Scientific Foundation of Social Brain

Scientific Foundation of Social Brain Beverly Sutton Research Committee Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP) Other committee members: Russell Gardner, John Beahrs, Jacob Kerbeshian, Fred Wamboldt, Alan Swann, Johan Verhulst, Michael Schwartz, Morton Sosland, Carlo Carandang, Doug Kramer, John Looney

Copyright SLACK Incorporated Used with Permission

Reprint web site Http://www.slackinc.com/reprints/ Beverly J. Sutton, Scientific Foundations for the Social Brain Concept, Psychiatric Annals, 35(10), pp 793-802, 2005.

“In nature there are no rewards or punishments, there are consequences.”

Robert Ingersoll

Presentation Overview 

Psychiatry & its social brain foundation 

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The new overview of social brain 

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Depend on scientific study But areas requiring emphasis vary over time Fosters different arrangement of relevant data

Article presents research in novel order

Article Characteristics 

It reflects   

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Integrative values of the social brain concept Retaining the biomedical base While also emphasizing affective, moral & cultural developments of interacting people

Uses selected examples of developmental studies Concludes with treatment implications

Presentation Outline   

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Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications

Presentation Outline   

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Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications

Brains, genetics & behavior through development 

Animals including humans seem innately ready to learn certain behavior   

This readiness, called "prepared learning" Possesses adaptive advantage Illustrates Darwinian fitness 

Genetic advantages passed to offspring foster their better reproduction

Genetics Revelations 

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Human genome uses only tens of thousands protein-encoding genes More expressed sequence tags (messenger RNA) exist in brain than any other organ 

Apparently foster brain function

Ancient Biological Roots 

Some physical features possess ancient roots 

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Having a similar body plan such as four limbs

Some behavioral patterns of ancient origin 

Social rank hierarchy & territoriality.

Evo Devo 

Evolution+development = new field1 

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What molecular building blocks of animal structure developed over evolutionary time?

Delineates differences resulting in the many species as well as individual differences Such similarities & contrasts include sociality

Brain Size Increase 

Brain volume increased In humans 4x expansion in past 3 million years via evolutionary process  Somehow the larger volume enhanced survival of humans & their genes 

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Vertebrate cranial vault of today (including the human) resembles that of vertebrates 480 million years ago2

Neocortex Expansion 

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Social group size accounts for 45% of brain-size variance5 Neocortex comprised much of this growth 

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Expand areas of language & culture – its symbolbased product Old brain systems retain importance3 Large brain may not mean increased function 

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Autistic persons may have large brains4 though intellectually retarded & asocial Fossils of island-dwelling humans showed brain complexity with small brain sizes

Brain Change in Function with Age 

From 20 to 80 years of age 

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Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex shrinks about 5% each decade

After 45 years of age 

Hypocampus shrinks about 7% each decade

Brain & Emotion  

PET studies show medial prefrontal areas and the thalamus activate in normal emotion Other areas process emotional content & social cognition 

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Amygdala Prefrontal cortex Right somatosensory cortices6 Sensory association areas & the anterior temporal lobe likely provide emotional color to sensory information Anterior insular regions invest cognitive and sensory information with negative emotional meaning7

Ethics & Morals Emotional 

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Earlier assumed that moral judgments stem from pure reason But ethical dilemmas activate emotional brain areas 

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Medial frontal gyrus, Posterior cingulate gyrus Angular gyrus8

Moral Neurotransmitters 

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Moral-decision emotion activates dopamine & serotonin These relate to positive & negative feelings 

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Dopamine, a “pleasure chemical,” releases after eating, pleasant sexual interaction, or taking cocaine Decreased serotonin  to negative feelings of depression, suicide, anxiety & social phobia Serotonin reuptake inhibitors increase optimism & social confidence9

Sexes & Morals 

Although the same areas in the brain are activated in moral matters, sexes differ in how they focus on the issues 

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Women’s standards tend to involve responsiveness to others Men’s morality ties to rules of fairness and separateness

Evolution & psychopathology  

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Evolution preserves some psychopathology Removing some vulnerabilities may also limit behaviors/mental states necessary for survival/reproductive success2 No study shows genetic variation to account for all behavioral variations between mentally ill & mentally healthy people10

