Assignment B - Essay
Jacobs_The uses of SidewalksContacts_[Larice 2007] Gabriel Southren-Burns: 150125020
1
Table of Contents
Background . . .
2
Context of Order . . .
3
Jane Jacobs in relation to Order . . .
3
Context of Place . . .
6
Jane Jacobs in relation to Place . . .
7
Conclusion . . .
9
Bibliography . . .
10
Bibliography of figures . . .
11
2
Background In the 1950’s, across America, mayors were setting up plans to transform their cities to accommodate the expanding automobile industry. Author and journalist Jane Jacobs, a resident of Greenwich at the time, strongly opposed these changes. Despite having no formal qualifications in the field of urban planning, she started organising grassroots campaigns to protect existing neighbourhoods from what she described as “slum clearance”. Most notable was her opposition to master planner Robert Moses’s planned Lower Manhattan Expressway which was consequently cancelled and later led to the decline of his career. Jacobs relied on her observations and common sense to show why certain places worked, and what could be done to improve those that didn’t. She saw cities as integrated systems that had their own logic and energy which would adapt over time according to the usage. Her book The Death and Life of the Great American City is considered to be one of the most influential planning books of all time, inspiring a generation. The book is an attack on “orthodox” modern city planning and city architectural design. Throughout the book, Jacobs analyses the effects of modern planning in cities and recommends strategies to enhance positive city development.
{Figure 1 – Lower Manhattan Express Way, Competitions 2014}
This assignment will look into both the notions of order and of place as methods of critically analysing the chapter “The uses of sidewalks: Contact” whilst referring to the book as a whole and views of other planners and theorists to support arguments.
3
Context of Order In the early 20th century the modernist urban renewal movement began. It aimed to transform cities as a means of tackling rising populations, pollution and a shift to automobile based transport infrastructure. Le Corbusier was seen as the founding father of the movement with his plan “Ville Radieuse” (see figure 2) in 1924. The plan was designed to contain effective means of transportation as well as an abundance of green space and sunlight. The city consisted of prefabricated and identical high-density skyscrapers, spread across a vast green area and arranged in a Cartesian grid where by strict zoning was applied dividing up residential, commercial and business areas (Merlin, 2013). Corbusier referred to the average city street as a “corridor street” that “should be tolerated no longer, for it poisons the houses that border it” (le Corbusier, 1929). His vision was to create a street that was “a machine for traffic” used exclusively for vehicles (Fyfe, 2006) thus “Keeping the pedestrians off the streets and in the parks” (Jacobs Pg.23). Though this would mean the abolition of the street and “sidewalk life” he thought it was a price worth paying. Although his total vision was never put into practice, it became the basis and inspiration of numerous housing projects schemes in many major cities such as New York.
{Figure 2 : Le Corbusier’s vision of Ville Radieuse (arch daily)}
Jane Jacobs in relation to Order When looking at the notion of order, it is clear to see that in comparison to Le Corbusier and similar modernist planners, Jacobs was from the opposite mind-set. Despite admiring the simplicity and the harmony of “Ville Radieuse” and similar plans, she described them as “not the rebuilding of cities” but “the sacking of cities” (Jacobs, Pg.80). She criticised both the physical and social Impacts that high-density housing projects and zoning had on society, often ignoring the issues of poverty and racism as well as damaging “sidewalk life”. In one statement she described housing projects as: “Centres for delinquency, vandalism and general social hopelessness (more) than the slums they were supposed to replace” (Jacobs, Pg.80).
4
She put much of the blame for this on the practitioners and teachers of urban planning who, from her point of view, had ignored the study of success and failure in real life and instead were guided by the appearance and behaviour of towns. She used Morningside Heights, New York (see figure 3) mainly made up of low income families, as an example of where by planners, in an attempt to cure the area of social problems, designed a Corbusier style housing scheme complete with landscaping which enhanced sunlight. Much to the surprise of the developers, the area went downhill even faster (Jacobs, Pg. 81). The reasons for the failures of this scheme and similar will be explained further throughout this assignment.
