Environmentally Generated Patterns

GSA | Mackintosh School of Architecture Master in Architectural Studies Research Proposal 1 Energy & Environment tutor: F. Musau year:2013-14

Environmentally Generated Patterns

Building’s facade optimization by the use of daylight analysis and computational design tools.

by Georgios Karampelas

Introduction

A building’s envelope plays a primary role in shielding and screening the building from external environmental factors. Although building facades have always been designed in order to respond to climatic conditions, digital fabrication and computational design software have contributed to the enrichment of this perspective. This paper researches how to apply smart geometries and computationally generated patterns to shading systems of existing office buildings in order to create an efficient envelope that provides better indoor quality and give a unique form to the building. The idea presupposes that every point on a building skin is singular and that a building’s performance can be optimized if each component is

adapted to its unique position or circumstance.

Specifically, it is investigated how the collaboration between environmental simulation and computation can generate patterns that can be used in facade optimization through shading surfaces. It is also claimed that the integration of daylighting into the design phase, through design tools and computation, results in the improved performance of daylight harvesting and therefore tackles issues of human comfort and energy efficiency.

Keywords: parametric, facade, pattern, shading, daylight

Patterns General Patterns are a fundamental feature of spatial design.

They are also a potent device for architectural articulation. Despite their abstract appearance, they manage to incorporate symbolism, function, ornament, structure and multiple other aspects of design. They are perhaps the earliest forms of non-representational and conceptual virtual spaces. (Garcia, 2009) According to Anette Tietenberg “patterns are above all ‘border-crossing’. They are equally at home, in biology and information science as in philosophy and behavioural science, in the past as much as in the present” (Schmidt, 2005). So, whoever works with patterns is close to no longer knowing any limits.

Patterns in Architecture Since their first theoretical reference in Plato’s Timaeus, patterns have been used widely in the field of art and architecture. For numerous architectural styles and movements, they are an issue of utmost importance. Baroque as well as Arabesque architecture have been fundamentally based their grammar on patterns. After a long period of ‘modernist’ anti-ornamental architecture, nowadays patterns are being used again excessively by architects.Their capacity for expressing simultaneously terms such as similarity and differentiation have made them even more popular in the field of computational design.

Their ability to be informed by different factors such as structural, diagrammatic, environmental parameters while still maintaining their entity and cohesion is an undisputable advantage in the design process.

Patterns can be found in many elements of architectural construction, maybe the most common and noticeable being the facade of a building. They can be traced in the opening’s placement, the cladding material tesselation or the existence of different sub-

systems such as external components, shading devices etc.

According to Patrik Schumacher (2011) of Zaha Hadid Architects, “another powerful opportunity is the adaptive differentiation of facades with respect to environmnetal parameters that vary according to the orientation of the surface. Here, the functional and formal variation go hand in hand”. The recent advances in environmental simulation software and their connection with programmes such as McNeel’s Rhinoceros and Grasshopper, have led to a more dynamic relation between digital design and environmental performance. Now, there is the potential for patterns to be informed by environmental data such as solar irradiation, wind flow etc.

All the aformentioned are tools that contemporary architects can use in order to balance their proposals between aesthetic and functional criteria and enrich their design with scientific knowledge instead of purely formalistic approaches. “When behavioural tendencies and patterns are instrumentalised, they can be put to task or, in other words, they can become performance oriented.”(Garcia, 2009). This research paper, investigates how designers can blend aesthetic and environmental criteria in the design of surfaces, by making use of pattern’s structure and principles. This approach departs from traditional architectural processes that distinguish ornamentation and performance. It also departs from numerous current practices, that make an excessive use of complex patterns without considering functional and environmental factors. The case-study presented here, investigates the balanced linkage between architectural ornamentation and environmental performance.

Sun protection systems General Sunscreen elements are required to prevent overheating in all building types, especially for buildings with high internal cooling loads and/or a high percentage of glazing, e.g. most administration or office buildings. Fixed, stationary systems do not allow for adjusting the shading element to the position of the sun, and this can result in functional disadvantages with regards to shading, transparency and daylight use. Moveable systems can be adjusted to respond to changing solar altitudes over the course of a day and in different seasons, allowing for individual control of the sunscreen elements, optimal shading and maximum use of daylight.(Schittich, 2006)

Brise soleil, in architecture refers to a variety of permanent sun-shading structures, a technique popularized by LeCorbusier in buildings with large surface areas of glazing (Melendo, 2008).

