Strategic Smart Growth | George Parfitt BA Hons Architecture Dissertation by George Parfitt

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

GEORGE

PARFITT

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

The Barriers and Incentives to generating Urban Green Space on Highly Contaminated Brownfield Land to create the denser cities needed to absorb Population Prowth

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Strategic Smart Growth The barriers and incentives to creating urban green space on highly contaminated brownfield land to create the denser cities needed to absorb population growth. A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BA HONS Architecture

AUTHOR STUDENT NUMBER MODULE YEAR WORD COUNT Date Printed

George C. Parfitt B3031027 ARC3010 2015 - 16 8718 18 January 2016

Cover Diagram by George Parfitt ‘Urban green space from brownfield creating a higher density city’

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

ABSTRACT This dissertation studies how housing density can be sustainably increased by producing more urban green space on what would otherwise be derelict brownfield land too contaminated for development. Urban Green space delivers the benefits of vegetation to where it is needed most, the heart of a city. The barriers and incentives of doing so are considered throughout. The dissertation concludes by proposing relaxed planning rules on strategically located areas of the greenbelt of low environmental importance to fund this solution.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author would like to thank Dr Steven Dudek for his guidance and supervision throughout the dissertation process. The author would also like to thank the survey respondents of Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park for their contribution, which facilitated the primary research. KEYWORDS Smart growth, population growth, urban density, urban green space, brownfield, greenfield, greenbelt

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 CHAPTER TWO

ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGMENT INTRODUCTION

Introducing the Proposal Dissertation Structure Academic Context Aims and Objectives Research Methodology

08 09

THE LACK OF DEVELOPABLE LAND AND THE NEED FOR HIGHER DENSITY CITIES TO ACCOMMODATE POPULATION GROWTH

2.1 2.2 2.3

Population Growth The Housing and Land Shortage The Need to Increase Urban Density

CHAPTER THREE

12 14

THE PROBLEMS OF INCREASING CITY DENSITY AND URBAN GREEN SPACE AS A SOLUTION

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

Increasing Desirability of High Density Living Reducing the Pollution in High Density Cities Improving Ventilation in High Density Cities Mitigating Noise in High Density Cities Increasing Daylight in High Density Cities

CHAPTER FOUR

THE PROBLEMS OF BROWNFIELD SITES TOO CONTAMINATED FOR HOUSING AND HOW REMEDIATION AS GREENSPACE WOULD PROVIDE A BETTER SOLUTION

4.1 4.2

The Problem to Brownfield Development Case Studies: Introducing Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park. Desirability of Greening Brownfields Economic Viability for Greening Brownfields Health Implications of Brownfields Contamination of Brownfields Natural Reclamation of Brownfields

4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 CHAPTER FIVE

18 19 21 23 25

28 30 35 36 38 40 42

THE STRATEGIC USE OF THE GREENBELT TO FUND THE SOLUTION

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 CHAPTER SIX

The Need to use the Greenbelt Implications of not using the Greenbelt Perceived Value of the Greenbelt Benefits to Strategic Development of the Greenbelt

A CONCLUSION TO COMPROMISE

BIBLIOGRAPHY LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS APPENDIX

57 63 67

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

MORE HOUSING HOW

RESULTING IN...

CAN THIS BE ACHIEVED?

HIGH DENSITY LIVING

DEVELOPING GREENBELT

WHAT

WHO

WILL FASCILIATE THIS?

URBAN GREEN SPACE

WOULD BE WILLING TO FUND IT?

WHERE?

BROWNFIELD LAND

WILL THIS BE BUILT?

Fig .1. Structure of dissertation diagram 6

I STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

C H A P T E R O N E

INTRODUCTION

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Fig .2. An existing high-density living 1.1

Introducing the Proposal

of doing so provides much-needed homes, whilst removing a source of blight, increases the attractiveness of a city and minimises the implications of high-density living. Increasing the density of cities reduces the need for land but its economic, social and environmental disadvantages limit its validity in the UK. The natural characteristics of urban green space counteract these disadvantages; however its availability is limited by high land prices, its inability to provide an immediate financial incentive for developers and a lack of government funds to pay for it. Brownfield is land that has been previously developed but no longer has a use and needs to be recycled. 50% of brownfield land is too contaminated [67] for building development to be viable, however reusing these sites for urban green space removes a source of blight whilst providing a necessity for an increased population. The issue of funding this solution can be resolved by utilising the greenbelt. The greenbelt is the ribbon of land surrounding most major UK cities. The untouched greenbelt provides developers with land that has no

