Gaudiya Touchstone | Issue 2 by Gaudiya Touchstone

Issue No.2

Sindhu River

How India Got Her Name page - 51

The whereabouts of the Sindhu River is virtually unknown to people in western countries, but for the people of India it has great significance.

Gaudiya

touchstone

â&#x20AC;&#x153;As soon as a single person will have conceived the sincere desire of undertaking the promulgation of the tidings of the Gaudiya literature to the peoples of the world, he is thereby enrolled among the agents of divine mercy with power to forward the fulfillment of this expressed wish of the Supreme Lord.â&#x20AC;? (Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati Thakura)

Senior Editor

Swami Narasingha

Associate Editors

Swami Giri Swami Srirupa Madhava Priyanana

Science Editor

Swami Vishnu

Health Editor

Priyanana

Layout and Design

Rasikananda Gaura-Gopala

Art Department

Dominique Amendola

Photography

Rammohan Nila Newsom Dustin Ellison Swami Giri Satyaraja Kirtanananda

Webmasters

Advaita Acharya Kirtanananda

Contents 01 02

Editorial Sri Guru Tattva Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati Goswami Prabhupada

Heart of Krishna Srila Bhakti Pramoda Puri Maharaja

Opulence of Bhagavan Swami Narasingha

Mayavada & Buddhism

Sindhu River - How India got her Name

Indica - Photo spread

The Story of Numbers

Struggle for Consciousness

Swami B.V. Giri

Swami Narasingha

Swami Vishnu

Swami Narasingha

True Nature Dr. Mani Lal Bhaumik

101

Swastika & Cross Swami Narasingha

119

Rajasthani Art Dhira-lalita

141

Words of Wisdom

143

Got Raw Milk?

153

Culinary Magic

Priyanana

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

Editorial Welcome to the Gaudiya Touchstone. In this issue we have an interesting selection of articles on traditional philosophical topics such as Sri Guru Tattva, The Heart of Krishna, Buddhism and Mayavada and more, as well as updates as scientists progress in their understanding of consciousness and discover in True Nature by Dr. B.M. Bhaumik the true nature of reality. The History of Numbers by Swami Vishnu tells us how contributions in Mathematics from India in ancient times make the world what it is today, and for the arts enthusiasts we have the story of the development of Rajasthani Art by Dhira-lalita chronicling art in Rajasthan. Our cover story takes us on a journey through time to discover a remarkable region in the Himalayas and how India got her name from the Sindhu River. This article is also augmented by an amazing photo spread of Ladakh by staff photographer Ram Mohan. We have packed a lot into this issue for our readers to digest in one sitting. And speaking of digesting we almost forgot to mention Got Raw Milk? If not then you certainly will after reading Priyananaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s informative health article, Got Raw Milk? And in Culinary Magic the Carr twins Bhakta-priya and Vraja Kishor share with us some of their secrets from the Vermont Kitchen. Lots of good things to digest in this issue of Gaudiya Touchstone â&#x20AC;&#x201D; spiritually, intellectually and physically. So please read on. OM TAT SAT, Swami Narasingha

S r i G u r u Tat t va and the Secret of Diksha – Part 1 Questions and Answers with Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati Thakura Prabhupada

From Dainik Nadiya Prakasa, Janmastami Edition, 1934 (On the morning of Wednesday August 8 th, Sriyukta Rajendranath Pal Chaudhuri Mahashaya, the famous zamindar of Louhajang, came to Sri Gaudiya Matha accompanied by one of his employees. Offering his humble dandavats at the lotus feet of Sri Srila Prabhupada, he expressed his desire to hear some words on Sri Guru-tattva and the secret of diksha etc. Srila Prabhupada obligingly gave a valuable discourse for two hours. Some brief excerpts from that talk are presented below. It has only been possible for us to publish this priceless gem by the help of Upadeshaka Pandita Sripada Pranavananda Pratnavidyalankara Mahadaya. Thus, we convey our sincere gratitude at his feet – Nishikanta Sanyal)

Rajen Babu – Is it necessary for me to take diksha again if I have already taken diksha from a kula-guru (hereditary family guru)? He does not eat fish or meat; he studies the Bhagavatam, is the son of a Gosvami and is a householder. Prabhupada – asat sanga tyaga – ei vaishnava achara stri-sange eka asadhu krishnabhakta ara To discard the company of those who diminish one’s resolve in krishnabhakti (asat-sanga) is truly the natural conduct of a Vaishnava. And the most detrimental association of all is those who enjoy the company of women and the non-devotees. (Cc. Madhya. 22.087)

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

To discard the company of those who diminish one’s resolve in krishna-bhakti (asat-sanga)

truly

the natural conduct of a Vaishnava. And the most detrimental association of all is those who enjoy the company of women and the non-devotees. (Cc. Madhya. 22.087)

These two types of non-devotees can never become spiritual masters. They are not devotees of Krishna. kiba vipra kiba nyasi shudra kene naya yei krishna-tattva-vetta sei guru haya Whether one is a brahmana, a sannyasi, a shudra or whatever, if he is fully conversant with the science of Krishna, he is eligible to become a guru. (Cc. Madhya. 8.128) From this we understand that Sri Gurudeva must be a krishna-tattva-vetta (one who knows the science of Krishna). It is incorrect to assume that only those who are born in a high caste family, who have attained knowledge of the Absolute (brahma-jnana), or who are famous are entitled to be guru. Sri Gurudeva may externally be a brahmana, a sannyasi or a grihastha – that is irrelevant. If the spiritual master is not a krishna-tattva-vetta, he should be abandoned.

Sri Guru is sadachari – one who correctly practices devotional principles. The question may be asked, “What is achara?” In reply it has been said, asat sanga tyaga – ei vaishnava achara. Who is asat? Those who are addicted to illicit connections with women (stri-sangi) and those who are averse to Krishna (krishnabhakta) –these are the two types of non-devotees. Their association must be abandoned. The general understanding of the term asat is that which is unreal. Sat is that which is unchangable, which is not transformable, which is not transmutable. The opposite state of sat is asat. There are two terms that householders may be known as, either grihastha or griha-vrata.. One who pays less attention to Krishna and is more attached to his wife, considering her to be the most cherished thing in his life, is known as yosit-sangi (one who is addicted to women). Such householders that are attached to matter, which is inferior to

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

Krishna, are known as griha-vratas. Therefore a grihavrata can never be a guru. Those who perform haribhajana – whether they are grihasthas or sannyasis – should be considered as most excellent. Otherwise even a sannyasi that does not perform hari-bhajana should be understood to be a non-devotee. vadanti tat tattva-vidas tattvam yaj jnanam advayam brahmeti paramatmeti bhagavan iti shabdyate The seers that know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance Brahman, Paramatma or Bhagavan. (Bhag. 1.2.11)

Whether

one

brahmana, a sannyasi, a sudra or whatever, if he is fully conversant with the science of Krishna, he is eligible to become a guru. (Cc. Madhya. 8.128)

One who sees Brahman and Paramatma as separate from Krishna, who is the advaya-jnana-tattva (the non-dual Absolute), cannot become a devotee of Krishna due to their ignorance of vastu-tattva (the science of Absolute Reality). Brahman is that conscience relating to a subject that is known to be devoid of material distinctions. The Vedanta-sutras’ aphorism athato brahma jijnasa explains about inquiring into Brahman. When one is deprived of the eternally blissful darshana of sacchidananda Bhagavan, and solely takes shelter of samvit-vritti (the cognitive faculty), which, although is a substance imbued with the divine lila of the Supreme, one experiences Brahman. And when one is deprived of the blissful darshana of sacchidananda Bhagavan, and only pursues sat-cit vritti (the faculty of eternity and cognition), which although is a substance imbued with the divine lila of the Supreme, one attains darshana only of Paramatma. Therefore, the spiritual effulgence of Bhagavan’s sacchidananda form is the impersonal Brahman that is without cit and vilasa. And when He is present in the mood of aishvarya – that is Paramatma. In his Bhagavata-sandarbha, Srila Jiva Goswami states as follows:

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

tatha chaivam vishishtaye prapte purnavirbhavatvenakhanda-tattva-rupo’sau bhagavan/ brahma tu sphutam aprakatita-vaishishtya karatvena tasyevasamyagavirbhava ity agatam / When the Supreme completely reveals Himself He is known as Bhagavan, and in comparison to this the Brahman feature, where the transcendental form of the Lord is not manifested, is only a partial manifestation of the Supreme. (Anuccheda 4.1) yena hetu-karta atmamsa-bhuta-jiva-pravehsana-dvara sanjivitani santi dehadini tadupalkshanani pradhanadi-sarvany eva tattvani yenaiva preritayaiva charanti sva-sva karye pravartante tat paramatma rupam viddhi He enters the body of the jivas as the Paramatma and enlivens the body, senses, life-airs, and mental activities, and thus all the subtle and gross organs of the body begin their functions. (Anuccheda 4.4) jivasyatmatattvam tad-apekshaya tasya paramatvam ity atah paramatma-shabdena tat-sahayogi sa eva vyajyate iti

The

inclination

toward

Krishna in the griha-vrata is never aroused, either by the instructions of others, by their own efforts, or by a combination of both.

(Bhag. 7.5.30) The Paramatma feature of the Lord is then the constant companion of the conditioned souls, but He is always their super ior, and therefore He is called ‘Paramatma’, or ‘the Supreme Soul’. (Anuccheda 4.6)

Bhagavan is akhanda-tattva-rupa (the form of all tattvas), as He possesses all potencies due to His complete manifestations. Yet Brahman, who does not manifest similar attributes, is but a part of Bhagavan, or an incomplete manifestation. He is known as Paramatma because He directs all the activities within the universe and makes the jivas, who are His parts and parcels, enter into the world and activates them and gives them the propensity to

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

fulfill their minute independent desires. The jiva’s svarupa is the atma; one who by nature is superior to the jiva and the doer is known by the word ‘Paramatma’ and He is the jiva’s eternal companion.” (Cc. Adi 2.10 Anubhashya) Independence due to maya, or ignorance, results in voluntary subjection to duality. As a result of such secondary interests, a sense of discrimination arises in relation to the non-dual Absolute form of Vrajendra-nandana Krishna and His name, form, qualities and pastimes. Because of the fetters of material intelligence in relation to the form of Vishnu, and due to a continual lack of understanding of Bhagavan’s advaya-jnana, independent ideas such as jnanayoga etc. are imagined to be different ways to attain Brahman and Paramatma. The jiva then retires from accepting topics concerning devotion to Bhagavan and having invoked various philosophical ideas, he is shackled to the jungle of this material world. When one is completely free from the desire for jnana, karma etc. and only performs activities that please Krishna, that is the sign of uttama-bhakti (pure devotion). Those who wish to differ even a fraction from this point or desire to pollute it with some ‘alloy’ should be included amongst those who are abhaktas (non-devotees). They are unfit to be gurus. na te viduh svartha-gatim hi vishnum durasaya ye bahir-artha-maninah Because of their foolish activities and their belief that external sense objects are of great value, they are unaware that the ultimate goal of human life is to achieve Vishnu. (Bhag. 7.5.31) matir na krishne paratah svato va mitho ‘bhipadyeta griha-vratanam The inclination toward Krishna in the griha-vrata is never aroused, either by the instructions of others, by their own efforts, or by a combination of both. (Bhag. 7.5.30)

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

The difference between a grihastha and a griha-vrata has been explained in these verses from Bhagavatam. A griha-vrata is one who cannot understand Krishna. Realization of Krishna cannot be achieved simply through the instructions of others, through one’s own endeavors or by mutual discussions. This is because the activities of the senses never follow the complete, pure and eternally liberated direction of the Absolute. Attempts to follow the non-Absolute are the endeavors of the griha-vrati. The griha-vrati tries to enter that which is finite with a great deal of trouble. Anything within our sensuous jurisdiction cannot be Bhagavan. The good fortune to attain darshana of Krishna only arises when His maya potency is lifted. It is the dharma of the griha-vrati to always participate in discussions that neglect Krishna. Although externally they may seem the same, the difference between the grihastha who is a devotee of Bhagavan and the griha-vrati who is averse to Bhagavan is like the difference between heaven and hell. The exterior and interior of a house are not one. The grihastha devotee considers every object in his home as objects that are meant for serving Krishna and offers them to the transcendental senses of Krishna. But the non-devotee griha-medhi remains busy serving his own senses and ignores service to Krishna. The baddha-jiva has two tendencies – the avarana of maya (which covers the soul’s natural spiritual knowledge) and vikshepatmika (that which overwhelms the soul with ideas that have nothing to do with the Absolute Truth). Such foreign things are considered as an impediment and obstruct the jiva’s natural instinct to serve. It bewilders the jiva’s understanding of that which is to be understood and mutilates it. Two or three years ago we delivered a lecture in Madras. There we spoke on guru-tattva and we explained that, “The guru is not an impediment.” If we pretend to be guru, and somewhere down the line we decide to eat those things that are meant for Sri Bhagavan’s enjoyment, then we will be completely ruined and our disciples will be totally finished. The shastra says –

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

If t he guru b e c o mes at tac h ed to sen s e g rat ifi c at i o n , l o ses h i s sen se o f du t y, a n d f oll ow s a de grade d pat h , a pat h o th er t han de vo t i o n al servi c e to t h e Lo rd , he sh o ul d b e re je c ted. ( M ah ab h ara ta , U dyo ga Parva 179 .25)

yo vyakti nyaya rahitam nyayena Srinoti yah tabubhau narakam ghoram vrajatah kalamakshayam The guru who speaks contrary to the conclusions of the revealed scriptures and the disciple who hears such distorted conclusions, will both fall into the darkest regions of hell. (Hari Bhakti Vilasa 1.101) The example of opaque glass and transparent glass may be discussed. An object cannot be seen through opaque glass. Some obstacles appear between my eyes and the object that is to be seen. I can see something through a transparent object. Similarly we cannot take darshana of the Absolute Truth (para-tattva) through the medium of an opaque guru, or guru-bruva. Rather than offering everything that is given to him by his disciples to the lotus feet of Bhagavan, the guru-bruva consumes everything himself. Thus, having surrendered to such an opaque guru, the disciple is deprived of attaining real spirituality. With the exception of a Vaishnava, one who is a non-Vaishnava or an antiVaishnava cannot become a guru. The shastra states â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Â

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avaishnavopadishtena mantrena nirayam vrajet punas ca vidhina samyag grahayed vaishnavad guroh A mantra received from a non-Vaishnava transports one to hell. Thus one should again ask a Vaishnava guru to give the mantra in the proper manner. (Narada Pancharatra) Rajen Babu: Can’t a kanistha Vaishnava become a guru? Prabhupada: Kanistha, madhyama and uttama are the gradations amongst Vaishnavas. In the kanistha stage of Vaishnavism, only non-Vaishnavism is absent – this I shall explain in detail a little later. How can we deliberate upon adhikara and define who is a Vaishnava without taking shelter of a sad-guru? Only Gurudeva can explain adhikara. How can one who has never entered the domain of a devotee, who cannot himself understand anything, explain such things to others? If a non-Vaishnava sits on the seat of the guru, it amounts to sheer contempt of guru-tattva. guror apy avaliptasya karyakaryam ajanatah utpatha-pratipannasya parityago vidhiyate If the guru becomes attached to sense gratification, loses his sense of duty, and follows a degraded path, a path other than devotional service to the Lord, he should be rejected. (Mahabharata, Udyoga Parva 179.25) What is the point of approaching someone who instead of being guru (heavy) is laghu (light)? If you beat empty chaff with all your strength, will you be able to extract any grains? If my guide goes in the wrong direction, then I must retire from the journey. It is only proper to reject the shelter of such a guide. Srila Jiva Goswami Prabhu had said: vyavaharika-gurvadiparityagenapi paramartha-gurashrayo kartavyah A guru based upon mundane conventions should be rejected. One must accept a qualified spiritual master. (Bhakti-sandharba, Annucheda 210) Knowledge of a particular subject can only be obtained from one who has experience in that subject. If someone were given the position of a judge, how

One will never attain the mercy of Krishna if he tries to gratify and serve his wife, friend, servant, etc., instead of Krishna. Just as we serve our faithful sons in order to receive service from them later, similarly if I serve Krishna with the same mentality in the hope of gaining something, then I donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t offer myself as a servitor. Rather, we make that divine object our servant.

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would he judge if he has not even elementary knowledge of justice? One who has no knowledge of mathematics cannot teach that subject. If one wants to know how to swim, he must go to a swimmer; if one wishes to learn how to be a smithy, one must go to a smith. There is a shop near a house where things are purchased regularly. However, at present the shop is in a deplorable state and its products have become substandard. Yet the shop next to it sells wholesome fresh goods. Then what will the customer do? Will he continue to purchase inferior goods simply to honor tradition or will he choose the fresh items? If an inexperienced family doctor is incapable of treating a patient properly, is it not proper to consult a more knowledgeable doctor? In such a situation, if a good doctor is found in Switzerland, then he is brought in. Just as when one expects to find wealth from a pauper or wisdom from a fool, similarly there is the rule, andhenaiva niyamana yathaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ndha â&#x20AC;&#x201C; when a blind man leads another blind man, both will attain a dark destination and nothing more. Therefore one must approach a transparent guru. Such things demand cognitional activities and if an opaque guru comes in-between and creates an obstacle in achieving them, it becomes a matter of great misery. Thus, one must remember the Vaishnava principle of asat-sanga tyaga. A true Vaishnava does not make disciples. Where is the scope for him to lord over the world when he sees everything fully in the spirit of served and server (sevya-sevaka)? How is it possible for him to accept service offered by someone else? One who does not serve Bhagavan, but accepts anotherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s service on the pretext of serving others, is an atheist. Gurudeva is the messenger of the Para-tattva and a servant of the Absolute. One who steals the property of the Absolute is laghu (low), not guru (great). Taking from a disciple is indicative of laghutva. Accepting objects from a disciple is nothing more than accepting his stool and urine. It is the duty of the transparent guru to take all the service offered by the disciple to the lotus feet of Krishna.

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

The opaque guru makes disciples out of his greed for wealth and instead of offering the items dedicated to serve Krishna, he enjoys them himself, and thus he continuously deceives the disciple. GLOSSARY OF TERMS achara – proper conduct aishvarya – awe and reverence baddha-jiva – the living entity who is bound to the material world by his karma griha-medhi – a materialistic householder

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

the

Heart of Krishna

Srila Bhakti Pramoda Puri Maharaja 14

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

he Sanskrit word for ‘offense’ (aparadha) is explained etymologically as radhad arthad aradhanad apagatah – ‘to be distanced from worship.’ Offenses committed at the lotus feet of Vaishnavas, the devotees, distance one from devotional service to the Supreme Lord. But in a higher sense, it means to be removed from the service of Sri Radha. All divine service to Krishna is being conducted under her direction. To offend her servitors is to make one unfit for her divine service. The whole aim of Krishna consciousness is radha-dasyam, the divine service of Sri Radha, and offenses at the lotus feet of Vaishnavas make one unfit for such service.

The Lord is overly protective of his devotees (bhakta-vatsala). He cannot tolerate any offenses against them.They have bhakti (devotion), and they can awaken it within us. Bhakti is the sole means to attract Krishna, who is a slave of devotion. The same is true of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. The Chaitanya-bhagavata states: A person can attain the shelter of Mahaprabhu only by the grace of a higher Vaishnava. Religious practices and even chanting the Holy Name without devotion are useless.