Presentation Outline   

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Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications

Chromosomes & Disorders 

Chromosomal abnormalities  behavioral and social problems   

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Fragile X Prader-Willi Angelman The latter two involve chromosome 15 & genomic imprinting

Fragile X Syndrome 

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Mental retardation, slow language development, attention disorders, pervasive developmental disorder, typically anxious Fragile X syndrome stems from a mutation 

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FMR locus at Xq28 A molecular component repeats # of repeats proportional to severity of clinical presentation

Mothers transmit full mutation to sons Carrier daughters 

Not good in social relations 

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Often shy with poor eye contact

25% have IQ <7011

Genomic Imprinting & Chromosome 15 Disorders 

Genomic imprinting: 

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A same gene expresses different characteristics depending on whether mother or father furnished the DNA Mechanism includes DNA-methylation switches off gene-expression

Prader-Willi Syndrome 

Prader-Willi syndrome shows in infancy 

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Weak hypotonic muscles, failure to thrive Short & never pubertal Overeat to extreme obesity unless restrained Emotionally labile & slow intellectually

Paternally derived 

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15q11-13 genes impaired Impaired function of hypothalamic & septum No cortex impairment

Angelman Syndrome 

Socially & cognitively more serious   

Severe retardation Posturing tendencies Frequent laughter Spasmotic laughing or crying  Such sx from corticobulbar tract pathology3 

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Mother-derived 15q11-13 genes impaired Pathology primarily neocortical

William’s syndrome 

Clinical picture 

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Mild mental retardation Cardiac & connective tissue problems Profound visuospatial dysfunction Characteristic facial features

Unique: fluent language & much sociability Microdeletion on chromosome 7q11.23 Normally sized frontal cortex contrasts with small posterior lobes12

Moebius syndrome • Bilateral Cranial VI & VII paralyses • Autism in 40% of patients  Autosomal dominant  With lateral gaze problems they show characteristic expressionless face

Mother-child interactions 

Development sensitive to interpersonal factors 

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Including ideas about one’s children13

Movie-frame microanalysis of 

Mother-child gazing coded “Attracting” contact if the two made visual contact,  “Avoidance” if either the mother or infant looked away from the other for a fraction of a second  These behaviors not otherwise detectable 

Results of Mo & her twin boys 

The mother identified one twin with her husband & the other with herself 

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The “husband” twin & she used avoidant head movements to each other This contrasted to an attracting pattern with the other

One year later 

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The avoidant “husband” twin acted more fearfully with more dependency The more independent brother had better social skills

Presentation Outline   

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Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications

Development: Conception To First Few Months 

Parental attitudes 

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Expectations regarding the unborn baby strongly predict infant's attachment behavior beyond year 114 Month old infants viewed negatively by their mothers exhibit a sixfold greater likelihood for psychosocial developmental disorder at 19 years compared to positively viewed controls14

Age 2-3 months 

Developmental capacities change in that:  

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Infant becomes less fussy Permits mother to decrease her care-giving while increasing social interchange.

But if fussiness fails to decrease, maternal attachment decreases

Development: 6 Months Toddlerhood 

Age 7-9 months 

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Infants behave as though they know that others can understand their thoughts, feelings and behavior and They show preferences for a few care-giving adults15

The toddler 

Requires a sense of self to experience pride & shame6

Visual Experience & Critical Periods 

Birth to 2-6 months of age 

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Infants with congenital cataracts with an early sightless period show permanent problems in discriminating facial configurations that vary, eg, spacing between features Though they identify geometric patterns as well as children with normal early vision 

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Therefore, different neural systems process faces and geometric objects in adults16

Normal infants possess limited visual acuity 

But early exposure to faces sets up neural circuits that enable facial processing in the first 10-12 years of life

Auditory Experience 

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Infants after birth show ability to discriminate sound –they prefer the mother's voice over those of other women17 4 day old French infants suck harder to hear a recording in French (vs Russian) 

Perhaps a preference acquired in utero18

Sibling Sequence  

Sibling order produces systematic influences that mold attitudes & behavior19 First-born children tend to identify with power & authority but later-born children question the status quo & resist pressure to conform 

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First-borns more likely become political leaders and establishment scientists whereas socially successful later-borns support unpopular causes Six or more years between siblings restarts the birth order effect, i.e., another first born child seems to appear

Siblings perceive differences in the way they are treated and this continues over the life span 

Children who felt one or both parents provided more affection to them than siblings reached higher academic & occupational goals10

Factors in Behavior 

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Parents using mild, inductive techniques of behavior management produce children with high moral development.

