Design for Reuse: Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums by George Lin

PROMOTERS / BENEFICIARIES

POLITICANS

CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES

MEDIA COMPANIES

SECURITY

OLYMPICS

$$ ATHLETES

CORPORATIONS

DESIGN for Reuse: Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums

* **

1.5 yrs

DESIGN

CONSTRUCTION

* Community Involvement / Unity **Bird’s Nest’s usage

30 + Years

7 Yrs

17 DAYS !

BID

OPPORTUNITY COST / PAYERS

EDUCATION

HEALTH CARE

AFFORDABLE HOUSING

TAX PAYERS

Design for Reuse:

Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums by George X. Lin Submitted to the Department of Architecture on January 17, 2013 in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Architecture

Thesis Supervisor: Ana Miljacki Assistant Professor of Architecture

ABSTRACT On the surface, the spirit of Olympic Games is about the competition for medals. Underneath the surface, however, lies a series of political, economical, social agendas. Individual Olympians represent their Nations. Rising modernity, stabilization of economy and social cohesion of nations are represented by the contemporary Architecture of the games. Every Olympic game has resulted in a significant change in the host city and presented the host country with a unique opportunity to shed a new light on itself in front of a global audience. In anticipation of presenting a brilliant, dynamic image to the world, Olympic cities often build contemporary sporting arenas that follow similar design patterns of generating iconic and autonomous buildings with relatively fixed programs. In order for a city to accommodate such a large number of newly constructed sporting venues, a trend has emerged whereby cities shift the games from the urban core to outlying peripheries, scattered throughout the suburbs. After the 17 days of international use, the venues return to serve the host cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs. But the stadiums are largely freestanding objects that compete with pre-existing residential fields for the occupancy of local teams. These local teams often favor smaller arenas that are less maintenanceintensive and are more widely accessible due to their greater proximity to the city core. As a result, Olympic stadiums become underused, labeled as white elephants and even in some instances abandoned. The next Olympics will be held in Rio, which has the 5th largest economy in the world while also having one of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lowest GDP per capita. This thesis explores the possibility of exploiting the flamboyant nature of the Olympics to create a dual purpose field hockey stadium, the design of which is flexible enough to adapt to a post Olympics transformation into a vocational school. 5

ECONOMICAL COMMERCIALIZATION TOURISM MEDIA SPECTACLE

URBAN RENEWAL

OLYMPIC GAMES CEREMONY CULTURAL EXCHANGE

SOCIAL

Image credit : http://www.firedbydesign.com/2112/olympic-spirit/ 6

SOCIAL COHESION

HEROISM (INTER) NATIONAL AGENDA

POLITICAL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my sincerest gratitude to: Ana, for shaping my thesis work and guiding it through every pivotal change with such patience, intellect and sensitivity; and for pushing me to explore the development of the design and of my capabilities beyond my previous ways. Arindam, for sharing your encyclopedia of knowledge and using your mysterious ways to influence the outcome of the design. Miho, for understanding my interests and supporting them with care and precision. Brandon, for giving me an incredible last studio as your TA and everything you taught and shared with me throughout this semester. Erin, for making me understand that parking is more than just parking. Ali, Austin, Behnam, Cecilia, Chris, Hui, Karen, Kenny, Li, and Rachel for staying with me through the most stressful nights. Xinying, Chingyi, Kun, Karen, Yi, Namjoo for the last minute help. My classmates, for being there throughout all the ups and downs at MIT and allowing me to document them. Core I, for reminding me what “Testing to Failure” meant. Yan Ping, for all the “Big Breakfast” runs we’ve shared... My Family, for enduring my long journey through architecture school. Diana, for your smiles and support through the cheerful phone calls and healthy meals. 7

Design for Reuse:

Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums

Image Credit: Robert Saiget/AFP/Getty Images 10

PREFACE In 2008, the Chinese government saw the Olympics as a chance to firmly establish its identity as an established economy in the world. The architecture, however, is often deprived of human cultural and regional identity and remains forever alien to the locals. Hutongs are traditional courtyard houses that date back as old as 800 years. In the last decade in Beijing, modernization has removed nearly 70%1 of hutongs while displacing 1.5 million inhabitants in preparation for the latest skyscrapers and 18 new 2008 Olympic summer games venues. Peng Peigen, an architecture professor at Qinghua University in Beijing, describes the games as an opportunity where “[international] architects are doing things in China they wouldn’t dare do at home. They’re using China as their testing grounds.”2 The fact is that many Olympics stadiums around the world are designed by international architects: Calatrava (Spain) for Athens, Roger Taillibert (France) for Montreal, Herzog and de Meuron (Switzerland) for Beijing, HokSport (USA) for Sydney, and the list goes on. Designs are bold and built fast to meet the tight schedule of generally 7 years between announcement and opening. While some argue that China has provided the best opening and closing ceremony yet3, the games only lasted 17 days. When the games end, the athletes and architects go, and after the doors close, it is the host city and its inhabitants that are left to deal with the foreign carcass left behind. Almost every sports arena has similar design patterns of generating iconic and autonomous buildings with relatively fixed programs. 1 http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/event/beijing_2008/multimedia/ multimedia_beijingReport.htm?No=107&lang=e 2 http://www.china.org.cn/china/features/content_17458714_2.htm 3 http://blogs.reuters.com/china/2008/08/24/beijing-2008-werethese-the-best-games-ever/ 11

Sports of the Olympics | Image source : http://www.comicsbeat.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/201207300259.jpg 12

CHAPTERS The Olympics 1.1 The Numbers 1.2 Who Hosted 1.3 The Venues 1.4 Stadium Financing 1.5 What Where & Why Rio de Janeiro 2.1 Rio and the Games 2.2 Alternatives to current Olympic planning models 2.3 Public Space 2.4 Local Precedent 2.5 For the Very Many 2.6 S達o Carlos Design for Reuse 3.1 History of Stadiums 3.2 Programing 3.3 Schematic Design 3.4 Stadiums Tectonics 3.5 The Roof 3.6 Strategy 3.7 Olympic Field Hockey / Vocational School Appendix

[ In the games, nations are represented by individuals... ] Image source : http://theinspirationroom.com/daily/2007/impossible-is-nothing-in-china/ 14

Design for Reuse: Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums The Olympics

[ Rising modernity, stabilization of economy and social cohesion of nations are represented by the contemporary Architecture of the games ]

Image source : http://net.undonet.com/opening/Athens_2004_Opening_18_1024.jpg 16

“Olympic Stadium With a Design to Remember” Nicolai Ouroussoff, NY Times, August 5, 2008

Beijing 2008: Were these the best Games ever? By Kevin Fylan, Reuters,August 24, 2008

“All Form, No People: Why the architectural icons Beijing built for the Olympic Games stand empty” Newsweek Intl., Volume 153, Number 14, 6 April 2009

“Beijing’s Olympic building boom becomes a bust” Barbara Demick, LA Times, February 22, 2009

“After Summer Olympics, Empty Shells in Beijing” Michael Wines, NY Times, February 6, 2010 Image source : http://raxacollective.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/beijing_olympic_opening_ceremony_wallpaper.jpg 17

Athens-Stadiums abandoned & closed off to public photo source: http://www.theblaze.com/stories/a-mere-8-years-later-athens-olympic-venues-in-decay/ 18

Beijing Birdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Nest -3 events in 3 years photo source: http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2012/07/13/decrepit-four-years-after-hosting-the-beijing-olympics-this-is-what-chinas-40b-investment-looks-like/ 19

INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN 65 COUNTRY BOYCOTT

FIRST OLYMPICS IN LATIN AMERICA

? ? RIO LONDON BEIJING ATHENS SYDNEY ATLANTA BARCELONA SEOUL LOS ANGELES MOSCOW MONTREAL MUNICH MEXICO TOKYO

ACTUAL COST

ESTIMATED COST

FIRST INTERNATIONAL BROADCAST

FIRST OLYMPICS IN LATIN AMERICA

65 COUNTRY BOYCOTT

INVASION OF AFGHANISTAN

REVENUES

FIRST OLYMPICS IN ASIA

? ? RIO LONDON BEIJING ATHENS SYDNEY ATLANTA BARCELONA SEOUL LOS ANGELES MOSCOW MONTREAL MUNICH MEXICO TOKYO ROME MELBOURNE HELSINKI

Data Source: http://www.olympic.org/

IN 2010 Dollar 3.5B $5B $4B $3B $2B $1B

FIRST INTERNATIONAL BROADCAST

ROME MELBOURNE HELSINKI

LONDON

FIRST OLYMPICS IN ASIA

100

7.9B $8B $7B $6B

302 300

14B $10B $9B

ATHLETES 204 198 136 59 50 200

4104

1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024

COUNTRIES COMPETING 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024

MEMBER STATES IN UNITED NATIONS EVENTS (x3=MEDALS) LONDON

$40B

10942 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000

1.1 THE NUMBERS 1964 represented the year when the Olympic Games were first broadcasted internationally. Since then, the Olympics has become bigger; more athletes, more nations represented than the United Nations, and ever rising costs. Currently, it takes at least $14 billion dollars to host the Olympics, not including the application fees (refer to diagram in appendix). The cost shadows the GDP of some nations such as Iceland, Senegal, or Haiti. Every city attempts to outdo the last. When it comes to mega events, there is nothing greater in a span of just 17 days. During the Games, nations are represented by individuals. And rising modernity, as well as the stabilization of economy and social cohesion of nations are represented by the contemporary Architecture of the games. Every city that hosts an Olympic game hopes to shine a new light on its nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s image. While every city is placed into a serious debt after the Olympics, the public is still easily misled to support the hosting of the Olympic Games with perceived benefits of increased jobs4 (often in reality just temporary and affected by volunteers) and subsequent increased tourism (statistically not supported5). Opposite Top:

Events, Athletes, and Countries in Olympics vs countries in UN

Opposite Bottom:

$:Estimates, Cost and Revenues

4 html 5

http://www.ajc.com/opinion/beware-promise-of-sports-608689. 54, Perryman 21

PROCESS TO HOST OLYMPICS

Introduction of Canditate Cities

Application Fee $150,000

City visit by IOC members

IOC Headquarters Lausanne Switzerland

IOC Voting

5 Canditate City

TOTAL COST FOR APPLICATION $13 MILLION Next Olympic Host

Top:

London Application Process Source: http://www.olympic.org/ 22

Legibility Report: Potential of City by visiting IOC members Voting/ Elimination

Acceptance Fee $550,000

FUNDING / SPENDING ex. BP 40m

TV broadcast rights 350 m Worldwide sponsorship 350 m

Tier Two (20m) 140 m

ex. Deloitte 20m Tier Three (10m) 270 m

Tier One (40m) 280 m

Sponsors 700 m

Running Olympic Events 1.9 bn

ex. Holiday Inn 10m

Funding from IOC 700 m

ParaOlympics 190m

Ticket Sales 600 m

LOCOG 2 bn

LOCOG 2 bn Add Pub Spending 272m

2012 Funding Total £11.3 bn

2012 Spending Total £10.8 bn

Legecy Park Transformation 296 m

Public Spending 2.5 bn

Contingency Fund 88 m

Public Sector Funding 9.3 bn

Central Government 6.2 bn

International Broadcast Center 295 m National Lottery 2.2 bn

London (LGA-GLA) 875m

Olympic Delivery Authority 6.2 bn

Other

Transport 894 m Infrastructure 1.8 bn

Utilies 235 m Landscaping 207 m

Park Main. Improv. 409 m

London Operations 23m Prog Sec. 16 m

Olympic Programming 13m Tourism Marketing 4m Elite & Comm. Sports 290 m Security 1 bn

Park Security 553 m Police Army 475 m

Olympic Village 935 m

Other Olympic Park Proj 896 m

Sport England 40 m

Ceremony 82m

Structure Bridges Highways 565 m

Site Prep 386 m

Venues 1.1 bn

Non-Olympic Park Venues 103 m Other Olympic Park Venues 101 m

Olympic Park Venues 847 m

Left:

London Funding

Right:

London Spending source: guardian.co.uk 23

Atlanta

Montreal

Barcelona

$$$$

$$$$$

$$$$

London Munich

Greece

$$$$

$$$

$$$$

Moscow

Beijing

Los Angeles

Tokyo

$$$$$

2012 1976 1984

Mexico City

Population (Million) GDP/ Capita ($10,000 )

Rank of National GDP when Hosting 10 5 Olympics

1992

1996

1980

$$$$

1972 2008

2004

1964 1988

Seoul

1968

Sydney 2016 2000

$$$$$

Rio De Janeiro $$

1.2 WHO HOSTED Looking at the last 50 years, Australia is the only country south of the equator to host the Summer Olympics. The next Summer Olympics will be held in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. While Brazilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GDP is the 5th largest in the world, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s GDP per capita ranks 75th. Among host countries, Brazil happens to have one of the lowest GDP per capita, directly behind China. That fact demonstrates there is a large difference in wealth between the many impoverished and the few wealthy. 24

Top:

GPD/Population/GDP per Capita Comparison Source: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/

177

105

Salvador

Badminton Court Basketball Court

18 70

Swimming Pool BMX Park

1 Gymnastics, Vault

Velodrome (cycling) requires 45º incline

Exisiting in Rio de Janeiro 1,595,866

Wrestling Court

Fencing Piste

Waterpolo Pool

Rugby Field

Judo Rings

Synchronized Swimming Pool

2.5

20 White Water Rafting

116

Volleyball Court

4 100

Gymnastics, Rings

Archery Field Women/Men

Table Tennis Table

Gymnastics, Floor

Tennis court

25 6

20 5

Boxing ring

Archery Indoor Field

São Paulo 24

64 11

Brasília

122

2.5

23 7

R Soccer Field

Running Track / Athletics

Dressage arena

Field Hockey

To be built in Rio de Janeiro 1,184191

1.3 THE VENUES

Left:

2016 Olympic Venues and dimensions (in meters)

And while Rio de Janeiro’s residents live active lifestyles and the city already has many existing venues from hosting the Pan American Games (2007) and soon the World Cup (2014), there remain a large number of sports venues to be built, some of which are for sports that are generally unknown and yet un-established within Brazil. Among them, the largest venue to be built in Rio de Janeiro will be the field hockey stadium. There are currently no field hockey teams in Rio de Janeiro. 25

0 Yrs

INVESTMENTS RETURNS

100 Yrs PUBLIC FUNDING

50 Yrs

IN BRAZIL

STADIUM A

$ TEAM A

TEAM OWNERS / CORPORATIONS

TEAM B

TICKET SALES

FOOD MERCHANDISE

TICKET SALES

FOOD

MERCHANDISE

RENOVATION

CONSTRUCTION

Maracana

LAND

OLYMPICS

OLYMPIC STADIUM

Rent

A FOOD MERCHANDISE

TICKET SALES

TEAM OWNERS / CORPORATIONS

RENOVATION

CONSTRUCTION

TEAM A PUBLIC FUNDING

STADIUM A A

FOOD MERCHANDISE

TICKET SALES

Athens

LAND

GOVERNMENT

IDEAL

Rent PUBLIC USE

$ PUBLIC DOLLARS

TEAM A

STADIUM A A FOOD MERCHANDISE

TICKET SALES

RENOVATION

LAND GOVERNMENT

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

CULTURAL COMPONENTS

PUBLIC AMENITIES

PUBLIC SPACE

$ Design for Reuse:

Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums

1.3 STADIUM FINANCING Building stadiums is relatively straight forward in Brazil. Sports clubs finance them and subsequently profit from the sales of tickets and merchandises during the games. However, clubs cannot raise the level of funding required to build and maintain Olympic stadiums, because they often require seating capacities that are significantly larger than those required for typical stadiums built for normal usage. The governments of host countries therefore offer up land, and public money is used to build and maintain the stadiums. If a stadium is built for a particular mega event and the government is hosting the event, they cannot deny aid if the stadium is low on funds to complete construction. It has become a trend that projects often run over budget and government aid becomes required. In one controversial instance, a team used this knowledge to take advantage of an upcoming 2014 World Cup as an opportunity to build a new stadium for the team. According to Virual-Brazil.com’s article about São Paulo’s Itaquera Stadium: In the 1980s, the Government had granted the use of a large piece of land in Itaquera (a poor district in the suburbs of the city), provided that Corinthians built a stadium right then. Since then, Corinthians had been trying to raise funds to build the stadium, but always failed. The first option of stadium to host matches of the Cup in Sao Paulo was Morumbi, which belongs to Sao Paulo FC. Sao Paulo FC, however, didn’t agree to make the investments demanded by FIFA. The then President of Corinthians, Andre Sanchez, is a very close friend of the President of the World Cup Local Committee, Ricardo Teixeira.

By threatening to exclude Sao Paulo of the Cup, FIFA and Teixeira convinced the Federal Government to accept Itaquerao as the venue, and to help Corinthians get the funds necessary to do the works. FIFA still maintains Sao Paulo as a host (excluding Sao Paulo from the World Cup Brazil would be like excluding Moscow from the World Cup Russia), Corinthians will build an stadium with cheap (or free) money; and Ricardo Teixeira keeps his friend happy. The problems: the Federal Government will provide funds to a private party to build a private stadium; the new stadium will be in the distant suburb of Sao Paulo, lacking much infrastructure; it is uncertain whether or not the stadium will be ready for the World Cup.

Because of their size and distance from the city, not to mention their function for sports unpopular within the host city, many Olympic stadiums become white elephants, and even subsequently empty or abandoned in the extreme cases. Examples are ample. In addition, the Olympic park and venues account for roughly 40% of total Olympic spending, and 95% of the funding for stadiums is from public money6 (diagram in Appendix). Stadiums by nature are not public, and so a big question remains - If public money is spent to build and maintain stadiums, why isn’t the architecture designed to serve the people who pays for it in the form of public space? Ideally a stadium should be flexible enough such that it can accommodate additional programs beyond its initial Olympic sporting requirements. 6

http://www.sportundmarkt.com/en/news/in-focus.html 27

U U

1996 Atlanta

2004 Athens

1984 Los Angeles

2016 Rio de Janeiro

1.4 WHAT, WHERE & WHY

1964

1980

2012

With 7 million visitors and 3.4 million sq meters of venue space, it is apparent why the games are located so far from the city core and in the suburbs. A location with the ability to absorb large crowds and large venues are 2016 Rio deand Janeiro expensive hard to find in cities. The financial gains, however, are at best temporary. The scale and experimental architectural systems of stadiums results in higher cost of operation and maintenance. Coupled with their distance 2016 from urban centers, Olympic stadiums often times lose the competition to smaller city stadiums for permanent tenants. It is incredibly hard to fill stadium meant for 90,000 people. The Birds Nest hosted 3 events in four years after the Olympics. In a more macro level, stadiums are usually largely freestanding objects located next to a field residential housing. As a result, they become underused monuments that stand out from the crowd. COMMUNITY GAMES

In the last half century there are emerging trends. They can be categorized as Urban Clusters, Sprawl, and Exodus. But generally, the Olympic parks are moving further and further away from the core of the city. In order for Rio de Janeiroâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Olympics to have significant impact on its urban transformation, the games must be brought back into the city core.