If a person commits an offense at the lotus f e e t o f a Va i s h n a v a , e v e n t h o u g h h e m a y h a v e r e c e i v e d K r i s h n a’s m e r c y, h e w i l l n e v e r attain div ine love, prema. 15

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati Prabhupada writes in his commentary: Without developing a spirit of service, chanting the Holy Name is in vain. A natural desire to engage in service can only awaken in the heart when one receives the blessings of an unalloyed devotee. Here, ‘a natural desire to engage in service’ is the definition of bhakti. In the following verse, Vrindavana Dasa Thakura goes on to say: If a person commits an offense at the lotus feet of a Vaishnava, even though he may have received Krishna’s mercy, he will never attain divine love, prema. Srila Prabhupada writes: One who commits offenses to a Vaishnava becomes incapable of rendering pure devotion because he is committing offenses to the Holy Name. Although it may appear that such an offender is still being shown favor by the Lord as he continues to make a show of chanting without difficulty, the Lord is in fact very displeased with him because of his antagonism toward devotees. Therefore, in any discussion of namaparadha, it is always stressed that we must first give up sadhu-ninda or finding fault with devotees. Regarding the phrase krishna-krpa hoile-o (“even though he may have received Krishna’s mercy”) in Vrindavana Dasa’s verse quoted above, it is apparent that Srila Saraswati Thakura considers that an offender to the Vaishnavas is only making a pretense of chanting. Seeing him, people may think the Lord still favors him, but they are wrong. The Lord is not even slightly moved by their sham devotion.” The author of Chaitanya-bhagavata, Vrindavana Dasa Thakura, says that these statements are not his alone; they are the verdict of the Vedas. Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati Thakura did not tolerate any disrespect towards genuine Vaishnavas. Similarly, Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu also emphatically denounced any failure to show Vaishnava devotees the respect that is their due.

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

To understand the seriousness of Vaishnava aparadha, or offenses to devotees, one must grasp the multi-faceted, multi-dimensional nature of the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Lord Chaitanya appears in six aspects. He himself is the source of all incarnations in Kali Yuga and the savior of all souls. He is Krishna, the son of Maharaja Nanda, fully enriched with the mood and radiance of Sri Radha. In the same way that Mahaprabhu is Krishna, Nityananda Prabhu is Balarama, Krishna’s prakasha-vigraha. Balarama is the second member of the original catur-vyuha in Dvaraka (Vasudeva, Balarama, Pradyumna and Aniruddha), whose expansion in Vaikuntha is Sankarshana. Sankarshana’s partial expansion is Maha-Vishnu, who lies in the causal ocean for the sake of Krishna.This Maha-Vishnu appears in chaitanya lila as Advaita Acharya.What is left of Sri Radhika after Krishna has plundered Her emotions and luster is Sri Gadadhara Pandita. Mahaprabhu’s energies are Sri Gadadhara Pandita, Svarupa-damodara, Ramananda Raya and others. His devotees are led by Srivasa Thakura, who is Sri Narada Muni

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

in krishna-lila. The final aspect of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s six-fold manifestation consists of the two kinds of spiritual masters — the one who initiates the disciple in the spiritual path and the one who instructs him. The slightest disregard to any one of these six aspects of the Lord is equal to disregarding the Supreme Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu himself. Therefore Srila Krishna Dasa Kaviraja Goswami offers prayers to all of these manifestations in the very first verse of the Chaitanya-charitamrta: vande gurun isha-bhaktan ishan ishavatarakan tat-prakashams ca tac-chaktih krishna-caitanya-samjnakam I offer my obeisances unto both the instructing and initiating spiritual masters, the devotees led by Srivasa, the Lord’s avatars led by Advaita Prabhu, his expansions like Nityananda, his shaktis (energies) led by Gadadhara Pandit, and the primeval lord himself, Sri Krishna Chaitanya. (Cc. Adi 1.1) In the beginning of the second chapter of the Antya-lila of the Sri Chaitanyacharitamrita, Srila Krishna Dasa Kaviraja offers the following invocatory prayers (mangalacharana) to the same six truths, as well as to Krishna along with his beloved Radha and her girlfriends led by Lalita and Vishakha. In so doing, he shows special veneration for the Vaishnavas: vande’ham sri-guroh sri-yuta-pada-kamalam sri-gurun vaisnavamsh ca sri-rupam sagrajatam saha-gana-raghunathan vitam tam sa-jivam sadvaitam savadhutam parijana-sahitam krishna-caitanya-devam sri-radha-krishna-padan saha-gana-lalitasri-vishakhanvitamsh ca

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

I offer my obeisances unto the lotus feet of both my initiating and instructing spiritual masters, to all the preceptors in the disciplic succession and to all theVaishnavas. I offer my obeisances to Sri Rupa Goswami, his elder brother Sanatana, his other associates headed by Sri Raghunatha Dasa, and Sri Jiva. I further offer my obeisances to Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu along with Advaita Acharya, Nityananda Avadhuta and all his other associates. And finally, I offer my obeisances to the lotus feet of Sri Radha and Sri Krishna, along with all the gopis headed by Lalita and Vishakha. (Cc. Antyalila 2.1) Kaviraja Goswami writes further: Before beginning the narration of the pastimes of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, I invoke the benediction of Sri Guru, the Vaishnavas and the Divinity, simply by meditating on them. Such meditation destroys all detriments on the spiritual path, and helps one to fulfill all their desires. (Cc. Adi 11.10) We must note very carefully that the Vaishnavas have been included within the full conception of Divinity. Krishna Dasa Kaviraja not only invoked their blessings at the very beginning of his biography of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, but went on to glorify them throughout this master work. He describes theVaishnavas’ extraordinary qualities and the spiritual benefit resulting from serving them. He also makes several warnings regarding the disastrous effects of Vaishnava aparadha, stating for example: If a devotee commits Vaishnava aparadha, his offense is like a mad elephant uprooting and trampling his creeper of devotion; afterwards the creeper’s leaves dry up and become lifeless. (Cc. Madhya 19.156) Krishna Dasa describes three categories of Vaishnavas — kanistha (neophyte), madhyama (intermediate) and uttama (advanced). He further states that to gain shelter of a Vaishnava it is imperative to first receive the mercy of Nityananda Prabhu. In the following passage, he describes the characteristics of the uttama devotees that he personally knew:

Before beginning the narration of the pastimes of Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, I invoke the benediction of Sri Guru, the Vaishnavas and the Divinity, simply by meditating on them. Such meditation destroys all detriments on the spiritual path, and helps one to fulfill all their desires. (Cc. Adi 11.10)

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All of the Vaishnavas who live in Vrindavana are absorbed in singing the allauspicious name of Sri Krishna. Sri Mahaprabhu and Nityananda are their life and soul. They know nothing but devotion to Sri Radha and Krishna. My shelter at the Vaishnavas’ lotus feet has been granted only by the mercy of Nityananda Prabhu. (Cc. Adi 5.228-30) Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Saraswati Prabhupada highlights these characteristics in his Anubhashya: All the Vaishnavas living in the holy dhama of Sri Vrindavana are completely devoted to the all-auspicious holy name of Krishna and have taken shelter of the path of devotion, primarily by glorifying the Lord. Sriman Mahaprabhu and Nityananda are their life and soul.They accept no illegitimate forms of devotion; all they know is the eternal service of Sri Radha and Sri Krishna. Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura, a nitya-siddha (eternal associate) of the Lord, instructs us to pray to Mahaprabhu in order to get the association of pure devotees. When we find shelter in the shade of a Vaishnava’s lotus feet, we should shed tears of remorse with total humility, submitting to him the plight of our material existence, which is the result of turning away from Krishna. The Vaishnava is an ocean of compassion and feels the pain of others. When he pleads on our behalf to the Lord, Krishna responds and kindly accepts us as the followers of his favorites. Krishna’s mercy descends only through the Vaishnavas. There is Krishna and there is karshna. Krishna’s mercy is embodied in pure devotees, who are known as karshna. The lotus feet of a Vaishnava guru represent the mercy of the Lord. Krishna is the priceless treasure enthroned in Sri Guru’s heart. The Lord can easily give this treasure to those who are surrendered to his devotees. There is no other way to receive Krishna’s grace than to serve and take shelter at the lotus feet of a Vaishnava. Srila Kaviraja Goswami discusses the importance of honoring theVaishnava’s remnants, using the example of Sri Kali Dasa, the uncle of Raghunatha Dasa Goswami:

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Taking the food remnants of Vaishnavas is so potent it forced Mahaprabhu to shower His mercy upon Kali Dasa. Don’t hesitate. Eat the Vaishnava’s remnants and you will fulfill your heart’s desire. Food offered to Krishna is called maha-prasada. After maha-prasada has been taken by a devotee, his remnants are glorified as maha-maha-prasada.The dust of a pure devotee’s feet, the water of his footbath and his food remnants are three extremely potent spiritual substances. By honoring these three, one will be filled with ecstatic love for Krishna. All the scriptures declare this again and again. My dear devotees! Please hear me: believe in these three and honor them in a mood of service, and you will achieve the purpose of your existence — ecstatic love of Krishna. This is the greatest mercy of Krishna, and Kali Dasa is living proof. (Cc. Antya 16.57-63) Srila Bhaktivinoda Thakura has also written: When will Mahaprabhu shower His mercy upon me so I may have shelter in the shade of the Vaishnava’s lotus feet? I will humbly stand before him, giving up all pretension. Holding a straw between my teeth and weeping, I will tell him of my miserable existence. I will admit that my life is one never-ending misery and beg him to put an end to all of my suffering. The kind Vaishnava will beg Sri Krishna with all his might. Then Krishna, moved by the Vaishnava’s sincerity, will shower me with His divine grace. (Kalyana-kalpa-taru) In another song, Srila Bhaktivinoda writes: O Vaishnava Thakura, you are an ocean of mercy. Please shower your compassion upon me. Give me the shade of your lotus feet and purify my

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polluted heart. Sri Krishna is yours and you have the power to give Him to me! Knowing this, I am following you like a beggar, appealing for your mercy. (Sharanagati) Narottama Dasa Thakura glorifies the Vaishnavas with great enthusiasm in both his Prarthana and Prema-bhakti-candrika: I am so sinful; how can I possibly serve the Lord? I have no love for either my guru or the devotees. Constantly deluded by the unlimited illusory energy, I have not developed the least bit of affection for the Vaishnavas. Day and night, I am blinded by my desire for sense objects. The witch Maya is waiting to hang a noose around my neck. I have no power to resist her on my own. I am helpless without your mercy. I know that you never see the faults of anyone, so I am begging you — please save me. (Prarthana) Narottama’s songs are filled with wonderful glorification of Vaishnavas. All devotees treasure them as priceless instructions for increasing one’s devotion. From his childhood, Srila Bhaktisiddhanta Prabhupada chose Narottama’s songbook as his constant companion on the path of devotion.

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The Opulence of Bhagavan

Excerpted from Chapter Two of Bhagavad gita, with the Anuvrtti Commentary of Swami Narasingha

VERSE 1 sanjaya uvaca â&#x20AC;&#x201C; tam tatha kripayavishtam ashru-purnakulekshanam vishidantam idam vakyam uvaca madhusudanah Sanjaya said: Sri Krishna then spoke the following words to Arjuna whose heart was overwhelmed with pity and whose eyes were filled with tears.

VERSE 2 sri bhagavan uvaca â&#x20AC;&#x201C; kutas tva kashmalam idam vishame samupasthitam anarya-jushtam asvargyam akirti-karam arjuna Bhagavan Sri Krishna said: Arjuna, how has such illusion overcome you at this crucial moment? This is not appropriate for an honorable man, nor does it lead to higher planets. It is the cause of infamy. VERSE 3 klaibyam ma sma gamah partha naitat tvayy-upapadyate kshudram hridaya-daurbalyam tyaktvottishtha parantapa O Partha, give up this unmanliness. It does not befit you. O chastiser of enemies, get up and do not yield to this petty weakness of heart. VERSE 4 arjuna uvaca â&#x20AC;&#x201C; katham bhishmam aham sankhye dronam ca madhusudana ishubhih pratiyotsyami pujarhav-arisudana Arjuna replied: How can I counterattack such persons as Bhishma and Drona in battle, firing arrows at those who are worthy of my respect, O Madhusudana? VERSE 5 gurun ahatva hi mahanubhavan shreyo bhoktum bhaikshyam apiha loke hatvartha kamamstu gurun ihaiva bhunjiya bhogan rudhira-pradigdhan It is better to live in this world by begging than killing our respectable superiors. Otherwise, the wealth and property that we enjoy here in this world will be tainted with their blood.

VERSE 6 na caitad vidmah kataranno gariyo yadva jayema yadi va no jayeyuh yan eva hatva na jijivishamas te’vasthitah pramukhe dhartarashtrah I do not know what is better for us – to conquer them or be conquered by them. If we slay the sons of Dhritarashtra who are assembled here before us, I have no desire to live. VERSE 7 karpanya-doshopahata-svabhavah prichhami tvam dharma-sammudhachetah yachhreyah syan nishcitam bruhi tan me shishyaste’ham shadhi mam tvam prapannam My natural propensity as a warrior is weakening and I am bewildered as to what is righteousness. Kindly tell me what is most beneficial for me. I am your disciple, surrendered unto You. Please instruct me. VERSE 8 na hi prapashyami mamapanudyad yac chokam ucchoshanam indriyanam avapya bhumav-asapatnam riddham rajyam suranam api cadhipatyam Even if I gain a substantial kingdom beyond compare and the power of the demigods, I see nothing that can remove this grief that is eroding my senses.

Anuvritti

his second chapter is where the Bhagavad-gita truly begins. Bhagavad-gita literally means the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Song of Bhagavanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and Bhagavan means the Absolute Truth. Here for the first time in Bhagavad-gita, Sri Krishna is addressed as Bhagavan. According to Vedic scholars such as Parasara Muni, Bhagavan means one who possesses all wealth, strength, fame, beauty, knowledge and renunciation. aishvaryasya samagrasya viryasya yashasah shriyah jnana vairagyayos caiva shannah bhaga itingana He that possesses the attributes of sovereignty, potency, fame, wealth, knowledge and renunciation in full is known as Bhagavan. (Vishnu Purana 6.5.47)

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Additionally, Jiva Goswami, the 16th century Vaishnava philosopher, says that Bhagavan is bhajaniya guna ca ananta ca nityah â&#x20AC;&#x201C; He that possesses all adorable qualities and whose allattractive nature is such that He attracts our feelings of affection and adoration.

Krishna

Controller.

the

His

Supreme

form

made of bliss, knowledge and

eternity. He is the origin of

all. He is the Master of the cows and the senses. He has

no other origin and He is the

primeval cause of all causes. (Brahma-samhita 5.1)

In contemporary society there is much debate as to whether God exists or not. First it is necessary to define what we mean by â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; before His existence can be determined or dismissed. Accordingly, the seers of the truth in ancient India have concluded that if there is a God, then God must necessarily be the owner and proprietor of everything; He must be all powerful, the most famous, the most beautiful, the possessor of all knowledge and at the same time, detached or renounced. After careful analysis, those seers of truth concluded that only Sri Krishna could be and is the ultimate fountainhead of Reality, the Absolute Truth. These findings have been corroborated by many sages through the ages (from before 10,000 BCE) and are dealt with extensively throughout Vedic literatures such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Vedanta-sutra, Srimad Bhagavatam and Brahmasamhita etc.

ishvarah paramah krishnah sac-cid-ananda vigrahah anadir adir govindah sarva-karana-karanam Krishna is the Supreme Controller. His form is made of bliss, knowledge and eternity. He is the origin of all. He is the Master

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of the cows and the senses. He has no other origin and He is the primeval cause of all causes. (Brahma-samhita 5.1) ete camsha kalah pumsah krishnas tu bhagavan svayam indrari vyakulam lokam mridayanti yuge yuge The various avataras are either plenary expansions or parts of plenary expansions. But Krishna is the original source of all avataras. When impious elements disturb His devotees, He manifests age after age in order to protect them. (Srimad Bhagavatam 1.3.28) harir eva sadaradhyam sarva-deveshvareshvaram itare brahma-rudradya navaj-eyam kadacana Only Sri Hari (Krishna) should be worshiped as the Master of the entire universe. Brahma, Siva and all other demigods never violate this principle at any time. (Padma Purana) yatravatirnam krishnakhyam param brahma narakritim When the Supreme Person descends in His human-like form, He is Krishna, the Supreme Brahman. (Vishnu Purana 4.11.2) tasmat krishna eva paro devas tam dhyayet tam raset tam bhajet tam yajet Thus Krishna is the Supreme Person. One should meditate on Him. One should delight in Him. One should worship Him and make offerings to Him. (Gopala-tapani Upanishad 1.54) krishir bhu-vacakah shabdo nash ca nirvritti-vacakah tayor aikyam param brahma krishna ityabhidhiyate The syllable krish refers to the all-attractive quality of Krishna, and the syllable na refers to His spiritual bliss. When the verb krish is added to the affix na, it becomes the word Krishna, indicating the Supreme Truth. (Mahabharata, Udyoga-parva 71.4)

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Arjuna has become overwhelmed with compassion for those who are about to die on the battlefield. In fact, such is his grief that he himself is prepared to die rather than kill his enemies. But Arjuna is a warrior and from a noble family, therefore Krishna advises Arjuna against his weakness of heart. If one is a warrior it is one’s duty to face the enemy and not cower away. Fighting is indeed a nasty business, but when duty calls, such fighting may be unavoidable. In ancient times, acts of aggression were abhorred and strictly forbidden in society and between nations. When such aggression did occur, retaliation and war were acceptable. According to the great sage Vasishtha, there are six types of aggressors and according to Manu-samhita these aggressors are to be met with lethal response. agnido garadash caiva shastra-panir dhanapahah kshetra-darapahari ca shad ete hyatatayinah The arsonist who sets fire to one’s house, one who administers poison, one who attacks with deadly weapons, one who usurps a nations resources, one who invades and occupies a sovereign country and one who kidnaps one’s family members - all should be considered as aggressors. (Vasishtha-smriti 3.19) atatayinam ayantam hanyad eva vicarayan natatayi-vadhe dosho hantur bhavati kashcana Without hesitation a warrior should destroy aggressors, as there is no bad reaction in slaying them. (Manu-samhita 8.350) These verses are according to the rules given in the artha-shastra (laws of society). Yet the dharma-shastra (laws of dharma), which are superior to the artha-shastra, state that one should never inflict harm on any living being (ma himsyat sarva-bhutani) – what to say of one’s family members and superiors?

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This was Arjuna’s dilemma. Being a softhearted devotee of Sri Krishna, Arjuna was disinclined to take up arms against his family members, but being a warrior he had to face his destiny. In this state of bewilderment, Arjuna decided to put aside his casual relationship with Krishna as a friend and accept Sri Krishna as his guru (spiritual master). Thus Krishna accepted Arjuna as a disciple. According to Vedic knowledge there are numerous planets and parallel universes wherein life can be found. Some of these planets and universes have higher standards of living than we experience on earth and some are lower. If one performs one’s prescribed duties in this life then accordingly, one is elevated to higher planets. However, if one neglects his duty then only infamy and descending to lower planets awaits one in the next life. Krishna has used the word anarya meaning ‘non-aryan’ to describe Arjuna’s disinclination to follow his prescribed Vedic duties. For centuries there has been much controversy about who is aryan and where the aryans came from. For the most part, all such considerations have been based upon bodily designations in order to establish one race of people as superior to another. But in Bhagavadgita, according to the words of Sri Krishna, the aryans are those who carry out their duties in accordance with the Vedic injunctions. Thus it is understood that the word aryan does not pertain to a particular race of people, but to a conception of life and a way of living. Knowledge of the eternal existence of infinite consciousness (Krishna) and the finite individual unit of consciousness (atma or the self) is the key to all Vedic wisdom.