Benign management in the form of ignoring negative and rewarding positive behavior better socializes poor inner-city children (black and white) than do conventional restriction and punishment-oriented classes 

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The effect holds from kindergarten through 8th grade

Attractive children usually gain more popularity 

Peers favor tall thin ectomorphs not short fat endomorphs20

Men & Women 

Adult social roles reflect exposure to family & cultural dictates21     

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Women maintain networks with other women even with a stable marriage While intimacy tends to threaten men, divorced men remarry faster & more often than divorced women Men exhibit less depression than women, less often seek help, & they respond faster to treatment Women on the other hand show more panic disorder & somatization disorders Men exhibit more alcohol dependence, antisocial personality disorder, delusions about homosexuality, paranoid disorders, & compulsive disorders Most men value working & earning money Women often take low paying jobs that men refuse to consider Men in "pink collar" jobs (jobs typically held by women) face derision by uninformed or homophobic community members

Presentation Outline   

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Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications

Stress Levels & Song 

Birth-order of laboratory rhesus monkeys 

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Later born baby monkeys show lower cortisol levels Their lower levels of stress may reflect better care from experienced mothers24

Brain areas for song in white-crowned sparrows develop as longer days increase sex hormones25  

Males with females had 15-20% larger song areas Compared to bachelors or males in all-male groups

Environment & quantitative neurophysiological changes 

Social behavior & a specific synapse 

A large crayfish neuron responds to serotonin differently depending on the animal’s social status22   

Neuron  tail-flip response used for fight or escape 5HT applied to it  enhanced dominant’s neuron firing-rate2 2 subordinate crayfish put together results in one winning 

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In the same neuron of the new dominant, 5HT more excitable

Simply injecting serotonin into crayfish (& lobsters) produces aggressive dominant behavior only

Not Eating & daf Genes 

In the worm C. Elegans, insufficient food from overpopulation induces  

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A suspended animation phase for 2 or more months daf-2 gene inducing this insulin receptor protein

Environment extremes may  daf genes 

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Similar arrests in many vertebrate & invertebrate groups seems to operate to prolong reproductive period Obesity & prevalence of type II diabetes in humans may reflect survival of past generations from famine26 Functional hypoglycemia may have helped human adaptation to infrequent but large food supplies

Too Many or Too Few Rats 

Overcrowding can alter non-human social behavior27  

Wild Norwegian rats raised in a confined space eventually stabilized their numbers Increased numbers and deteriorated care-taking behavior by mother rats 

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Likely from disordered social rank effects

When fewer young survived, numbers stabilized

Rats raised in isolation show behavior changes & high levels of dopamine (DA)  

DA-blocking agents ameliorate these rat symptoms DA involved in addiction, motor control, & perhaps schizophrenia

Amygdala Experiments 

Maternally deprived rats  low levels of 5HT24 

Rat pups handled by people may show less fear because of their mother’s behavior after the pups return to her 

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Baby rats with such “mindful” mothers develop 

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Rat mother does extra licking, grooming and nursing more neurotransmitter receptors that in turn decrease amygdala activity & fewer receptors for CRH (involved with stress)

Amygdala  

stimulation  rage in some animals28 lesions  docility

Amygdala: rage vs docility 

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Field studies of chimpanzees show variation in patterns of tool use behavior, grooming, and sexual behaviors Different chimpanzee groups exhibit unique styles, communal behavior previously thought characteristic of human cultures only29 In humans, lower social status correlates with lower serotonin responsivity30