This performance-based pattern allows the penetration of low-angle sun in winter, for passive heating, and the blockage of high-angle sun during the summer.

Pattern-oriented shading systems Two traditional shading systems that are pattern-oriented are mashrabiya and the brise-soleil: The mashrabiya, a traditional architectural feature in Egypt and the Middle East, is commonly used to encourage airflow, decrease solar heat gain and to diffuse natural lighting that is penetrating through openings (Etman, Ezzeldin, 2013). These perforated wooden screens follow a repetitive pattern called arabesque.

above: the mashrabiya shading system side: concrete brise-soleil There are numerous other shading systems, these two however demonstrate a great integration of pattern in their performance. They have managed to combine their environmental behavior with their aesthetic value. It is however aknowledged that the vast implementation of standarized shading components such as fixed grids, louvres, overhangs, shape a precise aesthetic outcome that hardly can be managed and radically altered by designers. Thus, the patterns that underlie in these devices are part of the architectural design process and should be faced like that. It is a question of this research if designers can proceed in not using predetermined, fixed shading elements but actually designing their own, according to each project’s needs.

This notion links to the concept of associative design, where the architect does not only design spaces and shapes, but designs the relations and transformations of the space. Therefore, it becomes even more clear that environmental performance is not a standarised recipe but each time follows different need and logics, according to the project.

next: patterns commonly found in standarized shading devices such as louvres, grids, shutters etc.

Shading classification

Daylight access, challenges, integration opportunities According to RIBA’s Sustainability Hub, shading opening in the first place since it cannot be moducan be placed into 4 categories: lated, nor is it selective in the part of the sky it allows light from. Although it can be found in the work of - Retractable || shutters, roller blinds and louvres notable architects, it is not to be recommended.

- Fixed redistribution devices || overhangs, lightshelves etc.

A relatively recent development is glass that has a - Fixed reduced transmission devices || fixed grids, lower transmission for the invisible part of the specperforated sheets, tinted, reflective and fritted glass. trum, than for the visible. This has the effect of im- Selective high performance glazing. proving the luminous efficacy of the daylight. The use of this is beneficial, but on its own it cannot reEach category comes with its own advantages and spond to the wide variations of illuminance from the particularities insofar as the daylight access is con- sky. It is best to be used in conjunction with other cerned. categories. Moreover, conventional tinted and reflective glass are not selectively transmittive to the visRetractable systems allow the relatively fixed de- ible light. mand for light within the room to be matched to the widely varying incident radiation intensity. The Insofar as the position of the shading system, three distribution of light in the interior space allows a options are possible: lower total. At times of low sky brightness they can - external, be withdrawn from the aperture completely.

- internal and - mid-pane Fixed structures obscure part of the sky through which the sun passes. They are selective due to the External shading devices are the most efficient as geometry of the device in relation to the facade and they do not allow the solar energy to enter the inteits orientation. Lower intensity and more diffuse rior space but they carry the disadvantage of being light is allowed into the room. However, it also ob- exposed to weather conditions and are more diffistructs a brighter part of the sky in diffuse condi- cult to control from inside. Internal shading is gentions, and since it is fixed, this has to be compensat- erally much more affordable in installation and is ed with a larger glazing area. user-friendly, but is less efficient and vulnerable to damage. Mid-pane shading devices have increased This category is where the glazed opening is made their awareness as technical problems have been to have permanently reduced transmission. This overcome. achieves no more than simply having a smaller

high-performance glazing

retractable

fixed redistribution fixed reduced transmission

In this classification, a new category of shading can be introduced as recent developments in generative design and digital fabrication have allowed architects to articulate forms and surfaces that respond dynamically to environmental changes such as daylight, wind or temperature. This new category, can be characterized as ‘Non-fixed reduced transmission’ as it is the evolution of ‘Fixed reduced transmission’ devices such as fixed grids or perforated sheets. The radical difference in this case, is the underlying patterns, that now become enriched with environmen-

tal data and demonstrate a significant differentiation throughout their entity. There is no need for applying standard, repetitive square-grid components on a building facade when there is the ability to identify the optimal pattern for a specific building form , in a specific location. Moreover, this pattern can be also informed by date-and-time information, thus becoming even more appropriate and effective as a shading device. The case-study developped below, will help us clarify and better understand all the aforementioned.