U U

1980 Moscow

1964 Tokyo

1996 Atlanta

2012 London

2000 Sydney

2016 Rio de Janeiro

1968 Mexico City

1984 Los Angeles

8 5

1972 Munich

1988 Seoul

2004 Athens

CITY CORE OLYMPIC STADIUMS

OLYMPIC VILLAGE(S)

1976 Montreal

1992 Barcelona

2008 BeiJing

1MI 1KM

CORE CLUSTER

SPRAWL

EXODUS

1976 Montreal

1964 Tokyo

1968 Mexico City U

1988 Seoul

2008 BeiJing

2000 Sydney

2012 London

2004 Athens

2016 Rio de Janeiro

1992 Barcelona

1980 Moscow

1972 Munich U

U U

1996 Atlanta

1984 Los Angeles

2016 Rio de Janeiro 2016 Rio de Janeiro

2016

Opposite:

2016 Olympic Venues categorized by recent trends. Core Cluster-Most major functions in the city core Sprawl- Olympic Village and Park in city, other venues spread outside Exodus- Most major functions outside city core

COMMUNITY GAMES

2016

Top:

Moving the games back to the city

[ Rio de Janeiro, 2016 Olympic host city, is built on 7 mountains with an important man overlooking it...] Image source : http://www.hasselblad.com/hoc/photographers/mauro-risch.aspx 32

Design for Reuse: Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums Rio de Janeiro

[ low highrises and high lowrises.]

Image source : http://damon-lifeinbrasil.blogspot.com/2010_06_01_archive.html 34

[ Informal housing known as Favelas dominate the vertical segments of the city ]

Image source : https://picasaweb.google.com/lh/photo/oub0imwD4hJPwIHKgltFXtMTjNZETYmyPJy0liipFm0 35

[ A city with EXTREME edge conditions...]

Image source: http://gfx07.radified.com/gfx1/inequality_south_america_rio_dejaneirio.jpg 36

Photo source: http://blogs.reuters.com/photo/files/2011/09/RTR2QBVD-e1316013320333.jpg 37

Brazil

State of Rio De Janeiro

URBAN/RURAL

POP. DISTRIBUTION

Urbanized Natural 70 % URBAN ENVIRONMENT 30 % NATURAL VEGITATION

>400000 250000-399000 100000-249000 50000-100000 <49000

DENSITY

MEDIUM INCOME

76,800 38200 28600 19000 9400

Rio De Janeiro Metropolitan Area

WITH EXCEPTION TO ROCINHA BEACHES ARE PRIME REAL ESTATE

>300 / ha 150-299 / ha 100-149 / ha 50-99 / ha <49 / ha

Rio De Janeiro City

2.1 RIO AND THE GAMES Rio de Janeiro will host the next Olympics. It is home to 6.5 million people of which 27% live in high density sums known as favelas. Favelas occupy steep hillside of areas with high economic activities. While favelas are impressive characteristic and identity of Rio de Janeiro, the Olympics Delivery Authority (ODA) of Rio ignores them and tries to paint a new picture of Rio. In its efforts to display a dynamic image to the world, Rio is desperately trying to gentrify7, hide the ongoing violence and lack of infrastructure in it poverty stricken favelas.

X 14.5 Manhattan

10 15 20km

Rio de Janeiro Centro

West

North

South

Favela

The games will be located in 4 clusters: Barra, Copacabana, Deodoro and Maracanã connected by a highperformance transport ring. Copacabana, and Maracanã will be hosting events in existing venues while Deodoro is using its open fields for the equestrian events. Majority of the new venues will be built in the Olympic park in Barra in the periphery of the city. The renderings show the venues next to beautiful mountains to the north and oceans to the south. However, the ODA chose to overlook the Olympics as an integrated effort to address Rio de Janeiro’s long standing issues of urban poverty and social exclusion. Evidently the site chosen for the park is far from the city center, and closest to the richest inhabitants that live near the south in the beaches of Barra. The legacy plan is to let the Olympic park become a residential community in the form of a sports city. The sporting facilities will be beneficial to about 13% of the population that live close by. There are possible alternatives that can be more beneficial to more of Rio’s residents. 7 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/ brazil/8887389/Police-seize-biggest-Rio-slum-as-World-Cup-clean-upbegins.html 39

FAVELA AGE GROUPS

Top:

Favela demographics

Old 4%

Bottom Left:

Child 23%

Mid-Age 13%

Favela growth rate

Bottom Right:

Regions expanding Adoles. 8% Adult 32% Young 20%

FAVELA GROWTH

Population (in Million)

% in Favela

7 Rio Pop. 5,857,879 6 5 Pop. 4 Rio 5,857,879 3 Favela Pop. 2 1,092,958 Favela Pop. 1 1,092,958 0 7.2% 10.2% 13.3% 12.3% 16.1% 18.6%

Farvela Growth Rio Pop. Growth

99.3% 67.1% 11.4% 40.5% 23.9% 41.5% 28.6% 19.8% 7.6%

1950

1960

1970

1980

6.9%

1990

2000

LOCATIONAL GROWTH 195

200

Population (Thousands)

100 90 80 70 60 50 0

West 94 Central 92 South 65 North 49

1980

+108%

+8%

99 79 53

+21% +14%

1992

1960’s

2010

1960’s

SPRAWL TO WEST

Top:

Favela migration/ sprawl to the periphery of the city

2010

2.2 ALTERNATIVE TO CURRENT OLYMPIC PLANNING MODEL Taking precedents from previous Olympics, there are alternative ways to lay out the Olympics. The Los Angeles version focuses on minimizing cost. Other schemes focus on the understanding that most Olympic cities use the Olympics as a way to develop its infrastructure to increase mobility. 42

Alternatively, stadiums can be used to provide public space throughout Rio de Janeiro. Distributing the Olympic Games on government land to create public space near favelas can result in the similar infrastructural upgrades as other models, but it will allow more residents to have access to the venues.

2.3 PUBLIC SPACE Public space in Rio de Janeiro is very limited, and relatively inaccessible to those living in favelas. Rio de Janeiro ranks third when comparing the amount of public space per capita against Manhattan and Hong Kong. Both metropolitan cities are denser than Rio de Janeiro.

MANHATTAN

RIO DE JANEIRO

HONG KONG

City Size

87.5 sqkm

Public Space

8.85 sqkm

6.93 sqkm

1.6M @ 26939/sqkm

6.3M @ 4781/sqkm

1260 sqkm

80 sqkm

1.5 sqkm

Pop.

Public Space/ Cap

1.1 sqm

1.2M @ 16390/sqkm

1.3 sqm

3.6 sqm

BIG's Clover Park Design. Architecture wraps around park, allows for large open space with constant spectator-ship. It sparked controversies with locals of what architecture should be in an Urban Context

Used as housing showcase from 1988 to 1998 when it was torn down and replaced by a skyscraper

Piazza del Campo is also used for IL Palio: an equestrian like race called carriera.

REUSE & BO BARDI

Converted to Housing in 2006 and renamed as Highbury Square. 711 properties were built on the site.

ADAPTIVE REUSED BY LOCALS FOR RECREATIONAL PURPOSES

LINA BO BARDI SESC POMPﾃオA

LINA BO BARDI MASP

DAILY MUSEUM DAY Pedestrian Path Vehicular Path Visual Path

METAL DRUM FACTORY

1927 -1977 "Cidadela" = Goal

INDUSTRIAL FACTORIES SPORTS COMPLEX SWIMMING POOL, GYM, BALL COURTS

PV S

N PA

TION CROSS VENTILA

CAFETERIA, CLOAKROOMS, WRESTING, DANCE ROOM

DURING PUBLIC CONCERT

DECK/SOLARIUM WATER TABLE & WATER FALL (SUMMER USE) WORKSHOPS STUDIOS/ WORKSHOP PHOTO LABS RESTAURANT/BAR

SESC POMPﾃオA LEISURE & SPORTS CENTER

1982 - Present

THEATER ARTWORK HALL EXHIBITION AREA LOUNGE OFFICES

Pedestrian Path Vehicular Path Visual Path

2.4 LOCAL PRECEDENT Works of Brazilian architect Lina Bo Bardi reveal interesting insights of Brazilian public spaces. She reveals that Brazilians enjoy spaces that are shaded but outdoor; her designs often has enough flexibly to allow for an assortment of uses through time. Both the SESC and the MASP are projects that incorporate reuse in the public spaces. Not only do they provide access to views, they are porous and allow the circulation to cut across the site. While the design is specific, the programs that spawned in these spaces are usually indeterminate. These large circulation spaces have been used for mass gatherings, political movements, beach party and rock concerts. One can speculate that if stadiums are design with these intentions, then the spaces created can attract varies groups of people depending on the program of the day. Subsequently, it lowers the projectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s probability of becoming a white elephant.