तत ्म ्अिस

बुं शरणं गािम

तत ्म ्अिस

बुं शरणं गािम

तत ्म ्अिस

बुं शरणं गािम

तत ्म ्अिस

बुं शरणं गािम

तत ्म ्अिस

बुं शरणं गािम

तत ्म ्अिस

बुं शरणं गािम

तत ्म ्अिस

बुं शरणं गािम

तत ्म ्अिस

MAYAVADA AND BUDDHISM Are They One and the Same? Swami B.V. Giri In the Padma Purana, there is a famous verse wherein Shiva tells Parvati that he will appear in the age of Kali as a brahmana to preach asat-shastra: mayavadam asat-shastram pracchanam-baudham ucyate mayaiva kalpitam devim kalau brahmana rupinah O goddess, in the age of Kali, I will appear in the form of a brahmana to preach the false doctrine of Mayavada which is simply covered Buddhism. (Padma Purana 6.236.7) Indisputably, the brahmana mentioned in the verse is none other than the great Indian philosopher of monistic Vedanta, Adi Shankara. A few verses later Shiva continues:

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vedarthan maha-shastram mayavadam avaidikam mayaiva kathitam devi jagatam nashakaranat This powerful doctrine of Mayavada resembles the Vedas, but is by nature non-Vedic. O goddess, I propagate this philosophy in order to destroy the world. (Padma Purana 6.236.11) The term ‘Mayavada’ refers to the Advaitic theory that the appearance of this world and the duality within it is due to maya – the illusory power of Brahman. This world is unreal and is a vivarta, or a modification through maya. Brahman is the only reality. There are various reasons why this theory is untenable, but that is not the topic of this article.

O goddess, in the age of Kali, I will appear in the form of a brahmana to preach the false doctrine of Mayavada which is simply covered

‘Mayavada’ is an expression that is Buddhism. (Padma Purana 6.236.7) rarely used by Advaitins in referring to themselves or their doctrine as it carries with it a derogatory implication. Adi Shankara himself referred to his philosophy as abheda-darshana (the theory of non-difference) or as dvaitavada-pratishedha (the denial of dualism). However, amongst scholars his philosophy is generally known as kevaladvaita-vada (the theory of absolute non-dualism) or simply Advaita. From the above verses from Padma Purana it is clear that even before it’s actual inception, Advaita philosophy was considered to be ‘covered Buddhism’. Shankara’s opponents such as Madhva, Ramanuja, Partha-sarathi Mishra and

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Bhaskara associated his teachings with Buddhism mainly due to his theory of nirguna Brahman and his concept of maya. Such accusations have always incensed the Mayavadis and they have strongly protested against such parallels and made great efforts to distance themselves from Buddhism, condemning it as absolute nihilism. SHANKARA’S ACCUSERS Bhaskara (9th Century CE), the propounder of bhedabheda-siddhanta was one of the earliest Indian philosophers to attack Mayavada. In his commentary on Vedanta-sutra, Bhaskara does not mention Shankara by name, nor does he mention the name of his philosophy. However by reviewing his arguments against the monistic doctrine of maya and the Advaitic concept of anirvachaniya, it is obvious who and what he is alluding to. Bhaskara is positively vitriolic when writing about the Advaitin’s concept of maya, referring to it’s adherents as bauddha-mata-valambin (those that cling to Buddhist ideology) and goes on to say that their philosophy reeks of Buddhism (bauddha-gandhin). Bhaskara concludes that, “No one but a drunkard could hold such theories” and that Mayavada is subversive of all shastrika knowledge: vigitam vicchinna-mulam mahayanika-bauddhagathitam mayavadam vyavarnayanto lokan vyamohayanti Expanding on the contradictory and baseless philosophy of maya propagated by the Mahayanika Buddhists, the Mayavadis have misled the whole world. (Bhaskara’s Brahma-sutra-bhashya 1.4.25) In his Siddha-traya, the Vaishnava philosopher Yamunacharya (917–1042 CE) stated that Buddhism and Mayavada was essentially the same thing. The only difference he could see was that while one was openly Buddhist (prakatasaugata), the other was simply covered (pracchana-saugata). Following on from Yamunacharya, his disciple Sri Ramanuja (1017-1137 CE) also concurred that Mayavada was another form of Buddhism. In his Sri Bhashya

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commentary on the Vedanta-sutras, Ramanuja says that to claim that nondifferentiated consciousness is real and all else is false is the same as the Buddhist concept of universal void. Furthermore, Ramanuja states that the concepts of such crypto-Buddhists make a mockery of the teachings of the Vedas (veda-vadacchadma pracchana-bauddha). Another acharya in the line of Ramanuja, Vedanta Deshika (1269–1370) wrote his famous Shata-dushini, a text expounding one hundred flaws found in Mayavada. In that work he refers to Shankara as a rahu-mimamsaka (one who obscures the true meaning of Vedanta), a bhrama-bhikshu (a confused beggar), a chadmaveshadhari – one who is disguised in false garb, and goes on to assert that, “By memorizing the arguments of the Shata-dushini like a parrot, one would be victorious over the crypto-Buddhists.” In another work, Paramata-bhangam, Vedanta Deshika refers to Shankara as, “One who studied the Vedas in the shop of a Madhyamika Buddhist” (referring to Shankara’s parama-guru Gaudapada of who, we will speak of later in this article). Later philosophers also declared Mayavada to be crypto-Buddhism.The Sankhya philosopher Vijnana-bhikshu (1550–1600 CE) tried to reconcile Vedanta with Sankhya philosophy and synthesize all theistic schools of Indian thought into a philosophy that he called Avibhagadvaita (indistinguishable non-dualism). He was an impartial writer who analyzed both the merits and problems of the various doctrines that he encountered. Concerning Shankara’s philosophy, Vijnana-bhikshu states in his Sankhya Pravachana Bhashya:

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brahma-mimamsayam kenapi sutrenavidya-matrato bandhasyanuktatat. avibhago vacanaditya-sutrair-brahma-mimamsaya abhipretas-yavibhaga-lakshanadraitasy-avidy adivastavatve’pyavirodhaccha. yat tu vedanta-bruvanamadhunikasya mayavadas-yatra lingam drshyate tat teshamapi vijnanavadyeka-deshitaya yuktameva. There is not a single Brahma-sutra in which bondage is declared to be a mere deception. As to the novel theory of maya propounded by vedanta-bruva (those who claim to be Vedantists), it is only another type of Buddhist of the Vijnanavada school (vijnana-vadyekadeshin). This theory has nothing to do with Vedanta and it should be understood that this doctrine of these new Buddhists, who assert the theory of maya and reduce our bondage to mere illusion is in this way refuted. (Sankhya Pravachana Bhashya 1.22) At this point in his work, Vijnana-bhikshu also quotes the famous verse from Padma Purana (mayavadam asat-chastram).Vijnana-bhikshu considered Buddhism to be nastikavada, or atheism, as it was opposed to Vedic thought. Thus, in effect, he was declaring Mayavadis to be out and out atheists. Amongst all acharyas and philosophers, Sri Madhvacharya was certainly the most hostile towards Shankara. Throughout his campaign to establish his philosophy of Dvaitavada, Madhva continuously attacked Mayavada, which he considered to be the worst kind of heresy. In his Anu-vyakhyana, Brhadbhashya and Tattvodyota, Madhva also makes the claim that the Advaitins are crypto-Buddhists – na ca shunyavadinah sakashad vailakshanyam mayavadinah (there is no doctrinal difference between Buddhism and Mayavada). He even quotes Buddhist texts and compares them to Advaitin works to prove his point. At this point it would only be fair to see what Shankara himself has to say about Buddhism.

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SHANKARA’S ‘CRITICISM’ OF BUDDHISM Shankara has long been glorified as being the principle architect behind Buddhism’s eventual decline in India. We do not know whether or not Shankara personally debated with Buddhist scholars since all the traditional hagiographies about him were written much later between the 14th and 17th Centuries and are an inextricable combination of legend and history. What is certain is that by the time Shankara came to prominence, Buddhism was already on the wane in India. Buddhist scholars coming from China lamented the collapse of the Buddhist sanga due to Muslim assaults and the invasion of the White Hunas (Shveta Hunas or Turushkas) in Northern India during the 6th Century CE. During this period there was a resurgence of Vedic thought due to the patronage of such royal dynasties as the Guptas. Thus Shankara cannot be fully credited with the fall of Indian Buddhism. During the time of Shankara there were three main schools of Buddhism – Vijnanavada (subjective idealism), Bahyarthavada (representationalism) and Madhyamika or Shunyavada (voidism). In his commentaries on the Upanishads, Shankara’s arguments against Buddhism are rather tame. However, when it comes to his refutations in his Brahma-sutra-bhashya, Shankara is quite derogatory and pens a vitriolic character assassination of Buddha: api ca bahyartha vijnana shunyavada trayam itaretara viruddham upadishata sugatena spandikritam atmano sambandha pralapitvam, pradvesho va prajasu viruddharthapratipattya vimuhyeyurimah praja iti.

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Thus by inventing three contradictory systems – the reality of the world, the reality of knowledge and total voidism – it is clear that Buddha was either a man who simply made delirious statements, or else he had a hatred for mankind that induced him to create such a stupid philosophy so that they would become confused. (Sharirkabhashya 2.2.32) Shankara indeed made efforts to refute some of the Buddhist concepts found in Vijnanavada and Bahyarthavada, but made no strong attempts to defeat Shunyavada. Shankara writes in his Saririka-bhasya: shunyavadi-pakshastu sarvapramanavipratishiddha iti tannirakaranaya nadarah kriyate. nahyayam sarvapramanaprasiddho lokavyavaharo’nyattattvamanadhigamya shakyate ‘pahnotumapavadabhava utsarga-prasiddheh The third type of Buddhist doctrine that states that everything is void is contradicted by all means of right knowledge and thus requires no special refutation. This apparent world, whose existence is guaranteed by all means of knowledge, cannot be denied unless someone should discover some new truth (based on which he could impugn its existence) – for a general principle is proved by the absence of contrary instances. (Sharirka-bhashya 2.2.31) Shankara dismisses Shunyavada as nihilism as it does not accept a higher reality after rejecting the phenomenal world. However, this accusation of Shankara’s is false since Shunyavada endorses the higher reality of the present moment directly experienced here and now. This is the only real criticism that Shankara makes of Shunyavada. Ultimately Shankara simply dismisses Shunyavada as being unworthy of criticism. It is obvious from his commentary that Shankara attempted to distance himself from Buddhism. Yet his casual dismissal of Shunyavada and his gross misinterpretation of its doctrine are suspicious and need to be analyzed further.

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MAYAVADIS APPLAUD BUDDHISM It would be unreasonable to simply accuse Shankara of being a crypto-Buddhist simply on the basis of what his opponents have said without further examining the reasons for such accusations. Throughout history, Mayavadis themselves recognized certain similarities between Buddhism and Advaitavada and have even complimented Buddhist ideology. The Advaitin scholar, Vimuktatman (9th Century CE) agrees with Shankara that Shunyavada Buddhism is nihilism, but admits in his famous work Ishta-siddhi that if the Buddhists mean maya when they use the term asat, then their position is similar to that of the Vedantin. Similarly, Sadananda Yogindra states that if the Buddhists define shunya as, ‘That which is beyond the intellect,’ then the Buddhist is actually a Vedantist. Although the Advaitin Sriharsha accepts some differences between Advaita and Buddhism, he considers both schools of thought to be similar. Later, Sriharsha’s commentator Chitsukha even comes to the rescue of the Shunyavada Buddhists by fending off the Vedic Mimamsakas when they attack the Buddhist concept of ignorance (samvritti). The Advaitin scholar Vachaspati Mishra (900-980 CE) shows appreciation for the Buddhists when he states in his Bhamati commentary that the Buddhists of the Shunyavada school were advanced in thought (prakristamati). If ‘imitation is the highest form of flattery’, then it certainly must have been true when Shankara plagiarized the famous Buddhist scholar Dharmakirti by directly lifting verses from Dharmakirti’s Pramana-vinishchaya and using them in his Upadesha-sahasri. One example is the following: abhinno’pi hi buddhyatma viparyasitadarshanaih grahya-grahaka-samittir bhedavan iva lakshyate

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The intellect itself, though indivisible, is looked upon by deluded people as consisting of the divisions of the knower, knowing and the known. (Upadesha-sahasri.18.142) GAUDAPADA – BUDDHIST OR ADVAITIN? Shankara’s doctrine of maya has been one of the principle reasons that he has been accused of being a closet Buddhist. Yet it was actually Shankara’s parama-guru, Gaudapada who posited the idea of maya or ajativada in his famous Mandukya-karika. Ajativada refers to the theory of non-creation. In his karika Gaudapada claims that the world of appearances is actually maya and does not factually exist. So this theory of maya/ajativada does not originate with Shankara. However, it does not originate with Gaudapada either… Prior to Gaudapada, it was Nagarjuna that first postulated the concept of ajativada in his Madhyamika-karikas. In his Mandukya-karika, Gaudapada writes: khyapyamanamajatim tairanumodamahe vayam vivadamo na taih sardhamavivadam nibodhata We approve of the ajati declared by them (the Buddhists). We do not quarrel with them. (Mandukya-karika 4.5) It is even affirmed by Shankara himself that Gaudapada accepted the arguments of the Buddhists regarding ajativada: vijnanavadino bauddhasya vacanam bahyarthavadi-paksha-pratishedha-param acaryena anumoditam The acharya (Gaudapada) has accepted the words of the Vijnanavada Buddhist (Nagarjuna) to prove the unreality of external things. (Shankara’s commentary on Gaudapada’s Karika 4.27)

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Gaudapada’s affiliation with Buddhism does not stop there. Gaudapada also gives arguments that are akin to those of the Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu in order to prove that the phenomenal world is unreal by equating the dream state with the waking state. Furthermore, the two illustrations of the city of the Gandharvas (gandharva-nagara) and the magic elephant (maya-hasti) that Gaudapada uses in his karika to prove the illusory nature of the world are both found in Mahayana Buddhist literature. In the fourth chapter of Mandukya-karika a case of similar terminology is found between Gaudapada and Nagarjuna. Gaudapada writes in his karika (4.7): prakriter anyathabhavo na katham cid bhavishyati And we find a similar verse in Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka-karika (15.8):

The

concept

‘two

truths’ did not originate with Shankara but with the

Buddhist

scholar

Nagarjuna

prakriter anyathabhavo na hi jatupapadyate The title of the fourth chapter of his karika is Alatashanti (circle of fire) which is a word commonly found in Buddhist texts. But probably the biggest giveaway is in the fourth chapter of the karika: nivrittasyapravrittasya nishcala hi tada sthitih vishayah sa hi buddhanam tatsamyamajamadvayam Thus, the mind freed from attachment and undistracted attains a state of immutability. Being realized by the wise, it is undifferentiated, birthless and non-dual. (Mandukya-karika 4.80)

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upalambhatsamacaradastivastutvavadinam jatistu deshita buddhaih ajatestrasata sada For those who, from their own experience and right conduct, believe in the existence of substantiality, and who are ever afraid of the birthless, instruction regarding birth has been imparted by the wise. (Mandukyakarika 4.42) The Sanskrit word Gaudapada has chosen to refer to the wise is ‘buddha’! Scholars have pointed out that Gaudapada’s method of dialectical analysis almost mirrors that of Nagarjuna, thus it is obvious that Mahayana Buddhism heavily influenced Shankara’s parama-guru. Despite glaring proof to the contrary, Gaudapada still tried to distance himself from Buddhism by writing at the end of the fourth Chapter of his work, naitad buddhena bhasitam – “My views are not the views held by Buddha.” Indeed, Gaudapada’s karika is permeated so much with Madhyanika Buddhist thought that some scholars have suggested that he may have previously been a follower of Nagarjuna. BUDDHIST CONCEPTS WITHIN MAYAVADA We will now examine other examples where Buddhism has infiltrated Mayavada philosophy. Two Truths Shankara postulates that there are two ways of looking at the world. There is a conventional perspective (vyavaharika-satya) where the world appears to be

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pluralistic, and there is the higher perspective (paramarthika satya) where one realizes that all duality is simply illusory and everything is Brahman. However, this concept of ‘two truths’ did not originate with Shankara but with the Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna. Nagarjuna refers to these two truths as samvritti-satta and paramartha-satta. Nagarjuna’s theory was enthusiastically taken up by Shankara in order to explain higher and lower fields of knowledge. The Non-Existence of the Universe Buddhism states that the universe is unreal (asat). Since its origin is shunya and it ends in shunya, logically, its interim must also be shunya. Thus they conclude that ultimately the element of time also does not exist. This means that the sum-total of everything in the universe is shunya. Shankara also posits the same idea when he states jagat-mithya – the universe is false. Shankara rejects all three phases of time (past, present and future) when he writes in his Dasha-shloki: na jagran na me svapnako va sushuptir I do not experience the waking state, the dream state nor the state of deep sleep. (Dasha-shloki 6) If one dissolves all states of being that we experience (waking, dreaming and deep sleep), then naturally this eliminates time itself and the only ‘property’ remaining is void, or shunya. Shankara describes the ultimate cause of the universe as avidya (ignorance). It has no past, present and future. However, conveniently, Shankara explains that this avidya cannot be fully explained philosophically because of its immense propensity – thus he calls it anirvachaniya (inexplicable). Both the asat of the Buddhist and the anirvachaniya of the Mayavadi accept the momentary ‘reality’ of the universe (vyavaharika-satya), it’s ultimate falsity (paramarthika-satya) and its incomprehensible nature – thus asat and anirvachaniya are one and the same thing.

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Whereas Buddhists refer to the phenomenal universe as an impression (samskara), Shankara says that it is like a dream (svapna). However, this is just a matter of semantics â&#x20AC;&#x201C; both dreams and impressions are in essence the same thing since they only occur on the mental platform. Ignorance Both the Mayavadi and the Buddhist agree that ignorance is the cause of suffering. The Mayavadi calls this avidya and the Buddhist refers to this as samvritti. The Mayavadis go to great lengths to make differentiations between the two. However, the Buddhist scholar Chandrakirti gives the following etymological meaning of samvritti: Samvritti is not knowing, caused by the veil of avidya, common to all. (Prasannapada 24.8.492.10) Thus we conclude that the two terms are actually non-different. Sadhana The Mayavadi claims that the method of achieving moksha is realization of the non-difference between the atma and Brahman. The Buddhist says that realization that everything is ultimately shunya is the sadhana to attain liberation. Shankara defines moksha thus: brahma bhinnatva-vijnanam bhava-mokshasya karanam yenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;advitiyam anandam brahma sampadyate budhaih The realization of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inseparable oneness with Brahman is the means of liberation from temporal existence, by which the wise person achieves the non-dual, blissful nature of Brahman. (Viveka-chudamani 223) This theory is identical with the Buddhist concept of prajna. In Buddhism, when the causes of bondage are eliminated one attains realization of shunya which leads to liberation. This realization is known as prajna.

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Moksha and Nirvana Advaita defines moksha as the removal of avidya. Buddhists say that by the removal of samvritti, one attains nirvana. Both conceptions of liberation are identical. Brahman and Shunya Once again, the Mayavadis go to great lengths to prove that their concept of Brahman and the Buddhist concept of shunya are totally different. The Mayavadis argue that by attaining Brahman one achieves ananda, but there is no ananda in shunya. However, the great Dvaita scholar Raghuttama Tirtha has shown that there is no distinction between the two: You Mayavadis desire to become Brahman or to become bliss. You do not say, ‘We want to experience bliss.’You say, ‘We want to become bliss’. When one becomes bliss, according to you, one has no consciousness of bliss. One does not enjoy bliss because you don’t believe that there is any consciousness of any enjoyment in that condition because you say the Self cannot become the object of Self-consciousness. According to you, Brahman is merely bliss and light. This cannot be the highest end. It is a state of inertness. It is thus like saying, ‘I do not want to taste sugar, or its sweetness – but I wish to become sugar.’ What is the good of one’s becoming sugar, if one has no consciousness of its sweetness? The lack of consciousness cannot be the highest end of man; in fact, there is no difference in this unconscious brahma-bhava of the Mayavadi, and the shunya-bhava of the Buddhists. (Bhava-bodha sub-commentary of the Brihad-bhashya) According to the Advaitin conception, Brahman is nirguna (without any qualities). But logically speaking, something that is without any attributes whatsoever is as good as nothing (shunya). If something has eternal existence (as the Mayavadis claim Brahman has) then it must have attributes, otherwise it is nothing. Since the Mayavadis Brahman and the Buddhists shunya both have no attributes, they must be identical.