Building Typology Office buildings Daylight

Contemporary trends

Daylighting is a crucial asset in office spaces; it increases the productivity of workers, enhances their morale, and maintains their health (Koster, 2004).

Despite its importance, sometimes designers do not adequately account for daylight during the design phase, which subsequently requires the use of more electric lighting. Office buildings are considered high energy consumers. Office buildings commonly use fully glazed sealed facades to reflect a luxurious appearance and to maximise natural light at the expenses of high energy consumption due to cooling/ heating. The use of glass in office buildings has become important in the profession for transparency, visual, and daylighting purposes. Although useful for allowing light into buildings, untreated windows allow more daylight into a space than required, resulting in visual problems, such as over-abundance of light in some areas, not enough in others, and glare. Typically, the daylight depth in a room with untreated openings is about one-and-a-half times the distance from the window head to the floor. A typical window head is at 2.20m, which results in a 3.30m room depth of daylight area.(Sheikh, 2011)

While during the past century, the pursuit of transparency was ranked as of utmost importance in the architectural agenda, nowadays it seems that sustainability and cost-efficiency are higher appreciated in comparison with purely formal and aesthetic choices. There is an increasing demand for accurate control over heating, ventilation and daylight. Moreover, there is a trend towards more complex and ornamental geometries, in total contrast with the majority of public and office buildings of the past decades.

This paper uses office buildings as a case-study typology for environmentally generated shading systems. This is because office buildings deal more than any other building type with issues related to daylight as they consist of numerous workspaces, each with specific requirements and needs. Moreover, office buildings are occupying the majority of city centers, affecting with their form the overall image of the city. This is where the connection between environmental performance and aesthetic impact take place. By investigating ways of improving the daylight behavior of the building while at the same Human factor time enhancing it’s exterior appearance, an overall sustainability is achieved, both in environmental Another important aspect is the diversity of user and architectural terms. preferences in the same office building. No other building typology has the characteristic of hosting in the same space so diverse preferences insofar as the working conditions are concerned. “It is worth noting that a number of studies have demonstrated that the ability of an employee to control to a degree the daylight and electric light directly around his or her work area has led to even better production and morale. This is because, while overall good lighting is important, individuals often have their own particular preferences for brightness and the angle from wich light hits their work area.” (Ander, 2003) left: Seagram Building, Mies Van deRohe, NY, 1958 right: O-14, Reiser+Uwemoto, Dubai, 2010

Tools | Software The integration of three tools is necessary for the objective of this study: - Rhino as a modeling tool, - Grasshopper as a parametric interface and - DIVA for daylight simulation.

Rhino is a 3D NURB-based modeling program. It has the ability to communicate with multiple other programes. Grasshopper is a free, graphical algorithm editor tightly integrated with Rhino’s 3D modeling tools. It allows users to design with the aids of visual algorithms, without the need for knowing any scripting language. DIVA-for-Grasshopper is a highly optimized daylighting and energy modeling plug-in for the Rhinoceros modeler and Grasshopper. The plug-in was initially developed at the Graduate School of Design at Harvard University and is now distributed and developed by Solemma LLC. DIVA allows users to carry out a series of environmental performance evaluations of individual buildings and urban landscapes.

The case-study scenario In order to evaluate the impact of my proposal, I use a south-facing prototypical office building in a dense urban context, in the city of Athens, Greece.

Geographic Data || Athens, Greece Based on Koppen’s climate classification system, Athens has a subtropical Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). The dominant feature of Athens’s climate is alternation between prolonged hot and dry summers and mild, wet winters. These climate characteristics demand special facade treatments to minimise heat gain. Envelope solutions in most of contemporary office buildings in Athens consist of large glass curtain walls which results in high levels of energy consumption.