{Figure 3 –Morningside Gardens, an example of a housing project built in Morningside Heights (Welcome to Morningside gardens, no date)}
In the chapter “The uses of sidewalks: Contact”, it can be seen that Jacobs was much concerned with the negative social impacts that arose from modernist planning in relation to order. She argued that because of big housing projects like the ones seen in Morningside Heights, communities had suffered. Supporting this, when interviewing an elementary school principal, he stated that: “The (housing) project had torn out numerous institutions for socialising. The present atmosphere was in no way similar to the gaiety of the streets before the project was built”. (Jacobs, Pg.84) Jacobs was notably critical of modernist planning’s obsession with zoning as can be seen in Corbusier’s design. She was a strong advocate of mixed use communities like North Boston, where despite distasteful views from planners, commercial and residential functions were intertwined. She suggested that this created better sidewalk life. She argues that as a result of zoning in modernist planning, the sense of community would and had been lost i.e. her relationship with the proprietor of her local delicatessen, Joe Cornacchia (Jacobs, Pg.85). She highlights that as a consequence of planned project stores, built in the place of tens of thousands of small businesses, like the delicatessen, the sense of community was lost. This is because they were so busy and monopolised it was hard to build a relationship with the store owners and customers.
5
With regards to residential zoning, Jacobs found that it didn’t just affect low income families. Using Chatham Village, Pittsburgh (Jacobs, Pg.87) as an example, she describes how the purpose built housing development comprised of mainly upper middle class families, was a failure in terms of social inclusion despite receiving wide spread recognition because of the design. This is because, as there were no public functions in the area, it was hard for residents to mix with other residents from surrounding areas who were from different social classes. This segregation caused many residents to move out. Throughout the chapter, Jacobs expressed that an area with no sidewalk life would cause people to “extend their private lives”. This notion is furthered when discussing a friend of hers who lived in Baltimore. She talked about how the partial pedestrianisation of her street had caused social tension as mothers and their children regularly gathered. As the street had no public functions i.e. a pharmacy or corner store, people would just loiter thus turning a seemingly quiet suburban street into a busy one. The resident said: “I have lost the advantage of living in the city without getting the advantages of living in the suburbs” (Jacobs, Pg.87) On the contrary, architect Rob Krier had the opposite view. He viewed that in purely residential areas, streets were universally seen as areas for public circulation and recreation (Krier, Pg.329). The difference in views could simply just be a difference in opinion but it could also be the surrounding context. For example it is more understandable that an inner city residential area has more sidewalk life than a suburban one. In terms of physical order, when looking at her novel as whole, Jacobs saw intersections and corners of “short blocks” as social hubs where people were more likely to cross each other’s path. She demonstrated this through simple sketch designs (see figures 4 and 5) in “Chapter 9: The need for small blocks”. “Most blocks must be short; that is, streets and opportunities to turn corners must be frequent” (Jacobs, Pg.178).
{Figure 4 - Movement across long blocks (Jacobs, Pg. 179)}
{Figure 5 - Movement across short blocks (Jacobs, Pg. 179)}
6
This idea is similar to Kevin Lynch’s description of a “node” in his book “The Image of the City”. He describes these as “a strategic foci into which the observer can enter” (Lynch, Pg.72) as many people are likely to use them as a way of wayfinding and orientation. When understanding Jacobs’s work through order it is clear to see her negative views on zoning and passion for mixed sidewalk usage. Whilst relating this to the field of urban planning today it can be seen that as a result of her work every project in some way has an element of active public involvement and consultation. An example of this is the new Pacific Park project in Brooklyn (FKA Atlantic Yards) which has purposefully implemented many of Jacobs’s ideas such as the mixture of uses which are set out in a way which ensures the area being busy at all times of day (Wendt, 2009). However, due to her lack of professional training, it can be argued that she failed to see the long term benefits that planners like Robert Moses were suggesting. For example, the freeway that separated North Boston from downtown, which she argued isolated the area, more importantly protected it from gentrification (New York Time, 2006). Robert Moses held that her views and similar were nothing more than NIMBYISM. Also, as she had no solid study into how mixed use and zoning affects an individual’s private life, her thoughts expressed could easily be cast off as untrustworthy and biased. This is also coupled with opposing views from other theorists (Krier).
Context of Place In the world of urban design, the term “place” has no concrete definition. As a result different theorists have their own ideas of what the term means. Christian Norberg-Schulz In the text “The Phenomenon of a Place”, architect and author Christian Norberg-Schulz highlights the importance of place as more than just an abstract location. When discussing the structure of place, Norberg concluded that place should be described in terms of “space” and “character”. “Space denotes the three-dimensional organisation of elements which make up a place and character denotes the general atmosphere which is the most comprehensive property in any place” (Urban Design Reader, Pg.129). He also sees place, defined by boundaries in which their presence, act as an opening rather than a barrier “In general the boundary, and in particular the wall, makes the spatial structure visible as continuous and/or discontinuous extension, direction and rhythm” (Urban Design Reader, Pg.130). Another major argument Norberg-Schulz makes is about the spirit of a place. He states that: “When man dwells, he is simultaneously located in space and exposed to a certain environmental character. The two psychological functions involved, may be called “orientation” and “identification” (Urban Design Reader, Pg.133). From this it is clear to see that Norberg-Schulz viewed the phenomenon of place through physical surroundings i.e. the structure of spaces and how it makes an individual feel.