Image Source Top: http://ayounghare.files.wordpress.com/2011/11/linabobardi_ masp-viewunderbldg_1957-681.jpg Image Source Bottom: http://blog.britoeamoedo.com.br/wp-content/ uploads/2011/06/2.jpg 45

2.5 FOR THE VERY MANY The future of the Olympic sites of Beijing and Athens are uncertain and they missed their opportunity to integrate into the urban fabric once the design phase was over. Both were spectacular host for Olympics, but the resulting buildings have little purpose afterwards. They could have been design to for re-habitation, and all the public spaces to revitalize the social and economic potential of large high traffic. We have to accept the fact that a nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pride with will never allow the use of generic and temporary buildings. Designing venues with purpose of moving it would also defeat the purpose having the Olympics as most of the money already spent on the Infrastructure, not the site specific architecture. It seems very likely that under the current scenario, Rio de Janeiro will suffer similar fates. Much like other Olympic Cities, it will miss the opportunity to improve its lack of infrastructure, urban poverty, and social exclusion. Could it be possible that in a parallel universe, Rio de Janeiroâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Olympic are venues be located and design close to the city core? Rather than gentrify the favelas, why not use this opportunity to create flexible stadiums that can reused to provide additional program(s) and infrastructure to fill in what is lacking within different neighborhoods of the city?

STADIUMS FOR RIO

MARACANA

SAMBADROME

MARINA DA GLORIA

FLAMENGO PARK

CHRIST THE REDEEMER

RIOCENTRO

COPACABANA STADIUM

FORT COPACABANA

MARIA LENK AQUATIC CENTER

LAGOA RODRIGO DE FREITAS

KEY (E) Rail Line

(N) Rail Line

(E) Highway

(N) Highway

(E) Roads

(N) Roads

(E) Metro Line

(N) Metro Line

Public Bus Route

New Bus Route

New Tram Route

Public Tram Route

Top: AECOM Aerial Rendering 0

10 KM

Image Source: http://www.insidethegames.biz/ images/2012/10/Resized/Rio_2016_ olympic_park_22-08-11.jpg 46

Bottom:

Because of the relationship of favelas to the city, creation of public spaces adjacent to favelas would allow a diverse range of social and economic classes to benefit from them. If public space becomes the key driver to where Olympics stadiums should be located, then the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro can result in an infrastructural upgrade that creates a network of public spaces connected by public transportation. Rather than being accessible to only 13% of it its inhabitants, the proposal can now be accessible to a wide range of its inhabitants.

City Core

Favela

New Venues

Existing Venues PUBLIC TRANSIT/ PUBLIC SPACE NET WORK

Current Olympic Venue Layout

STADIUMS FOR RIO

MARACANA

COMPLEXO Sﾃグ CARLOS SAMBADROME

IGUAIBA -HILLSIDE

MARINA DA GLORIA

CITY OF GOD - FLAT/DENSE DECOMMISSIONED AIR STRIP

FLAMENGO PARK

RIO DAS PEDRAS -FLAT DENSE

RIOCENTRO

CHACRINHA -LACKS CIRC.

QUIETO

BARRA DA TIJUCA -EXISTING GOLF COURSE/ FIELDS

CHRIST THE REDEEMER CASA BRANCA TIJUICA

COPACABANA STADIUM

CATRAMBI FORT COPACABANA

MARIA LENK AQUATIC CENTER

LAGOA RODRIGO DE FREITAS

KEY

ROCINHA STADIUMS -SMALL POCKETS OF PUBLIC SPACE NEW INFRASTRUCTURE FOR WATER

(E) Rail Line

(N) Rail Line

(E) Highway

(N) Highway

(E) Roads

(N) Roads

(E) Metro Line

(N) Metro Line

Public Bus Route

New Bus Route New Tram Route

Public Tram Route

N 0

10 KM

Top:

City Core

Favela

New Venues

Existing Venues PUBLIC TRANSIT/

Design for Reuse Olympic Venue Layout PUBLIC SPACE NET WORK

Rio

De J

l Offi

icipa

Mun

a rac / Ma dium Sta ena Ar

os Irmรฃ adeli n Ber Park

le ng y Si mil es Fa om H

ces

al spit

rch Chu ital p Hos

sid

l tia

ise s t hR Hig rtmen Apa

tia

n de

Top:

100

200

300

Estรกcio Urban Plan 48

400

l tia en sid Re lk up a W

tia

d esi

500m

ise s t hR Hig rtmen a p A

FAVELA

ZONE TRIAL INDUS POST- CTURING FA G U IN N MA OUS /LIVE H WORK

odrom

50700 sqm

tion

ubsta

er S Pow

l tia

gle Sin mily s Fa me Ho

Zinc Hill

Sao Carlos Mountain

ter

Favela Pop: 15500

afety

ublic S

ry of P

Secreta

Samb

sid

atio il St

l Ra

ntra

o Ce neir

Mineral Mountain

Favela Pop: 2100

2.6 SÃO CARLOS Morro(mountain) São Carlos is in a cluster of favelas located in the Estácio district of the city. It is east of downtown, west of the Marcãna stadium, world’s largest soccer stadium by capacity, and adjacent to the Sambradrome by Oscar Niemeyer. It is culturally significant because that is where Samba was invented. The community is composed of industrial workers, their families, and many artists. The adult population work either directly north of the site in the industrial district, the government center, or elsewhere via the subway or bus. In this thesis, this site has been selected for the Olympic field hockey stadium. Currently it sits empty but for the last 30 years it has been a prison; creating a barrio between where people work and live. Even though the prison has been demolished, its walls remain. As a result São Carlo lacks access to amenities such as transportation, public space, and schools. While the inhabitants live fairly close to their work, they are forced to take non-direct routes to get to the industrial factories, bus, rail or subway stations. Because of such isolation, unemployment and illiteracy are high and therefore resulting in a higher crime rate than the rest of Rio de Janeiro. Left:

Morro São Carlos Image Source: http://www.rioeduca.net/admin/_ m2brupload/_fck/usadas/20110724155542.jpg 49

Favela Sรฃo Carlos (informal housing)

Power Sub Station

12m 9m 6m 3m

Bus 415 9m

Estรกcio Industrial Area

6m 3m

Formal Housing

Bus 77

Bus 65

Praรงa Onze Station

Hospital Baptist Church

Estรกcio Station 50

20min 25min

INFRASTRUCTUREINFRASTRUCTURE

ELEVATION

ELEVATION 0-25 25 50 60

0-25 125M 100 25

100

125M

LAND USE

SITE

LAND USERESI MIXED USE

400

600

0 800

FAVELA 200 1000m 400 600

800

1000m

SITE PARKMIXED USE GOV

RESI

LACK OF SCHOOLSLACK OF SCHOOLS HIGHER ED.

200

25min

16min

FAR FROM PUBLICFAR TRANSIT FROM PUBLIC TRANSIT

AMENITIES ON MAIN AMENITIES ROADS ON MAIN ROADS 0

20min 16min

PRIMARY

DAY CARE HIGHER ED.

PARK

WORK

LIVE

GOV

SAO CARLOS ILLITERACY RATE 5.6%SAO CARLOS ILLITERACY RATE 5.6% RIO DE JANEIRO CITY AVERAGE 4.02% RIO DE JANEIRO CITY AVERAGE 4.02% Source: http://noticias.universia.com.br Source: http://noticias.universia.com.br PRIMARY DAY CARE

FAVELA

FACTORIES 1800s-1960

MUNICIPAL PRISON 1960-2011

COMMUNITY CENTER/ SCHOOL

OLYMPICS 2016

MARKET

OLYMPICS 2016 The design of the stadium will use circulation and program flexibility to resolve the issues of the site. It will answer the S達o Carlos need for more jobs, school, and public space.

POST-OLYMPICS 2016-xx

Top: Postcards from the Olympics 54

Design for Reuse: Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums Design for Reuse

Top : Postcards after the Olympics 55

Stadium

After Christian cult was legitimized by Constantine Edict, the Council of Arles, 314, imposed a ban on the circus charioteers, banning the pagan practice of chariot racing and converted the circuses into non-sports public facilities. Similarly in 394 in Greece, an edict promulgated by the emperor Theodosius abolished the Olympic Games, which were regarded as a pagan rite contrary to religious rites. Stadium were unbuilt for fifteen centuries

noun, plural sta·di·ums, sta·di·a 1. a sports arena, usually oval or horseshoe-shaped, with tiers of seats for spectators. 2. an ancient Greek course for foot races, typically semicircular, with tiers of seats for spectators. 3. an ancient Greek and Roman unit of length, the Athenian unit being equal to about 607 feet (185 meters). 4. a stage in a process or in the life of an organism. 5. Entomology . stage ( def. 11b ) . Origin: 1350–1400; Middle English < Latin < Greek stádion unit of distance, racecourse 776 BC The first stadium had rudimentary athletics track shaped as an elongated "U". Starting and finish line were at the two ends and there was one only 192 m long and 32 m wide track. Simply known as the Olympia stadium, which was extended as the Games became popular in the whole ancient Greece, could welcome up to 45,000 spectators

Built in 330-329 BC. "Panathinea" or Panathenaic Stadium means "stadium of all the Athenians." It measures 210 m long and 120 m wide. It had the seating Capacity of 50,000 people. Restored in 1896 and used for the first Modern Olympics held in Greece.

Developed over centuries, Circus Maximus was the Roman form of the stadium. Its height was during the time of Julius Caesar around 50 BC. Circus differ from Hippodrome as they are wider and longer. Circus Maximus measures at 600 m long and 200 m wide with the seating capacity of 250,000. The 4th side was usually capped with a building and they were an integral part of the city.