Urban Context The 3D model used for the simulation does not correspond to a specific site or building. It is a hypothetical scenario, trying to adopt many common facts such as building heights, road width, urban density etc. The width of the surrounding streets is 10 meters, while the height of the surrounding buildings varies from 12 to 35 meters.

The office building Specifically, the building used for the simulation consists of 20 floors, each of 3 meters height. There is a typical, rectangular plan of 400 sq. meters. The 3 out of 4 sides of the building are ‘‘free’’, while on the east there is an adjacent building.

IMPORTANT: In the analysis, daylight effects of obstructions or reflections from other buildings are included in the calculations.

above: case-study 3D model, designed in Rhino.

Simulation Process Daylight analysis

The method employs two types of daylight analysis: 1) Radiation Map. DIVA-for-Rhino can generate climate-specific annual surface irradiation images or calculate annual irradiation at node locations.

There is the option for the user to define the start time, end time and hour range for the analysis. Otherwise, one can choose between a series of periods such as Annual, Summer extreme week, Autumn typical day etc 2) Illuminance. These calculations are also called "point-in-time" calculations because unlike the annual, or climate-based metrics, illuminance calculations measure light levels at a specific date and time. Here, the inputs are a specific date and time for the analysis as well as sky condition.

The case-study office building and the urban context are modeled in Rhino. The geometries are associated in the Grasshopper environment. The selected façade (in our case the southern), represented by a surface GH component, is divided in faces. The centroid of each face of the surface will become a node and will be used from DIVA component for grid-based daylight analysis. The output is a list of values, for all the nodes of the façade. These values can be used in the Grasshopper environment, in order to feed various algorithmic design processes.

SOLAR IRRA

SOLAR IRRADIATION

Facade design | Shading My goal is to identify the potential relationship between façade design and daylight analysis. I will use the output of the daylight simulations as a generative component for a shading system. There are various paths to follow, defined mainly by aesthetic and construction parameters. I narrow my design research by using a simple strategy.

In each of the nodes of the façade that participates in the daylight analysis, a circle is associated. The diameter of each circle is analogous to the node’s simulation value. Therefore, a gradient dot-patterned shading surface is generated that responds to the simulation data and to the façade’s daylight attributes in general. The bigger a circular component of the shading system is, the greater shading will provide to the interior spaces.

It is important to keep in mind that my aim is mainly to illustrate the environmentally generated patterns, resulting from the daylight analysis, rather than proposing a specific shading device.

In other words, there are numerous options that can be made in terms of geometry, materiality and construction. A series of differentiated types of shading can be produced by using the very same pattern. What is important here, is the densities and gradient fields rather than the shapes themselves.

area of high illuminance or solar irradiation. area of low illuminance or solar irradiation. high illuminance value high irradiance value

Summer Extreme low illuminance Weekvalue low irradiance value

Summer

Winter

Wi Extr W

The algorithm

Grasshopper definition

1

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4 5

1. Association of Rhinoceros 3D geometries in the Grasshopper environment.

In order for the 3D geometry to participate in an algorithm, it has to be associated in the algorithmic environment of GH. Moreover, there are cases where the NURBS geometry has to be ‘translated’ into MESH geometry. This happens- in our case- because DIVA tool does not support nurb geometries. So, in the first step we associate and convert the geometries from Rhino into the new environment.

2. Material assignment to different geometries with the use of DIVA material component.

In order to proceed to simulation, the different geometries (road, buildings etc), have to be accompanied by a material. The DIVA software has a Material component where the user can choose from a material list. So, the components representing the 3D geometry are linked to different materials. For instance the terrain surface is ‘wired’ with a General Ground material, the building volumes are attributed a Generic Exterior Facade material and so on. There is the option for the user to create or insert new materials, but the ready-made list that accompanies the software is considered satisfying, especially for preliminary and generic simulations.

We also have to divide the facade of the building in faces, both in U and V direction. The centroids of these faces (rectangles) will be the input Nodes for the Diva component that follows.

3. DIVA daylight analysis.

By clicking on the component, the user defines a number of parameters such as City/Location, Date and Time, Sky condition etc. The user has to input the analysis nodes (the points where the analysis will be calculated, in our case the centroid of each face of the facade) and the Geometry that participates in the analysis. The values of the simulation are projected on the yellow panel in form of list. The second yellow panel shows any notices, messages and errors that address to the user.