Dominance & fitness 

Dominance status in animal groupings typically correlates with reproductive success & control of resources 

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However, dominance studied with reproduction DNA studies showed that 2nd or 3rd rank rhesus males may impregnate females while the dominant male worked to maintain territory31

Primate species vary in female rank & breeding: 

In great apes, females passively receive male sexual advances 

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Though higher ranking female baboons & macaques show more breeding success In Gombe, dominant chimpanzee females weaned twice as many infants than non-dominants32 Infant production, infant survival, & infant development also indexed female fitness

Presentation Outline   

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Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture, language, memory Treatment implications

Preagricultural Human Hx 

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~7 million years ago humans began evolving from ancestral forms in Africa ~ 500,000 years ago Homo sapiens appeared 

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Used crude stone tools, fire.

~ 40,000 years ago Cro-Magnons (modern man) left evidence of stone & bone tools, nets, jewelry, clothes, spears, bows and arrows. 

They also painted, sculpted and played musical instruments. Ships appearing 13,000 years ago made it possible for people to travel outside landmasses.33

Hx: Agriculture Onwards 

~ 10,000 years ago the agricultural revolution began in the Middle East, China, & Mesoamerica 

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More people lived in discrete areas without needing to move for food

~ 4000 BC horses enhanced travel and farming after their domestication 

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Food supplies obtained by farming caused rapid population increases.

Average time between children is 2 years for farm people but 4 years for hunter-gatherers34

Gene-culture Co-evolution 

The group mind produces culture 

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Social brain concept provides focus for study 

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Yet each individual mind possesses genetic determinants Gene-culture co-evolution a special form of natural selection3

Culture provides a special environment for behavioral genes

Definition of culture: 

Everyday ways of doing things, preferred forms of interaction, & what people feel as “common sense”28

Culture & Diagnosis 

Culture determines what people consider normal, including how illnesses have meaning and the necessary elements for cures 

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Bodily expression of mental illness represents a more common worldwide attribution than psychological expression Yet DSM used on this continent focuses on psychological presentations  

Unsuitable for diagnoses in non-Western areas People on this continent from non-Western cultures often receive misdiagnosis and incorrect treatment

Emotions = Signals 

People in all cultures detect accurately facial expressions of emotion: 

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Fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise & happiness.

Emotional expression over development 

Some facial expressions seem innate, not learned nor imitated  

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Awareness of emotional communication helps youngsters respond to social experiences 

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Infants less than 71 hours old mimic facial expressions34 Infants 1 to 9 months old express distinct, situationally appropriate facial emotion

89% of 4-5 year olds rely on facial expression to determine another's emotional state.

By 8 to 9 years of age, children use facial and situational cues to assess emotion6

Pathology Instructs on Emotion 

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Bilateral amygdalar damage impairs recognition of a face expressing fear Manic patients deficiently recognize negative emotions 

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Particularly fear & disgust35 Euthymic bipolar and healthy persons scored similarly Manics frequently evaluated a fear face as expressing surprise

Cultural Rituals 

Cultural rituals including religious ones help people cope36  

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Rituals reduce anxiety, make sense of experience & provide hope  

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Small groups place importance on physical grooming behaviors Social interaction in larger groups gains enhancement through use of social "grooming" (talking & rituals)

Compelling powerful experiences enhance social control Further, groups ritualistically set the ways that people behave when eating, grooming, & otherwise interacting with one another Religious ceremonies and courting behavior may entail inflexible components of behavior required by all

In OCD, actions & thoughts echo social ritualistic behavior, 

But often differ from accepted social conventions in extent & timing37

Culture & Genetic Diversity  

70% of human societies expect the bride to move to her husband's birthplace (patrilocal) Study of 3 matrilocal (men move to woman's birthplace) and 3 patrilocal groups in northern Thailand showed findings expected from the chromosome characteristics of the different sexes38 

Patrilocal groups   

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High variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) inherited only from mothers Low variability in the y-chromosome (transmitted to sons from fathers)

Matrilocal groups  low mtDNA & high ychromosome variability

American Families 

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~10% of American families = tradition of man-provider & woman-homemaker Unique families & child care practices21   

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Dual-career marriages Single parent families Lesbian and gay parents Complex or "blended" families (children from former marriages) Boomerang families (adult children returning home) Adult-oriented multigenerational families

When mothers maltreat infants 

At age 12 months 

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82% of the children show disorganized behavior compared with 19% of controls.