50 AD, Flavian Amphitheatre or more commonly know nas the Colosseum was a 50,000 spectators capacity stadium. The Colosseum was used for gladiator fights, mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. During and after the medieval era, it was reused for housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

800BC 700BC 600BC 500BC 400BC 300BC 200BC 100BC

100

200

300

1964 Olympics in Tokyo was the first internationally broadcast Olympics. Kenzo Tange designs Tokyo Aquatics center later reused as Tokyo Gymnastics Center. One of the largest suspension roof of its time.

Designed by the German architect G端nther Behnisch and the engineer Frei Otto, the Olympiastadion was considered revolutionary for its time. This included large sweeping canopies of acrylic glass stabilized by steel cables that were used for the first time in a large scale.

2016 Olympics. Rio De Janeiro. Built for 1950 hosting of the World Cup, Estadio Maracana is renovated for 2013 World Cup and 2016 Olypmics.

Designed by Roger Taillibert, the Montrael Olympic stadium has no main tenant. It has a history of structural and financial issues. It cost 700 Million to construct and took 30 years of public money to replay the cost.

2012 London Olympic Stadium seats 80,000. After the games, it will be converted down to a 60,000 seat permanent stadium.

Durning the Medieval ages, stadiums were represented in public forms. Piazza del Campo is a plaza paved in 1349. Palio di Siena is a horse race that is held twice each year, on July 2 and August 16, in Siena, Italy.

500 1000 1500 1800

1972-73 Kansas City. Stadiums become single purposed. Baseball Parks no longer shared stadiums with football but remained built close to each other to share parking lot.

1850

1900

2008 Beijing Olympics. Designed by Herzog de Meuron. 400 Million to construct. 4 events in the venue after the Olympics. Lack of use is primary due to its scale. 80,000 seat capacity is hard to fill and embarassing for teams to have matches when usually only 1/8 of the seats are filled.

1950

1964

1972 1976

2000

2016

Top : History of Stadia 57

*only as example, original designs for Crystal Palace did not include parking or subway....

Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton was originally erected in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition of 1851. It was then later moved to Sydenham Hill which later burned down in 1936. Movable architecture is not recommended for Olympic stadiums because for one, architecture is site specific and two a significant amount of money is already spend on the infrastructure to get people and resources to the site.

*only as example, never built in such configuration.

Geodesic Dome was first design by Walther Bauersfeld after WWI. Buckminister Fuller later developed the intrinsic mathematics of the dome and patented it. While the Geodesic Dome is great at creating large enclose spaces, it is also extremely generic. No nation would take pride in creating replicable designs.

HISTORY OF STADIUM Stadium

PRECEDENTS

After Christian cult was legitimized by Constantine Edict, the Council of Arles, 314, imposed a ban on the circus charioteers, banning the pagan practice of chariot racing and converted the circuses into non-sports public facilities. Similarly in 394 Greece, an edict promulgated by the emperor Theodosius abolished the Olympic Games, which were regarded as a pagan rite contrary to religious rites. Stadium were unbuilt for fifteen centuries

Origin: 1350–1400; Middle English < Latin < Greek stádion unit of distance, racecourse 776 BC The first stadium had rudimentary athletics track shaped as an elongated "U". Starting and finish line were at the two ends and there was one only 192 m long and 32 m wide track. Simply known as the Olympia stadium, which was extended as the Games became popularPark, in the whole ancient Clover Greece, could welcome up to 45,000 Copenhagen, Denmark spectators

Housing in a existing Park Final Design reduces park size

Developed over centuries, Circus Maximus was the Roman form of the stadium. Its height was during the time of Julius Caesar around 50 BC. Circus differ from Hippodrome as they are wider and longer. Circus Maximus measures at 600 m long and 200 Piazza del Campo m wide with the seating capacity Siena, Italy of 250,000. The 4th side was Public Space usually in thecapped with a building and they were an integral part of center of Sienna the city.

50 AD, Flavian Amphitheatre or more commonly know as the Colosseum was a 50,000 spectators capacity stadium. The Colosseum was used for gladiator fights, mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. During and after the medieval era, it was reused for housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Osaka Stadium Naniwa-ku, Osaka, Japan Opened in 1950 30,000 Capacity

Architecture wraps around park, allows for large open space with constant spectator-ship. It sparked controversies with locals of what architecture should be in an Urban Context

0Used as housing 100

is also used for IL Palio: an equestrian like race called carriera.

200

showcase from 1988 to 1998 when it was torn down and replaced by a skyscraper

ANTI-PRECEDENTS REUSE & BO BARDI

ADAPTIVE REUSED BY LOCALS FOR RECREATIONAL PURPOSES

LINA BO BARDI SESC POMPÃIA

300

Designed by the German architect Günther Behnisch and the engineer Frei Otto, the Olympiastadion was considered revolutionary for its time. This included large sweeping canopies of acrylic glass stabilized by steel cables that were used for the first time in a large scale.

2016 Olympics. Rio De Janeiro. Built for 1950 hosting of the World Cup, Estadio Maracana is renovated for 2013 World Cup and 2016 Olympics.

Highbury Stadium Highbury, London, England 1932-1993, 38,000 Capacity Home of the Arsenal, FA

During the Medieval ages, stadiums were represented in public forms. Piazza del Campo is a plaza paved in 1349. Palio di Siena is a horse race that is held twice each year, on July 2 and August 16, in Siena, Italy.

BIG's Clover Park Design. Piazza del300BC Campo 800BC 700BC 600BC 500BC 400BC 200BC 100BC

Seed Cathedral is a UK pavilion for the Shanghai Expo in 2010. The structure was design by Thomas Heatherwick and it cost 25 Million British Pounds. It was open to over 7 million public visitors during the expo, but was shortly dismantled after 6 months. It would not be in the best interest of developing nations to spend so much money on Olympic structures only to demolish it after 17 days.

1972-73 Kansas City. Stadiums become single purposed. Baseball Parks no longer shared stadiums with football but remained built close to each other to share parking lot.

500 1000 1500 1800

Converted to Housing 1850 in 2006 and renamed as Highbury Square. 711 properties were built on the site.

1900

Madison Square Garden

Midtown Manhattan, New York 2012 London Olympic Stadium seats 80,000. AfterLocated in the Opened 1968. the games, it will be heart of the city. Host about 320 converted down to a 60,000 events a year. seat permanent stadium. Home of New

York Rangers (NHL), New York Knicks (NBA), and New York Liberty (WNBA). Also used by Ringling Brother and Barnum 2008 Beijing Olympics. Designed by Herzog de and Bailey Circus. Used as Big Meuron. 400 Million to construct. 4 events in the venue after the Olympics. Lack of use isBoxing primary due matches and also to its scale. 80,000 seat capacity is hard to fill and concerts. Below ground is embarrassing for teams to have matches when home to Penn Station usually only 1/8 of the seats are filled. supporting ACE and 123 Trains.

1950

1964

1972 1976

2000

2016

LINA BO BARDI MASP

DAILY MUSEUM DAY Pedestrian Path Vehicular Path Visual Path

METAL DRUM FACTORY

*only as example, original designs for Crystal Palace did not include parking or subway....

1927 -1977

Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton was originally erected in Hyde Park *only as example, never built in for the Great Exhibition of 1851. It was then later moved to Sydenham such configuration. SPORTS COMPLEX Hill which later burned down in 1936. Movable architectureSWIMMING is not POOL, "Cidadela" = Goal because for one, architecture is recommended for Olympic stadiums GYM, BALL COURTS site specific and two a significant amount of money is already spend on the infrastructure to get people and resources to the site. CAFETERIA, CLOAKROOMS, WRESTING, DANCE ROOM PV

N PA

PRECEDENTS

TION CROSS VENTILA

INDUSTRIAL FACTORIES

DURING PUBLIC CONCERT

3.1 HISTORY OF STADIUMS

such specialize buildings after the games after the fact. After 30 years, Montreal has finally finished paying off its debts for its 1976 Olympic park. Similarly, Athens suffers the same or perhaps worst fate as Beijing. Its economy shattered, the site is constant reminder to the taxpayers how their government chose to spend their money. In the end, regardless of the cost, governments only care about the image. The lesson here is to use the flamboyant nature of the games to create a stadium with a powerful image that can be occupied for programs beyond the initial Olympic use.

Stadiums over the last 2 Millennia have always incorporated multiuse. For example the Colosseum in Rome was built as a gladiator stadium in 80 AD. It hosted mock sea battles, public executions, re-enactments of battles, and plays. In the Middle Ages, it was used as a fortress for a few centuries and ultimate suffered severe damage in the earthquake of 1349. Throughout the 16th and 17th century, the city sought to convert it into a factory but the plan was unsuccessful. 6 centuries later, it has The Olympic stadium in this thesis will pay close become one of the most visited tourist destinations in Italy. Unlike the Colosseum, stadiums built today lack such attention to the intersection between temporal and versatility. permanence. Rather than creating a senseless object in a residential field, the stadium will be carefully planned The Birds Nest did not suffer a natural catastrophe for integration within the city. Instead of being more like but lack of funds have revealed its rapid deterioration. Of the Birds Nest, it will be more like Madison Square Garden the $9.5 Billion8 spent on the construction of the Olympic where sports and entertainment meets transportation. Its park in Beijing, $480 million was used to construct the design strengths will lie in its flexibility to have constant Birds Nest. Another $11 million of which $1.5 million is in supply of spectatorship like BIGâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Clover park rather than government subsidies9 is for annual upkeep. It had relied contemporary football or baseball stadiums that are empty on tourist to fill in funding. But with recent decline in half of the year. The stadium itself will be used reverse visitors from 30,000 a day to fewer than 10,000 visitors a the exodus of jobs and population. It will be intentionally day, the venues struggle to make ends meet. The stadium designed for synergetic programs to develop after the has no permanent tenants. It is too expensive for local Olympics and ultimately create new vibrancy within the city sports teams and officials have refused to sell the naming core. This thesis will about redesigning the field hockey rights. Generally it is difficult to plan for the post-use of stadium for the 2016 Rio Olympics with intentions for itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s the post occupancy use as a vocational school and community 8 http://jsovaluationgroup.com/id72.html center. 9 http://www.npr.org/2012/07/10/156368611/chinas-postolympic-woe-how-to-fill-an-empty-nest