The year 2006 marked the moment more than half of the world’s population would live in cities. Urbanisation is an irreversible process of human development and therefore getting it right is fundamental to economic, social and environmental sustainability.1 Based on current trends, the population will reach 9 billion by 2040.2 The land expected to accommodate these people is a finite resource that will soon be depleted if it is not better managed. The obvious solution to the UK mass housing shortage is to fulfil the demand by building more houses and denser cities. The three types of land this housing can be built on - brownfield, greenfield and greenbelt – is either impractical or too controversial. This dissertation will focus on why a compromise should be made where planning permission on strategically located areas of the greenbelt with low environmental importance can be offered to developers as an incentive to remediate highly contaminated inner city brownfields as urban green space. The outcome

United Nations, ‘Global Trends and Challenges to Sustainable Development Post-2015: A More Challenging Context for Global Development’, 2013

Office for National Statistics, Estimated and Projected Age Structure of the United Kingdom Population (London, 2016)

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remediation cost and is within range of the higher property values associated with the city. Despite development of the greenbelt being highly restricted, not all of it is environmentally friendly and preventing its development distributes sprawl amongst greenfield land. Greenfield land makes up the untouched landscapes of the Great British countryside. Housing built on this land encourages unsustainable low-density living that becomes an addition to the already overcrowded commuter belt. In order for housing to remain in keeping with its surroundings, housing built on greenfield land is low density. Additionally, the residents of new homes built on greenfield land will end up commuting further to work, contributing to the already overcrowded commuter belt. 1.2

planning permission on strategic areas of the greenbelt should be used to fund the process. The conclusion justifies the proposal by explaining how the majority will benefit whilst the original problem of cities being unable to deal with population growth is resolved. 1.3

Academic Context

The originality of this dissertation stems from the integration of research and common sense to develop a simple idea that solves multiple existing housing issues that are predicted to intensify. Extensive research has already been invested into brownfield, greenfield and greenbelt land, urban green space and high density cities as the bibliography reveals; however by analysing how they influence each other, this dissertation breaks down and remediates the issues to high density living.

Dissertation Structure

The structure of this dissertation follows the standard format of introducing a subject, conducting an exposition using primary and secondary research, and then retracing the individual points made throughout to come to a sensible conclusion. The first chapter introduces the proposal before explaining the topics originality, aims and objectives and research methodology. The second chapter analyses the primary problem, which is the inability for UK cities to absorb future population growth if they are not better designed and managed. The chapter concludes by explaining the solution, which is to construct more houses and increase urban density. However the third, fourth and fifth chapters of this dissertation explain in respective order; increasing population density is problematic, 50 per cent of brownfield is too contaminated for housing, yet greenfield is illogical and greenbelt has too many restrictions. These chapters conclude by explaining also in respective order - how utilising the natural characterises of urban green space can counteract the disadvantages of high-density cities, how brownfields too contaminated for housing can provide land for this urban green space, and why a compromise of offering

1.4

Aims and objectives

The purpose of this dissertation is to produce an informative piece of text that ties together interrelated information to reveal the effects of population growth on housing and land, how cities will need to adapt, and how the government can use its bargaining power to accommodate this growth sustainably in addition to enhancing the land as opposed to damaging it. 1.5

Research Methodology

The practical research of this dissertation utilised national statistical data and research questionnaires that were distributed at both case study sites. Both strands of research were used to provide evidence for the points being made. The theoretical research involved the document review of books, academic journals, websites and news articles. The books and journals provided a deeper understanding of more detailed information, whereas the websites and news articles provided up to date contemporary information.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

MORE HOUSING HOW

RESULTING IN...

CAN THIS BE ACHIEVED?

HIGH DENSITY LIVING

GREENBELT

WHAT

WHO

WILL FASCILIATE THIS?

URBAN GREEN SPACE

WOULD BE WILLING TO FUND IT?

WHERE?

BROWNFIELD LAND

WILL THIS BE BUILT?