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Conclusion The concepts of maya, avidya, vyayaharika-satya and paramarthika-satya, advaya, prajna, the unreality of the universe and time and the attributeless Brahman are all Buddhist contributions, without which there would be no Advaita philosophy. It thus becomes obvious why Shankara was disinclined to launch an all out attack upon Shunyavada Buddhism when he and his predecessor Gaudapada had appropriated so much from that doctrine. In conclusion, by carefully analyzing the above points it would seem that Shankaraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s detractors were correct in assessing that his philosophy was cryptoBuddhism. It can clearly be observed that Shankara and Gaudapada attempted to amalgamate Buddhist epistemology and psychology with the metaphysics of the Upanishads and Vedanta. Thus, from an orthodox standpoint, this automatically disqualifies Advaitavada as a traditional school of Vedic thought.

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Sindhu River

how india got her name

The Sindhu River is one of the great holy rivers of India, from which the name of India is derived. Unlike other holy rivers in India such as the Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati, the Sindhu is masculine. The Sindhu is virtually unknown to people in western countries, but for the people of India it has great significance. Indeed, the Sindhu gave birth to the earliest of India’s civilizations known as the Indus Valley Civilization. For those readers who know their history, then the names of ancient cities and archaeological digs at places like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro will be familiar — the land of the ‘Aryan Invasion’ – a topic of much debate, even after more than 200 years of research and scholarly studies. But one fact is for sure — human civilization along the banks of the Sindhu River has been present since hoary antiquity. Archaeological evidence shows human habitation along the Sindhu for at least the past 17,000 years. In truth, the name Sindhu is older than civilization itself and is mentioned in the classical histories of ancient India such as the Rig Veda (170 times), the Puranas and in the Iranic Zend Avesta. On modern world maps the Sindhu is marked as the Indus.

Lake Manasarovar

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By S wa m i N a ra s i n g h a

Beginning at Lake Manasarovara, at the base of Mount Kailasa (the mountain sacred to Shiva) on the eastern side of the Himalayas in what is now western China (old Tibet), the Sindhu/Indus flows westward crossing into India into the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir. The Sindhu then takes a southerly route, traverses the plains of Pakistan and merges into the Arabian Sea near the port of Karachi – a journey of 3,180 kilometers (1,980 miles). According to the Mahabharata (Bhishmaparva, ch.6, Verse 48) the spiritual – sometimes considered mythical – origin of the Sindhu River is stated as being due to the austerities of King Bhagiratha in Satya-yuga. Bhagiratha was attempting to free his ancestors from bad karma and their suffering in the lower planetary systems of Patala-loka. After performing his penance Bhagiratha summoned the sacred River Ganges to Earth. The Mount Kailasa Ganges descended from the heavenly planets and thereafter formed six separate rivers – three flowing to the east (the Hladini, Pavani and Nalini), and three flowing to the west (the Suchakshus, Sita and Sindhu). The seventh branch, the Ganga, then flowed from the Himalayas to Ganga-sagara, entering the Bay of Bengal, and then down to Patala-loka. If not mythical, then the story of King Bhagiratha and the Sindhu is certainly mystical and no doubt took place a long time ago when the world was quite different.

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Indeed, the etymology of the name of ‘India’ takes us on a journey back in time and is also closely associated with famous personalities in western history such as King Darius of Persia, Alexander the Great, Megasthenes and others.

Alexander the Great

In bygone days, the people living east of the Sindhu commonly referred to themselves as Aryans – a term originating from the Sanskrit word arya, a self-designation meaning “honorable, respectable and noble”. But for the Arabs, west of the Sindhu, they were the al-Hindus, and for the Persians they were the Hindus.

It only came to pass, after centuries of use, that the word Hindu came to designate a people with particular religious beliefs. In the beginning ‘Hindu’ was simply a general designation for anyone living east of, or along the banks of the Sindhu. It also came to pass that the word Hindu became Sanskritized and the land of the Hindus became known as Hindustan, meaning ‘land of the Hindus’ — a name that is still in use today in India. Thousands of years ago the people living between the Sindhu and the Himalayas called their land Bharata-varsa, the land ruled by Maharaja Bharata (in Tretayuga), a character of great repute who is mentioned repeatedly throughout the Puranas. Prior to the reign of Maharaja Bharata, the land of Bharata-varsa and for that matter the entire planet Earth was referred to by the Aryans as Ajanabha (thus indicating a One World Culture once upon a time). West of the Sindhu was the empire of Persia – an empire so vast that it stretched from the Sindhu to the Mediterranean Sea. Though originally part of Bharata-varsa, Persia’s ancestors had lost their connection to Aryan culture

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in Bharata-varsa, and well before the time of the Mahabharata War in 3138 BCE they had become known amongst the Aryans as Yavanas.Yavana is derived from the Pali word Yona, also used to identify the Greeks. These Yavanas were also sometimes referred to as Mlecchas. In Bharata-varsa lived two half-brothers, Vasistha Muni and Jarutha (circa 6000 BCE).Â The brothers quarreled over theistic issues and afterwards Jarutha traveled west of the Sindhu to present day Iran in search of converts, eventually converting a king named Vistaspa.Â Jarutha had a philosophy of his own liking, quite different from that found in the traditional Aryan (Vedic) literature, but in the kingdom of Vistaspa, Jarutha found acceptance. Thus began the religion of the Zoroastrians and its founder, Jarutha, became known as Zarathustra or Zoroaster.

Himalayas 54

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Incidentally, for the people of China during the early period, the land between the Himalayas and the Sindhu was called ‘Yin Du’ and for the people of Japan, pre-modern India was known as ‘Tenjiku’ meaning ‘the Heavenly Center of the World’. In his book Indica, while recounting the exploits of Alexander the Great, the Greek writer Megasthenes calls the mighty Sindhu the ‘Indus’ (the name still retained today). Thus Indus is a Hellenic derivative of the Persian and Arab word Hindu, from the Sanskrit Sindhu. Greeks also called the land east of the Indus ‘Indike’ or ‘Indica’. And from the Greek we finally arrive at the English spelling ‘India’ first used by King Alfred (circa 9th Century) in his translation of the writings of Paulus Orosius, a Christian apologist (circa 375) who wrote in defense of the Pagan idea that the Roman Empire had declined due to its acceptance of Christianity. Pangong Lake Thus a modern nation attained her name “India” – beginning with the Sanskrit ‘Sindhu,’ to the Persian ‘Hindu’, to the Hellenic ‘Indu’ and ‘Indica’, to the English, the name of India and a nationality of people was born. In contemporary times the sentiment of many Indians is to change the Europeanized names of their cities back to their original names. Bombay has changed to Mumbai, Madras to Chennai, Bangalore to Bengaluru, Mangalore to Mangaluru and so on. One wonders then if India will eventually return to her original Sanskrit name of Bharata-varsa? *1-foot note

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I recently took a trip to Ladakh primarily to have a darshan of the Sindhu River and to complete my having visited all the main holy rivers of India, namely the Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada, Kaveri and Sindhu. It was a rewarding experience in all respects, and as for the landscape in and around the Sindhu Valley, it was absolutely stunning â&#x20AC;&#x201C; snow capped peaks, glaciers, rivers, an inland salt-water sea (Pangong Lake) and rugged mountain people of Tibetan Buddhist descent.

Travelers such as myself have been coming to Nicolas Notovitch Ladakh for a very long time. Legend has it that Jesus of Nazareth traveled to India/Ladakh in his youth to study the teachings of the great Buddha. In the 19th Century, Nicolas Notovitch, a Russian aristocrat traveling in Ladakh, reportedly happened upon a remote mountain valley and visited the monastery of Hemis, belonging to the Drukpa lineage of Buddhism. There, Notovitch claims to have discovered an ancient manuscript/gospel that described Jesus (Issa) as having come to Ladakh and studied with Buddhist monks. Notovitch claimed that at the monastery of Hemis he discovered the Gospel ofÂ the Life of Saint Issa, Best of the Sons of Men. His story was published in French Hemis Monestary in 1894 and was later translated

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Swami Narasingha talking to Monk at Hemis Monestary into German, English, Spanish and Italian — a popular book for the public, but one that created quite a stir in scholarly communities. As far-fetched as Notovitch’s story may sound to many of us, it is plausible that Jesus may have come to India at one time or another. The Third Century Christian prophet Mani (founder of Manichaeism) is well documented as having come to India and studied Buddhism – something that he later introduced into Gnostic Christianity and which flourished between the Third and Seventh Centuries. At its height Manichaeism was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. So if Mani did it, why not Jesus? Christian Gnostic Gospels also account the story of Jesus sending his disciple Thomas to India to preach the word of God, so it may not be absurd at all to entertain the idea that Jesus may have come to India and even to Ladakh.

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Notovitch’s story intrigued me, so I decided to visit Hemis Monastery to see if I could get verification. The monastery was very old, in a secluded valley, well maintained and the monks were friendly and accommodating. When asking the monks if they had any books, records or information about the Christian messiah (Issa/Jesus) ever having come to Hemis to study Buddhism, they looked curiously at each other and laughed. Then a senior monk respectfully and with folded hands replied that many western people have come to Hemis with the same question, but that there are no such books or records in their monastery that could verify the story of Notovitch. It seems Nicolas Notovitch was either a trickster, a man with a wild imagination or both. In any case, I wasn’t able to find suitable proof for Notovitch’s story. Incidentally, I found out later that shortly after the publication of Notovitch’s book in 1894, the head lama of the Hemis Monastery signed a document stating that Notovitch’s story was a complete hoax. But if you are looking for a place to visit, rich in culture and history, with fantastic landscapes and a photographers dream come true — then you definitely should visit Ladakh. And while you are there, have a darshan of the Sindhu River.

*1-footnote: The first Article of the Constitution of India (1949) states that, “India, that is Bharat, shall be a union of states.” Thus, India and Bharat are equally official short names for the Republic of India. Indians commonly refer to their country as Bharat, India, or Hindustan, depending on the context and language of conversation. This is even printed on their money.

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

Tiksey Monestary

Pangong Loke

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Snowcapped Mountains -1

Snowcapped Mountains -2

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Buddha Statue at Tiksey

Hemis Scripture

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Hemis Monk at Prayer

Butter-Lamp

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Prayer Flags

Stupas - 2

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Stupas - 1

Mural

The India Stock Photography Resource

www.indiastockphotography.com Ladakh is one of the most exhilarating places on the planet, bound by some of the world's biggest mountain ranges such as Himalayas, Karakoram and Zanskar. Ladakh is a high altitude desert ranging from 2750 m (9,000 ft) to 7637 m (25,170 ft). It consists of some of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s highest mountain passes, extremely elevated snow capped peaks and is home to some of the largest glaciers in the world. This makes Ladakh one of the most extreme inhabited regions in the world. Ladakh is sparsely populated and most of the villages are restricted to narrow strips of valleys next to the flowing rivers coming down from the mountain glaciers. The culture of Ladakh contrasts greatly with the rest of India, since it is largely influenced by Tibetan Buddhism and home to many nomadic mountain tribes and their culture. Ladakh is dotted with many ancient Buddhist monasteries called gompas, where Buddhist monks and nuns live, study and practice their beliefs and way of life. These gompas belong to different sects of Buddhism. Annually one can witness many fairs and festivals performed at these monasteries which depict the culture of the Ladakhi people. The River Indus, which was originally known as "Sindhu" (one of the 7 holy rivers mentioned in the Vedas), flows through Ladakh alongside monasteries and village settlements. From times immemorial, Ladakh has attracted many intrepid travelers, explorers, pilgrims, tradesmen, mountaineers, adventurists and in the recent times, photography enthusiasts. Here is how Ram Mohan saw Ladakh thru the lens.

End of the Wheel

Rustic Monk

Monastery Wall

Hilltop Monastery

Pashmina Goats

Leh Palace

Stupas in Himalayas

Rough Rally

Prayers in the wind

Himalayan Peaks

Snow Peaks

Pangong Lake

Wall Murals

Serene Mountains

Thicksey Monastery

The India Stock Photography Resource

www.indiastockphotography.com

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The History of Numbers

Swami Vishnu

umbers and counting have become an integral part of our everyday life, especially when we take into account the modern computer. These words you are reading have been recorded on a computer using a code of ones and zeros. It is an interesting story how these digits have come to dominate our world. Numbers Around the World Presently, the earliest known archaeological evidence of any form of writing or counting are scratch marks on a bone from 150,000 years ago. But the first really solid evidence of counting, in the form of the number one, is from a mere twenty-thousand years ago. An ishango bone was found in the Congo with two identical markings of sixty scratches each and equally numbered groups on the back. These markings are a certain indication of counting and they mark a defining moment in western civilization.1 Zoologists tell us that mammals other than humans are only able to count up to three or four, while our early ancestors were able to count further. They believed that the necessity for numbers became more apparent when humans started to build their own houses, as opposed to living in caves and the like. Anthropologists tell us that in Suma, in about 4,000 BCE, Sumerians used tokens to represent numbers, an improvement over notches in a stick or bone. A very important development from using tokens to represent numbers was that in addition to adding tokens you can also take away, giving birth to arithmetic, an event of major significance.The Sumerianâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tokens made possible the arithmetic required for them to assess wealth, calculate profit and loss and even more importantly, to collect taxes, as well as keep permanent records. The

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standard belief is that in this way numbers became the world’s first writings and thus accounting was born.

More primitive societies, such as the Wiligree of Central Australia, never used numbers, nor felt the need for them. We may ask, why then did the Sumerians on the other side of the world feel the need for simple mathematics? The answer of course, was because they lived in cities which required organizing. For example, grain needed to be stored and determining how much each citizen received required arithmetic. Egyptians loved all big things, such as big buildings, big statues and big armies. They developed numbers of drudgery for everyday labor and large numbers for aristocrats, such as a thousand, ten thousand and even a million. The Egyptians transformation of using “one” from counting things to measuring things was of great significance. Their enthusiasm for building required accurate measurements so they defined their own version of “one.” A cubit was defined as the length of a mans arm

G a u d i y a To u c h s t o n e

from elbow to finger tips plus the width of his palm. Using this standardized measure of â&#x20AC;&#x153;oneâ&#x20AC;? the Egyptians completed vast construction projects, such as their great pyramids, with astonishing accuracy. Two and a half thousand years ago, in 520 BCE, Pythagorus founded his vegetarian school of math in Greece. Pythagorus was intrigued by whole numbers, noticing that pleasing harmonies are combinations of whole numbers. Convinced that the number one was the basis of the universe, he tried to make all three sides of a triangle an exact number of units, a feat which he was not able to accomplish. He was thus defeated by his own favorite geometrical shape, one for which he would be forever famous. His Pythagorean theorem has been credited to him, even though ancient Indian texts, the Sulva Sutras (800 BCE) and the Shatapatha Brahmana (8th to 6th centuries BCE) prove that this theorem was known in India some two thousand years before his birth. Later in the third century BCE, Archimedes, the renowned Greek scientist, who loved to play games with numbers, entered the realm of the unimaginable, trying to calculate such things as how many grains of sand would fill the entire universe. Some of these intellectual exercises proved to be useful, such as turning a sphere into a cylinder. His formula was later used to take a globe and turn it into a flat map. Romans invading Greece were interested in power, not abstract mathematics. They killed Archimedes in 212 BCE and thereby impeded the development of mathematics. Their system of Roman numerals was too complicated for calculating, so actual counting had to be done on a counting board, an early form of the abacus. Although the usage of the Roman numeral system spread all over Europe and remained the dominant numeral system for more than five hundred years, not a single Roman mathematician is celebrated today. The Romans were more interested in using numbers to record their conquests and count dead bodies.

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Numbers in Early India In India, emphasis was not on military organization but in finding enlightenment. Indians, as early as 500 BCE, devised a system of different symbols for every number from one to nine, a system that came to be called Arabic numerals, because they spread first to Islamic countries before reaching Europe centuries later. What is historically known goes back to the days of the Harappan civilization (2,600-3,000 BCE). Since this Indian civilization delved into commerce and cultural activities, it was only natural that they devise systems of weights and measurements. For example a bronze rod marked in units of 0.367 inches was discovered and points to the degree of accuracy they demanded. Evidently, such accuracy was required for town planning and construction projects. Weights corresponding to units of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 have been discovered and they obviously played important parts in the development of trade and commerce. It seems clear from the early Sanskrit works on mathematics that the insistent demand of the times was there, for these books are full of problems of trade and social relationships involving complicated calculations. There are problems

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dealing with taxation, debt and interest, problems of partnership, barter and exchange, and the calculation of the fineness of gold. The complexities of society, government operations and extensive trade required simpler methods of calculation. Earliest Indian Literary and Archaeological References When we discuss the numerals of today’s decimal number system we usually refer to them as “Arabian numbers.” Their origin, however, is in India, where they were first published in the Lokavibhaga on the 28th of August 458 AD. This Jain astronomical work, Lokavibhaga or “Parts of the Universe,” is the earliest document clearly exhibiting familiarity with the decimal system. One section of this same work gives detailed astronomical observations that confirm to modern scholars that this was written on the date it claimed to be written: 25 August 458 CE (Julian calendar). As Ifrah 2 points out, this information not only allows us to date the document with precision, but also proves its authenticity. Should anyone doubt this astronomical information, it should be pointed out that to falsify such data requires a much greater understanding and skill than it does to make the original calculations. The origin of the modern decimal-based place value system is ascribed to the Indian mathematician Aryabhata I, 498 CE. Using Sanskrit numeral words for the digits, Aryabhata stated “Sthanam sthanam dasa gunam” or “place to place is ten times in value.” The oldest record of this value place assignment is in a document recorded in 594 CE, a donation charter of Dadda III of Sankheda in the Bharukachcha region.

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The earliest recorded inscription of decimal digits to include the symbol for the digit zero, a small circle, was found at the Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior, India, dated 876 CE. This Sanskrit inscription states that a garden was planted to produce flowers for temple worship and calculations were needed to assure they had enough flowers. Fifty garlands are mentioned (line 20), here 50 and 270 are written with zero. It is accepted as the undisputed proof of the first use of zero. The usage of zero along with the other nine digits opened up a whole new world of science for the Indians. Indeed Indian astronomers were centuries ahead of the Christian world. The Indian scientists discovered that the earth spins on its axis and moves around the sun, a fact that Copernicus in Europe didn’t understand until a thousand years later—a discovery that he would have been persecuted for, had he lived longer. From these and other sources there can be no doubt that our modern system of arithmetic—differing only in variations on the symbols used for the digits and minor details of computational schemes—originated in India at least by 510 CE and quite possibly by 458 CE. The first sign that the Indian numerals were moving west comes from a source which predates the rise of the Arab nations. In 662 AD Severus Sebokht, a Nestorian bishop who lived in Keneshra on the Euphrates river, wrote regarding the Indian system of calculation with decimal numerals: “ ... more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians, and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description...” 3 This passage clearly indicates that knowledge of the Indian number system was known in lands soon to become part of the Arab world as early as the seventh century. The passage itself, of course, would certainly suggest that few people in that part of the world knew anything of the system. Severus Sebokht as a Christian bishop would have been interested in calculating the date of Easter (a problem to Christian churches for many hundreds of years). This may have

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encouraged him to find out about the astronomy works of the Indians and in these, of course, he would find the arithmetic of the nine symbols. The Decimal Number System The Indian numerals are elements of Sanskrit and existed in several variants well before their formal publication during the late Gupta Period (c. 320-540 CE). In contrast to all earlier number systems, the Indian numerals did not relate to fingers, pebbles, sticks or other physical objects.