At 36 months, 

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35% of maltreated infants remained disorganized & 21% securely reactive Control infants: opposite rates of 27% disorganized & 71% secure

Maltreatment Effects 

Maltreated infants withdraw physically & emotionally 

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They use fewer internal state words than nonmaltreated infants with otherwise similar vocabularies15

Abusive behavior persists: 

Abused children likely become abusing adults Maltreat their children in the next generation  As well as their elderly parents 

Family Conflict 

Children with more maternal affection than sibs 

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When parents display physical conflict: 

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Children show more problems than when exposed to parallel verbal conflict

When exposed to parental disagreement about child rearing 

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Later express less depression or other internalizing symptoms15

Boys express more behavior problems

When parents constructively disagree 

Children play, smile, & laugh as if nothing important has happened

Sibling Conflict 

Parent-child and child-child conflicts differ19 

Sibling struggle to gain maximum parental resources   

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This is a conflict not sex linked, Not associated with a parent of the same or opposite sex, Not the result of sexual drive

Each child aims at greatest benefit from both parents

If a favorite child exists in a family:  

"make sure that you are the favored one" This generates sibling rivalries, but the competition generally proves adaptive as does altruism among siblings

Young Mothers 

Adolescent mothers (less than 16 years old)  

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Young mothers display less sensitivity to their children but more intrusiveness 

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Talk to their children less, but command more They smile less and touch base less with eye and physical contact compared to older mothers Children exhibit poorer cognitive & language outcomes15

Children show more avoidance Punitive discipline results in more aggression, impulsivity, social withdrawal & fewer friends

These mothers underestimate their children's ability to think, interact & communicate but overestimate mastery of the next developmental level

Family Facts 

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White women more likely work for economic independence compared to African-American women who work from economic need One- to two-thirds of American women experience abuse from their spouses each year Although the economics of divorce usually increases a man's & decreases a woman's standard of living, men show more psychological and physical distress than women from separation and divorce Male elders provide important superego models and cultural supports to the family as a group21

Cultural Differences 

Experience of depression varies with culture: 

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American Indians, Alaskan Natives, & Southeast Asians  no word for "depressed" Hopi commonly express sadness 

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Therefore, to diagnose depression, 1 month of depression should elapse rather than the usual 2 weeks

Eskimos and Tahitians rarely show anger Iranians encourage but Navajos discourage displays of extreme sadness.

Javanese seek serenity A woman staying at home at all times may be agoraphobic in the West but virtuous if Muslim

Culture-bound disorders 

These exist in all countries, 

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Anxiety disorders reflect bodily arousal, cognitive interpretation, & ineffective coping skills, 

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Cultural belief and practice influence all these

Blood-injury phobia 

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disorders stem from anger, fright, witchcraft, "evil eye", preoccupation with bodily function or other precipitants28

makes blood pressure drop (not rise)

In Puerto Rico 16%  hx of ataque de nervios 

Somatic & dissociative sx after a stressful event28

Symptoms & Culture 

Westerners often struggle for thinness, 

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Elsewhere overweight people seem more attractive

European comparisons 

English feel concern with constipation & chilblains 

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So physicians may ignore these complaints

French people typically complain of fatigue & headache plus other problems caused by "liver crisis" German physicians vigorously treat low blood pressure or poor circulation

Use of Drugs 

Drugs affect reward systems in the brain 

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Knockout mice that lack a dopamine transporter protein show "no interest” in cocaine or amphetamine39

People typically learn drug use from peers.