Dissertation Structure Progression 10

II STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

C H A P T E R T W O

THE LACK OF DEVELOPABLE LAND AND THE NEED FOR HIGHER DENSITY CITIES TO ACCOMMODATE POPULATION GROWTH The introduction gave a general overview of how this dissertation is structured, its originality, the aims and objectives and how this has influenced the research undertaken. This chapter will explore in more detail the problems of an increasing population by explaining the severity of population growth, how this has resulted in a lack of available land that can be built on, and the need to increase the density of a city.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .3. A crowd representing the population, which is set to reach 9 billion by 2040 (2014) 2.1

Population Growth

live in overcrowded conditions.”6 The future population of the UK will rely on compact and dense living to facilitate its growth yet evidence suggests it may already be too overcrowded for current living conditions. This means more housing and better-designed cities are needed to deal with this problem.

The population of the UK is growing at an unprecedented rate and future predictions show this growth is displaying no signs of slowing down. This will have a negative effect on the quality of life if it is not addressed and dealt with adequately. According to Office for National Statistics, the population has grown by over 10 million people since 1964 with approximately half of this growth haven taken place within the current millennium.3 It is predicted the population will continue to rise by just fewer than 5 million within the next decade and 10 million by 2030. This has resulted in high land and property prices, whilst the sizes of new homes are some of the smallest within Europe.4 A RIBA report explains people are unhappy with living standards that are becoming increasingly worse.5 Many people live uncomfortably in insufficient space and “over a million children

2.2

The Housing and Land Shortage

The increasing population has caused a housing shortage within the UK. The obvious solution is to construct more houses yet the government is struggling to do so. This is because the land housing can be built on is either too impractical or too controversial for development. According to the National Housing Federation, 457,490 out of a needed 974,000 houses were built between 2011 and 2014, equating to roughly 50% of the demand being fulfilled.7 Housing minister Brandon Lewis announced

Office For National Statistics, ‘Changes in UK Population over the Last 50 Years’ (Office For National Statistics, 26 June 2014)

Population Matters, 2012

National Housing Federation, ‘Housebuilding Lags behind Demand’, 2015

Population Matters, ‘UK Population Growth Affects Our Quality of Life « Population Matters’, 2012 5

Stephen Finlay et al, ‘The Way We Live Now: What People Need and Expect from Their Homes’, 2012

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the government’s target to build 1 million new homes by 2020, which equates to 200,000 homes per year.8 The National Housing Federation claim the government is not being ambitious enough, suggesting 245,000 houses per year is a much more plausible figure.9 The CPRE explain how unwise it is to develop greenfield land.10 Greenfield sites are situated in remote locations disconnected from cities. The Government has hinted a preference towards greenfield development over the greenbelt due to less local opposition.11 However, in order for these places to become functional, new infrastructure would be required as opposed to utilising and expanding on what already exists. Additionally, the people that would live in greenfield areas would be forced to become dependant on cars, as it would be infeasible for regular public transport to reach these secluded locations. This is environmentally unfriendly as cars are one of the biggest net contributors to climate change.12 The National Planning Policy Framework explains the greenbelt is of high important value to the government and therefore any form of development on it may only be done under a very special circumstance.13 Housing is not being supplied to match demand due to the deficiency of land that can be developed. The government belief that 90% of the 1 million new homes by 2020 will be built on brownfield is misguided and unachievable. Using the information provided by CPRE stating 1.5 million homes can be built on 45,681 hectares of brownfield land, but applying it to Dr D Sinnett research that only 22,681 hectares of this land is developable, it is revealed current brownfield sites can only accommodate 750,000 new houses (45,682x50%=22,841, so 1,500,000x50%=750,000). This has caused

the government’s grossly underestimated expectation of how many homes will need to be built on undeveloped land to almost treble in size from 100,000 homes to 250,000. As a result, three quarters of new housing development in

Fig .4. Abandoned Brownfield (2013)

Fig .5. Greenfield potentially under threat (2015)

Dan Bloom, ‘Homes Plan for Greenfield Sites’, Daily Mail (Daily Mail, 22 January 2003)

BBC, ‘Inside out London - BBC One’, BBC UK (BBC, 2015)

Greenpeace, ‘How Do Cars Contribute to Climate Change: Questions and Answers’, Greenpeace (Greenpeace International, 2015)

