCh, 11ft Wllt}Ord

the analysis of the data by the researchers provided the opportunity to observe the full context in which the prophecy was self-fulfilled.

The three efficacy issues that emerged from the data and the videotaped analysis-self-image efficacy, professional ability selfefficacy, and expectation self-efficacy-are further recognized in the following contexts. Self-image efficacy was identified when statements that relate to the preservice teachers' perceptions of selfconfidence, their ability to effectively facilitate instruction and appropriately respond to student questions in the lesson plan or lesson plan interview were found to reoccur in the lesson and lesson evaluation. Professional ability self-efficacy was identified when statements that pertain to issues of confidence in content knowledge, levels of planning or preparation, and time and classroom management resurfaced in the lesson and lesson evaluation. Since these notions are related to professional behavior, they fall_~der this category. Lastly, expectation self-efficacy was identified when a preservice teacher anticipated low student abilities. the lesson plan or post lesson plan interview, and, subsequently acknowledged a failure to engage students in higher order thinking activities or problem solving in the lesson or the lesson evaluation.

in

Results In order to present a clear and concise analysis of the data, each category of efficacy as a self-fulfilling prophecy is presented by identifying instances when data from the lesson evaluation (LE) can be shown to originate in either the written lesson plan (WLP) or post lesson plan interview (PLPI). Letters 1-9 will be used to designate the nine preservice teachers.

Self-Image Efficacy as a Self-Fulfilled Prophecy: Numerous examples of self-image efficacy as a self-fulfilling prophecy were found in the data. The following analysis highlights this trend. On the lesson evaluation (LE), preservice teacher 1 wrote, "I need to

10 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall 2001 Teacher Education

Efficacy liS a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

feel more confident in myself. I have patience and understanding with the students but I still feel inferior.'' During the post lesson interview (PLPI) when asked about the strengths of her lesson the preservice teacher responded, "I don't know strengths"; and when asked about problems that she anticipated with the lesson, she responded, "hoping I can present the concept and the students can understand it." In this instance, preservice teacher 1 's concern to "present the concept" was clearly traced to the PLPI. Additionally supportive, it must be noted that the written lesson plan was four pages of text copied material, much of which did not pertain to the topic, and during the videotape, preservice teacher 1 presented a very confusing lesson in which reading from a note pad was the primary methodology. Unfortunately, preservice teacher 1's prophecy of "hoping I can present the lesson and the students can understand if' was fulfilled. The students did not appear to understand preservice teacher 1's lesson.

Other examples of this trend are presented: Preservice teacher 2; LE: "I think I really look stupid on the videotape."

PLPI; "I need a review, so they need a review, I don't know exactly what I'll do." During the PLPI, preservice teacher 3 made several comments indicating her lack of content knowledge confidence. When asked about her comfort level, the preservice teacher responded "very uncomfortable"; and when asked about the extent of her ability to answer questions, she responded: "I think if a child does ask me a question that I haven't studied up on, then I won't know how to answer. I don't want the kids to look totally clueless." As a self-fulfilled prophecy, her lesson was highly teacher-centered thus providing little opportunity for the students to ask questions. Preservice teacher 4 regarded her appearance in front of the classroom poorly several times during the LE. This preservice teacher commented that she did not like the fact that she did not stand up straight, chewed gum, and did not make enough eye contact. This statement from the LE sums up the lesson "I looked like I could care less about teaching, but I

Bischoff, Hatch, & Watford

did enjoy it." Preservice teacher 4's poor outcome was also a self-fulfilled prophecy as revealed through an analysis of the PLPI with statements such as "If I wasn't so nervous, it would go better. I'm scared that they are not going to understand what I am trying to say'' and, "If they ask a question, then I am not sure how I will answer it. I'm going to have to go home and study it so I feel more comfortable." In this case, there is evidence to support the claim that the most important determinant of success was how she felt at the close of the lesson. This statement from preservice teacher 4 's LE indicates the relief she felt when students responded to some of her questions. "I like the fact that the students answered my questions when I asked because it made me think they understood what I was getting at."

In these instances self-image issues of appearance and inferiority that surfaced during the LE, and had a strong impact on the outcome of the lessons, were found to originate in either the WLP orPLPI. Professional Ability Efficacy as a Self-Fulfilled Prophecy: The following data from preservice teachers 5, 6, and 7 are used as exemplars of how evaluative comments pertaining to professional ability self-efficacy made during the lesson evaluations were identified as self-fulfilled prophecies.

During the LE, preservice teacher 5 wrote, "I really didn't understand the material completely." Three weeks previous in the PLPI she stated, "I am nervous about teaching this and I need to study up on this and I have to get in front of a classroom and teach a subject I hardly know anything about." Similarly, preservice teacher 6's comments indicate lack of confidence in content knowledge. LE, "I didn't feel very secure teaching this subject."

PLPI, "Your typical sixth-grader may not know what it is, I don't know what it is, so I need to find out what it is."

In both of these examples, the preservice teachers articulated their concern over the content three weeks prior to the

ll GATEways Volume XIV (1) Falll001 Teachu Education

Efficacy as a Self-Fulfdling Prophecy

lesson and, as a self-fulfilled prophecy, problems with content presentation did occur and resulted in poorly presented lessons.

Preservice teacher 7's videotaped lesson documenting the preservice teacher's excessive lack of control over the students during a poorly prepared group activity identifies management concerns as a self-fulfilled prophecy. While critiquing her lesson during the LE, preservice teacher 7 wrote, "They did not have experience working in groups. I should have called groups together instead of letting them find each other. Activity took much longer than I anticipated." When asked about problems, she anticipated during the PLPI preservice teacher 7 wrote, " ... them not cooperating and not communicating may be a problem."

Each instance described here provides evidence that professional self-efficacy issues of content k;nowledge, and classroom as well as time management issues that did occur during the lessons that were detrimental to the outcome, were anticipated by the preservice teacher.

Expectations as a Self-Fulfilled Prophecy: There is evidence in the data that the preservice teachers, all of whom had virtually no experience with middle school children, poorly estimated the students' capacity to learn the material. As a result, they presented lessons requiring minimal higher order thinking from the students. or, were narve enough to believe that lecture alone would be an effective teaching method.

Some excerpts from the data: Preservice teacher 8, LE; "The formula would be good for them to know, but I almost wonder if it is over their head, if it is too advanced for them." Preservice teacher 8 's PLPI, "Some of the material was too hard. If I would have used simpler formulas, it would have been fine." Preservice teacher 9, LE; "Lecture was easy enough for all students to understand. I restated material when it was evident that students didn't understand." Consistent with the PLPI, when asked about the strengths of the lesson plan, preservice teacher 9

Bischoff, H11tch, & Watford

responded, "I see it as being simple, easy to follow and directed specifically at sixth graders."

In these examples, the preservice teachers' expectations had a dramatic impact on the outcome of the lessons. Both lessons were lecture, teacher-centered lessons. In preservice teacher 8's case, there is strong evidence in the WLP and videotaped lesson that the content objectives were too difficult for the preservice teacher, but the poor outcome was attributed to the material being " ... too hard" for the students.

Discussion The heightened awareness that all but one of the preservice middle grades teachers in the program have serious problems preparing and facilitating a sixth grade lesson has resulted in immediate program changes that come closer to guaranteeing the competence of our graduates (University System of Georgia Board of Regents, 1998). For example, preservice teachers enrolled in the second semester middle grades science and mathematics courses, which includes most of the participants in this study, now work as teams developing lessons that are likely to engage all learners.