Low alcohol dehydrogenase cause some Asians to flush & feel sick from alcohol use

Alcohol & Culture 

Cultural variations:    

Some northern/western Europeans use it heavily Mormons forbid its use Muslims & Buddhist monks do not drink Some American Indian & Hispanic American men do all day drinking parties28 

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If an American Indian refuses a drink, peers may consider the abstinence impolite

Use/nonuse of alcohol during cultural rituals varies with group & country  

Some religious ceremonies regularly involve the use of mind-altering substances At funerals, Irish Americans drink & tell jokes African Americans grieve & sing spirituals

Aggression & Culture 

Environment and culture change violent expression  

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Exposure to it usually increases aggression28 Drug addicts may use violence to obtain drugs Willingness to use violence to maintain the status quo typifies firstborn, conservative, tough-minded behavior19 Aggression typifies boys’ behavior on the playground unless supervised at "play" by adults who stop predatory behavior, model nonviolent behavior and teach social skills

Non-Violence Taught 

A study taught non-violence in an elementary school40   

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Increased academic achievement Reduced disciplinary referrals Program emphasized zero tolerance for pathological behavioral roles (bully, observer, victim) While teaching appropriate social behaviors

Language 

Culture construction stems from language used for information exchange 

Language shapes thinking 

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New words enable thinking in new patterns

Words change the way we feel & may substitute for other behavior Language unites those in a social group 

Individuals in a group hold it in high regard

Conflicted Language 

Religious/political turmoil may result from language use/nonuse   

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Belgium French-speaking Canada Basque-speaking Spain Moses protested that he could not lead the people of Israel from language difficulties (Genesis, Chapter 11)

Pre-Humans & Language 

Communicating with language seemed specific for humans, but 

Chimpanzees can communicate with sign language 

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Also teach their babies to use it

A pygmy chimpanzee learned to respond to oral English language to an extent comparable to a 2 year old human infant6

Change In Humans 

Evolution of the larynx position, i.e., migration to a lower neck position made it possible to create more sounds41 

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Human brain reorganized to accommodate this function particularly in the frontal area, including Broca' s area

Human speech uses 50 sounds or 4x those of other higher primates 

~ 5000 languages presently exist with associated distinctive cultures

People & Talk 

People discriminate about ten sounds/second 

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Baby talk exemplifies intuitive parenting;  

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High pitched, slow, & melodious verbalization Attracts baby's attention & encourages attunement

Shouting & vowels  

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In the range needed to decode speech

A cultural group that shouts use easily recognized vowels, Loudness of verbalizations is inversely proportional to the number of vowels in the language42

About two-thirds of human speech is gossip

Language in Early Development 

Reciprocity with mother organizes communication 

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Social referencing 

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Sentence mind-traces make thoughts easier to follow Young children may interrupt play to reference the mother for emotional information6 At age 6 months, the infant seeks reassurance from a parent's presence By 1 year also seeks information from the parent's face

At 1 year feelings expressed in words & self-talk  

To change both their own feeling states & Perceptions of an environmental situation

Sounds to Vocabulary 

Infants make many sounds until ~10 months  

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Number then decreases Change stems from restricted set baby hears in the family6

At 1-month, infant can distinguish a "ba" sound from a "pa" sound.

A 1-year old infant has 2-3 words & 

About 20 signs when exposed to sign language

Vocabulary  

At 2 years, the child knows about 50 words Factors forecasting large vocabularies include   

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Adults reading and talking about stories, Quality of mealtime conversations, Large vocabulary and mean length of utterance by the mother, Higher socioeconomic status of family, Firstborn status Talkative mother with sophisticated language43

Language & Emotion 

Stress on a sound or change in rhythm of the sounds  

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May change meaning (Chinese) or Emotional tone (English)

In Japan and Korea, words chosen must fit the relative social status of the participants Over half of Japanese sentences omit the subject reflecting the favored indirect approach Swear words  

Japanese & American Indian languages contain no native curses An extremely crude swear word may arouse anger in one culture but usually no emotional reaction in another culture

Sex & Language 

Sexes equate on overall intelligence but 

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Men excel on visuo-spatial abilities (especially mental rotation of complex figures) & Women on verbal abilities (especially fluent production of words)21

Developmental language disorders 

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Girls withdraw more Boys tend to hyperactivity42

Language Impairment & Dx 

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Men who had been language-impaired display more antisocial disorder compared to controls Children with speech & language disorders 