The development of this system hinged on three key abstract (and certainly non-intuitive) principles: (a) Â The idea of attaching to each basic figure graphical signs which were removed from all intuitive associations, and did not visually evoke the units they represented; (b) Â The idea of adopting the principle according to which the basic figures have a value which depends on the position they occupy in the representation of a number; and (c) Â The idea of a fully operational zero, filling the empty spaces of missing units and at the same time having the meaning of a null number.4 The great intellectual achievement of the Indian number system can be appreciated when it is recognized what it means to abandon the representation of numbers through physical objects. It indicates that Indian priest-scientists thought of numbers as an intellectual concept, something abstract rather than

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concrete. This is a prerequisite for progress in mathematics and science in general, because the introduction of irrational numbers such as “pi,” the number needed to calculate the area inside a circle, or the use of imaginary numbers is impossible unless the link between numbers and physical objects is broken. The Indian number system is exclusively a base 10 system, in contrast to the Babylonian (modern-day Iraq) system, which was base 60; for example, the calculation of time in seconds, minutes and hours. By the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Babylonian mathematics had a sophisticated sexagesimal positional numeral system (based on 60, not 10). Despite the invention of zero as a placeholder, the Babylonians never quite discovered zero as a number. The lack of a positional value (or zero) was indicated by a space between sexagesimal numerals. They added the “space” symbol for the zero in about 400 BC. However, this effort to save the first place-value number system did not overcome its other problems and the rise of Alexandria spelled the end of the Babylonian number system and its cuneiform (hieroglyphic like) numbers. It is remarkable that the rise of a civilization as advanced as Alexandria also meant the end of a place-value number system in Europe for nearly 2,000 years. Neither Egypt nor Greece nor Rome had a place-value number system, and throughout medieval times Europe used the absolute value number system of Rome (Roman Numerals). This held back the development of mathematics in Europe and meant that before the period of Enlightenment of the 17th century, the great mathematical discoveries were made elsewhere in East Asia and in Central America. The Mayans in Central America independently invented zero in the fourth century CE. Their priest-astronomers used a snail-shell-like symbol to fill gaps in the (almost) base-20 positional ‘long-count’ system they used to calculate their calendar.They were highly skilled mathematicians, astronomers, artists and architects. However, they failed to make other key discoveries and inventions that might have helped their culture survive. The Mayan culture collapsed mysteriously around 900 CE. Both the Babylonians and the Mayans found

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zero the symbol, yet missed zero the number. Although China independently invented place value, they didn’t make the leap to zero until it was introduced to them by a Buddhist astronomer from India in 718 CE. Zero becomes a real number The concept of zero as a number and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India where by the 9th century CE practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number, even in the case of division. The story of zero is actually a story of two zeroes: zero as a symbol to represent nothing and zero as a number that can be used in calculations and has its own mathematical properties. It has been commented that in India, the concept of nothing is important in its early religion and philosophy and so it was much more natural to have a symbol for it than for the Latin (Roman) and Greek systems. The rules for the use of zero were written down first by Brahmagupta, in his book “Brahmasphutha Siddhanta” (The Opening of the Universe) in the year 628 CE. Here Brahmagupta considers not only zero, but negative numbers, and the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of arithmetic with such numbers. “The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This giving to airy nothing, not merely a local habitation and a name, a picture, a symbol, but helpful power, is the characteristic of the Hindu race from whence it sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana into dynamos. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on-go of intelligence and power.” - G. B. Halsted5 A very important distinction for the Indian symbol for zero, is that, unlike the Babylonian and Mayan zero, the Indian zero symbol came to be understood as meaning nothing.

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As the Indian decimal zero and its new mathematics spread from the Arab world to Europe in the Middle Ages, words derived from sifr and zephyrus came to refer to calculation, as well as to privileged knowledge and secret codes. Records show that the ancient Greeks seemed unsure about the status of zero as a number. They asked themselves, “How can nothing be something?” This lead to philosophical and, by the Medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of zero and the vacuum. The word “zero” came via the French word zéro, and cipher came from the Arabic word safira which means “it was empty.” Also sifr, meaning “zero” or “nothing,” was the translation for the Sanskrit word sunya, which means void or empty. The number zero was especially regarded with suspicion in Europe, so much so that the word cipher for zero became a word for secret code in modern usage. It is very likely a linguistic memory of the time when using decimal arithmetic was deemed evidence of dabbling in the occult, which was potentially punishable by the all-powerful Catholic Church with death. 6 END OF PART ONE Part Two continues with the spread and acceptance of the decimal number system in the Arabic countries and later Europe. This author has taken the liberty of directly quoting from some of the references given here, such as the quotations by some scholars or historians and, when necessary actual descriptions of the mathematical notations (rather than paraphrasing them). I am indebted to the original authors for their scholarly writings, without which justice could not have been done in narrating the contributions of Indians in Mathematics through history.

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References 1 – BBC video presentation with Terry Jones, “The Story of 1,” Impossible Pictures, for the BBC, 2005. 2 – Georges Ifrah, The Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, translated from French by David Vellos, E. F. Harding, Sophie Wood and Ian Monk, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2000. 3 – B. Datta and A. N. Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics, 1933. 4 – Ifrah Ibid, pg. 346. 5 – G.B. Halsted, On the Foundation and Technique of Arithmetic, p. 20, Chicago, 1912. Quoted in Hogben’s Mathematics for the Million, London, 1942. 6 – Ifrah Ibid, p. 588-589.

The Struggle for Consciousness Swami Narasingha The late Christopher Hitchens and his fellow atheist Richard Dawkins and skeptic Michael Sherner would probably feel a bit disappointed these days at seeing how many leading scientists are seriously entertaining the idea that consciousness is much more than just a function of the brain â&#x20AC;&#x201D; indeed, consciousness may very well be the cause of the universe says biologist Robert Lanza. Such thoughts certainly do not sit well with any seasoned atheist because such unwittingly suggests the possibility of the existence of God. Unsettling as it may be, that is the current trend in science today. With consciousness appearing as the next frontier of science, the Intelligent Design community breathes a sigh of relief while the meditators, yogis and sages of transcendence are elated to make friends with the new devotees from the physics and biology laboratories. As it is, science and religion have for decades been at odds, especially since the publication of The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1858. Darwinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

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publication shook the very foundation of religious beliefs in Europe and North America, with thousands of prominent minds turning to science for answers about the mysteries of life. Initially people jumped at Darwin’s theory of evolution as an indisputable fact. So much so that to think otherwise was to be marked among intellectuals as a heretic. Confidence was, and in some cases remains, so high in Darwinian Evolution that people blindly think that Darwin had explained the origin of life — when in fact he had only observed changes in species over time. He had not explained how life began. From Darwin’s day up to the present, science has encountered many stumbling blocks, little tidbits of discovery that unsettle established theory — and of late science seems to have arrived at a brick wall where just about everything they thought they knew isn’t factually so (Darwin’s Theory of Evolution included). Now with renewed thinking many scientists are looking outside the paradigms of the past in what will become a struggle for consciousness, the attempt of science to understand and verify a non-physical subjective reality. In this new frontier scientists may soon discover that philosophy is a more useful tool for understanding reality than they have yet imagined. There will no doubt be debate and the outcome will definitely be worth waiting for.

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To date, Christian theologies have been at the forefront of the God debate, representing a Christian creator but such theologies may not have much to contribute as the debate addresses the fundamental concepts of consciousness. At this time a third party is entering the dialogue, a party acquainted with the concepts of consciousness for many a millennium — enters eastern thought. Eastern thought had made quite an impression on some early 20th century scientists such as Oppenheimer and Einstein, but it was The Tao of Physics (extensively exploring the parallels between modern physics and eastern mysticism) published by Fritjof Capra in 1975 that significantly helped to solidify those impressions in mass. Capra’s book was a best seller in the United States and has since seen 43 editions in 23 languages. In his book Capra analyzed the tenets of Hinduism, Buddhism and Taoism to show their striking parallels with the latest discoveries in physics. At the time Victor N. Mansfield, a professor of physics and astronomy at Colgate University wrote the following: Fritjof Capra, in The Tao of Physics, seeks…an integration of the mathematical world view of modern physics and the mystical visions of Buddha and Krishna. Where others have failed miserably in trying to unite the seemingly different worldviews, Capra, a high-energy theorist, has succeeded admirably. I strongly recommend the book to both layman and scientist. Capra was by no means writing nonsense, he even had the appreciation of renowned theoretical physicist Werner Karl Heisenberg. Capra recalls: I had several discussions with Heisenberg. I lived in England then (circa 1972), and I visited him several times in Munich and showed him the whole manuscript (The Tao of Physics) chapter by chapter. He was very interested and very open, and he told me something that I

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think is not known publicly because he never published it. He said that he was well aware of these parallels. While he was working on quantum theory he went to India to lecture and was a guest of Tagore. He talked a lot with Tagore about Indian philosophy. Heisenberg told me that these talks had helped him a lot with his work in physics, because they showed him that all these new ideas in quantum physics were in fact not all that crazy. He realized there was, in fact, a whole culture that subscribed to very similar ideas. Heisenberg said that this was a great help for him. Niels Bohr (the renowned Danish physicist) had a similar experience when he went to China. (Fritjof Capra, interviewed by Renee Weber in the book The Holographic Paradigm, pages 217–218) Capra did have his critics and they were merciless, but all in all eastern thought found a toehold in science and that was soon to become a powerful influence if not a revolution in the making. As eastern ideas became more popular in the west, thoughts of the Buddhist nirvana (nothingness) became a much sought after alternative and gave hope to the wishful thinking of some physicists that the universe could possibly have arisen from nothing. That influence however is now giving way to the more tangible thinking of the Upanishads — in which everything has arisen from Brahman, a transcendental plane of consciousness. The Upanishads developed in ancient India during an age of deep thinking and we may very well be seeing the emergence of an Upanishadic period in contemporary science. Physicist, Mani Bhaumik certainly seems to think so: The Upanishads and Quantum Physics both talk about reality. Scriptures tell us that the abstract Brahman is creator and the physical universe is creation, existing in an intertwined, inseparable manner… Consciousness is the window through which we perceive reality and

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reflect upon emotions and feelings. Because it is both an instrument of perception and a perceived entity itself, consciousness is qualitatively different from anything else we know. So it could be a fundamental feature of the universe.

It is inevitable that when science progresses in the manner of Upanishadic thought that they will first come to the conception of impersonal Brahman. After which we may begin to hear quotations in scientific papers from Vedanta and from Shankaracharyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commentary on the Vedanta-sutras. In time however science will face its greatest challenge and that will be to understand the supreme conscious source of everything â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that everything exists within and emanates from a transcendental, omniconscious personality, the Absolute. But whether or not modern science makes it that far remains to be seen. The first understanding should be that consciousness is not a product or byproduct of matter and therefore attempts to understand the actual nature of consciousness through laboratory research or mental speculation will be severely hampered. The reason is simple. The scientific method of acquiring knowledge is to depend on the senses and the instruments of the senses through

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direct evidence, experiment, hypothesis and speculation. This process is called aroha-pantha, (the ascending process), but it has inherent limitations. The mind, intelligence and senses are material and are always subject to the four material defects of bhrama, pramada, vipralipsa and karanapatava (mistakes, illusion, cheating and false perception). The instruments of research found in the laboratory are also limited and defective because they are nothing more than extensions of our limited senses. Therefore, the aroha-pantha process greatly limits one who wishes to understand consciousness. One should realize that perfect knowledge must itself originate in an Absolute plane of existence, one that transcends the material defects of mistakes, illusion, cheating and false perception. In other words perfect knowledge is descending (avaroha-pantha), an extension of the Absolute into the relativity of the mundane world. This system of knowledge among transcendentalists is known as revealed truth and descends through the parampara, the guru-disciple succession and its literature. To take knowledge from the descending process in parampara is the sure and effective way to acquire perfect knowledge of consciousness and what lies beyond. It is there for the taking and science has but to step forward and accept it. nigama-kalpa-taror galitam phalam suka-mukhad amrta-drava-samyutam pibata bhagavatam rasam alayam muhur aho rasika bhuvi bhavuka â&#x20AC;&#x153;O expert and thoughtful men, relish Srimad-Bhagavatam, the mature fruit of the desire tree of Vedic literatures. It emanated from the lips of Sri Sukadeva Goswami. Therefore this fruit has become even more tasteful, although its nectarine juice was already relishable for all, including liberated persons.â&#x20AC;? (Bhag. 1.1.3)

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sarva-vedanta-saram hi sri-bhagavatam isyate tat-rasamrta-trptasya nanyatra syad ratih kvacit Srimad-Bhagavatam is declared to be the essence of all Vedanta philosophy. One who has felt satisfaction from its nectarine mellow will never be attracted to any other literature. (Bhag. 12. 13.15) Srimad Bhagavatam culminates in accepting and worshiping Sri Krishna as the Absolute Truth. nama-sankirtanam yasya sarva-papa pranasanam pranamo dukha-samanas tam namami harim param Let us bow down unto the Absolute Truth, Sri Krishna, the congregational chanting of whose holy names destroys all karmic reactions, and the offering of obeisances unto whom relieves all material suffering. Statements in Bhagavad-gita and Brahma-samhita also support that the Absolute Truth is a person and that person is Krishna, the source of consciousness, the impersonal Brahman and the cause of all causes (sarva-karana-karanam). brahmano hi pratisthaham amrtasyavyayasya ca sasvatasya ca dharmasya sukhasyaikantikasya ca I (Sri Krishna) am the foundation of the immortal, imperishable Brahman, who is the basis of eternal dharma and supreme bliss. (Gita 14:27) 朝 ishvarah paramah krishnah sac-cid-ananda-vigrahah anadir adir govindah sarva-karana-karanam Ultimately Sri Krishna is the Supreme Controller. His form is made of bliss, knowledge and eternity (sat-cid-ananda). He is the origin of all.

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He is the Master of the cows and the senses. He has no other origin and He is he primeval cause of all causes. (Brahma-samhita 5.1) Though Richard Dawkins and others may shake their heads in dismay at the way science is headed, some of the greatest minds in modern history such as Heisenberg, Bohr, Oppenheimer, Einstein and Nikola Tesla would certainly nod in approval (all of whom had a rich appreciation for the knowledge and wisdom of the Upanishads, Bhagavad-gita and Indian philosophy in general).

Ultimately Sri Krishna is the Supreme Controller. His form is made of bliss, knowledge and eternity (sat-cid-ananda). He is the origin of all. He is the Master of the cows and the senses. He has no other origin and He is he primeval cause of all causes. (Brahma-samhita 5.1)

True Nature D r. M a n i B h a u m i k

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The Upanishads and Quantum Physics both talk about reality. Scriptures (sastras) tell us that the abstract Brahman (Para-Brahman) is creator and the physical universe is creation, existing in an intertwined, inseparable manner. Brahman is omnipresent. It is uncanny that the same Quantum Physics that runs our cell phone, computer and internet is currently revealing to us a similar nature of reality. Modern cosmology and quantum field theory have brought us the discovery that the abstract, primary source of everything in the universe is ingrained in each minutest stitch of the fabric of space of the vast cosmos, thereby upholding and administering its fundamental aspects. Our ever-changing physical reality is a direct manifestation of the timeless source. What was once thought to be sterile, empty space is now known to be an active participant in moulding the activities of our daily world as well as harbouring the source of everything tangible throughout the universe. Hence, we can recognise how the truer nature of reality described in the Vedas and Upanishads is anchored in modern science. What’s missing here is awareness associated with Brahman. The phenomenon of awareness is common to all animate species; it is also at the core of cognition in any sentient being we consider capable of possessing consciousness. Consciousness is the window through which we perceive reality and reflect upon emotions and feelings. Because it is both an instrument of perception and a perceived entity itself, consciousness is qualitatively different from anything else we know. So it could be a fundamental feature of the universe. The subject of the origin and the nature of existence of consciousness is a scientific study in progress. Scientists are receptive to the idea of the Anthropic Principle whose corollary suggests that the conditions at the beginning of our universe had to be such as to presage the eventual emergence of intelligent beings like us. Based on his “delayed choice” Quantum Physics experiment, physicist John Wheeler stated, “It is incontrovertible that the observer is a participator in genesis.” That is,

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awareness has been present from the very beginning of the universe, but its emergence needed the eventual development of an appropriate material structure in sentient beings. The question now begs itself: Can the source of everything physical also be entrenched with the source of consciousness? Quantum Physics has compelled us to accept that two distinct and seemingly inconsistent elements of reality, like the particle and wave aspects of a quantum object, can coexist in a complementary way. This paves the way for us to consider the possibility that the â&#x20AC;&#x153;non-materialâ&#x20AC;? source of consciousness could be entwined with the abstract quantum fields that are the primary source of all things physical. Experiments reveal that quantum fields fluctuate spontaneously and unpredictably with mind-boggling speed, yet they have remained, on an average, exactly the same since the beginning of time, while all else in the universe has changed dramatically. Does it not suggest the existence of some sort of self-referral associated with quantum fields that is responsible for maintaining their fidelity in spite of their immense dynamism? Thus, it is credibly indicative that self-referral, which is the hallmark of awareness is an inherent feature associated from the beginning with the ubiquitous quantum fields. As envisioned by ancients, we can now perceive how the discoveries of modern science confirm that the source is inextricably intertwined with the creation. The source is permanent while creation is ever-changing. But both are equally real. Can we not then declare: Brahman Satyam, Jagat Satyam (sarva khalv-idam brahma)? (Adapted from Times of India, January 12, 2012)

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Ab out the Author Mani Lal Bhaumik is an Indian-born American physicist. He has been an author, lecturer, entrepreneur, and philanthropist. His early contributions to laser technology are exemplified by the development of the excimer laser at the Northrop Corporation Research and Technology Center in Los Angeles. As team leader, Dr. Bhaumik announced the successful demonstration of the world’s first efficient excimer laser at the Denver, Colorado meeting of the Optical Society of America in May 1973. Subsequently, it found extensive use as the type of laser that made possible the immensely popular Lasik corrective eye surgery, eliminating the need for glasses or contact lenses in many cases. In recognition of his pioneering research in high energy lasers and new laser systems, Dr. Bhaumik has been elected by his peers to fellowships in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers as well as of the American Physical Society. Dr. Bhaumik’s current interest is in sharing with the public the advances in quantum physics and cosmology and their implications for both material and spiritual development. In 2011 Dr. Bhaumik was given one of India’s most prestigious civilian awards for lifetime achievements - Padma Shri . (Wikipedia)

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Swastika

&Cross

Swami Narasingha In popular western thinking, no two symbols could possibly be more at odds with each other than the swastika and the cross. The swastika is the symbol of Nazi war crimes against humanity and the cross is the symbol of goodness, mercy and divine grace.

But what if this isn’t true? It all depends on where you live and what you know. If you live in Germany, for example, displaying a swastika (the old reminder of World War II atrocities) will put you in jail on criminal charges. But if you live in India or other parts of Asia, then it’s hard to go through a normal day in life and not see a swastika, the old reminder of prosperity, auspiciousness and “good luck.” Indeed, the swastika is often called the Hindu or Buddhist cross. In ancient antiquity the swastika, as a religious and harmonious symbol, was popular in the east as far as China and Japan and in the west its use spread from Persia [Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey] across Europe and even reached the Americas. Thus the swastika is known to have been in use across the ancient [and modern] world as a benevolent symbol. But there is a movement in Western Europe to ban the use or display of the swastika throughout the European Union. This is already law in Germany and Austria. However, most people would be surprised to learn that in western countries, prior to World War II, the most popular symbol for prosperity, wealth, health, safety, auspiciousness and good luck was the swastika. In case some of our readers are not aware of the use and historical importance of the swastika in western civilization, lets take a look at some of the more explicit ways and places the swastika was used in the 20th century. If one does a Google image search for “swastika,” it is amazing what one finds.