To accomplish this, the most conceptually difficult objectives of the middle grades mathematics and science courses are chosen for in-depth study in the undergraduate class. With the professors' guidance, the class masters the content. Thereafter, individual preservice teachers interview middle grades students the year after they have been exposed to the curriculum objective. In other words, if studying a seventh grade life science objective, eighth graders are interviewed with the purpose of probing the depth of their conceptual understanding. The tape-recorded interview data is then transcribed, and analyzed for strengths, weakness, and misconceptions. These data are used to support the development of a series of lesson plans that are used during the teaching

14 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fa112001 Teacher Education

Effimcy as a Sel.fFu/fd/ing Prophecy

component of the路 field experience. After teaching the lessons, the preservice teachers are required to prepare a written selfevaluation of the lesson that is compared to the professors' evaluation based on recent science and mathematics standards for teaching and learning (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990; National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 1991; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1989, 19~1; National Research Council, 1996). This is an active effort to assist the preservice middle grades teachers in overcoming their fears of content and pedagogical incompetence. It should also help them identify the particular components of the middle grades curriculum that students find most difficult, and help them prepare, implement, and critique their own lessons so that they may graduate ready to do a dynamic job of teaching.

Finally, in accordance with recommendations from the Southern Regional Educational Board (1998), the results of this study concur that arts ~d sciences faculty need to work with education faculty "to identify content-specific teaching and learning strategies." It may be impossible in two years of professional training for education professors to prepare preservice teachers for every content specific obstacle they will encounter. However, it is possible to equip them with information enabling preservice teachers to find relevant resources on their own. These program modifications are a step towards graduating teachers with high internal and external efficacy qualities likely to guarantee the success of the students they teach.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science.

(1990). Science for all Americans: A project 2061 report on literacy goals in science, mathematics and technology. Washington, DC: Author.

'Bischoff, Hatch, & Watford

Babad, E. Y. (1985). Some correlates of teachers' expectancy bias. American Educational Research Journal, 22, 175-183.

Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 117148.

Bischoff, P. J., Hatch, D. H., & Watford, L. J. (1999). The state of readiness of initial level preservice middle grades mathematics and science teachers and its implications on teacher education programs. School Science and Mathematics, 99(7), 394-399.

Brophy, J. E. & Good, T. L. (1974). Teacher-student relationships: Causes and consequences. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Chandler, P. S. (1994). The gender equity quiz. Learning 22, 57.

LeFrancois, G. R. (1997). Psychology for teaching (9th ed.).

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Georgia Department of Education (1993, July). Georgia teacher evaluation program: Evaluation manual. (Available from the Georgia Department of Education, 2066 Twin Towers East, Atlanta, GA 30334-5001) Georgia Department of Education (1998). Georgia's quality core curriculum. (Available from the Georgia Department of Education, 2066 Twin Towers East, Atlanta, GA 30334-5001) Gipe, J. P. & Richards, J. C. (1992). Reflective thinking and growth in novices' teaching abilities. Journal ofEducational Research, 86(1), 52-57.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. (1991).

Toward high and rigorous standards for the teaching profession.

Detroit, MI: The Board.

National Council of Teachers ofM!lthematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

16 GATEways Volume XIV (t) Fall 2001 Teacher Education

Efficacy as 11 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

National Council of Teachers ofMathematics. (1991). Professional standards for teaching mathematics. Reston, VA: Alithor.

National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Rosenthal, R. & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectations and pupils' intellectual development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

Ross, J. A. (1995). Strategies for enhancing teachers' beliefs in their effectiveness: Research on a school improvement hypothesis. Teachers College Record, 97(2), 227-243.

Southern Regional Educational Board (1998, December).

Improving teaching in the middle grade: Higher standards for students aren't enough. (Available from the Southern Regional Education Board, 592 lOth St. N. W., Atlanta, GA 30318) University System of Georgia Board ofRegents (1998).

Principles for the preparation of teachers [On-line]. Available: http://www.usg.edu/p 16/teachprep/principles.html.

Biographical Sketches of Authors Dr. Paul J. Bischoff is Assistant Professor ofEducation at Georgia Southwestern State University. He teaches science education courses in the Middle Grades/Secondary Education Department. Dr. Bischoff completed his doctorate in education at Columbia University. He also completed his master's degree at Columbia University. He completed his bachelor's degree at Monmouth University in New Jersey.

Dr. Douglas D. Hatch is Associate Professor of Education and Chair of the Middle Grades/Secondary Education Department at Georgia Southwestern State University. Dr. Hatch completed his doctorate in education at the University of South Florida in

Bischoff, Hatch, & Wl'ltjord

Tampa, Florida. He also completed work on his master's and undergraduate degrees from the University of South Florida.

Dr. Lettie J. Watford is Associate Professor of Education at Georgia Southwest~m State University. She teaches mathematics education courses in the Middle Grades/Secondary Education Department. Dr. Watford completed her doctorate in mathematics education from the University of Georgia. She received her specialist in education degree at the University of Georgia. Her master's work was completed at Georgia Southwestern College and her undergraduate work was completed at Tift College in Forsyth, Georgia.

18 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall lOOt Teacher Education

The Problems with Progress: Confro~ting Issues of Diversity 路 in the Classroom Gwen McAlpine Abstract This article examines both the rationales for advocating the teaching ofglobal perspectives and the problems involved in teaching controversial subjects. Some students in teacher education resist learning about diverse cultures and countries. This article considers approaches-and positions to take-for teaching global perspectives and multicultural education, even with resistant students.

Introduction Leslie, a graduate student in her first year of teaching middle school, was leading a classroom discussion based on responses to an interest inventory question: "What would you change about yourself?" One student, an African-American, put up his hand and volunteered, "I'd like to be white." Later, as Leslie told my graduate Language Arts Strategies class the anecdote, she added that the student, Marcus, is a serious, sensitive child. After Marcus' remark, his classmates had jeered and laughed. Thrown off kilter,

McAlpine

Leslie had responded without thinking with "I like to change my color, too. I spend hours in tanning salons." Apologetically, she told this anecdote to my graduate class.

Confusion in the Classroom

I introduce this anecdote in order to ask this question: Is it accurate to say that many educators are still novices_when it comes to teaching in a multiethnic classroom? Speaking for myself, I discover through the kind of blunder that Leslie made that I have much to learn. So do my students. Although I have been teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in teacher education (required courses in methods, curriculum, multicultural education, middle grades and secondary strategy courses) for years, I was not expecting to hear this anecdote. Leslie's response to Marcus bothered me, and her classmates' reactions to her story did not help the situation. In this graduate class in a small, rural university, Leslie's classmates sighed in sympathy but did not offer any useful strategies for working with a child like Marcus.

Fortunately, on hearing Leslie's story, another graduate class surprised me by listing several sensitive possible responses to Marcus' statement. These students insisted that Leslie should have a long conversation with Marcus. Only one student, Susi, had a different opinion. Stating that she liked Leslie's tanning salon response, Susi explained that she believed it was "important to be flip[pant] in a situation like that." This incident between Leslie and Marcus, coupled with its reverberations across my two classes, changed my perspective on teaching. Prior to this incident, I had believed that I was obligated to act simply as a role model to my students. I had attempted to demonstrate an open, sensitive attitude toward all people and to include literature from many cultures and nationalities in my courses. Now I see that this additive approach is not sufficient. If my goal is to help teachers

20 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall2001 Teacher Education

The Problems With Progress

become more aware and sensitive to the needs of all people, then I must begin to confront issues of diversity and of prejudice. This means not reacting passively-merely nodding or frowning at a statement like Susi 's flippant remark-but rather taking action.