50 sq m

60 A

To sq ile m ts To 80 ta 0 l

S ea

m -M

A Lo thl e S ck te h M ow er s ec e s ha rs & ni ca lR m s

17 m

Fo od d

an ev er a

B s

to re

Ve sq nu m eS

Lo w er

W al

E n sq tra m nc e

ir cu la ti

ea ts

ir cu la ti

ct at or

or e

ck er s

N E Y

SY D

B E IJ

A 21 TH 52 EN 5 S sq m

Athens Field Hockey Athens

Left:

Sydney field hockey stadium Tower of infrastructure and area breakdown

Left: Sydney field hockey stadium before and during the 2000 Olympics source: http://www.bvn.com.au/BVN/internet/site.nsf/files/NOTP-7GM32X20080717-105242/$file/image.jpg http://www.abc.net.au/reslib/200408/r26564_65837.jpg

Right:

The stadium in 2012 source: businessinsider.com/2004-athens-olympics-venues-abandoned-todayphotos-2012-8?op=1 61

62 To sq ile m ts To 80 ta 0 l

Top: s

Ve sq nu m eS

ie l

to re

Lo w er

as sr oo

br ar

Ac c.

ito

ck er s

S c A ho dm o l in A re

m s

St ai

as sr oo

Ti er

S ea

P ar

A 21 T H 52 E N 5 S sq m

Athens Field Hockey Athens

Break down of the programs and adjacencies in Diamond Ranch high school,

S p

U pp

ck er s

to ra g

D ro p

sF ie

na lS po

tio

le ts

To i

Diamond Ranch High School Pomona, CA Public school, 1997 Student Population: 1850 Building Area: 28,000 sqm Site Area: 53,000 sqm

a sq nd m Be ve ra ge

Fo o

as sr oo

La Sc rge ie c nc la e ss La ro b om Sp s ac es

A Lo thl e S ck te h M ow er s ec e s r ha s & ni ca lR m s

la tio

rc u

as sr oo

Lo M wer e Cl dia Le ve as l s Rm s

FORMAL / PROGRAMATIC COMPARISON

Top Left:

The break from the spine into smaller more intimate spaces source: suckerpunchdaily.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/diamond-ranch-c.jpg

Top Right:

Courtyards carved out of the spine of the circulation source: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-FWUE7lU3Fmw/UAfqRv0DFYI/AAAAAAAAAlc/ bfvpXc1T_mo/s1600/DiamondRaanchHighSchool2.jpg

Bottom:

Side of buildings used as tiered seating and roof as occupiable space source: http://c-monster.net/blog1/2009/01/21/thom-mayne-diamond-ranch/ 63

64 TIERED TIERED SEATING SEATING CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION VARIATIONS VARIATIONS Te le sc o Te pic le 1 sc 60 op 0 ic Ca 16 pa 00 cit C y ap ac it y

16m

CANOPY CANOPY VARIATIONS VARIATIONS (Metal) (Metal) +

a eg

re re

uc tu

tr S

ti le ve

M ax

7.5m min 10m optimum

a si ble on s C ab le s

ti le ve an

ng ti

ea S

00 50

m sq

7.5m min 10m optimum

Te n

si o

M m ax 30 M m ax

n ai

ai M

g 2 ea 50 ti 0 ng sq 25 m00 M sq IN m -M IN

ea ti n

190m max

Te n

S p W ac it e h T S Ca ru p W ac lw ss it e al h Tl 40 C ru Ca m al s n w s o al py Ma 40 x lC an m op M ax y

16m

10m

P O rec n a C st P on Co O reccre nc n a t r C st e S et on C t e cr on ru Pl et c ct an e re ur k S te e s tr P uc la tu n re ks N/S

re ss ed re 18 ss 00 ed C a 18 pa 00 cit C y ap ac it y

P O rec n a S st P tee Co O rec l S nc n a tr r S st u et te C c e el o tu P S nc re lan tr re uc t ks tu e P Pre la re nk ca s st P P re la n c In as ks -S t P it la u n In Fo ks -S rm i w A tu ll F ork S or te m el w A or ll k S te el

N/S

lS tr te uc el tu S re tr uc tu re

90m ideal

10m

24m 90m ideal

S t cr ru et ct u e S re tr uc tu re

cr et e

te e

190m max

ta 250 ck 0 ed C a 25 pa 00 cit C y ap ac it 25 y m

ke d

ta c

24m

16m

ta n

16m

To sq ile m ts TToo 800 sq ilteal m ts To 80 ta 0 l

min .4m min.4m min 0.8m min .4m min0.8m .4m min

7.5m min 10m optimum

AREAS AREAS OF OF INNOVATION INNOVATION

TERRACE TYPES TERRACE TYPES

0.3m min

A Lo thl e S ck te ho e s M wA r ec L e th s l h o r e& S ancks te h M owicaer s ec e l s ha rs Rm& ni s ca lR m s

T Lo ie w r er Ti er

Lo w er

0.45m min

Fo od a sFq nd omo B 17 d ev er a 5 sq nd ag m Be es ve ra ge s 17

Ve sq nu m eS Ve to r sq nu e 2 m e S 50 to re 25 0

m bi P ng lu W m a bi l l s ng W al ls

P lu

ox B

5 F 400 ie ld sq 54 m 00 sq m

F ie ld

ea ts

PROGRAM

PLAN

SECTION

AXON

PROGRAM

VOCATIONAL CLASSROOM

LECTURE HALLS

COMMUNITY CENTER

LOCKERS

maximum and ideal spectator distance regulations.

Opposite Top Right:

viewing angle regulations

SECTION

AXON

TIERED SEATING

SCHOOL

Opposite Top Left:

PLAN

Opposite Bottom Left: Tiered seating options

Opposite Bottom Right:

Top:

Program spatial and requirement breakdown. All major components requires shading.

typical field hockey canopy

FAVELA COMPLEXO SAO CARLOS

NE E W D OR K

Student

School Admin Area 104 sqm

500 Person Auditorium 1345 sqm

Teachers

Artist

Comm Center Lobby + Admin 250 sqm

Employed

Un-employed

Venue Stores 300 sqm

Food & Bev 200 sqm

Box Seats 400 sqm

Tiered Seating 7500 sqm Time Controled Gate

Circulation Multi-Media Library 465 sqm

Courtyard Varies

Toilets 2.5%xnet 155 sqm

Toilets 800 sqm

Field Hockey -> Public Football Field 5400 sqm Field Hockey -> SCHOOL Football Field 5400 sqm

Class rooms 30 per class @ 80 sqm /class 3200 sqm

GYM 1114sqm

Lockers 139 sqm

Offices Meeting Rm 250 sqm

Restrooms w/ Showers 200

Parking 5% x occupancy 18750 sqm

Control Gate(s)

BUS STATION

2 Entrance Plaza

Athlete

Tourist

3.2 PROGRAMMING The goal of programming is to find synergies between the programs of a vocational school and field hockey stadium. All school programs are within the red box while all stadium programs are within the blue box. The intersection shows programs that can be shared between the two and do not need unique ones of their own. Programs in blue highlight 66

Manufacturing

Teachers

Market

Workers

the possibility of modifying them so their initial purpose is to eventually adapt into a new program. For example, the field hockey stadium dimensions are similar to that of the smallest non-international soccer field. Such transformation allows the field for a relative unknown sport in Brazil to host the most popular sport on the planet. Rooms within the school will fluctuate in programing such that the downtime will allow it to expand into a bigger community center.

POST OLYMPIC PUBLIC USE

SUB-URBAN PRIVATE

BID URBAN PRIVATE

1.5 yrs OLYMPIC USE

URBAN PRIVATE-PUBLIC

DESIGN

91m

55m

45m

90m

FIELD HOCKEY

PUBLIC FOOTBALL FIELD

90m

45m

AND / OR

CONSTRUCTION

FIELD HOCKEY

FOOTBALL FIELD

CAMPUS FIELD

7 Yrs

50 Yrs

PRIVATE USE

17 DAYS !

OLYMPICS

MULTI USE

OLYMPICS

SINGLE USE

COMMUNITY CENTER

SCHOOL

PRACTICE RMS

LARGE SPACES

SMALL SPACES

COMMUNITY KITCHEN

CLASS RMS

AUDITORIUM

BUS CENTER

Top:

Multi-use stadiums in relation to building lifespan

3.3 SCHEMATIC DESIGN The shape of the site makes it difficult to fit two field hockey stadiums. However, the valley in the hill side is relative unused. By placing one stadium close to the favela and one closer to the industrial zone, it creates a clear distinction that one field will eventually be more private while the other is more public. In addition, such layout allows visitors to incrementally transition vertically on stairs rather than abruptly via typical

switchbacks. Because of much more room there are on the sides of the field, the circulation can also become a space for large programs such as the market. From the study, 4 Schemes were developed. Please see the Appendix for individual studies. All the schemes take consideration into a stadium that is changing in topography and the circulation is has dual uses (before / after).