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The first image has to be an eye opener — an aerial photo of a US Navy barracks, at a base near San Diego, California. The building is laid out in the shape of a perfect swastika. Whether this is accidental or intentional, it has recently received considerable attention from an agitated public, who are demanding that the design of the building be altered. But my favorite example of a 20th century swastika has to be the handbook of the Boy Scouts of America. What on earth could be more western, more American, well intended or even more Christian than the Boy Scouts? The swastika was proudly printed on the spine of The Scout’s Handy Book in 1913.The swastika was also widely circulated by the Boy Scouts of America as an honor badge for meritorious deeds and achievements and was also distributed door-todoor across America as a fundraiser. Why would the Boy Scouts have a swastika on their handbook? It certainly makes no sense at all, if you are one of those Americans who hasn’t been paying attention to the world for the past one hundred years. But it’s actually very simple, the swastika represented all things that a Boy Scout strives to achieve. Foremost for a Boy Scout is duty to God and country and then follows trustworthiness, loyalty, helpfulness, friendliness, courteousness, kindness, obedience, cheerfulness, thriftiness, bravery, cleanliness and reverence. In essence, in early 20th century America, the swastika symbolized for the Boy Scouts, all that a man can be. Quite a twist from how Americans and Europeans look at the swastika today.

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My other two favorite “all American” swastikas are the once very popular 1920’s Coca Cola good luck charm in the shape of a swastika [distributed free as an advertising gimmick] and the official team jersey of the Native American Basketball Team [1909] proudly displaying a very large swastika. And we don’t want to fail to mention the girl’s ice hockey team from Edmonton, Canada [1916] with the swastika smartly embroidered on their jumpers.

Going back in time, one is simply amazed to see the popularity of the swastika in the ancient world. Of course, being aware of the swastika’s popularity in Hindu and Buddhist cultures, we are not surprised to see the use of the swastika in antiquity in Asia, but would you expect to find the swastika in the Neolithic period of the Middle-east, going back to 10,000 BCE or even a swastika on a well preserved Greek war helmet from the year 350 BCE or a swastika etched in stone 1,100 years ago in Denmark? Probably not, but such artifacts do exist, and document the use of the swastika in hoary antiquity outside Asia. Most of these artifacts, after being excavated by archeologists, have again been buried in the basement achives of the world’s great museums. The Greek war helmet, however, is on display at the Cabinet des Médailles in Paris and the Snoldelev stone [Bronze Age swastika] is in the National Museum in Copenhagen, Denmark.

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According to popular Christian belief, all preChristian civilizations of the world were pagan. One who believes in or worships more than one God, multiple incarnations or whatever, is by Christian definition a pagan and a pagan is damned to an eternal hell of torment and suffering. So, given the unholy status of a pagan [Greek, Roman, Celt, Hindu, Buddhist, Vaishnavas or otherwise], you would hardly expect to see a Christian priest, let alone a Bishop, a Pope or a Christian saint ornamented with pagan symbols, such as the swastika. Surprise, surprise â&#x20AC;&#x201D; many examples of Catholic clergy wearing ornamental swastikas exist in classical European paintings. A good example is the painting [1445 CE] The Seven Sacraments by the renowned Rogier van der Weyden. Seen in the painting is a priest ministering to the sick and dying. His cloak is finely decorated with crosses and swastikas.

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My favorite of these though is not a painting but the tombstone of Abbot Simon de Gillans (1345 CE) (picture on right) who has been immortalized in stone and is wearing robes ornamented with crosses, beautifully interspersed with swastikas. The Abbot is on display at the MusĂŠe de Cluny, Paris. Our intention now is to have a brief look at the cross and its appearance from antiquity â&#x20AC;&#x201D; its use being in partnership with the swastika and possibly having become a simplification of the swastika, as the swastika moved in ancient times from its Vedic homeland (the Indus Valley) across Persia to Europe and beyond. One question that I am often asked is if the cross of early Christianity was invented as a result of the story of the crucifixion of Jesus? The answer is no. The cross of early Christianity was already in use in the Mediterranean world and beyond, long before the time of Jesus. The Bronze Age civilizations that flourished in Northern Europe as early as 1,800 BCE, used the centered cross of equal proportions (+) as a regular part of their symbolic script. It is this cross, of the Bronze Age, that was first adopted by Christianity.

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The Christian cross, as we know it today, does not come down to us from greater antiquity. By the cross of today, we mean the “Latin cross”. The Latin cross, when seen, immediately brings to mind, by design, the crucifixion of Jesus. This cross, symbolizing the crucifixion of Jesus, was not the original symbol of Christianity. The much earlier Bronze Age cross seems to have been around in Christianity from its very beginnings and came to Christianity through the Greeks. The Latin cross (cross of the crucifixion) was a later invention. It is certainly thoughtful to ask why early Christians didn’t adopt the cross of the crucifixion at the outset of the faith — why it took so long for them to evolve a cross that represented or symbolized the crucifixion of Jesus. The answer is simple, the early Christian Bible simply did not say that Jesus was martyred on a cross. It said he was nailed to a tree (an olive tree) or to a simple straight stake. Thus no crucifixion cross was necessary to invoke their remembrance of an event that didn’t happen. In other words, the crucifixion of Jesus didn’t happen the way later Christians decided to embellish the story. For early Christians, the Bronze Age cross or Greek cross as it is also known, did not symbolize or even suggest the crucifixion of Jesus. The cross, adopted by early Christians, represented to them the four directions in which the message of Jesus was destined to spread. The crucifixion style of cross, known to us today as the Latin cross, only came into Christianity at a much later time, during the Romanization of Christianity, from the fourth century onwards. And it is at that time that atrocities under the authority of the cross (the Latin cross) began to manifest against pagans and Jews.

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Strangely enough, among the oldest manuscripts to survive today from the early Christian period, there is a Gnostic document or codex containing the Gospel of Judas Iscariot from 280 CE. Much fuss has been made over the discovery of this ancient text, which is no doubt important to biblical scholars, but what no one seems to give much attention to is the fact that the document has two good size crosses drawn on it. One is the Bronze Age or Greek cross and the other is an Egyptian cross, commonly known as the ankh, the Coptic symbol for eternal life. In the earliest Christian documents ever discovered, the Latin cross is nowhere to be found. Surely this says something, that is, if you have an interest in religious histories. The Bronze Age cross, the Greek cross and the swastika are all ancient symbols existing long before the Christianization of the western world. The question is, did these two symbols, the swastika and the cross, simultaneously exist throughout the ages or is it possible that one was derived from the other, that is, the cross from the swastika? It will probably never be possible for us to know for sure, but the much wider use of the swastika across the ancient world certainly speaks in favor of the swastika being the origin of the concept of the cross. In any case it is certainly interesting and something to think about. In our modern way of thinking, swastikas and crosses simply donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t mix. But that wasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t always so. Then what changed our attitude toward the swastika? In a word, Hitler! Nazi Germany, Auschwitz, eleven million innocent men, women and children mercilessly humiliated, tortured and put to death during World War II â&#x20AC;&#x201D; that is what changed the way western civilization thought about the swastika.

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The Nazi war criminals have for the most part all been hunted down, tried in an international court of law and given their due. It seems the only culprit yet to face the final judgment for crimes against humanity is the swastika. But before we allow the swastika to be convicted by the war crimes tribunal in the Hague and buried alongside the much hated Nazis, we should remind the world that one other symbol has brought death, destruction and utter human madness to this world again and again through the centuries â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the cross. Yes, the cross, the holy of holy symbols of Christianity. Even a brief study of world history shows the Christian cross prevailing over outrageous human injustices, inflicting pain, suffering, death and cultural genocide on millions of innocent people and cultures across the face of the earth. If you donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know where to start, then start with the Romanization of the Church and the stamping out of all other religions in the empire. Even other groups of early Christians who held a different belief from the Roman Church were not spared. For example: In 1209, Pope Innocent III launched an armed crusade against Albigenses Christians in southern France. When the besieged city of Beziers fell, soldiers reportedly asked their papal adviser how to distinguish the faithful from the infidel among the captives. He commanded: "Kill them all. God will know his own." Nearly 20,000 were slaughtered â&#x20AC;&#x201C; many first blinded, mutilated, dragged behind horses, or used for target practice. Then study up on how Christians, the fathers of anti-Semitism, persecuted the Jews. One of many examples follows: The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 proclaimed the doctrine of transubstantiation which stated that the host wafer miraculously turns into the body of Jesus during the mass. Soon rumors spread that Jews were stealing the sacred wafers and stabbing or driving nails through them to crucify Jesus again. Reports said that the pierced host bled, cried out, or emitted spirits. On this charge, Jews were burned at the stake in 1243 in

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Belitz, Germany – the first of many killings that continued into the 1800s. To avenge the tortured host, the German knight Rindfliesch led a brigade in 1298 that exterminated 146 defenseless Jewish communities in six months. Thousands of Jews met with torturous deaths. Then check out the crusades and the accounts of innocent people put to death during the crusades in the Middle-east between 1095 and 1272. In one victory at Jerusalem, after the main battle was over, the crusaders put to death all the residents of the city, some 40,000. In the words of a crusader chronicler who reported the victory to Pope Urban II, “The crusaders walked through the streets of Jerusalem knee deep in the blood of the infidels!” When the carnage was over, the cross proudly fluttered in the wind above Jerusalem. As Saint Bernard of Clairvaux declared in launching the Second Crusade in 1147: "The Christian glories in the death of a pagan, because thereby Christ himself is glorified." Then if you have any stomach left for such matters, study up on the many inquisitions — Medieval, Spanish, Roman and Portuguese. But be prepared for the worst. The inquisitions began in 1184 and did not end until 1821. Scholars vary in their opinions regarding just how many people actually died in the inquisitions, but one should remember that human atrocities aren’t just measured in numbers. The Spanish Inquisition is one of those where the numbers are fiercely disputed, but suffice to say that even the lowest estimates are high. In Spain at the time of the Inquisition, there were many Jews and Moors who had converted to Christianity to escape persecution. Inquisitors however sought those harboring their old faith. At least 2,000 Spanish backsliders were burned as a result. A total of 50,000 poor souls were tried for heresy. Fortunately some survived. Executions in other countries at the same time included the burning of scientists, such as mathematician-philosopher Giordano Bruno, who espoused Copernicus's theory that the planets orbit the sun. For this advance in science he paid with his life.

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But all that fades into insignificance when one discovers the murder and devastation caused by the Spaniards in South America. Yes, the Aztecs did perform human sacrifice and certainly thousands of humans died at their hands. But by the time the Spaniards were finished with them, they had not just killed thousands of innocent people, they had destroyed a civilization and enslaved its remaining survivors. Of course we can say that that was the doing of armies. Yes that is correct, it was the doing of an army just like Hitler’s, but the difference being that the Spaniards carried the cross and not the swastika. For the sake of the record we might stop a moment and ask where did Hitler (a 20th century man) get the idea of being able to genocide a whole race of people? Well, he didn’t get any such thoughts from the Hindus or Buddhists but as for Christianity, genocide had been their calling card for almost 700 years. If you are up for the journey of finding out what really happened under the cross, then check out the Protestant reformation and the witch-burning spree kicked off by Martin Luther in the 1400s (approx 60,000 women were burned alive in Europe alone). Whole villages were exterminated. In one incident a priest reportedly tortured untold thousands of women into confessing that they were witches who flew through the sky and engaged in sex with the devil -- then they were burned or hanged for their confessions. Witch hysteria raged for three centuries in Europe, in a dozen nations. Estimates of the number executed vary from 100,000 to 2 million. No one really knows how many or how few died. The witch-hunting craze was Christian madness at its worst. And don’t forget to read the Malleus Maleficarum, the Witch Hammer a witch hunter’s handbook published in 1487 by two Dominican monks, Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger and republished 28 times by the beginning of the

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20th century. A Papal Bull issued by Pope Innocent VIII — thus giving the book its holy sanction, accompanied the book. Arguably the Malleus Maleficarum is one of the most infamous and demoniac books ever written. It outlines the process of identifying a witch, trying a witch, techniques of torture and punishments, lethal and otherwise. It became so that anybody with a grudge or suspicion, very young children included, could accuse anyone of witchcraft and be listened to with attention. Anyone who wanted someone else’s property or wife could accuse any loner, any old person living alone, anyone with a deformity, physical or mental problem of being a witch. Open hunting season was declared on women, especially herb gatherers, midwives, widows and spinsters. Women who had no man to supervise them were of course highly suspicious. It has been estimated by Dr. Marija Gimbutas, professor of archaeology at the University of California, that as many as 9 million people, overwhelmingly women, were burned or hanged during the witch-craze. For nearly 250 years The Witch Hammer was the guidebook for the witch hunters. Then one fine day, the Church woke up to the fact that there were no witches, had been no witches and the innocent had died in vain. The witch hunting was over, but with not so much as an apology. Depending on whose figures you accept, one might argue that the numbers dead under Hitler’s swastika are certainly higher than those under the cross. But to this we simply reply that that is to be expected, considering the availability of guns, gas chambers and ovens that the Nazis had at their disposal. In the old days of Christian atrocities it was one life taken at a time, one head lopped off and then another or sometimes twenty burned at a time, but that kind of murder takes time. There was also the show of a trial [but not always] and the necessary tortures to be implemented to make sure the poor woman was actually a witch — these proceedings often dragged on for days and days. In fact death under the symbol of the cross dragged on for several centuries until it finally trickled to an end with the last inquisition coming to a close in India in 1812. The inquisition in India lasted 248 years, from 1560 until 1812. At least Hitler’s madness was over within a decade.

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All sarcastic remarks aside, if the European Union intends to ban the swastika because of its misuse by the Nazis, then they should ban the cross as well for its misuse by Christians. Better yet however would be to allow both these ancient symbols a continued life of their own in a free world where religious convictions are an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s free choice and not the dictates of the state.

American Indians

Arizona Highway Marker

Carlsberg Beer

Canadian Drug Company

Catholic Priest

Chechnya Ruins

Celtic Cross

Crete Coin 1000 BCE

Greeting Card

Finnish Air flag

Denmark Bronze-age Symbols

Swastika Lucky Card

Indiana Bank USA

Kipling Swastika

Hotel - New Mexico 1920

Indus Swastika

Baby Lucky Card - Swastika

Swastika - Post Card

Matil-de-Moisant Pilot Swastika - Mid West Milk Pitcher

Roman Fresco

Sioux Chief

Runestone - Snoldelev - Denmark

Swastika Samurai

Serbian Family Seal

Swastika Boy Scout Shoes 1910

Swastika Four Leaf Clover Irish

US 45th Infantry

Swastika in Japan

US Army 1941 Boeing

Swastika - USA Coins

USSR Socialist Swastika 1917

Swastika - US flag

w w w. a r c h a e o l o g y o n l i n e . n e t

RAJASTHANI

ART

by Dhiralalita

Rajasthan is a land of many colorful contrasts, from the fertile eastern part near the river Chambal and the rich land of Malva to the desert of western Rajasthan. The paintings of Rajasthan, reflect this love for colors. They utilize stunning colors and powerful lines, similar to the strength and vigor of the inhabitants of that land. The paintings are basically of two distinctive types: courtly and literary (devotional paintings are also included). Paintings of the courtly type include numerous portraits of kings and rulers, engaged in pastimes like hunting or discharging courtly duties. The other type is more like illustrations of poetry or literary works such as Amaru-Sakta, SurSagara, Rasa-manjari, Rasa-priya texts, and the others: illustrations for revealed scriptures like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavat Purana, the Devi Mahatmya, etc. As most of the literary works mentioned deal with

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divine subjects, those paintings mostly show Krishna and His associates in a multitude of pastimes and attitudes. Besides those two styles, paintings of everyday life scenes can be found as well. Rajasthan is one of the earliest centers for the Krishna-Vasudeva cult. One of the oldest Bhagavata records comes from Hathibada, half a mile east of the village Nagari in Udaipura state. An early inscription here belongs to the second century B.C. It records the erection of an enclosing wall with the stone carvings of Sankarshana and Vasudevabhyam. In the rangmahal in Bikaner were found two terracotta forms, one representing the Govardhana lila (Krishna lifting Govardhana hill) and the other the danalila (Krishna taking toll tax). (annual report, ArchaeologicalÂ survey of India). Â As to the evidence of the worship of Vishnu during the Gupta period, mention may be made of two Vishnu images found in Pisangan, District of Ajmer and Katara as well as the huge statues of Balarama and His consort Revati from Rupbasa (Bharatpura state). The popularity of Krishna and Vishnu worship increased in Rajasthan with the passage of time as is evident in literary sources. Krishna stories became so popular during the medieval period that depicted scenes from His life and depiction find their place in many Shiva temples, such as those at Kiradu, Kekinda, Bhandadevra, Sikar, Harshanath, Arthuna, Jagesvara and several other places. From an earlier Hathibada inscription on a stonewall dating from the 7th century, it is revealed that Hathibada continued to be an important Vaishnava site. The inscription mentions the erection of a stone enclosure for the worship of Sankarshana and Vasudeva within the Narayana compound, and confirms that the Bhagavats accepted the Vasudeva and Narayan cult by the second century.

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The fact that the state of Rajasthan was an early home of Bhagavatism (Krishnaism) is evident also from a recently discovered inscription of the second century B.C. from Amvalesvar, Chittor district, which mentions a Bhagavat king who ruled over Apara and built a stone pillar. Â The popularity of Krishna and Vishnu worship increased in Rajasthan with the passage of time as is evident from the study of inscriptions, literature and other sources. A fragment of bas-relief in the Kotishwar temple of Kama shows the goshtha-lila of Krishna. (G.N. Sharma, op.cit., p.116). The early medieval temples of Ossian (Jodhpur) contain many krishna-lila scenes, including the Kaliya-mardana, Dhenuka-vadha, Govardhana-dharana, Keshi-vadha, Vasudeva carrying Krishna on his head, Krishna and Yashoda, etcâ&#x20AC;Ś Because of vandalism, and other causes of destruction, very few medieval Vishnu temples still exist now in Rajasthan. There is ample evidence to show that Vaishnavism acquired great popularity throughout Rajasthan during the sixteenth century onward, and many temples for Vishnu and Krishna worship were erected during this period. With the help of Maharana Raj Singh the image of Srinathji was brought from Mathura in order to save it from the destructive activities of Aurangzeb. It was installed in Nathadvara, 25 miles northeast of Udaipur. Similarly the Deity of Dvarakadhisha was set up in Kankoli. The kings of Jaipur also showed allegiance to Vaishnavism. The famous deity of Govindadeva (worshiped by Rupa Goswami in Mathura) was brought to Amber. Later on it was taken to Jaipur and installed in Chandra Mahal (Jaipur Palace). The later princes of Rajasthan continued their support of Vaishnavism. The paintings of Rajasthan throw considerable light on the popularity of Krishna worship in

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that place.The schools of Jaipur, Mewar, Bundi and Kishnagarth, etc. were largely inspired by the Krishna theme. The Kirti-stambha of Chittorgarh, built by Rana Kumbha, in A.D. 1448, contains scenes from Krishnaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life, especially the Govardhana-Lila. Â A great wave of Krishna worship seems to have swept all over Rajasthan during this period, as is well illustrated in the songs of Mirabai, who was a Rajasthani princess, but Dvaraka was the main center of her activities.

Akbar meeting the young Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana (a composer and one of his future ministers)

In conclusion, one should take into account the wall paintings in various Rajasthan palaces depicting Krishna themes, such as Udaipur, Kotah, Bundi, Jaipur, Tonk and several other places.