What I CanDo Years of experience in teacher education have shown me that new teachers often experience difficulties with handling classroom conversations focused on diverse peoples. As a first step in dealing with this problem, I can place Susi's statement before my teacher education classes for discussion. Furthermore, I can put case study scenarios before my teacher education students so that they can make decisions about their own instruction. (See Appendix A for the case study handout I assign to many of my teacher education classes to complete.) lbis is an example of a realistic case study.

A middle grade English teacher, Delores, encountered more than she had bargained for one day when she and I were videotaping her class discussion ofSandra Cisneros ' book (1984) The House on Mango Street. First, some background information is necessary. Dolores was a full-time teacher and a former graduate student of mine, and we had agreed to perform research on multiethnic literature in her class. The book that we selected for the first literary work focuses on a Latina girl adapting to life in the USA. Most of the class ofaverage ninth-graders had enjoyed reading the book. Creating pictures ofMango Street with markers and crayons inspired several of them to design elaborate book illustrations. For closure to the day's lesson, Delores had conducted a free-wheeling question and answer session. Students had asked several standard questions about the book and its author, but Delores found herself on new ground with two students '

McAlpine

remarks. A boy asked, "Why do Mexicans drive around with so many people in the car?" A few giggles followed. "I really want to know, " the boy added. Delores turned to me, but I said nothing, sure she would answer the boy. Then a girl put up her hand and offered this remark, uMexicans would make good runners because they have to run from border guards to get here. , Certainly Delores would address that comment. In a gesture of exasperation, Dolores put up her hands and said to me, "What do you do.?"

I said nothing. It was Dolores' class and I was there to observe. In retrospect I see that I should have urged Delores to reply to these students' questions and statements. .But first I should have talked to Delores about her own passive reaction. She might have felt uncomfortable dealing with multicultural issues in her classroom. I should have helped her express and understand those feelings. Later we could have talked about her instructional techniques and the need to resolve cultural misunderstandings with her students.

The following is a similar vignette, in this case involving a student teacher who led a classroom discussion of Indian society during her teaching practicum:

In order to engage students ' interests and assess their background knowledge of the East, she had her students list associations that instantly came to mind on the topic ofThe East. Several students volunteered ideas on food, clothing, and mannerisms. One student volunteered that Arab women were required to appear in public heavily clothed from head to toe, adding, "You know, their women have to wear those black [pause] sheets." The student teacher nodded a silent assent and returned to the story.

Later the student teacher, Jane, told me that she thought it was important for her to save time and move into the "real" les-

22 GATEways Volume XIV (l) Fa112001 Teacher Education

The Problems With Progress

son of the day. I understood her concern. Also, following this one problem, Jane taught an excellent lesson. Years of supervision have taught me that I need to begin my conference with new teachers like Jane by complimenting them on their strengths as teachers. Nonetheless, it was also essential that I tell Jane that she could have taken a few minutes of class time to consider the points of Eastern culture that her students raised. Jane's goal for that lesson may have been to teach the story, but a major component of teaching the story should have been to facilitate her stu~ dents' understanding of the strong cultural elements embedded within the story. Jane could have pored through reference books on the East and returned to class to deliver a mini lesson on facts about Eastern clothing. Following the same principle of beginning on a positive note, Jane could have begun by complimenting her students on their interest and the range of intriguing questions they had asked. Jane would also have needed to clarify a few of the distinctions between Arabs and Indians. Before leaving the conference with Jane, I reviewed some reasons for teaching global perspectives. As those of us in education have seen for decades, real change never occurs in the classroom if teachers themselves neither understand nor accept the reforms which education reformers are urging them to adopt in their classrooms.

Granted, addressing these pedagogical concerns does lengthen the time it takes to teach this lesson. However, I would like to think that students with real information about Eastern cultures would think twice before calling an Easterner a "towel head." This derisive term is a regular feature of a few radio talk shows. Sadly, if educators do not accept the responsibility of providing students with legitimate information about ethnic minorities, these call-in talk shows could be students' only vehicle for information about Middle Easterners and Indians.

A useful tactic for addressing students' repertoire of misinformation is to invite inspiring speakers from other countries, cultures, and ethnic groups to class. I have discovered that asking

McAlpine

these international guests to speak to a class and to join in class discussion is especially instructive to students who have spent most of their lives surrounded by only one, dominant culture.

When having international guests is not feasible, then I ask permission to videotape cultural events or ask my students to do so.

I follow up classroom presentations with field trips to sites of cultural significance, whenever possible, and with information from professional organizations such as the Stanford Program on International and Cross Cultural Education. Having stu~ents perform multicultural research by accessing relevant web sites as well as emailing students in other countries increases most students' interest and appreciation for other cultures. Similarly, James Banks (1999) recommends that students engage in vicarious learning experiences, as well as in cooperative learning activities with people of other racial groups.

Also I have used short case studies, such as the one in Appendix A, in combination with controversial movies to provoke students to try new perspectives on conflicts surrounding issues of diversity. (Examples of the films that I have shown or excerpted in college classes include The Terrorist for global education, Thunderheart for a glimpse at racial strife in our own country, and even My Cousin Vinny for a chance to laugh at regional divisions.) The class conducts follow-up discussion of the topics raised by these assignments in many ways: through group and classroom discussion, reading group discussion, W ebCT chat rooms, and by sitting side by side at a computer to write group essays on their beliefs about these issues.

In an undergraduate course in which we were considering diversity, one of the most impressive multicultural lessons I have seen came to me as a surprise. On her own, a student decided to interview her neighbors who were Indians and practicing Hindus.

On videotape, a young Indian boy led his audience on a narrated tour of his home, introducing his family, explaining their customs and religious observations, proudly displaying the family's reli-

24 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall2001 Teac:hfr Education

The Problems With Progress

gious statues. The joy and fascination my class showed during the videotaped presentation convinced me that most of my students have an innate interest in people with backgrounds that differ from their own. Following this videotaped presentation, I suggested that other students in that course invite members of other cultures and nationalities to join our class-in person or on film.

Preparation for global education may include my asking students for their own definitions of key concepts and then adding information on these concepts from professional organizations such as the National Council of Social Studies. This approach provides me with information on my students' current knowledge and their attitudes. Following this introductory discussion, I feel prepared to hear a few uncensored ideas from students. More importantly, the next time I have a student in class like Susi, I will lead a serious discussion on cultural issues when she says that American teenagers like Mexicans because "Americans like Taco Bell."

While working in a rural college of education, Mae Wlazlinski developed an intriguing approach to opening communication across ethnic boundaries with her American and international students. She decided to help improve the ethnocentric attitudes of some ofher American students who were native speakers of English while improving the writing skills of her ESOL students (Wlazlinski, 2000). Wlazlinski assigned her students to analyze texts dealing with the American dream. To Wlazlinski ' s delight, students who had been reluctant to exchange papers in class with ESOL students began eagerly writing to them on online bulletin boards about the American dream-without paying any attention to the identity of the respondents. By the end of the course, the native speakers of English evinced much less resistance to communicating with non-native speakers, whose English vocabulary skills had markedly improved as a result of the extensive online writing they had performed (Wlazlinski, 2000).