4. The list of values from the daylight analysis is used as a factor for the creation of a circle in each node of the surface. This means that the diameter of each circle is analogous to it’s daylight value.

5. For better representation of the analysis, each node of the surface that participates in the analysis is coloured according to it’s value, by using a gradient colour field that varies between red and blue.

Results and Discussion - solar irradiation results

Summer Extreme Week

SOLAR IRRADIATION

Winter Extreme Week

The solar irradiation analysis of the facade, unlike illuminance analysis, is made during a period of time and not for a specific date and time. While the winter extreme week analysis and the autumn typical week analysis are quite similar, the summer extreme week generates a much more rich and differentiating pattern. The sun position and intensity, the shading and reflections of the surrounding environment during the week, affect the building’s southern facade in multiple ways. It is also important to note that the

Autumn Typical Week

generated pattern in this case, has an increased aesthetic value in comparison with the other two cases which can be characterized as more neutral and homogenous. This multiplicity that the ‘Summer Extreme Week’ facade carries can be translated in architectural terms and be applied to the building’s facade. Therefore, the image of the building expresses it’s environmental behavior while simultaneously serving as a shading device for better indoor daylight quality.

- illuminance results The illuminance analysis of the facade for December 21 demonstrates the impact of direct sun. When there is a ‘Clear Sky with Sun’, the obstacles from the surrounding buildings have a clear impact on the illuminance of the facade. One can see that there is a sharp distinction between the areas that are directly illuminated by the sun and areas that are shaded by surrounding obstacles. In the case of ‘Clear Sky without Sun’, there is a smoother gradience between the different areas of the facade and during daytime.

The illuminance analysis of the facade for June 21 demonstrates again that the direct presence of sun creates the need for more dynamic shading solutions, as the generated analysis patterns are more complex. Here it is also registered the impact of street reflection in the lower levels of the building during a sunny day. It is also clear that the upper floors of the building have in average the greater illuminance values, as there are no surrounding obstacles to hide the sunlight.

ILLUMINANCE 21 December _ Clear Sky with Sun

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21 December _ Clear Sky without Sun

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ILLUMINANCE 21 June _ Clear Sky with Sun

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21 June _ Clear Sky without Sun

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User intervention | Programmatic function In 1996, Veitch and Newsham (2001) suggested that the quality of lighting can be defined as the degree to which the luminous environment supports the following requirements of the people who use the space: - visual performance - post-visual performance - social interaction and communication - mood state - health and safety - aesthetic judgements They also added that “the qualities mentioned above, do not allow direct measurement of daylighting, but express an emergent state that is created between the occupant in the environment and the light”.This brings the issue of the user intervention in the shading systems. This intervention, besides personal criteria and preferences, may also be influenced by programmatic and functional parameters. It is common for office buildings to ‘host’ multiple programmatic requirements. Since each office space may be rented by different companies and for different purposes, there is a dynamic differentiation in the daylighting needs from one floor to the other or even across the same floor. This constitutes the need for even more adaptable and flexible shading systems rather than stable, fixed devices.

Besides the results of daylighting, calculated according to the relation of the building with exterior factors (sun position, urban context, Time and Date, Materiality), these is a series of factors that can affect the daylight requirements in the interior of the building.

These are: - user preferences - functional/ programmatic requirements.

There is the potential for each user to adjust the shading locally according to his needs. This can generate ‘random’ facades, as the pattern of the shading system will be the sum of the individual options of the users. There is also a high percentage of unpredictability, as the users and their preferences may vary from time to time.

Insofar the programmatic requirements, this consideration lead to a much more structured articulation of the facade. Different zones of density can be distinguished, according to space use and daylight requirements. In this case, daylight factor is the driving force of the analysis. A meeting room shares the same facade and shadind system with a dentist office but they have completely different requirements.