Â From 1200 A.D. to 1500 A.D, Rajasthan paintings showed a reawakening with many patrons for the arts. We do not have much record of earlier periods. Unfortunately, murals, frescos, and paintings, do not survive the passing of time like sculptures and bas-reliefs. Stone works were found as early as the second century B.C., but paintings exposed to the sunlight and other natural factors did not survive so many centuries. The earliest paintings found therefore are dating from the thirteenth century and are small illustrations or illuminations of the Jain Tirthankaras (Jain saints) and episodes from the Kalpa-sutra (Jain text containing the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras)

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Emperor Akbar (at the top of this image in a white gown) directs building work at Fatehpur Sikri. (1570 - 1574 AD)

painted on palm leaves, mostly known as Western Indian miniatures. Those leaves were carefully preserved and occasionally exhibited during special festival days. Those paintings were created to inspire religious devotion and not as works of art and remained fixed in form. The conventionalism finally gave way when paper was introduced, instead of the narrow and inconveniently shaped palm leaf. Paper provided a larger area, even so the artist stuck to an horizontal format, it provided more room for ambitious compositions and the illuminations were often ornamented with elaborate

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borders. The earliest examples of those paintings on paper were painted around 1420 A.D. at Devakulavatika near Udaipur during the reign of Mokala of the Sisodiya clan (Rajputs who ruled the kingdom of Mewar in Rajasthan.) It is a manuscript of note, since 37 miniatures are painted in full page for the first time. The later part of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries experience a lavish renewal of illuminations painted with precious materials such as gold, silver, and precious stones, with red and blue backgrounds. The first noteworthy ruler to become a patron of the arts was Rana Kumbha of Mewar, (A rana is a crown prince) who loved music as well and who protected artists and musicians alike. After that period, one of the most important kings in bringing a renewal to the arts in Rajasthan in the medieval times was King Akbar. Also called Akbar the Great (14 October 1542 – 27 October 1605). He was the third Mughal Emperor. Akbar’s reign significantly influenced art and culture in the country. He was a great

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patron of architecture as well. And he took a great interest in painting, and had the walls of his palaces adorned with murals. Besides encouraging the development of the Mughal school, he also patronized the European style of painting, a revolutionary attitude for his time. Emperor Akbar wanted to protect his empire overlooking the trade routes by befriending the proud Rajput. His empire extended between the Mughal Capital and the Western coast. Raja Bar Mal of Amber was the first important Rajput chief who entered into a matrimonial relationship with Akbar in 1562; he gave his daughter in marriage to the king; that was the system for the times. Gradually other chiefs of Bikaner and Jaisalmer followed suite in 1570, as well as the famous Raja Udai Singh of Jodhpur Rajasthan in 1581. Â The Mughal connection brought about interesting and important changes in Rajput paintings. These changes were evident in dress designs, architectural details, art motifs, landscape patterns and even the

choice of subject matter. However, the changes were not uniform. The Bikaner school shows more Mughal elements than the Bundi and Amber schools. As time passed, however, and as soon as the imperial authority slackened, the Rajputs rulers gained in power and their culture became less dependent on the Mughal norm. At this stage, roughly around the first half of the seventeenth century, those definite Schools of Rajasthani style of painting were starting to take shape. Â The work of the Mughal School in this early formative stage was largely confined to the illustration of books on a wide variety of subjects. These were executed largely by groups of painters, including a colorist, who did most of the actual painting, and specialists in portraiture and in the mixing of colors. The chief of the group was the designer, generally an artist of top quality, who formulated the composition and sketched in the rough outline. A thin wash of white, through which the initial drawing was visible, was then applied and the colors filled in. The coloristâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

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work proceeded slowly, the color being applied in several thin layers and frequently rubbed down with an agate stone used to burnish the painting, a process that resulted in a glowing, enamel-like finish. The colors used were mostly mineral but sometimes consisted of vegetable dyes; and the brushes, many of them exceedingly fine, were made from squirrelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tail or camel hair. It is interesting to note that mineral dyes last much longer than vegetable dyes and as they age the paintings will appears more brilliant in some areas than others as a result, due to the uneven fading of some of the colors. During the last quarter of the sixteenthcentury many manuscripts for the Bhagavata Purana were illustrated. They were produced in different centers such Mughal style paintings as Jodhpur, Amber, and Mewar. They shows a mixture of the local style with isolated Mughal elements. A few years later, (beginning of the seventeenth century), these isolated elements were successfully incorporated into the new style forming an integral part of Rajasthani art. Among the new schools of painting the most prominent was the one flourishing in the former state of Udaipur, the historic territory of Mewar. In the medieval times Mewar was well known for being a great center of artistic and cultural activities. Many ruling princes were great patrons of the arts. Even Rana Pratap who had to flee from Chittor and was sheltered by

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Ganesh painting: City Palace Udaipur Rajasthan

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the principality of Chavand for his valorous refusal to yield to the powerful army of Akbar, gave refuge to artists and craftsmen. It was his son Amar Singh who got a remarkable set of raga-mala paintings produced in his time. Finally his descendant and successor Jagat Singh became a great patron of the arts and the Mewar painting style reached its highest glory during his reign. The earliest dated examples of the Mewar School are characterized by a ragamala series painted at Chavand in 1605. These simple paintings are filled with bright colors. The style became more elaborate in the first quarter of the 17th century when another raga-mala, painted at Udaipur in 1628 (formerly in the Khajanchi Collection, Bikaner; now dispersed in various collections), showed some casual acquaintance with the Mughal manner. This phase, lasting until around 1660, was one of the most important for the development of painting all over Rajasthan. A brilliant set of nine raga-mala paintings by the artist Sahibdin was produced around 1628. Ragamala paintings are a series of illustrative paintings based on ragamala or the “Garland of Ragas”, depicting various musical notes called ragas. It is a series of five or more musical notes upon which a melody is made. They stand as a classical example of a synthesis of art, poetry and classical music of medieval India. The same painter illustrated the Bhagavata Purana in 1648. In 1649 the artist Manohar illustrated the Ramayana. These

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‘Ragmala_Dipak-raga’ by Sahibdin

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paintings now preserved in the Delhi national museum, are a testament to the high aesthetic achievement by the painters of Mewar. Other works followed these masterpieces such as the Nayaka Nayika series, the Gita-govinda and Rasika-priya but they were executed with much less complex compositions. The Mewar style of that period can be summarized as follows: Use of dazzling colors against patches of blue and red or green, the appearance of stylized trees, birds and flowers, and Mughal type hills as well as a mix of Mughal and Rajasthani costumes on conventional male and female figures. The paintings followed the Mughal pattern but never allowed it to override the typical Mewari features in techniques, treatment and symbolism. For the most part the Mewar paintings during the first half of the seventeen-century are very attractive and charming for their bold colors and forms of beauty. The Rajasthani style appears to have come into being in the 16th century, about the same time the Mughal school was evolving under the patronage of Akbar; but, rather than a sharp break from the traditions, it represented a direct and natural evolution. Throughout the early phase, almost up to the end of the 17th century, it retained its essentially hierarchic and abstract character, as opposed to the naturalistic tendencies cultivated by the Mughal School. The subject matter of this style is essentially Hindu and not Islamic, devoted mainly to the illustration of literature and religious subjects as well as legends, and above all the life of Krishna; particularly favored were depictions of Krishna’s early life as the cowherd boy of Vraja, and the love of Vraja’s maidens for Him, as celebrated in the Bhagavata Purana, the Gita-govinda of Jayadeva, and the Braj Bhasa verses written by Surdas and other poets. Portraits, seldom found in the early phase, became increasingly common in the 18th century – as did court scenes, scenes of sporting and hunting events, and other scenes concerned with the courtly life of the great chiefs and Rajputs of Rajasthan. Raja Jagat Singh (1652–1680) was celebrated for his courage in offering sanctuary to the deity of Srinathji at Nathdwara, the enigmatic black-faced

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figure of Krishna, who is shown holding up Govardhana. It became the principal seat of the Vallabhacharya Vaishnavas. Due to scarcity of material to work with, it appears that this style of painting was cheapened and slowly gave way to a dull conventional color scheme. But the school remained highly productive and a high number of paintings were produced in various centers of Rajasthan. A large number of depictions of Srinathji and His worship were produced. Other areas came under the influence of the Mewar style such as Sirohi, Devgarth, Pratapgarth and many others. Those centers were minor but they took the Mewar style as their ideal. Over the centuries these artists produced some wonderful miniatures well into the nineteenth century. Â The Various Schools of Painting in Rajasthan The Rajasthani style developed various distinct schools, most of them centering in the several states of Rajasthan, namely Mewar, Bundi, Kotah, Marwar, Bikaner, Kishangarh, and Jaipur (Amber). Â The Mewar School The Mewar School is among the most important. Ambitious and extensive illustrations of the Bhagavata, the Ramayana, the poems of Surdas, and the Gita-govinda were completed here, all full of strength and vitality. The name of Sahibdin is intimately connected with this phase; another well-known painter is Manohar. The intensity and richness associated with their atelier (workshop) began to fade toward the close of the 17th century, and a wave of Mughal influence began to affect the school in the opening years of the 18th century. Portraits, court

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Mewar style

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scenes, and events in the everyday world of the ruling classes are increasingly found. Although the emotional fervor of the 17th century was never again attained, this work is often of considerable charm. The 19th century continued to create work in the tradition of the 18th, one of the most important centers being Nathdwara (Rajasthan), the seat of the Vallabha sect. Large numbers of pictures, produced here for the pilgrim trade, were spread over all parts of Rajasthan, northern India, Gujarat, and the Deccan. Â The Bundi School A school as important as that of Mewar developed at Bundi and later at Kotah, which was formed by a partition of the parent state and ruled by a junior branch of the Bundi family. Their earliest examples are epitomized by a ragamala series of extraordinarily rich quality, probably dating from the end of the 16th century. From the Bundi style very beginning the Bundi style seemed to have found Mughal painting an inspiring source, but its workmanship was as distinctively Rajasthani as the work of Mewar. The artists of this school always displayed a pronounced preference for lively movement, which is unique in all of Rajasthan. Toward the second half of the 17th century, work at Bundi came unmistakably under the influence of Mewar; many miniatures, including several series illustrating the Rasika-priya, indicate that this was a period of prolific activity. The sister state of Kotah also appears to have become an important center of painting at this time, developing a great fondness for hunting and sport scenes, all

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filled with great vigor and surging strength. This kind of work continued well into the 19th century, and if the workmanship was not always of the highest quality, the style maintained its integrity against the rapidly increasing Western influence right up to the end. The Malwa School: In contrast to the Bundi School, miniatures generally painted in Malwa were quite antiquated, with mannerisms inherited from the 16th century and retained until the end of the 17th. The earliest work is an illustrated version of the Rasika-priya (1634), followed by a series illustrating a Sanskrit poem called the Amaru Shataka (1652). There are also illustrations of raga-malas, the Bhagavata-Purana, and other Hindu devotional and literary works. The compositions of all of these pictures is uncompromisingly flat, the space divided into registers and panels, each filled with a patch of color and occupied by figures that convey the action. This conservative style disappeared after the close of the 17th century. The fate of Malwa painting in the 18th century and later is not known. Marwar school: A raga-mala series dated 1623 reveals that painting in this state shared features common to other schools of Rajasthan. Miniatures of the second half of the 17th century are distinguished by some splendid portraits that owe much to the Mughal School. A very large amount of work was done in the 19th century, all of which is highly stylized but strong in color and often of great charm. Bikaner school: Of all Rajasthani schools, the Bikaner style, from its very establishment in the mid-17th century, shows the greatest indebtedness to the Mughal style. This is due to the presence in the Bikaner atelier of artists who had previously worked in the Mughal manner at Delhi. They and their descendants continued to paint in a style that could only be classed as a provincial Mughal manner had it not been for the quick absorption of influences from the Rajasthani environment and a sympathy for the religious

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Bekaner style and literary themes favored by the royal patrons. Delicacy of line and color are consistent characteristics of Bikaner painting even when, toward the end of the 18th century, it assumed stylistic features associated with the more orthodox schools of Rajasthan. The Kishangarh School, which came into being much later than the other schools, toward the mid-18th century, was also indebted to the contemporary Mughal style but combined a rich technique with deeply moving religious fervor. Its inspiring patron in the formative phase was Savant Singh, more of a devotee and a poet than a king. The style established by him, characterized by pronounced mystical leanings and a distinctive facial type, continued to the middle of the 19th century, though at a clearly lower level of achievement.

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Jaipur (Amber) School: The rulers of the state were closely allied to the Mughal dynasty, but paintings of the late 16th and early 17th centuries possessed all of the elements of the Rajasthani style. Little is known about the school until the opening years of the 18th century, when stiff, formal examples appear in the reign of Suwai Jai Singh. The finest works, dating from the reign of Pratap Singh, are sumptuous in effect and include some splendid portraits and some large paintings of the sports of Krishna. Although the entire 19th century was extremely productive, the work was rather undistinguished and increasingly affected by Western influences. Of the Rajasthani styles of this period, the Jaipur School was the most popular, examples having been found all over northern India.

Example of Tilly Kettle painting 133

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Modern period Though the political influence of the princes was restricted, the royal courts remained vital to the production of art through the nineteenth century. They were important venues for the continuation of artistic traditions as well as conduits for European influences in both art and architecture. At the beginning of this period, the Mughal court continued to produce elaborate histories; particularly popular were copies of the Babur-nama and the Padshah-nama, which documented the reigns of legendary emperors Babur and Shah Jahan. While completed in the style of the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century originals, some paintings depicted the now universal famous monuments such as the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort. Early nineteenthcentury works from surrounding courts also continued in earlier styles. But the Mughals were no longer the driving force behind Indian art, and some princes were more interested in other forms of painting. The nawabs of Oudh were particularly active in this regard; Shuja ud-Dawla (r. 1754â&#x20AC;&#x201C;75) hosted Britisher Tilly Kettle at Faizabad for a year, and Ghazi-ud-Din Haidar (r. 1814â&#x20AC;&#x201C;27) hired the Scot Robert Hume as his court painter. Raja Rajendra Malik of Bengal furnished his Marble Palace with copies of Renaissance works and originals by contemporary neoclassical painters, and had family portraits executed by European artists. Thus this period marked the introduction of easel painting and oil paints to India. First brought into the courts by Kettle, Hume, and other European artists, this type of painting was later taught at schools. Academies opened in the 1850s in Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, and then in 1875 in Lahore. With the advent of such formal training for artists, they came to be regarded as professionals rather than mere artisans. About 30 British portrait painters trained in oil paintings and 28 miniaturists travelled to India between 1770 and 1825 in search of commissions. Amongst the earliest European artists who visited India were John Zoffany, William Hodges,Tilly Kettle,William and Thomas Daniell, Emily Eden and others. From

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around 1760 till the mid 19th century, these itinerant artist-travelers toured India working for local patrons making paintings and prints of monuments, landscapes as well as portraits. The artists worked in oils on canvas utilizing the western technique of academic realism with its emphasis on linear perspective. These European artists recorded the new colony in prints and paintings that explored the vast landscapes, the numerous historical edifices and monuments and the many communities that inhabited the land. They were called “the orientalists”. Filtered through the ‘orientalist’ lens, these works imaged India as an exotic and mysterious land in paintings depicting the ghats of Benaras, dancing girls in princely courts, colorful caste costumes, portraits of local rulers and their courtiers, different native occupations and the local flora and fauna.

Thomas Daniell – “Hindu Math, Chitpore Bazaar,” litograph 135

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Toward the late 19th century traditional Indian painting was rapidly dying out, being replaced by feeble works in a variety of idioms, all strongly influenced by the Western culture, such as the post-impressionist, cubist and fauvist art of the beginning of the 20th century. The glories of Indian art were rediscovered during the early 20th century, represented by what is called the Bengal school. The school consciously tried to produce what it considered a truly Indian art inspired by the creations of the past. Its leading artist was Rabindranath Tagore and its theoretician was E.B. Havell, the principal of the Calcutta School of Art. Nostalgic in mood, the work was mainly overly romantic though often of considerable charm.The Bengal school did a great deal to reshape contemporary taste and to make Indian artists aware of their own heritage. Amrita Sher-Gil, who was inspired by the Postimpressionists, made Indian painters aware of new directions. Mid-20th-century Indian painting is very much a part of the international scene, the artists painting in a variety of idioms, often attempting to come to terms with their heritage and with the emergence of India as a modern culture. In Rajasthan however during the 20th century, we see the emergence of a couple of successfully traditional artists such as B. G. Sharma and his cousin Indra Sharma. Bhanwarlal Girdharilal Sharma (1925–2008)

B.G. Sharma’s work

was an award-winning painter from Rajasthan. He was born in Nathadwara, Rajasthan. He was famous for his miniature devotional paintings and his rejuvenation and popularization of classic Rajasthan art, including the Mughal, Kishangarh, and Kangra styles. He was taught to paint by his father and grandfather, who were also well-known

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artists. He later developed his own distinctive style, renowned for its elegance of composition, delicacy of detail, gem-like colors, and light-suffused images. The hallmark of his work is its unmistakable aura of deep devotion. His style, based on the Nathadwara tradition, contributed significantly to the culture and popularity of both traditional and contemporary Indian art. He was commissioned for portraits of the late Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, the British monarch Queen Elizabeth II, and the former Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. His work has been exhibited internationally in London, Germany, and the United States and has influenced and inspired many other artists. He was a winner of numerous awards, including the National Art Award for Master Craftsman given to him by the Government of India in 1983. He was a cousin of Indra Sharma, who also exhibited in MOSA at Radhadesh. Indra Sharma (1923-2006) like his cousin B.G. Sharma, emerged from the Nathadwara art tradition. Although he was born in Kurawad, Rajasthan, his early training in painting took place at Nathadwara under the direction of two masters, Sri Gopilal and Sri Khubilal. During this time he learned the basic skills of making paints and brushes. In 1943 he went to Karachi to repaint some pichhavais at a famous temple. While he was there he also painted some original compositions of his own. An early patron, Seth Gokuldas, brought him Indra Sharmaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work to Kolkata and Indra Sharma flourished under his sponsorship. Seth Gokuldas eventually sent him to the famous J.J. School of Art in Mumbai in 1946, where he studied for four years. Indra Sharmaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s genius was in producing sublime images of saints and deities depicted in beautiful

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Painter at work

settings. His style was less traditional than B.G. Sharma in its conception and more under the influence of European art. The term for his art is calendar art. He actually became famous throughout India through the mass distribution of his paintings via the medium of calendars and cards. His style nonetheless remained totally devotional.