McAipjne

Though this experiment deserves more study from Wlazlinski, it does seem that this "facelessu online communication caused Wlazlinski's students to treat each other as equals, at least for the time that they were together online. It is a good first step toward strengthening cross-cultural relationships. This classroom practice appears to bring together disparate groups of students and helps them to engage in a genuine, purposeful discussion while strengthening the communication skills and cultural sensitivity of most of the students involved.

WbyBother?

As an educator, I need to learn as much as possible so that I can become more sensitive and informed about diverse peoples.

Also the breadth of knowledge I could gain might keep me from blurting out the first thought that comes to me-as Leslie did.

One painful memory from my high school teaching experience involves ninth-grade students speculating that a fictional character may have been homosexual. In their opinion, homosexuals deserved to be executed by public hanging. I was dumbstruck. Finally, I managed, "You don't really believe that?" They seemed to be sure oftheir beliefs-and proud ofthem. Keep in mind that, since then, newspaper headlines on felonious assaults against homosexuals have attested to the reality that many people share this view. As a teacher, I should absorb enough information about diverse cultures and people to confront such arguments through informed discussion and to encourage students to confront these statements. For another worthwhile approach I could involve students in researching issues of diversity. They could report their findings to the class, though I would have to check their reports first for accuracy and fairness. A constructivist framework with students creating and delivering their own researched reports

26 GATEways Volume XIV (1) FaJl2001 Teacher Education

The Problems With Progress

would increase these students understanding of diversity and, possibly, widen their view of the world.

A prominent expert in the field of African-American studies, Harry Morgan (1999) describes the confrontation of diversity issues as a component of anti-bias education, defined by Morgan as an "inclusion of gender, sexual preference, class, age, and ability'' (H. Morgan, personal interview). Anti-bias education relates to multicultural education in that "learners explore differences" and issues of "self-respect among threatened groups and individuals." This anti-bias approach "encourages learners to oppose all forms of discrimination" (H. Morgan, personal interview).

At a minimum, teachers have the responsibility to take these measures in their classrooms: 1) to acknowledge remarks like the ones about homosexuals as inflammatory and hurtful to our whole society, 2) to address the issues underlying these remarks in a reasoned and sensitive manner, and 3) to do everything in their power to inform students about diverse groups while teaching students to think for themselves.

However, for young people to pay lip service to their teachers' beliefs about diversity serves no useful purpose. As James Banks explains it, teachers may help effect genuine change in students' attitudes. In his prejudice reduction model, teachers present "realistic images" of multiethnic groups, integrating this material into the regular lessons in a "consistent and natural" manner (Banks, 1999). Teachers need to present information on diverse people as a regular part of units of study on major themes they have taught for years, themes such as identify or conflict.

When supervising teachers, I have noticed a common mistake that many teachers make. They teach a short literary work attributed to one ethnic group and give background information from the teacher's edition of the text. Then they tum their students' at-

McAlpine

tention to the heart of the unit, typically, material with a white middle-class focus. Banks would have teachers integrate multiethnic material into the heart of the unit, giving it the same attention as the established curricular material.

Trouble In group discussions and in their journals, several of my students have expressed frustration and concern with the process of multicultural education. One student made it clear that she had not been trained to teach multicultural education and, therefore, she did not teach it. In contrast to this student's assertion, I believe it is every teacher's responsibility to continue his/her education concerning the materials, methods, and people that form the essence of classroom teaching. Though I attempt to model this behavior, many of my students may disagree with this principle.

And yet it is vital to keep in min4 that all teachers do teach multicultural and multiethnic education every day, even though they may not realize it. When Jane gave her silent assent to the remark about Eastern women wearing black sheets, she was implying that the s~dent's comment was correct. Many of her students left her room that day believing that Arab-and possibly Indian-women wore black sheets. Students had learned false information and no true information about those cultures. Jane could have told her class that Iranian women typically wear a garment called a chador. Even a thumbnail sketch of the etymology and history of the chador would have expanded her students' real knowledge of India and Persia-Iran. Also, children are often intrigued when they see American women wearing a chador. Having already set up the lesson on the East, this would have been the best time for Jane to explain why an American would choose to wear such a seemingly "alien'' garment.

28 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fa112001 Teacher Education

The Problems With Progress

Many teachers in Jane's situation would argue that there are no Asians in their classrooms, therefore, no need to spend class time on consideration of Asian culture. Among other factors, this perception-that a specific ethnic group must be represented in the school population for the group to be considered in the curriculum-has rendered multicultural education nearly ineffectual, according to Geneva Gay (1999). She has found current multicultural education programs in most schools "questionable, simplistic, and fragmentary," and this misconception is a major factor.

Again, Harry Morgan (1999) adds another dimension to these issues raised. An educational approach that Morgan characterizes as "anti-racist education" teaches students about ''western and non-western societies. It also explores examples of institutional, systemic ... racism. Political entities are examined and learners are exposed to how they might be unwitting participants in [oppressive] institutions and systems" (H. Morgan, personal interview). An obvious example of a teacher unintentionally perpetuating systemic racism occurred when Delores allowed her students to make racist comments about Latinos without challenging the stereotypic assumptions behind these statements.

"You People" What are you going to do next, put Multicultural Education on our diploma? When are you people going to get past this thing?

That anonymous note appeared on my desk in response to a request that students write questions for a panel of experts on multiculturalism. Not everyone accepts the idea that schools need to address the issues involved in our being a multi ethnic and multicultural society. Not everyone sees the change in our society as constituting progress. The multicultural panel revealed a welter of feelings in my students. Most students looked forward to

McAlpine

learning more about global perspectives and multicultural education. However, several students seemed deeply threatened by the panel. After the presentation, one student wrote in her journal that the panel had told the class that white people could not teach African-Americans because they could not identify with the slave experience. No one in the panel intended any student to draw such an offensive conclusion. The panel had made several statements on racism and inequity in our society. (The student's journal entry may have been prompted by one panelist's comment about the deleterious effects of white privilege upon AfricanAmerican males.) The lesson for me in the aftermath of the panel discussion was that I needed to plan my lessons with greater care, taking into account the feelings of those students from mainstream society. My plan for the panel failed to allow for the possibility that students would arrive in class with deep-seated anger and insecurities about their own place in society and their teaching qualifications. The problems resulting from my good intentions in holding this panel reveal that teaching multiculturalism can be controversial and painful. Teaching about other societies requires me to study information and have experiences with people and places that are strange to me and to try to convey a sense of those "different'' people to students, some of whom are uninterested or hostile. But it is worth the effort. I can leave my classroom !mowing that I have not misled anyone. Ideally, I would like to imagine that I have provoked a few people to rethink their own prejudices.

I have begun my own re-education. Now I scrutinize definitions such as multicultural and multiethnic in an attempt not to confuse terms for my students. Banks defmes multicultural education as "a reform movement designed to restructure educational institutions so that all students, including Whites, males, and middle-class students, will acquire the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to function effectively in a culturally and ethnically diverse nation and world" (5). Multiethnic education would teach

30 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fa11200t Teacher Education

Tile Problems With Progress

respect for people from all religions, as well as racial, national, and cultural groups. Students need to realize that multicultural and multietlmic education seeks to ensure that students from all backgrounds and of all skin colors are welcome and respected in our schools, which should be models of democracy. As a teacher educator, I have to be able to field questions and provide information in all these areas: a Shiite Muslim who is African-American is Muslim (this is culture), African-American (this is ethnicity), but American (nationality). A European-American woman may seem mainstream but have Native American blood (an ethnic trait) and live in a gay, spiritualist community (a subculture far outside the mainstream). Multicultural/global education would create an educational enviromnent in which all these groups are honored-not simply tolerated.