7
Jane Jacobs in relation to Place Through the interpretation of “The uses of sidewalks: Contact”, it can be seen that Jacobs held the opposite view to Norberg-Schulz. For instance she saw place through the social aspect rather than the physical. In her view, the heavy mixed usage of the streets alone would create a sense of place. She described this as: “People loitering on busy corners, hanging around in candy stores and bars and drinking soda pop on stoops” (Jacobs, Pg.83) She felt that these aspects would create a more “community” feel as mentioned in the previous section. This perceived notion of place is similar to Jan Gehl’s in “Life Between Buildings”. Here he identifies three outdoor activities that influence the atmosphere of public spaces. These were “Necessary activities”, “Optional activities” and “Social activities” (see figure 6). Like Jacobs, Gehl saw the importance of the social influences in place making: “Experiencing other people represents a particularly colourful and attractive opportunity for stimulation” (Gehl, 2006, Pg.366)
{Figure 6 - This demonstrates the graphical representation of the relationship between the quality of outdoor spaces and the rate of occurrence of outdoor activities. Thus showing the importance of good public spaces, in this case sidewalks (Gehl, 2006 Pg. 365)}
“A good city street neighbourhood achieves a marvel of balance between its peoples determination to have essential privacy and their simultaneous wishes for differing degrees of contact, enjoyment or help from the people around” (Jacobs, 1961, Pg.85). 8
This statement again links into the idea of “community”, where by people have a sense of trust in the streets around them and a feeling of belonging. This notion is furthered through Jacobs’s example of a Puerto Rican community in a poor district of New York. It was said that despite their squalid surroundings the sense of community was strong, everybody knew one another and “who to trust and who not to trust” (Jacobs, 1961, Pg. 85). This relates to Martin Heidegger’s short essay “Building Dwelling Thinking” which discusses place making identity through phrases such as “I am a New Yorker” (Urban Design Reader, Pg.125), i.e. the sense of belonging to an area. In the chapter she also highlights modernist planning’s failure at creating adequate places for communities to congregate, which in turn affected people’s “privacy”. In the housing project discussed in the previous section, she explains how it was equipped with meeting rooms, outdoor play areas and games rooms in an attempt to bolster the community and (implied) sense of place. However, she demonstrated that this had the opposite effect. She goes on to say that these alternatives to sidewalk life did nothing more than shelter people from each other and disengage them from their communities. She states that sidewalks have the power to: “bring together people who do not know each other in an intimate, private social fashion and in most cases do not care to know each other in that fashion” (Jacobs, 1961, Pg. 83) Supporting this notion, Rob Krier uses the example of play spaces which, in housing projects, had been “squeezed out into isolated areas with the justification of preserving intimacy” (Krier, Pg.329). However all this did was disrupt the projects residents’ privacy as the noise of previous playgrounds were blocked out by traffic, whereas now the noise was all to apparent. Despite Jacobs’s focus on the social aspect of place throughout this chapter, in other parts of her book she does express the importance of the physical structure of place making i.e. the mixed uses, size and density of blocks. In one interview she gave a detailed definition of the subject: “The heart (of a neighbourhood) is not a disembodied thing that you just set down arbitrarily like choosing a shopping centre. It has to have an anatomy that runs into the neighbourhood . . . you always hear when people talk about a hangout i.e. the corner store or bar. Corner means an intersection, and this corner is a powerful place. If that intersection is of two or more pedestrian paths that go into the community that’s the anatomy that a heart has to have” (Benfield, K. 2011 (YouTube video)). From the evidence discussed, it is clear to see that sense of place and community was the backbone of Jacobs’s work. As a resident of Greenwich Village, which had a strong community and identity, her views can be seen as very relevant in place making within the urban design practice. This is because, unlike the planners who had no first-hand experience living and functioning in the communities they set about to demolish, Jacobs could provide a primary understanding of how they worked and the importance of them in people’s livelihoods.