A series of studies were made to explore methods of scaling a mountain. A tectonic model was built to identify the structural and programmatic elements in the scheme. It reveals that the roof and wall are key elements of space creation inside this stadium. The roof must be large to allow for continuous shading and is

essential to flexible (re)programing. Subsequently, there needs to be field of supports but yet cannot be too porous for the security reasons. To counter that, gateways within structural walls will allow programs to be separated but occasionally intersect and connect with each other.

1964 Tokyo

1968 Mexico City

1972 Munich

1976 Montreal

1980 Moscow

1984 Los Angeles

1988 Seoul

1992 Barcelona

1996 Atlanta

2000 Sydney

2004 Athens

2008 Beijing

2012 London

Top:

Olympics Stadiums since 1964 72

ALIEN OBJECT IN FIELD

ALIEN OBJECT MEDIATED BY PARK

OBJECT IN FIELD OF OBJECTS

STADIUM TECHNOLOGIES

1968 MEXICO CITY

Hyperbolic paraboloids of tubular aluminum covered with waterproof copper-sheathed plywood and supported by steel arches

1972 MUNICH

Acrylic glass stabilized by steel cables on Steel Tube Structure

2008 BEIJING

Steel space frame with interior and exterior ETFE pillows

Long span steel roof exterior. Concrete seating bowl interior

2012 LONDON

Light weight steel structure. Temporary exterior band and 60,000 temporary upper level seats.

3.4 STADIUM TECTONICS At the macro level, most Olympic stadiums are objects because have a difficult time fitting into their OBJECT vs ANTI they OBJECT environment. There is rarely any no mediation between the object and the field. The stadium itself is programmatically very different from the adjacent buildings and this is reinforced by the buffered space that contributes to its isolation from the surrounding. Additionally, on a micro scale, the material tectonics creates closed systems. It is intentionally not created for flexible as expansion is not part

of the design. The stadium could not read if one piece was missing. Every piece is part of the whole. The 1972 Munich stadium, however, is the only exception. It is mediated by the park, and has a system that allows for it to expand into other sites if required. The field hockey stadium will need to develop a system of aggregation that is flexible and expandable. It will allow itself to be an object but yet function very much like it is part of the city.

OBJECT vs ANTI OBJECT

2005 Allianz

2008 beijing

2015 BorDeaux

SEMI-OBJECT

OBJECT

ANTI-OBJECT

MATERIAL / PatTern

SCALE

singularity

1954 St. Jakob-Park

The Stadium sits in field of trees. The stadium mimics the forest by allowing the columns to appear as extensions the forest into the stadium in the form of abstracted trees.

There are 2 types of Collumn sizes that help blend into the forest. The Primary are wider in diameter and supports the canopy above while the secondary holds up the tiered seating.

Bands on the under side of the tiered seating tries to break the reading of a massive surface. Colors added to add addition empathizes on extra surface area

Top:

Breakdown of H&deMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach to anti-object stadium 74

Alien object in a residential field

Alien Object mediated by park

Object in field of objects

Replicable object in a field 75

Comfort Zone

Top: Köppen climate classification

Top: Climate Data / Comfort Zone

3.5 ROOF

less than (100 − [total annual precipitation {mm}/25])10.

Image credit : http://www.atmos.washington.edu/1998Q4/211/211climate.gif

Image credit : http://www.climate-charts.com/Locations/b/BZ83743.php

Spaces within the stadium do not necessary need to be fully According to Köppen climate classification’s Rio de Janeiro enclosed and mechanically ventilated. They are comfortable is in the tropical wet and dry or savanna climate (Aw). These 90% of the year as long as they are shaded. climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm and also 10 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_ classification

These two tests explore the possibility of putting all the infrastructure of the games into bars that structurally support a mechanically driven moving roof. A movable roof allows the stadium to reconfigure itself to the needs of the site. However, because transformations are NOT daily, the cost of constructing an elaborate system would outweigh the benefits.

Structurally, most operable roofs are relatively heavy since loads are constantly shifting. The field needs at least 80 feet spans at the minimum. However spans over 45m results in having more than 50% of the load in self weight, therefore the structures are heavily oversized. Ideally, the roof needs to be light which suggests the use of a membrane roof. 77

Opposite & Top: membrane behavior studies 79

The roof will organize the programs underneath. Each segment of the roof will have a different purpose during the Olympics and after. Some will collect water while allowing for exhaust ventilation. Others will take advantage of the flatter areas of the ridges to install flexible solar PVâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s to harvest electricity for the market below.

Top & Left:

Concept Model - Porus. largespan, and lightweight

OLYMPIC USE

AFTER USE

Parking/ Manufacturing:

The roof will provide for continuous shading from parking to seats. It will later serve as water collection and ventilation exhaust.

Observation/School Courtyard:

Provide views to the favelas, but also serves as a courtyard providing the favela Sao Carlos views into the school.

Entrance/Market:

Seats during the Olympics. Solar power station after the Olympics for the market.

Venue Shops (temp) Parking

Manufacturing offices

Entrance B Lecture Room

Entrance A Inserted Walls

3.6 STRATEGY Plaza

School Rooms

lecture halls, public field, and market. The same In order for a stadium to differ from a prison, it infrastructure that allowed people to get to their seats during must be accessible and porous, yet provide adequate the Olympics will then be used to provide direct access to security. The stadium will be divided and organized by the the link between the infrastructural bars. Inside the bars are circulation spaces homes in the favela. This will create Retaining Wall Structure favela and the adjacent industrial area. Additionally, large with a few Olympic specific programs. Programs include: open areas in the circulation will allow programs such as stairs, escalators, elevators, media recording rooms and Rec Studio a market exist and provide jobs and access to food for the VIP lounges/rooms. The bars will provide the infrastructure neighboring favela. to move vast quantities of people across the site and to Box Seats their seats. The bars set up the post-Olympics logic of treating the stadium as zones: Manufacturing, classrooms/

Retaining Wall Structure

Venue Shops (temp) Parking

Manufacturing offices

Entrance B Lecture Room

Entrance A Inserted Walls

School Rooms

Plaza

Retaining Wall Structure

Rec Studio

Box Seats

Retaining Wall Structure

Circulation

Olympic Infrastructure

The bars that directly anchor into the mountain will be supported by buttresses. The buttresses will divide the temporary spaces used mainly as parking or commercial spaces during the Olympics. After the Olympics, the parking will become manufacturing wing of the school. The lower levels are used for shipping and loading, while the upper level is used for manufacturing. The

Afteruse additions

Canopy

commercial spaces will be infill with walls to become open air classrooms for the vocational school. On the field side, the raked seating in the auxiliary field will be enclosed to become lecture halls. The auxiliary field will become a soccer field in the center of the school. The seating area near the rear of the field becomes the entrance to the school. 83

Site plan of Project during the Olympics in 2016 84

Site plan of Project after the Olympics in 2020 85

1:250m 0

Top: Section A-A During Olympics Bottom: Section A-A as the Vocational School 86

Bottom: Section B-B 88

Top: Entrance during Olympics

Bottom: Market after Olympics 91

Top: Circulation

Bottom: Space for demonstrations 93

Top: Field Hockey Stadium Bottom: Campus Field/ Axis 95

Top: Observation Area/Commercial Space Bottom: Courtyard/open air classrooms 97

100

Dec

Thesis Book Due

Thesis Defense

Canopy Design

Nov

Penultimate Moving Canopy Test

Oct

Scheme C

Scheme B

Sept

Mid Review

Thesis Arguement Presentation Structure

Aug

Mapping

Economy Research

July

Scheme A

Productivity June

Site Data Collection

May

Additional Precedent Studies

Design Exercise Thesis Topic Finalized

In Appendix | In Earlier Chapters Motivation Level Jan

Design for Reuse: Post Occupancy of Olympic Stadiums Appendix Additional Studies

4.1 Design Exercise

4.2 Scheme A

4.3 Scheme B

4.4 Scheme C

4.5 Final Boards

4.6 Bibliography

101

French Empire PORTUGAL 1815

1960

1821 BRAZIL

First favela started by Swamps drains and Great Depression Capital of the United returning soldeier of the infrastructure World War II Capital of Brazil Kingdom of Portugal, Canudos War, who failed improved to expand (1763-1960) Brazil and Algarves to receive pension. city Pop Rio: 3.3 (1808-1821) Sao Paulo: 3.7 Founded March 1, 1565 Pop: 1 Million Brazil Independence Abolition of Slavery

Historic Events

Capital moved to Brazilia. Rio remains as cultural capital of Brazil. Military Rio host 2007 Pan American Regime reforms to Games (Olympics for the transform Brazil into American continent) modern capitalistic country Pop: 8.6 Million

Rio 1.0 1500 1800 1850 Primary Gold and diamond Coffee, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and rubber Industries mining, ship building

102

1888

1900

Pop: 12.4 Million

Rio 2.0 1920

1950

1960

Sao Paulo over Cassava, fruits & Mineral IMPORTtakes Rio in vegetables mining, SUBSTITUTION Coffee Production (Japanese Labors) steel & oil INDUSTRIALIZATION

1980

2000

Rio 3.0 2007 2012 2016

Santa Cruz Barra Shopping established Opens industrial zone of Rio

? Source: En.wikipedia.org

4.1 Design Exercise

Rio De Janeiro Rio De Janeiro Exports 1% 1%

Export Destinations

Mineral Extraction

Metallurgical

Transportation Equip.

Chemistry Mechanics Rubber

12% 68%

14% 23%

China

Chemical

5% 17%

26%

10%

USA Saudi Arabia

20%

26%

Transportation Equip.