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Followed 14 years showed higher rates of anxiety disorder (social phobia) than controls43 Language-impaired youth tend to have other psychiatric disorders

Genetic Factors in Language 

A single gene on chromosome 7q31 

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Relates to brain circuitry for speech & language45 3-generations of a family & an unrelated person had severe speech & language problems A disrupted gene, FOXP2 transmits as an autosomal-dominant 

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A guanine nucleotide substituted for an adenine

Unaffected family members & other unaffected nonrelated persons have no such substitution

Memory 

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Memory stores and recalls experience 2-memory systems: 

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Declarative (explicit), features awareness of past experiences, and Nondeclarative (working) memory works outside consciousness46 

Fosters skills/habits, classical conditioning, & nonassociative learning (reflexes)

Neural Correlates 

Neuroanatomy & neurology 

Explicit memory requires 

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

An intact hippocampus & related structures in the medial temporal lobe Dorsal & anterior thalamic nuclei & mammillary bodies produces apathy and problem with explicit memory

Nondeclarative (working) memory needs 

Frontal lobes do temporary storage of info for specific tasks 



Puts experience in context & allows memory search

2-prefrontal areas, dorsolateral & orbitomedial  

Damage to the former impairs integration of cognition Damage to the latter affects emotional & social functioning

Face Recognition/Memory 

Humans and other species use face recognition as an important social task 



Small cell-groups in temporal & medial prefrontal cortices mediate this function47 



Sheep remember both sheep & human faces for over 2 years, distinguishing both frontal & profile views

Particularly on the right

21 day old human babies 

Hold in memory the imitated model of a facial expression for at least 2.5 minutes

Development & Memory 







Episodic memory (the recollection of one's personal past) appears at ~4 years of age Over time child becomes aware of self experience Memory consolidation helped by REM sleep & dreams may serve a role in social adaptation Better recollection occurs if one’s mood state at the time of an experience recurs at attempted retrieval (state-dependent learning)

Neurogenesis 

New neurons form in adult mammalian brains including monkeys & humans in the olfactory bulb (smell) & hippocampus (memory) 





Sensorimotor stimulation stimulates neuronal replacement 48 Neurogenesis decreases from stress, a boring environment & perhaps depression

Human story-memory  increased size of L hippocampus

Neurogenesis: Stress & Dementia 

Human high cortisol levels over a 5-year period  



Reduced hippocampus volume (14%) Versus those with low-cortisol levels49

Early problem in Alzheimers is olfactory identification 

Lack of neurogenesis in olfactory bulb neurons likely lessens it

Neurogenesis in Other Animals 





In rats, timing of learned responses & temporal relationship between events depends on the neurogenesis Many birds add neurons involved in song production & memory throughout adulthood50 Monkeys with damage to the hippocampus & amygdala behave like autistic persons6

Presentation Outline   

  

Introduction: new overview of social brain Chromosome disorders & development Bonding research Sociality in non-human animals Culture Treatment implications

Therapeutic implications of social brain research 

Delineating specific genetic and environmental roles in development will allow 



More accurate diagnoses of malfunction and interventions that support survival of the individual & of mankind

Massive amounts of genetic research increasingly 

Delineate specific genetic chromosomal or metabolic entities

Gene Therapy Possibilities 

For some problems, ? gene therapy 



e.g., neural stem cells may eventually treat patients with neurodegenerative disorders

Adult mouse brain stem cells have been isolated 

These versatile cells produce both neurons and glia & when plated on muscle-cell cultures, half produce muscle cells51

Physical Disorders 

About 9% of physical disorders present with psychiatric symptoms: 



Most common depression, anxiety, confusion, memory & speech disorders Some after Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infections 



Display autoimmune problems presenting as obsessive compulsive disorder, Syndenhan’s chorea or Tourette's disorder2

Such symptoms resemble idiopathic psychiatric entities 

But post-infectious conditions respond to plasmaphoresis & antibiotics

Animal Model for Cocaine Addiction Prophylaxis 

Possible treatment for drug addiction stem from rats given methylphenidate 



When given this stimulant during preadolescence & then exposed to cocaine as adults, mature rats responded less and have increased aversion52 If exposed to methylphenidate as adults, these rats responded less to cocaine but no aversion 

Developmental stage thus played a role in cocaine responsivity

Treatment Relations 

Diagnostic errors may stem from stereotypes as might an undue emphasis on environment with little attention to personal or social factors 

A person facing adverse personal and social conditions may seem flat or suspicious 



Some clinicians may see this alone as pathologic

Patients feeling "one down" do not long remain in treatment21 

For success, the therapist should find something likeable in the patient

Schools 



Schools can play important roles in decreasing violence.