Thanks to its geographical situation, the Indian subcontinent has been constantly fed by artistic traditions emanating from the west and the Middle East. The Indian artist has shown a remarkable capacity for accepting these foreign influences and assimilating and incorporating them to their own style. And just as India received influences, it transmitted its own art abroad particularly to Ceylon and the countries of Southeast Asia. The origin and development of the different Rajasthani Schools and the Mughal School (Actually Persian style) happened simultaneously. While the Mughal style was dominated by pomp and paintings of the royal courts, the Rajasthani style adopted a highly imaginative posture, filled with religious sentiments and devotion. The paintings were full of lively depictions of the various moods of Radha-Krishna and their associates. Also the Rajasthani paintings were much more colorful than the Mughal ones. Arrangements of colors were especially significant. The bright and shiny colors possessed their own form and style. The Rajasthani style of decorations was also very different from the Mughal one. Some of the symbols used in Rajasthan are the lotus, the swan and the peacock while the Mughal School used the camel, the Saru tree, and the falcon. From the 16th century to the 19th century Rajasthani Schools are definitively part of a major branch of Indian painting. It possessed its own characteristic and masterpieces were produced. Sources: Wikipedia online and â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Life of Krishna in Indian Artâ&#x20AC;? by P. Banerjee, published by the National Museum, New Delhi.

w w w. d o m i n i q u e a m e n d o l a . c o m

RAMMOHAN PHOTOGRAPHY

w w w. ra m m o h a n p h o to g ra p hy. c o m

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Shell-Neck, Slim and Grim (A Tale from the Panchatantra of Vishnu Sharma) In a certain lake there lived a turtle named Shell-Neck whose friends were two geese whose names were Slim and Grim. During their time at the lake there came a twelve-year drought, and the two geese thought, “This lake has become totally dry, so we should go and find another source of water. However, before doing that we should say farewell to our dear friend Shell-Neck.” But when they went to say goodbye to their friend, the turtle tearfully said, “Why do you wish to leave me here? I’m also a water-dweller and I will certainly die very quickly from lack of water and from grief at losing my two best friends. Please, if you have any love for me, take me with you. If all the water dries up in this lake, you will only suffer a restricted diet – on the other hand, it means instant death to me!” Slim and Grim replied: “But how will we take you with us? You are a creature without wings.” “There is a way,” said Shell-Neck, “Bring me a wooden stick.” The two geese brought a stick to the turtle and Shell-Neck gripped the middle of the stick between his teeth, and said, “Now both of you take a firm hold with your beaks on each side of the stick, and take flight with myself in the middle until we discover another lake.” “That’s all well and good,” said the geese, “But if you happen to say even one word, then you’ll lose hold of the stick, fall to the ground and get killed.” Shell-Neck replied, “No problem – from this moment on I will take a vow of silence until we reach our new destination.” So the three friends carried out their plan. But while Slim and Grim painfully carried their turtle friend over a big city, all the people below looked up, and asked: “What is that object those two birds are carrying through the sky?”    Hearing all the commotion, Shell-Neck forgot about his vow of silence and asked, “What are all those people talking about?” As soon as he spoke, the poor turtle lost his grip, fell to the ground and was dashed to pieces. The moral of this story is: “Those who cannot control the urge to speak (vacho-vegam) are the cause of their own doom.”

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GOT RAW MILK? by Priyanana dasi

Your Food Choices Could Be A Matter of Life or Death Got Milk? Even so that might not be good enough. You gotta love those commercials for ‘Got Milk?’ but the fact is that the milk you drink might be the source of many of your families health issues, especially your children. As it turns out “Got Milk?” isn’t such a good idea after all, unless you “Got Raw Milk?”. Lets take a look at the over the counter pasteurized and homogenized milk sold in millions of grocery stores around the world and that just might be sitting in your refrigerator right now. The very idea that milk has to be pasteurized and homogenized suggests that there is something wrong with milk in the first place. In fact the urban rumor in some communities is that

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unprocessed raw milk could even kill you! Emphasis here on rumor. You could also just as easily die from brushing your teeth but its unlikely.

Lo u i s Pa s te u r

The process of pasteurization was invented by scientist Louis Pasteur in 1862 to improve the preservation of wine, a process now used by the dairy industry en masse. Pasteurization is achieved by heating milk to 145 degrees fahrenheit [62.7 celsius] for 30 minutes and then cooling and packaging it immediately, which according to the USA’s Food and Drug Administration, “destroys harmful bacteria without significantly changing milk’s nutritional value.” The process slows microbial growth in milk. Pasteurization is not intended to kill all micro-organisms in milk. Instead pasteurization aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease.

In 1938, milk-borne outbreaks constituted 25% of all disease outbreaks from food and water in the USA. Today that figure is 1%, in part because of pasteurization, says Caroline Smith DeWaal, food safety director at the Center for Science in the Public Interest in Washington, DC. Pasteurization is “one of the most significant public health successes of all time,” says Michael Lynch, an expert in gastric diseases at the Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta. These are the official statements. However, an update of the evidence for Pasteurized Milk vs Raw Milk casts the issue in a very different light. There is now sufficient evidence via scientific research to prove that commercial pasteurization destroys beneficial micro-

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organisms in milk that are meant to be there and are very useful for maintaining health and a strong immune system, especially for reducing allergies or asthma in children. Research published in the Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology in June 2006 has shown that raw milk consumption specifically reduced attacks of allergies. Pasteurization also severely jeopardizes the calcium in milk, a critical mineral responsible for bone density, brain growth in children, and other vital functions in the body. Additionally, pasteurization completely destroys two principal enzymes, namely phosphatase (essential for calcium absorption — rendering any calcium remaining in the milk to be insufficiently absorbed in the body) and lipase, necessary for complete fat digestion. Insufficient fat digestion leads to fat build up, obesity, cholesterol issues and so on. Other enzymes, vitamins, and friendly bacteria inherently present in raw milk are also killed by commercial pasteurization. This results in making the milk extremely difficult for the body to properly digest and assimilate — a now unrecognizable and nutritionally bereft substance [commercially pasteurized milk]. Don’t expect to hear it on a TV commercial but commercially packaged [pasteurized] milk is a leading cause of susceptibility to [winter] flu. I have seen it practically in India and other third world countries where people drink more raw milk, they are less susceptible to the flu. Whereas, in countries that mostly consume commercially packaged/pasteurized milk, people catch the flu that comes around every winter in almost epidemic proportions. The primary benefits of the pasteurization of milk are for the most part intended for the dairy industry, the mega producers and packagers of commercial milk — giving the product a longer shelf life, thus eliminating the need for same day

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delivery to the consumer and enabling the corporate milk producers to ship their product far and wide. On the other hand, the benefits of pasteurization for the consumer are negligible and as we have pointed out, even detrimental to health. What about homogenization? Dairy Farming Today, an organization that promotes information about dairy production, provided information about homogenizing in its article “Farm to Fridge” in December 2007. “Homogenization is a process that gives milk its rich, white color and smooth texture. Milk that has not been homogenized contains a layer of cream that rises to the top of a glass. Before the homogenization process was used, milk was shaken or mixed to achieve consistency in its look and taste.The homogenization process involves reducing the size of the fat globules into minuscule portions that are dispersed evenly throughout the milk. Homogenization usually is achieved by pumping milk through small openings under a very high pressure.” Douglas Goff, PhD, Professor of Daily Science and Technology Education at the University of Guelph, Canada, wrote on Homogenization of Milk and Milk Products [1995] on the Dairy Science and Technology website: “Milk is an oil-in-water emulsion, with the fat globules dispersed in a continuous skim milk phase. If raw milk were left to stand, however, the fat would rise and form a cream layer. Homogenization is a mechanical treatment of the fat globules in milk brought about by passing milk under high pressure through a tiny orifice, which results in a decrease in the average diameter and an increase in number and surface area, of the fat globules. The net result, from a practical view, is a much reduced tendency for creaming of fat globules.” In effect what is being said here is that homogenization is basically for cosmetic appeal and maximizing profit margins. If you are old enough to remember when the milkman made his morning house to house deliveries back in the old days [ before 1960] then you will remember seeing a big thick head of cream at the top of every glass bottle of

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milk. And before serving, your Mom or Grandmother would shake the bottle or pour off the cream to use in other kitchen preparations. Well, the milk we get today from most commercial dairies, even if not homogenized, would not yield a decent head of cream because the cream has been ‘creamed’ off in advance — and we got what’s left, basically homogenized milk-water. Ok, no harm done because we are all fat conscious these days and fully aware of the dangers of a high fat diet, the risk of heart attack, diabetes and a few more haunting life threatening ailments. So let the industry cream the milk and homogenize it first, its better for us anyway, right? Think again because that is not the fact. Homogenized milk turns out to be a leading cause for heart disease. Heart disease is now well established as the leading cause of death especially in American males. Yet, less than eighty years ago it was a rare disease that didn’t rate among the six leading causes of death in the United States. Numerous causes for this have been suggested by the medical profession, including cigarettes, stress, a sedentary life style, and now cholesterol and saturated fats. Cholesterol, that dreaded substance of our worst nightmares, is actually manufactured by the body and is vital to our well being. It is so vital that all tissues fabricate it and all cells contain it. The dysfunctional logic, which gave birth to the idea that cholesterol may be the causative agent of heart disease, is now falling apart under the weight of recent evidence, including that of the National Research Council. In short, because cholesterol is so important physiologically, it is foolhardy to assume that the human body will self-destruct because of it. There are many people in many countries in the world who consume more cholesterol rich foods than Americans, but suffer far less heart disease. Fat and cholesterol consumption has not changed significantly in America in the last 150 years, and yet heart disease has skyrocketed. Why?

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The real culprit is not cholesterol but the homogenization of milk. Milk [especially cows milk] is usually super nutritious. However, when it is tampered with by way of homogenization, it becomes a type of slow poison for the circulatory system. Milk fat contains a substance called Xanthine Oxidase (XO). This XO is usually not a problem in our system, but homogenization causes some of this XO to pass through the wall of the intestine into the circulatory system. There it creates havoc by attacking specific targets in the artery walls as well as heart tissue, causing lesions. The body responds to this attack by attempting to heal the damaged areas. Fatty tissue and cholesterol are laid over the wounds like bandaids and when these â&#x20AC;&#x153;body bandaidsâ&#x20AC;? build up over time they cause obstruction, stroke, heart attack and even death. Homogenization of milk is an entirely superfluous procedure, producing only detrimental effects to health. This process simply breaks down fat globules via an extreme pressure method, so that the consumer does not have the burden of stirring in the cream that naturally rises to the top of the milk. Homogenization actually has no documented health advantages. However, homogenization has been linked to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disfunction due to the miniature fat particles not being digested by the intestines but instead finding their way directly into the bloodstream causing the arteries to build up layers of unwanted cholesterol in an effort to protect themselves. The enzyme XO is unwittingly being smuggled into the bloodstream by homogenized milk and is the cause of half of all heart attacks. Additionally, 30% of the heart muscle and artery walls are composed of a substance called plasmalogen. This plasma-logen is not usually found in the liver or small intestine for good reason, whereas XO serves a useful purpose in the liver and the small intestine, but destroys plasma-logen if it is present, the two cannot co-exist. In most cases plasma-logen is found missing from the heart muscles of the heart attack victim, but XO is found there in its place, when it shouldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t be.

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XO in raw milk is digested, but in homogenized milk it is transported intact directly into the blood stream where it attacks arteries and the heart. When XO attacks the artery, an area is literally eaten away. The body, in its wisdom, tries to heal this area with cholesterol. As this buildup continues, the risk of heart attack is increased. A heart attack is the product of years of arterial damage, not the result of some sudden overnight occurrence. Considerable arterial damage often occurs before the age of fifteen when the greatest volume of milk is consumed. Scarred arteries have even been found in infants after autopsy. Studies have revealed that 50% of the American children have lesions by the age of ten. The evidence also suggests that it is unwise for pregnant women to drink homogenized milk because of the potential damage to the unborn fetus. Heart attack was once rare even among the older people but now even young people are dying from it. Therefore, isnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t it reasonable to question what is actually good for our health especially when studies have shown that Americans, who drink more homogenized [cold] milk than anyone, simultaneously have the greatest percentage of heart disease and death? Your life could actually depend on it. The good news is that you have a choice of what you put on the table for your family and a choice of what they put into their stomaches. Choose wisely and live healthily. For thousands of years raw cow milk has been a crucial food staple and perennial medicine in most major world cultures. Cow domestication dates back over 8,000 years. In Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ancient medical system, the Ayurveda, milk is said to promote ojas, the subtle primordial energy of the body. Indeed, in India the cow is held in an esteemed position for being the giver of the miracle food, milk. When cowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

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milk is untreated by any mechanical process and consumed in its natural state only good things happen. The nutritional profile of untreated, pure, raw milk is truly amazing. First of all it contains all eight essential amino acids which are the building blocks of protein. These amino acids are not synthesized by the body, they must be acquired through our food and are necessary for optimal health. Milk provides a duly proportionate amount of carbohydrates which are the bodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main source of energy and the only source used by the brain. Lactose is the primary carbohydrate found in milk and it is digested with the aid of the naturally occurring lactobacilli bacterium. Digestion of lactose results in the formation of lactic acid which increases calcium, phosphorus, and iron absorption as well as making milk proteins more digestible. Milk contains saturated fat, while widely thought to be undesirable, saturated fat is actually central to hormone production, energy storage, creation of cell membranes, and provides cushioning for our organs. CLA (conjugated linoleic acid) is abundantly present in milk and has a myriad of health benefits, including increased immunity, fat reduction while boosting muscle growth and heart disease and diabetes prevention. It is also a natural anti-inflammatory. Cholesterol, which is required for normal cell function, production of Vitamin D and hormones, as well as protecting human memory, is also found in milk. Present in varying degrees, colostrum, an element rich in immunoglobulins (proteins involved in stimulating the immune system), is associated with aiding many conditions including Alzheimerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease, auto immune diseases, and asthma. Raw milk boasts an abundance of vitamins and minerals as well as enzymes, which are important for digestion and assimilation.

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It is of utmost importance that people be aware of how food is produced and processed, so that they can make alimentary choices from a position of knowledge and understanding. The information presented here is simply intended to acquaint readers with the topic of raw milk as an alternative to pasteurized/ homogenized milk. We invite readers to do their own research on this subject (as it is quite extensive), talk to your local dairy farmers, and start dialogues within your own communities to gain access to raw milk. The bottom line â&#x20AC;&#x201D; raw milk is a completely safe food and if you want healthier kids, a stronger immune system, less â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;headachesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and a longer fuller life, then put raw milk on the table for your family. Get the real deal, get raw milk. May your food choices engender health and well being for yourselves, humankind, the animals, and the Earth. ~ Om Shanti

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VEDIC SCIENCE Can science provide us with the answers to life's mysteries? Can modern scientists continue to reject the concept of a creator intelligence? Scientists have long held that the universal creation is describable by simple mathematical formulas. Recent discoveries in algorithmic information theory have definitively shown that this is not so. Where do we go from here?... Can Vedic Science help? This website is inspired by the profound Vedic culture and the many important contributions to modern science, mathematics, architecture and many other fields that are credited to it. As such, many of the scientific and other articles here are not about Vedic Science directly but lead one to the conclusions of the Vedas â&#x20AC;&#x201D; they are inspired by Vedic Science and the culture of the Vedas.

www.vedicsciences.net

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Culinary Magic F r o m T h e Ve r m o n t K i t c h e n

This month our Culinar y Magic is brought to you by the Car r t wins, Vraja-kishor and Bhakta-pri ya The

f i ve

simple

and

usef ul recipe s pre sented are t radi t ional and guaranteed to ple ase! We highly recommend you use organic, nat ural and whole food ingredients as much as possible .

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Cheddar Dill Corn Bread

1 1/2 teaspoon dill weed 1 cup cornmeal 1 cup flour 1/4 cup sugar or honey 1/2 teaspoon salt 4 teaspoons baking powder 1 cup milk 1/4 cup oil 1 cup grated cheddar cheese

Prehe at oven to 425O F. Mix dr y ingredients in a bowl. Add milk , oil and honey (or sugar) and mix lightly until a thick bat ter is formed. Do no t over mix, or mix v igorously. Pour into an 8'' pan or a 12-muf f in cup pan. Sprinkle grated chee se on top. Bake for 20 minu te s until golden brown. Remove f rom muf f in pan if using , bu t le ave in square pan.

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Black Bean-Squash-Kale-Soup 3 Tablespoons vegetable oil 2 teaspoons ginger powder 1 Â˝ teaspoons curry powder 3 teaspoons cumin powder 2 sticks celery chopped 12 cups water 2-3 cups butternut squash cut into small cubes (use any varietal pumpkin, or if not available carrots or sweet potato) 1 cup tomato puree 1 red pepper diced 3 cups chopped kale (use spinach or Swiss chard if kale is not available) 2- 15oz cans black beans (or about 3 cups cooked beans) 1 tablespoon salt 1/2 teaspoon black pepper 1 teaspoon dried rosemary or 1 tablespoon fresh, chopped few shakes or pinches chili powder He at oil in a large po t and add cumin powde r, ginge r powde r and cur r y po wder. Sau tĂŠ ce ler y unt il light ly bro wne d. Add wate r and bu t te r nu t squash and he at unt il boiling the n t urn down to simme r. Add k ale, re d peppe r and tomato puree . Cook unt il bu t ter nu t squash is sof t, abou t 12 minu te s. Add black be ans, chili powder, peppe r, s al t and rosemar y. Le t cook ano the r 5 minu te s the n t urn of f he at.

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Q u i n o a B u t t e r n u t S q u a s h Pat t i e s 1 cup quinoa uncooked 2 1/2 cups water 3 cups shredded butternut squash (carrots and/or sweet potatoes may be substituted) 3/4 cup buckwheat flour 2 teaspoon salt 1 teaspoon ginger powder 1 Â˝ teaspoons cumin powder 1 teaspoon curry powder 1/4 teaspoon black pepper

Bring quinoa and water in a medium sized po t to boil and then turn down to a simmer and cook until sof t and f luf f y, abou t 20 minu te s. Me anwhile peel and grate but ternu t squash. He at a small amount of oil in a pan and add cumin, ginger and curr y and cook for a minu te. Then add shredded squash and sautĂŠ until lightly browned. Combine quinoa, buck whe at f lour, salt, pepper and squash in a bowl and mash toge ther. Dough will be ver y stick y. Prehe at oven to 375 oF. Using your hands or a scoop/me asuring cup form handf ul sized balls and place onto gre ased cookie shee t. Push balls into f lat pat tie s, using a spatula or sprinkling more buck whe at f lour on top in order to

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keep them f rom sticking. bake ano ther 10 minu te s then f lip over and bake another 10. Remove f rom oven. Pat tie s are now re ady to be pan f ried or saved in the ref rigerator to cook later. They will keep for se veral days in the ref rigerator until you are re ady to cook them again. Pan f r y by put ting a small amount of oil in a skille t and cooking until brown and crunchy, about 3 minute s per side. (Note: to make the se non Ek adasi pat tie s use a combination of brown rice/ green lentils, black be ans or chickpe as in the same amount as the quinoa and then follow the recipe s directions.)

R h ub a r b S t r aw ber ry c r i sp 4 cups chopped rhubarb (note: if rhubarb is unavailable, use apples or peaches in place of strawberries and rhubarb) 1 cup chopped strawberries 1/2 cup white or wheat flour 1/4-cup sugar

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Streusel Topping ( for the Crisp) 1/3 cup butter softened 1/2 cup flour 3/4 cup oats 1/2 cup nuts 2 teaspoons cinnamon 1/4 teaspoon maple syrup

Prehe at oven to 375oF Combine st rawberr y, rhubarb, f lour and sugar in a bowl. Using a food proce ssor or your hands combine bu t ter, f lour, oats, nu ts, cinnamon and maple f lavor in a bowl until it re semble s small crumbs. Di v ide f ruit mixture into a square 8x8x2 inch pan or a 9 inch round pan. Sprinkle st reusel generously on top. Bake at 375 oF for about 30 minu te s until top is brown and f ruit feels sof t when pricked with a knife. Ser ve with vanilla ice cre am or f re sh whipped cre am.

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Pumpkin Fudge 1 cup pumpkin puree 1 1/4 cups sugar 3/4 cup butter 3/4 teaspoon maple syrup 1 teaspoon vanilla 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon 1/2 teaspoon ginger powder 3 Â˝ cups milk powder 1/4 cup or handful walnuts toasted and chopped

Put but ter, sugar and pumpkin puree into pan or pot on medium he at and le t melt, stirring f requently. Once melted le t boil for 4-5 minu te s until it begins to thicken and turn darker. Turn of f he at and add maple syrup, vanilla, ginger and cinnamon. Whisk in milk powder until mixed and scoop into a pan or plate. Sprinkle roasted walnuts over the top. Ser ve warm or cooled. Fudge will thicken as it cools. (No te: feel f ree to use other nuts or sunf lower seeds. In place of the maple syrup, 1/4 te aspoon more vanilla and 1/2 te aspoon cinnamon may be used.

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Cerrada Hermosillo # 1 colonia Juarez, Huejutla de Reyes Hidalgo C. P 43000 Telephone: (01789) 89 60879

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