Can we continue to teach classes as if all of our students are white or as if Marcus is happy with the way things are? As important as it is that the entire class honor differences, it is equally important that Marcus is able to express his feelings of difference.

Marcus' teacher needs to sit down.with him that same day and let him explain why he wishes to be white. The most sensitive approach would be for the teacher to listen carefully without interrupting him. Then the teacher could question Marcus, if this seems the right moment for questions. This may not be the right time to give Marcus a lesson on African-Americans' powerful contributions to American society. But he needs to hear that there is nothing inferior about being African-American.

To reach young people like Marcus, educators K-16 could look to the Responsive Classroom philosophy that promotes nurturing environments in schools. According to researchers for the Erickson Institute Schools Project, the Responsive Classroom creates a community environment within schools that leads young people to feel "safe, valued, and respected" in school (Horsch, Chen, & Nelson, 1999). Many of its elementary-level techniques would not be practical at the high-school level; however,

McA/pi11e

secondary teachers could follow some content area strategies recommended by the Schools Project. Educators in the Schools Project use open-ended questions in teaching subject material, strengthening students' conceptual thinking, their interest in the subject matter, and even their sense of self-efficacy (Horsch, Chen, and Nelson, 1999).

Secondary educators could use the Schools Project model and consider the social justice issues raised by Marcus' dilemma.

Randy Bomer uses an open-ended questioning technique with literature instruction to guide his students to an understanding of political dynamics. Students in social studies and English could read novels and question them to develop a "critical habit of mind," Bomer argues (1998). The teacher could begin by assigning the class to read a book such as William H. Armstrong's Sounder (1998), appropriate for the middle grades or high school level, which deals with the hardships of life for African~Arnerican sharecroppers in the rural 19th century South. Considering the following questions in an open-ended manner should encourage critical inquiry and waken students' social conscience. This classroom should also provide a safe environment for considering issues of political importance--without becoming personal. Keep in mind that some of the students in Marcus' class had jeered and laughed at him when he made his remark about wanting to be white. Questions such as, "How different are people allowed to be in this story?" takes a new angle on literature (Bomer, 1998). The literary work becomes a meeting place for discussing controversial beliefs from life without forcing students to discuss their own personal experiences with inequity. As exemplified by Delores' class discussion, Sandra Cisneros' novel The House on Mango Street (1984) can provoke a stimulating discussion on issues of class and ethnicity. It works well with Bomer's questions about literature, too. "The First Job" and "Louie, His Cousin," two vi~ gnettes from Cisneros' The House on Mango Street exemplify the theme ofjustice implicitly. "Those Who Don't'' delivers an

32 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall 2001 Teuher Education

The Problems With Progress

explicit message on justice that works well with Bomer's question "How does this story make us think about justice in the world?" as this short excerpt reveals: Those who don't know any better come into our [working class] neighborhood scared. They think we're dangerous.

They think we will attack them with shiny knives ... All brown all around, we are safe (Cisneros, 1984).

More poignant are Cisneros' anecdotes about Latina women living hopeless lives. In ''No Speak English," a Mexican wife on Mango Street who never leaves her apartment, refusing to speak English, screams when her baby sings in English. In a literature class the teacher could have students read the vignettes about women, with students writing and answering their own questions, together with Bomer's important social justice questions. For example, "How does this text address the perspectives of other groups, especially those who usually don't get to tell their side?" (Bomer, 1998).

Years of classroom experience has shown me that teaching social justice can meet the emotional needs of young people since they often harbor feelings of alienation and of being the outsider or underdog. A recent incident demonstrates the importance of dealing with these emotional needs:

Again, an English teacher was introducing a literature lesson. What is the worst thing that could happen to you?"

One white boy named Jimmy, sitting in the back row, called out the answer uto be different-oh, you know, not to be liked. . . " In a whisper he concluded "you know, to be Black. " Two African-Americans, whom Jimmy had chosen to work in his group that day, turned to look at him. One of them regarded Jimmy solemnly; the other one nodded his head in assent.

If

McAlpine

Though hurtful, Jinuny's remark could become a catalyst for students to gain new insights. Jimmy's teacher could ask Bomer's questions about the stories the class has read: "How does this story deal with individuals and groups? Are the people alone and in contests with each other, or does the story help us imagine people getting together?'' (Bomer, 1998). Holding discussions on the issue of "being different" could bring students to a new understanding of each other and of our increasingly diverse world.

Since a discussion may stimulate controversy in class, it may be students' first encounter with genuine democracy. After allowing students to have their say on Jimmy's remark and on Bomer's provocative questions, the teacher could use the students' own ideas and examples to explain concepts like the "silencing" of groups of people. Students could also respond to these lessons by writing journal entries or researched essays. Performing research and script writing about violent clashes such as those that have occurred betwe~ Native Americans and government agents at Wounded Knee might help students see conflict from other people's perspectives. Teachers could also encourage students to volunteer to tell their own classroom experiences involving "difference." Those students who felt comfortable relating their experiences could respond with personal accounts or autobiographical essays. Demonstrating democratic principles, the teacher could have student groups suggest viable solutions for the problems of divisions among "different'' groups in society.

One risky but intriguing teaching possibility would be to have student groups teach the next lesson on diversity or social justice to the class. This social action approach to teaching literature should meet students' intellectual and emotional needs while teaching them how to negotiate issues in a multiethnic society.

Many teachers will not feel comfortable relinquishing control over the classroom, however. As Alfie Kohn (1998) states, many teachers find it difficult and frightening to ask for student assistance in solving a problem because then teachers "no longer

34 GATEways Volume XIV (l) Fa11200l Teacher Education

T/Je Problems With Progress

have unilateral contror' over students.... Democracy [is] "unfamiliar and terrifying to most Americans," Kohn concludes.

But we educators can change ourselves and the way we teach. Students like Marcus and Jimmy need us to help them to grapple with issues of difference, but so do all the other young people who sit in our classes and do not say a word. And so do those students who speak out with racial epithets. Educators who wish to transcend concepts such as "tolerating" difference must work for the day when our society embraces difference. Genui~e change will occur when all our students are able to say that they are happy with themselves. The image I would like to leave you with, is of Marcus. Coming to our schools every day are young people like Marcus who would gladly change the color of their skin, assuming the change would enable them to be happy, to be successful, or just to be accepted. His dream now is to be white.

What will his future look like?

Acknowledgments: I would like to thank Harry Morgan, Mae 路 Wlazlinski, Dawn Putney, Paul Zimmer, Connie Weaver, Sandra Park, Judy Butler, Tanya Jackson, Roxanne Brock, Will Fettig, Jo-Anne Schick, and Janice Duncan for their assistance in assembling materials and screening ideas for this article.

References Cited Banks, J. (1999). An introduction to multicultural education. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Bomer, R. (1998). "Writing to think critically: The seeds of social action." Voices from the Middle 6.4, 2-8.

Gay, G. (1999). Bridging multicultural theory and practice. In A. C. Ornstein & L. S. Behar-Horenstein (Eds. ), Contemporary issues in curriculum. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

McAlpine

Horsch, P., Chen, J. & Nelson, D. (1999). "Rules and rituals: Tools for creating a respectful, caring learning community."

Phi Delta Kappan 81.3, 223-227.

Kolm, A. (1999). "Why students lose when 'tougher standards' win." Educational Leadership 57.1, 18-22.

Morgan, H. Personal interview. 19 October 1999.