9
Conclusion To summarise, the chapter “The uses of sidewalks: Contact” really emphasises Jane Jacobs’s focus on the social aspect of planning in residential areas, even when applying it to the notions of “order” and “place”. Through “order” it was clear to see that Jacobs disliked the effect that modernist plans had on communities, often ignoring the needs and opinions of local people. By using examples in both affluent and poor areas she demonstrated that these issues affected not just inner city areas but suburbs as well. In regards to city layout, she was in favour of short blocks and mixed uses of functions in order to increase the points of contact that people had with each other, which would help create a community feel. From the points and solutions drawn under “order” a strong connection can be made in the way Jacobs talks about “place” as she saw the failures of modernist planning having a direct impact on place making, especially housing projects. When applying Jacobs’s theories to modern day planning they are still very relevant. However, from the evidence discussed it depends on the context of the area in which her theories were to be applied i.e. suburbs, inner city areas etc. For instance, the place making aspect of her work is beneficial in quieter, inner city and suburban areas as her thoughts tended to be centred on people’s wellbeing rather than the economics of cities. As a result of this, in busier, more economically important areas of the city like the CBD, it can be said that her lack of professional training made her fail to see the positive aspects that modernist planning could bring such as better transport infrastructure and business opportunities. In conclusion, the work of Jane Jacobs has proved very beneficial in the field of urban design and planning. Her commitment to place making has shown planners around the world that above all, community and wellbeing should prevail. In many ways her beliefs have led to the eventual destruction and condemnation of many “Corbusier” style projects and designs.
10
Bibliography Benfield, K. (2011) Jane Jacobs on neighborhoods, placemaking, and active living [VIDEO]. Available at: http://grist.org/urbanism/2011-07-21-jane-jacobs-on-neighborhoods-placemaking-and-activeliving-video/ (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Book review: The death and life of great American cities by Jane Jacobs - by nikhil bhatla (2007) Available at: http://nikhil.superfacts.org/archives/2007/01/book_review_the.html (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Flint, A. (2011) Jane Jacobs and the book that inspired a revolution. Available at: http://grist.org/cities/2011-11-15-jane-jacobs-and-the-book-that-inspired-a-revolution/ (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Fyfe, N. (2006) Images of the street: Planning, identity and control in public space. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books? id=KHXgivmqjwkC&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=corridor+streets+corbusier&source=bl&ots=yFzErofe6&sig=pzW738_AgZSTujudvTIQiKFIMP8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjig6C_wMzKAhVEeg8KHdi yDNoQ6AEINjAF%20-%20v=onepage&q=corridor%20streets %20corbusier&f=false#v=snippet&q=corridor%20streets%20corbusier&f=false (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Jacobs, J. (1961) The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Vintage Books 1992 edn. New York: Random House. Jane Jacobs’ radical legacy (2006) Available at: http://www.nhi.org/online/issues/146/janejacobslegacy.html (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Krier, R. (2003) Typological and Morphological Elements of the Concept of Urban Space. Oxford: Blackwell. Le Corbusier from the city of tomorrow and its planning (no date) Available at: http://macaulay.cuny.edu/eportfolios/milsteinspring2013sandbox/files/2013/03/Le-Corbusier-fromThe-City-of-Tomorrow-and-Its-Planning.pdf (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Lynch, K. (1960) The Image of the City. 1st edn. MIT Press. Merin, G. (2013) AD classics: Ville Radieuse / Le Corbusier. Available at: http://www.archdaily.com/411878/ad-classics-ville-radieuse-le-corbusier (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Ouroussoff, N. (2006) Outgrowing Jane Jacobs and her New York. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/30/weekinreview/30jacobs.html?_r=2& (Accessed: 1 February 2016). The Urban Design Reader (2007) The Phenomenon of Place. Routledge. Urban designer series: Jane Jacobs (2013) Available at: http://www.sustainablecitiescollective.com/erinchantry/92116/urban-designer-series-jane-jacobs (Accessed: 1 February 2016). Wendt, M. (2009) ‘The Importance of Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) by Jane Jacobs to the Profession of Urban Planning’, New Visions for Public Affairs, One. 11
Bibliography of figures 1. Competitions (2014) Available at: http://architecturelab.net/robert-moses-vs-jane-jacobs-opera/ (Accessed: 1 February 2016). 2. Le Corbusier from the city of tomorrow and its planning (no date) Available at: http://macaulay.cuny.edu/eportfolios/milsteinspring2013sandbox/files/2013/03/Le-Corbusier-fromThe-City-of-Tomorrow-and-Its-Planning.pdf (Accessed: 1 February 2016). 3. Welcome to Morningside gardens (no date) Available at: http://mhhc.coop/ (Accessed: 1 February 2016). 4. Jane Jacobs’ radical legacy (2006) Available at: http://www.nhi.org/online/issues/146/janejacobslegacy.html (Accessed: 1 February 2016). 5. Jane Jacobs’ radical legacy (2006) Available at: http://www.nhi.org/online/issues/146/janejacobslegacy.html (Accessed: 1 February 2016). 6. Gehl, J. (2006) ‘Three Types of Outdoor Activities’, Life Between Buildings’, Outdoor Activities and the Quality of Outdoor Space’. Routledge.
12