This differentiation in the needs of each space is expressed through the zones of different shading densities.

user intervention

Summer Extreme Week

programmatic/ funtional requirements

Discussion It is important to notice that the examined design approach departs fundamentally from the current architectural practices. It has to do with the notion that environmental performance cannot be framed in fixed design systems and therefore patterns, but has to follow the complexity and the ‘flow’ of factors such as air, wind, heat etc. A new link between digital design and environmental design is created through the integration of softwares that relate form with environmental factors. This creates the ability to integrate environmental strategies during the preliminary design phase, even in the ‘form-finding’ stage.

The resulting patterns can be used in a literal way by architects, as a shading surface, but can also contribute as a ‘guide’, without implying specific constraints. What I mean is that the architect can use these patterns by taking them into consideration but not being obliged to ‘translate’ them into form. They can be used in order to indicate the window placement, the materiality differentiation or the planting and vegetation strategy.

An outstanding example of an environmentally-conscious use of computational design, is the proposal of Feilden Clegg Bradley Architects for a new academic complex for Leeds Metropolitan University. The designers proposed a daylight-optimised facade, by trying to achieve a balanced daylight factor of 3% throughout the whole building. In order to do so, they analyzed the amount of glazing needed on different floors and in different facades. At the end, the facade design was adjusted manually in or-

up: Leeds Metropolitan University, Bradley Architects down: daylight-optimised facade development.

der to integrate non-standard areas such as plant, cores and entrances as well as aesthetic decision but the scientific documentation was still present.(Littlefield, 2008) It is clear then, that there is no one-way use of this approach but it has to do with a broader perception of digital design and environmental simulation as a motivating force, underlying the design process. As it happened in the aforementioned example, there are multiple exterior factors that intervene in the facade design and affect it. The final outcome, is most of the times the result of the effort of the designer to combine and satisfy different and often contrary needs and requirements.

Further Work There are numerous other parameters to further consider. I have just tried to register and classify the different patterns that can be generated by a daylight analysis and applied on a facade through a shading system. Other environmental factors can generate multiple others facades. Moreover, construction and programmatic requirements can also intervene in the algorithmic process by affecting the outcome.

It is also important to consider that my investigation has been limited in a planar facade, due to my focus on existing office building typology, which tends to follow rectangular forms. The real impressive capabilities of this process is demonstrated in cases of curvilinear geometries, and especially double-curved surfaces or envelopes. In order to illustrate the aforementioned, I applied the algorithm that I used for my case-study in a freeform surface.

All I had to do was to associate a different geometry instead of that of the building’s facade. The gradient patterns in these cases become even more excessive.

This is where each point of the surface has radically differentiated characteristics from other points of the same geometry.

Another issue for further investigation is the materialization of such shading elements. The development of a kinetic shading system, as well as the fabrication of it, is a future consideration. For instance, this case-study could be materialized by the use of relatively simple digital fabrication processes such as laser-cutting. A series of steel/metal circular panels could be fabricated, according to the dotted pattern that results from the daylight analysis, and applied on the building’s façade as an exterior shading skin. Another option would be the development of a dynamic circular component/aperture, similar to Jean Nouvel’s facade proposal for the Arab Institute in Paris.

above: a freeform geometry is subdivided in faces and analyzed for solar irradiation. The pattern generated by the values of the analysis expresses the complexity of the surface in regards of it’s daylight performance. right: perspective view of the initial geometry and of the generated dotted pattern.

Conclusion There is an ongoing research in the architectural discipline that relates to advanced environmental simulation and digital design. Nowadays, through the collaborations of multiple specialists from a wide variety of scientific fields and the use of various softwares even for a single project, there is a demand for integration.

The only way for the designer to handle and make use of the multiple data and results is by combining the design process with the simulation process, especially when this has to do with environmental data and terms such as thermal comfort, daylighting and ventilation. The opportunity given by computational programs to associate form with performance is an opportunity for designers to define their architectural and aesthetic options in a scientific basis. In this research paper, a part of this approach is illustrated through the analysis of environmentaly generated and pattern-oriented shading systems. Solar irradiation, illuminance and daylight factor are some of the parameters than can participate in this scenario. Other important aspects that can affect the outcome are user intervention and functional requirements. There are many more things to be done under the same topic. To sum up, it is important to notice that this design logic is just another powerfull tool in the hands of the architect and should be considered as supplementary, without posing restrictions towards other parameters as well as the inspiration of the designer.

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