China

Metallurgical

Argentina

Netherlands

Mechanics

Germany

Electrical & Comm.

Singapore Argentina

15%

Germany Other

Other

13%

2% 2% 2%

Portugal

$29.4 Billion Annually

21%

Import Origins

Chile India

6% PRIMARLY RAW MATERIAL

Mineral Extraction

Santa Lucia

Other

Rio De Janeiro Imports

USA

10%

14%

PRIMARLY AUTO/ MECH PARTS

France Iraq Italy

5% 6%

$18.9 Billion Annually

10% 6%

UK Canada Other

Source: firjan.org.br

103

Isolated Sub Urban

Single Purpose Integrated Urban Multi Purpose

Opening / Closing @ Estรกdio do Maracanรฃ

Possible Olympic Venues Possible Post Use Tennis Cycling Table Tennis Badminton Weightlifting Housing

104

[Expose the Sport]

Sports Center Arena Concert Hall Community Center Offices, Retail, Housing

Stadium in Urban Context

Depress Interior

Infill

+ Temporary

- Temporary

Split Access

+ Housing

Transformable

Temporary Reused Elsewhere

Re-PROGRAMED

105

Alternative Scheme A

2016 RIO Summer Olympics Roof Shade

16,000 - 20,000 Spectator Seating

Field Farvelas

Downtown 55 m

91 m

Olympic Field Hocky Stadium

106

Camel么 Market 2018 RIO Recyling Center

Metal Recycling + Mill

Old Scrap Metal collected/traded from Farvelas

Cans

Stadium Favelas

New Metal From Recycle plant

Old Cans Downtown

Sustainable Work housing

107

Solar Reflectors Solar Heliodons

Circulation Metal Recycling + Mill

+ =

2016 Rio Olympics Field Hockey Stadium

Stadium

Solar Furace Mill + Cast (Added After the Games)

Self Sufficient Housing (Added After the Games)

Existing Structure 2020 Micro City Recycling Center Industrial + Recreational + Housing Self Sufficient Housing Field Sorter and Mauler (Added After the Games)

108

Olympic Field Hockey Stadium

NORTH

SOUTH

Winter Solar Angle

Micro City Recycling Plant + Sports Field

Summer Solar Angle

Solar Angle Furace

109

Prefab Housing

Hoisted on Location

Shipped on Site.

110

Rooftop Garden

Sandbox

Agriculture

Public Amenities Single Family Housing Agriculture

Single Family Housing

Pool

Rooftop Garden

Pool

111

Alternative Scheme B

DEPLOYMENT A A DEPLOYMENT

FAVELA ADJACENCY + TOURISTIC

Steel Recycle Stadiums

Recycle Stadiums

Research

Stadiums

R + D MicroCity

R + Stadiums D MicroCity Stadiums

Research OLYMPICS

$ POST-OLYMPICS

OLYMPICS

RECYCLE CENTERS IN RIO DE JANEIRO

Factory / Production Factory / Production Stadiums

Research Research

RECYCLE CENTERS IN RIO DE JANEIRO

FAVELA ADJACENCY + TOURISTIC

Steel

POST-OLYMPICS

RELOCATION AND TRAINING

RECYCLING ECONOMY

RELOCATION AND TRAINING

RECYCLING ECONOMY

Metal Recycling + Solar Furnace

Recreational/ Tourist Use

Scrap from City

Metal Recycling + Solar Furnace

Favela Recycle Training

Near By Favela(s) Work

Athlete Housing 2150 Units (15,000 / 7 Venues)

112

Olympic Field Hockey Stadium

Work / Live Housing Apartments

Favela Assessment/ Relocation

Work / Live Housing Apartments

Favela Assessment/ Relocation

Live

Work Live

Olympic Field Hockey Stadium

Work

Favela Recycle Training

Live

Near By Favela(s)

Athlete Housing 2150 Units (15,000 / 7 Venues)

Recreational/ Tourist Use

Scrap from City

Work Economy Recycling Live Recycling Economy

An avg size Metal Recycling Plant in the US (6000 sqm) generates around $3M in annual sales / $1M profits. A Field Hockey Stadium cost around $14 Million. If this stadium cost 3 x initial cost, it would be $42 M. With the help of low cost subsidized rent $1M Total/Yr ($500/resident/yr), the stadium can be repaid in just 21 years

H 12 ou U sq sin 25 nit m g 80 s x 21 0 5 sq m 0

S o S rt ta 20 ti 0 on sq m

D IT

IO N

ro u

C o C nv o 15 ol er 00 er ter / sq m R e A fle rr c ay to 40 r 00 sq

ro u

Fe r

R o S lle to d 10 r & 00 ag e sq m

Dec

S o Fu la 10 rn r 0 ac sq e m

June

M 26 EL (M 00 T & ir sq C ro m A S S rs ol T C a 1 on r 0, 00 ce 0 nt sq ra m to ) r 60 00 sq m

Sun Hours

-F er

Jan

S t 20 or a sq 00 ge m

0 hrs/ day

S O S R TO T 42 R & 00 E sq m

5 hrs/ day

C h S em ol on 50 u ic C t t a e 20 nt rol 0 s ion l e qm 0 r sq m

R C ecy 50 ent cli 0 er ng sq E E du m m (L p ca Lo oc loy ti on 80 un ke ee r 0s ge s C To en qm ile te ts r

H IP

10hrs/ day Rio de Janeiro

New York Barcelona

113

114

4.2 Scheme A 3900 Seats 3900 w/ Full Coverage

VARIATIONS

Prefab stadium made of raked chambers. The diamond shapes are based on viewing angles

3900 Seats 3900 w/ Full Coverage

10m

20m

2750 Seats 2000 w/ Full Coverage

10m

20m

126째

3000 Seats 3000 w/ Full Coverage

10m

37m

150째

Varies

3800 Seats 3800 w/ Full Coverage

Varies

115

R S

O C E C

M O C EN C

A T S

Y IT N U M R M E M O T A C N E R Y C T IT N U M M R O TE C N E C

STADIUM WHOLE

116

117

118

4.3 Scheme B The stadium is made of shards in attempt to create pockets of spaces throughout the project for post-Olympic programs.

119

120

4.3 Scheme C The stadium is made from mega structures, Circulations are through structural tubes while, spans are made of vierendeel trusses.

121

122

December 20th Final Review Panels

123

Credit: Cecilia Ho Thesis Defence, Media Lab, MIT Dec 20, 2012 124

4.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bakker, Riek. NL28 Olympic Fire: Future Games. NAi Publishers 2008.

Experiences. [Lausanne]: International Olympic Committee, 1997. Lynch, Kevin. A Theory of Good City Form. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 1981.

Cordes, Marcel, “Is Brazil throwing away stadium marketing revenue?” sportundmarkt.com. Web. Aug. 2012. <http://www. sportundmarkt.com/en/news/in-focus.html>.

Perryman, Mark. Why the Olympics Aren’t Good for Us, and How They Can Be. OR Books. July 2012.

Coates, Dennis. “Beware Promise of Sports Stimulus.” www.Ajc. com. Web. 16 Apr. 2012. <http://www.ajc.com/opinion/bewarepromise-of-sports-608689.html>.

Preuss, Holger. The economics of staging the Olympics: a comparison of the games, 1972-2008. Edwar Elgar Publishing Limited. Northampton. 2004.

Eldemery, Ibrahim Mostafa. GLOBALIZATION CHALLENGES IN ARCHITECTURE. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. 26:4 (Winter, 2009) 343

Price, Monroe Edwin, and Daniel Dayan. Owning the Olympics: Narratives of the New China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2008.

Gold, John Robert., and Margaret M. Gold. Olympic Cities: City Agendas, Planning and the World’s Games, 1896-2012. London: Routledge, 2007. Gordon, Barclay F. Olympic Architecture: Building for the Summer Games. New York: Wiley, 1983. Heathcote, Edwin. Monument builders : modern architecture and death . Chichester, West Sussex: Academy Editions, 1999. Higham, James E. S. Sport Tourism Destinations: Issues, Opportunities and Analysis. Oxford: Elsevier/ButterworthHeinemann, 2005. Hill, Christopher R. Olympic Politics. Manchester, UK: Manchester UP, 1996. Llinés, Montserrat, Spa Miquel De Moragas, and Bruce Kidd. Olympic Villages: Hundred Years of Urban Planning and Shared

Rhoads, Christopher. The Newest Wonder of the World: The Ruins of Modern Greece. The Wall Street Journal, June 17, 2010. Searle, Glen. Uncertain Legacy: Sydney’s Olympic Stadiums. European Planning Studies, Vol. 10, No. 7, 2002. Soveral , Thiago. “Rio Olympics 2016: Legacy or Fallacy?” projectivecities.aaschool.ac.uk. Web. 11 Jan. 2013. <http:// projectivecities.aaschool.ac.uk/?portfolio=thiago-soveral-rioolympics-2016>. Xavier, Helia Nacif. “Urban Slums Reports: The case of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil”, UN-Habitat (2003) Global Report on Human Settlements 2003, The Challenge of Slums. Earthscan, London; Part IV: ‘Summary of City Case Studies’, pp195-228. Yapp, Robin. “Police seize biggest Rio slum as World Cup cleanup begins.” www.telegraph.co.uk. Web. 10 Jan. 2013. <http://www. telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/brazil/8887389/ Police-seize-biggest-Rio-slum-as-World-Cup-clean-up-begins.html>. 125

126

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