Teaching & modeling socially appropriate behavior & includes  



Adequate supervision on the playground No tolerance for predatory or bullying behavior will decrease aggression and increase academic performance

Adults also need to help children avoid watching such behavior & to refuse assuming victim roles

Culture & Therapy 

Altering people's behavior or group environment usually a long-term project 

 





Requires group incentives, education, & clear objectives A problem’s meaning typically reflects group beliefs Understanding the cultural background of the family helps tailor the approach used28 Approved child punishment in one culture may constitute abuse in another Family therapists demonstrate sensitivity to values and “agree to disagree” with the family if necessary

Specific Examples 

African-American families respond to a short term, present-oriented, problemsolving approach: 





As when encouraging the family to solve its own problems28 Some African-American teenagers receive covert messages that a new child is desired

Teenagers bear over 50% of pregnancies borne by black women and the pregnancy often surprises them

Extended Family 





Therapists should consider the potential support that stems from extended family21 Asian-American families benefit from formal, structured and practical assistance; indirect communication helps avoid shame Tolerance of differences can be taught & encouraged22

Changed Family Roles 

Changed family roles need careful scrutiny 



Dual career marriages may benefit from help 





Sensitive care critical when diagnosing or treating family dysfunction22

In communications, problem solving, conflict resolution, & time management

Teenage mothers with educational assistance more likely become self-sufficient Pregnancy may deter the education of a teenage father, making assistance required

Non-Conventional Issues 



Lesbian & gay families may use assistance to cope with societal reactions New families (after remarriage) may relate stressfully 



Family members may have to expand contacts to more than the immediate stepfamily to satisfy relationships

When adult children return home: 



Effective rules help work out problems As with household labor, family property, authority relationships, financial obligations, & communication

Parentified Children 

Children of deaf or immigrant parents may do "language brokering" for parents  



Such “parentified” children produces problems e.g., as interpreters for parents, inappropriate exposure to intimate medical & legal issues This expectation for the child becomes the norm in most families and must be challenged especially regarding inappropriate use of children for adult-only conversations

Help For Some Children & Women 

Children in dysfunctional families learn not to express emotion  



Reason: to feel nothing.

They must be taught to be open, direct and assertive.

Women may overfunction emotionally (responsible for everyone) 



May overfunction by advising, rescuing, and taking over with stress Need help for healthier mutual relationships21

Help For Some Men 

Men tend not to ask for help, 





My become quite isolated, & underestimate their distress Therapists may need to reach out to them in an invitational manner.

In US, African-American men with behavior problems 



More likely than white men go to correctional system rather than the mental health system21 Knowing this helps ensure needed diagnosis & treatment

Group Therapies 

Some therapists routinely overlook some real life issues 





e.g., male infertility, menstruation, physical illness, or sexual function Reason: these issues "not discussed in polite society"

Sex of leaders 



 

In a group situation, men more likely respond negatively to women leaders But positively to men leaders for saying the same thing More early developmental issues come up in same-sex groups Mixed sex groups may help issues of professional development21

Conclusion 

Addressing molecular-genetic pathogenesis of disorders more readily accomplished in our present era of considerable data production  



But additionally many other factors impact the person’s, the family’s and groups’ views of dysfunction 



Of course, such levels of analysis need analytic integration e.g, attention often restricted to medication

Considering these factors, views & communicational states takes time, motivation, education, and consensus opinion to change

To work most integratively, we need a social brain focus 

Such integration of treatment plans means they will achieve greater adequacy for troubled people

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