Wlazlinski, M. "Promoting success in writing and acceptance of non-native English speaking students in a freshman college composition class." Connections 37.2, 3-9.

Trade Books Cited Armstrong, William H. (1989). Sounder. HarperCollins: NY. Cisneros, Sandra. (1984). The house on mango street.

NY: Random House.

Films Cited Launer, D. (Producer), & Lynn, J. (Director). (1992).

My cousin Vinny [Film].

Joshi, S. (Producer). Sivan, S. (Director). (2000). The terrorist. [Film].

DeNiro, R., Rosenthal, J., & Fusco, J. (Producers).

Apted, M. (Director). (1992). Thunderheart [Film].

Biographical Sketch Dr. Gwen McAlpine recently accepted a position as an Associate Professor of Education at Kennesaw State University. In the past, she has taught courses in English and reading at the State University of West Georgia and several colleges and public schools in Virginia. She holds a doctorate degree in education from the University of Virginia.

36 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall2001 Teacher Education

The Problems With Progress

Appendix A Scenarios To Use As Case Studies TOPIC: Multicultural and Multiethnic Education Directions: Please read these scenarios. Then respond with your ideas about what steps should be taken next (see the questions at the end of these scenarios). 路 Scenario I. A prominent teacher educator assigned teachers in a conference presentation to draw the images from multicultural books that she introduced. One group drew the "tents" mentioned in a book set in Iran. In the book the tents were part of the wedding ceremony, but the group of Protestant Americans drew what they knew: tents for camping. The leader of the presentation said nothing but complimented the picture and held it up to show the others attending the presentation.

Having seen several Iranian weddings, I realized that a tentactually a canopy-was an important symbol in a traditional Iranian wedding.

Scenario II. The second scenario involves a middle school student teacher. This student teacher was introducing a story set in India. In order to engage students' interests and assess their background knowledge of the East, the student teacher had students list associations that instantly came to mind on the topic of the East. Several students volunteered ideas on food, clothing, and mannerisms. One student volunteered that Arab women were required to appear in public heavily clothed from head to toe, add-

McAlpi11e

ing, "You knowt their women have to wear those black [pause] sheets." The student teacher nodded a silent assent.

Questions (What should we do?): Please respond to the following questions for scenario one and -two.

1) Please describe how you would react in these situations if you were the teacher.

2) Do you think that teachers should have to teach multicultural education?

3) Why or why not?

4) . Should teacher education J?rograms be changed in any way to assist teachers in handling issues such as those posed in these scenarios?

Optional assignment: Write other scenarios dealing with multicultural/multiethnic educationt scenes that you have experienced.

38 GATEways Volume XIV (l) Fa112001 Teacher Education

Answering the Challenge of College-School Partnerships: What Do You Do After You Say Hello

Mary E. Outlaw and Steven Bell Abstract

The use ofa common curricular issue draws the faculties of a college and a public inner-city elementary school together in the establishment of a college-school partnership. The creation of an outdoor classroom was the vehicle that facilitated the growth of the partnership. This is the story of how two professors became part of the school faculty and their descriptions of the connections they experienced between theory and practice. Strategies the professors used to establish their credibility in the elementary classroom are presented, along with the challenges they encountered with both students and faculty. Through reflection, established psychological theories, often obscured by the day-to-day routine of teaching, were validated through practice. Vignettes chosen from classroom lessons and project meetings are analyzed for application of theory to practice throughout the three-year partnership.

Two themes current in teacher education are college-school partnerships and the balance between theory and practice for both the professorate and the school practitioner (Darling-Hammond, 1994). This is the story of two professors as we chronicle these

Outlllw and Bell

themes through the presentation of a three-year relationship between a small liberal arts college and an inner-city elementary school. One of the challenges for the professorate as it moves toward college-school partnerships is to address the questions: (1) What do the professors do when they get past the front door and the principal? (2) How do they gain credibility with the classroom teacher? (3) How is a collegial atmosphere established and nurtured, going beyond the formal/hierarchical relationship often established in college classrooms of teacher education programs?

This article responds to these questions by suggesting that college professors and classroom teachers find a common inspirational educational issue in order to create the working partnership, thereby improving practice and informing theory creating a winwin outcome. The second area of discussion is the balance between theory and practice (Darling-Hammond, 1994). The literature of past generations accused the professorate of being too theoretical for several reasons: (a) college professors are unaware of changes in society that have occurred since they were classroom teachers themselves (if indeed they have spent time in a classroom other than college) and (b) the doctoral program provides emphasis on theoretically based research (Wadsworth, 1997; Bushweller, 1995). On the other hand, the elementary school teacher is often too pragmatic, forgetting the theoretical underpinnings (development and learning) that should inform practice (Waller, 1967). Decades ago a city mouse/country mouse phenomenon often emerged, creating a language and partnership barrier between the college professors and the classroom practitioners. Current fieldpbased models using not only preservice teachers but professors in teaching in the schools have arisen across the country (Darling-Hammond, 1994).

40 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall200t Teacher Education

Answering the Challenge

Context for the Partnership The relationship between two college professors and the faculty of a small inner-city elementary school began as the professors with an interest in environmental education searched for a common theme, i.e., a school campus which had a rich natural environment. Situated alongside a river, this particular school has a campus located on a significant site yet is an inner-city school with 95% of the students receiving "free and reduced lunches."

Schools in impoverished communities often are considered too daunting to attract researchers, college faculty, and qualified classroom teachers (Kozol, 1991). We saw this demography as an advantage, as one area targeted for the professional growth and development of college faculty was experience in teaching diverse populations.

This school was chosen because two teachers, one third 路 grade and one fourth grade, were alumnae of our teacher education program. Initially, using these individuals made for quick access into the classrooms, yet it tilted the decision~making power toward us. This would prove to be a continuing challenge as we sought to empower the school faculty. The grade-level choice was important because we wanted to continue the development of the partnership beyond one year. The students would be at this school through sixth grade and could participate in future partnership projects.

The common issue that facilitated the development of this partnership in the first year was the reconstruction of washed-out slopes along a school walkway. Beginning in fall 1996, with funding provided by a Captain Planet Foundation grant, we, along with the teachers, helped a group of 42 third and fourth grade students solve the problem of the eroding slopes. Students had specific responsibilities for different areas of the project: excavation, composting, public relations, archives, finance, and horticulture.

First, newspaper blocks were created to fill the gullies. A

Outlaw a11d Bell

compost pile was begun to provide soil to cover the newspaper blocks. To complete the reconstruction of the slopes, the soil was seeded. Students kept financial records, created a photographic record of the project, and developed a newsletter that was disseminated throughout the school and to parents and community members.

As evidence of the budding partnership, on the last day of that school year we were recognized at the awards assembly as part of the faculty of Main Elementary School. We were given monogrammed shirts, part of the school's newly initiated uniform policy. We wore these uniforms proudly over the years as we taught in the classrooms and met with the teachers.

The partnership continued the second year (1997-1998) funded in part by an Eisenhower Higher Education Grant, with ten teachers participating, representing grades two through five.

Out goal was to establish our value and effectiveness through participation as resource teachers in each of the project participant's classrooms.

Through teacher input and additional funding, the focus of the partnership widened to include the creation of an outdoor classroom, composed of a nature trail and a frog/fish pond. Committees were created to carry out specific tasks such as acquiring goods and services from corporate/community sponsors. In the closing weeks of the school year the ten participating teachers led a session informing and encouraging the entire faculty to participate in the upcoming year's activities.

The Project To preserve its coherence the tale of the project is presented as it occurred, rather than thematically. Thus, this section interweaves the two main themes: (a) the development of the partnership and leadership of the project, and (b) the theory-to-practice

42 GATEways Volume XIV (l) Fall 2001 Teacher Education

Answering the Challenge

balance both inside and outside the four walls of the traditional classroom.

First Steps The initial fall meeting was intended as a team-building afternoon during the second week of the school year. The two hours of team-building activities accomplished the goal of creating a beginning bond among the ten classroom teachers and ourselves. Our desire was to be seen as part of the school faculty, working on a regular basis in the classrooms with the students. In an attempt to find opportunities to be invited to complement classroom instruction, we visited each classroom for three purposes: (1) building individual bridges with the teachers and students, (2) reinforcing hands-on ideas for science lessons, and (3) demonstrating integrated curriculum. With the common complaint that professors work in an ivory tower echoing in our ears, we looked for opportunities to be actively involved in complimenting ongoing classroom instruction. The school faculty was typically extended with responsibilities, feeling the pressure for test score improvement. Outsiders were viewed cautiously as harbingers of additional work loads.

Our first experience was with a second-grade class that was completing a unit about fruits. After observing the well-planned activities the teacher conducted, we were invited to teach a mini lesson. We took the teacher's lesson on Johnny Appleseed and added science and mathematics to further the students' interests.

The lesson included hypothesis-testing by demonstrating Piagetian conservation (Piaget, 1950), i.e., the relationship between two halves and one whole fruit.

We balanced our once-a-week visit into the classrooms with a twice-monthly after-school planning meeting with the entire group of teachers. At the end of the second after-school meeting

Outlaw and Bell

the teachers decided to create an outdoor classroom, using this opportunity to achieve a goal many of them had held for several years. The upper grades faculty chose to construct a nature trail, and the primary grades faculty wanted to create a frog/fish pond.

As we continued co-teaching in the classrooms, food as a lesson-theme returned with the approach of Halloween. One particular class experience focused on mathematical concepts of measurement, prediction, proportion, number families, and economics. A second classroom activity was used to allow students to learn about the scientific method. The students brought in the theme of the ethics of scientific experimentation without teacher prompting. These instances show a snowball effect as more and more teachers asked us to join their classes, providing resources and additional sets of hands. By our presence, active listening, and offering of resources, we slowly gained the credibility we sought.

Teacher Leadership Grows At a team meeting the participants reviewed materials they had obtained from the Department of Natural Resources, which suggested that a manageable project required the use of a committee structure wherein the tasks of the project were subdivided.

Through discussion, the teachers began reshaping the presented structure to fit the needs of the project. Each teacher took responsibility for the various portions of the revised committee structure. As we reflected on this event, it was clear that the committee structure facilitated the implementation of the project, just as the committee structure for the Captain Planet project opened the door to student responsibility and ownership. Since partnerships often create ambitious projects, the use of conunittees (both for students and teachers) has been shown to foster and apportion participant contributions.

44 GATEways Volume XIV (l) FalllOOJ Teacher Education

Answering the Challenge

The last it:J.door lessons were initiated by the second grade teachers, who invited us to co-teach a lesson to complement their unit study of magnets. In these sessions, two interactions showed us that we were being perceived as fellow faculty members. One of the second grade teachers suggested that magnetism, with its repulsion and attraction elements, could be understood at a deeper level if literature were brought into the science lesson. The students had just read Angel Child, Dragon Child (Surat, 1983), and the teacher reminded the class of the antagonist who was initially repelled and finally attracted to the heroine of the story. Here the interaction of literature and science was a serendipitous moment facilitated by our active presence in the classroom. In another classroom, we used the teacher's management system in a manner that empowered us to deal with the misbehavior. Her system of red, amber, and green traffic lights we shared with our college classes as a classroom management tool. These sessions alleviated our concerns that we might not be considered as assets to the school faculty. We felt encouraged because we were increasingly sought out as resources and shared the joy of seeing the students and teachers respond to our presence.

The Outdoor Classroom Actual construction of the outdoor classroom began with students in grades three, four, and five doing some initial trimming along the proposed trail. The teachers soon realized that some of the heavier work would need to be done by adults. In early spring a weekend work day was planned, with teachers other than the project leaders taking the initiative of sending notices of the scheduled work day home to parents. One teacher who was seven months pregnant volunteered to take care of the other teacher's young children so that those teachers could work

Outlaw and Bell

on a Saturday. They also divided the tasks by grade level, assigning specific sections of the outdoor classroom to different classes.

The work day was a challenge for all of us as we struggled to balance the tasks of managing both the students and the physicallabor. The work was strenuous (shoveling and carrying mulch; trimming brush; moving a dirt pile), and the students often appeared overwhelmed by the effort required to perform adequately. The adults initially attempted to do much of the heavy work, causing less involved students to become off-task thereby creating management problems. Once we were able to step back and see the need to manage, we were able to provide the necessary leadership for students to work effectively. With this leadership, the outdoor classroom began to assume the workings of a typical indoor classroom: the students knew what to do, they were on task, there were no discipline problems, and very little off-task behavior occurred.

In subsequent after-school meetings, the teachers decided the next steps for the development of the outdoor classroom. One teacher prompted the organization of the lower school teachers, writing the tasks to be done and creating a chart to show assignments. Another teacher suggested that fifth graders team with second graders and that committees be created for the various tasks-cutting, litter removing, mulching-rather than having everybody doing everything. Ideas bubbled and flowed as ownership of the project expanded.

As the dedication day approached, we planned the final _ tasks to be accomplished in preparing the outdoor classroom for visitors. One teacher suggested that we designate specific students as trail guides for the dedication day. She arranged for badges to be made and coordinated the selection of students. Another teacher was designated to write a dedication speech and a third teacher appointed to deliver it. On the day of the dedication, the outdoor classroom was ready for guests. The student trail

46 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall2001 Teacher Education

Answering the Challenge

guides led tours, answering questions and providing background on the history of the outdoor classroom.

Discussion In the introduction, two themes were presented. First, how are college-school partnerships created and sustained? Second, how can theory and practice be integrated as the professorate joins the faculty of a public elementary school? In this section we will show how four psychological theories inform practice.

These theories include situational discipline, multiple intelligences, leadership development, and schema-driven problem solving.

Situational discipline (Hersey & Blanchard, 1991) is a construct that dictates that classroom leadership responds to the motivation and capability of the learner rather than being a function of a teacher's fixed belief about discipline. During the first occasion of the professors working directly with the students this belief was harshly confronted by the reality of what Hersey and Blanchard (1991) describe as unwilling, unmotivated, and incapable learners. Early in the Captain Planet project, the students who had been selected as committee chairs were brought together to discuss their roles. In a traditionally arranged classroom, with desks in rows, we (the professors) envisioned a student-led discussion and asked students to move the desks into a circle. The bedlam that ensued during the next five minutes confronted our own psychological bias toward participatory leadership. Our expectation of students being able to work in a participatory manner clearly did not match the Hersey and Blanchard model. Once we assimilated the lesson of situational discipline, we were able to accommodate when next teaching a scientific observation lesson.

We prepared a more teacher-directed environment and consequently were not blind-sided by our own philosophical constructs.

Outlaw and Bell

A second theory that informed practice was that of multiple intelligences, as described by Gardner (1993), suggesting intelligence exists in varying areas and degrees. Though a welldocumented theory, day-to-day practice may overshadow its consistent application. For example, when an academically disabled third grader identified as emotionally and behaviorally disturbed was in the outdoor classroom, he showed supervisory ability and exemplary workmanship. The teacher, who had previously seen only his verbal/linguistic weakness, was now able to observe interpersonal and bodily/kinesthetic-spatial strengths, demonstrating her ability to allow theory to inform practice.

The leadership literature suggests that focused responsibility (Darley & Latane, 1968) is more likely than diffused responsibility to evoke initiative in formidable predicaments. An instance of focused responsibility occurred when a committee structure was created wherein faculty served as committee chairs, allowing an otherwise reserved teacher corps to embrace leadership roles.

Committee meetings were the product of a democratic and collegial environment. One teacher, in whom we had not previously observed initiative, found herself as the chair of the community resource committee. As a result of her contacts and followthrough, the local municipality's engineering department did detailed excavation to create the frog and fish pond. This same teacher located a source for the pond liner and corporate sponsors who donated gloves and goggles for the project. This example illustrates that directed responsibility encouraged and enabled risk-taking behavior, releasing initiative and creativity. Responsibility focused by a committee structure allowed more members of a group to assume leadership roles.

Teaching a "new" concept by discovering its relationship to past experiences has been called schema-driven problem solving (Gick & Holyoak, 1983, Watson & Konicek, 1990). In this instructional strategy, the present concept to be learned is connected to past stores ofknowledge (schema). This type of learning was

48 GATEways Volume XIV (1) Fall lOOt Teacher Education

Answering the Challenge

facilitated on several occasions as we worked in the classroom.

For example, in the story Angel Child, Dragon Child, the students became familiar with the notion of interpersonal attraction and repulsion. We were able to utilize the student's familiarity (schema) with attraction and repulsion to facilitate understanding of the concept of magnetism. Learning is enhanced when students are able to integrate new information with existing information.

Conclusion

We return finally to reflections on the two themes of the study. First, how do college faculty create and sustain a partnership with classroom teachers? The experience of this study suggests that the presence of a mutually identified centering issue motivates both of the partners in a project. In this particular case, the desire for an outdoor classroom was the common ground between us and the school faculty. We established credibility and usefulness as resources in each of the project participants' classrooms. Then, as partners, the two faculties were able to actualize their shared vision of moving instruction into an outdoor classroom.

Second, throughout our three-year-long relationship all of us were reminded of the need to reflect on the disconcerting discrepancy between what we "knew, to do, and what actually worked.

The choice to systematically reflect was driven by the desire to increase the use of effective teaching and management strategies and decrease the use of less effective ones. Our field notes consistently reflect the changes we made in both our work in the classroom and the nurturing of the partnership.

In this study we have addressed the issue of how theory can best inform practice and vice versa. The lessons we learned were often discussed with our colleagues and factored into plans for

Outlaw and Bell

our next lesson with students. As a result of our planning, we were able to do less of what didn't work and more of what did work. Our feelings of self-efficacy were buoyed by each other's feedback. Our team effort allowed us to confront and overcome many issues endemic to all of us who teach. Systematic reflection allowed the bridge between theory and practice to be constructed and reconstructed by working closely with teachers and being in challenging classrooms on a regular basis. This professional development effort helped all of us to regain the wisdom of expenence.

References

路 Bushweller, K. (1995). Ed school stomp. American School Board Journal, 182 (9), 22-27.

Darley, J. M., & Latane, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: A diffusion of responsibility. Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1994). Developing professional development schools: Early lessons, challenge, and promise. In L. Darling-Hammond (Ed.), Professional development schools for developing a profession (pp. 1-27). New York: Teachers College Press.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books Gick, M .. L., and Holyoak, K. L. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive Psychology, 15, 1-38.

Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. H. (1991). Management oforganizational behavior utilizing human resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities. New York: Crown Publishers.

50 GATEways Volume XIV (1) FalllOOl Teacher Education

Answering the Challenge

Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Surat, M. M. (1983). Angel child, dragon, child. New York: Scholastic.

Wadsworth, D. (1997). The public's view of public schools. Educational Leadership, 54 (5), 44-48.

Waller, W. W. (1967). The sociology of teaching. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Watson, B., & Konicek, R. (1990). Teaching for conceptual change: Confronting children's experience. Phi Delta Kappan, 71(9), 680-685.

Biographical Sketch

Dr. Mary Outlaw is Director of Field Experiences and Student Teaching at Berry College in Mount Berry, Georgia. She teaches early childhood curriculum and methods courses. She received her doctorate in elementary education from the University of Georgia, her master's degree in outdoor teacher education from the Northern Illinois University, and her bachelor's degree in elementary education from the Palm Beach Atlantic College.

Dr. Steven Bell is Professor of Education and Psychology at Berry College. He teaches exceptional child and educational psychology classes and directs the Maymester Exploration in Diverse Cultures. He received his doctorate's degree in School Psychology from the University of Georgia, his master's in counseling from Glassboro State College, and his bachelor's degree in English from Rutgers University.

Additional Officers College Representative 1: Janet Foster, Georgia Southwestern State University College Representative 2: Deborah Bembry, Albany State University Public School Representative 1: Ralph Noble, Richmond County Public School Representative 2: Beck Whaley, Murray County Representative at Large 1: Jim Buff, Hubbard Elementary School Representative at Large 2: Julie Rainer, Georgia State University ATE Delegate/Public School: Boon Boonyapat, Samuel M. Inman Middle School ATE Delegate/Public School: Eugene Bales Alternate ATE Delegate/Public School: Doris Johnson, Myers Middle School ATE Delegate/College: Beryl Baker, Georgia Perimeter College ATE Delegate/College: Jeanna French, Thomas University Alternate ATE Delegate: Janet Towslee, Clayton College & State University Appointed Officers: GATE Newsletter Editor: Dara Wakefield, Berry College GATE Journal Editors: Jackie McDowell, Berry College and Kathy Gann, Berry College Membership Chair: Julia J. Dorminey, Georgia Southwestern State University Awards Committee Chair: Gwen Middlebrooks, Spelman College

52 GATEways Volume XIV (l) Fall2001 Teacher Education

GATEways to Teacher Education GATEways to Teacher Education is a refereed journal with national representation on its editorial review board published by the Georgia Association of Teacher Educators. Each issue is nonthematic. The jownal, published annually in October, is devoted to the discussion of theory, practice, research, and issues related to teacher education, including teaching and learning, induction, inservice education, and preservice education. Articles may deal with local, state, or national activities or issues. Views expressed in the articles are not necessarily those of the editor or GATE. The cost of a copy of the journal is $6.00.

Criteria for submitting a manuscript: Manuscripts must be postmarked by the April 1st preceding the October of publication.

• APA style • Not more than 15 pages, double-spaced • Four copies of the manuscript • Clipped, not stapled • Author's name and affiliation on the title page only • Autobiographical sketches of the author {three to five sentences each) ~m one separate page • Complete title and abstract ( 150 word maximum) on the frrst page of text • Running head and page number on subsequent pages of the manuscript • 3 x 5 index card with complete name, postal address, email address, and telephone and fax numbers of the contact person and title of manuscript • [an electronic file copy of the manuscript in MS word or compatible software for Windows 95 will be needed after acceptance for publication) Submit manuscripts to: Jackie McDowell, Editor GATEways to Teacher Education Berry College P.O. Box 5037 Mount Berry, GA 30149-5037 706.236.1717 (voice) 706.238.5827 {fax) Jmcdowell@berry.edu