Paul Miner, ‘Call to Arms as CPRE Unveil Charter to Stop Destruction of the English Countryside - Campaign to Protect Rural England’, Campaign to Protect Rural England, 2013 10

Department for Communities and Local Government , ‘9. Protecting Green Belt Land | Planning Practice Guidance’, 2014

National Housing Federation, 2015

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the next five years will need to be on greenfield or greenbelt land. The CPRE are correct in claiming the development of greenfield land lacks logic and should therefore be stopped. It is a shortterm solution that provides the government housing without losing too many constituency votes but ignores the long-term economic and environmental expense. Greenfield has an environmental value that is equal to or potentially greater than that of the greenbelt, yet is not located on the urban fringe. Therefore accessing any houses on greenfield land requires infrastructure to cut across the greenbelt, causing damage to both land types. Greenbelt, despite its current restrictions, could potentially be a much more viable option. Greenbelt has prevented cities from unsustainably expanding outwards and therefore its continued protection is vital. However, unlike in historical times when the greenbelt was put in place to stop developers from deviating to the cheapest land source, it now has a real need to allow smart growth. Preventing any of it from being developed pushes the expansion of cities further away and onto Greenfield land. Although most of the greenbelt is environmentally important, there is also a significant portion that is not. The portion that does not have any environmental value and is within close proximity to public transport should be used to provide housing.

Fig .6. Infrastructure cutting through greenbelt (2015)

The majority of housing development that takes place in the UK is too low-density to be sustainable. In contrast high-density housing has the potential to ease the housing shortage

and is therefore a better solution. Low-density housing is unsustainable because it relies on increased infrastructure to span a longer distance. The infrastructure of a country consists of transportation and communication systems, power plants and power supply, in addition to services buildings such as hospitals and schools.14 Infrastructure that spans a long distance is expensive to construct, requires a lot of maintenance and is environmentally unfriendly.15 High-density housing is a housing typology used to accommodate more people than is typical for a specific sized plot of land.16 The average housing density of the UK is 43 dwellings per hectare (dph).17 London has a higher housing density of 78dph but this is still significantly lower than Paris, Barcelona and Hong Kong, which have housing densities of 300, 700 and 1500dph respectively.18 The Building for Life ‘Gold Standard” – “a tool for accessing the design quality of homes

The Free Dictionary, ‘Infrastructure’, The Free Online Dictionary (Farlex)

2.3 The Need to Increase Urban Density

Collins Dictionary, ‘High-Density Housing’, Collins, 2016 Department for Communities and Local Government and Grant Kelly, ‘Planning Applications: July to September 2012’ (England), 19 December 2013

Sylvie Gayda et al, ‘THE SCATTER PROJECT – SPRAWLING CITIES AND TRANSPORT: FROM EVALUATION TO RECOMMENDATIONS’, 2002, p. 21

Andrew Adonis, ‘City Villages: More Homes, Better Communities’ (London: Institute for Public Policy Research, March 2015), p. 11 18

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .7. Low density housing (2012)

Fig .8. High-density housing (2013)

and neighbourhoods in England” - recommends UK houses should be built at 50-100dph within cities, and 50-60dph along transport corridors.19 This number is predicted to provide enough housing to accommodate future needs whilst not overloading a compact infrastructure supply. Paragraph 2.2 explained the UK does not have enough brownfield land to fulfil the governments ‘1 million new homes by 2020’ target if we keep constructing housing at the current rate. The paragraph concluded by reasoning that either greenfield or greenbelt would need to be used, greenbelt being the more logical option. However if a population density of 75dph is used - the median density as recommended by ‘Buildings for life’ – 1.7 million houses can now be built on the available 22,681 hectares of brownfield. This almost doubles the government’s 2020 target and is 200,000 homes more than CPRE originally predicted on half the land mass. The population density of cities in other

country’s highlight how low the housing density of the UK is. The increased infrastructure that is required to support this low-density housing proves too unsustainable and evidence suggests a much lesser need for undeveloped land if housing densities are increased. Finally, increased city density allows a larger population to inhabit it, thus population growth is managed.

Andrew Adonis, 2015, p.11

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MORE HOUSING RESULTING IN...

HOW CAN THIS BE ACHIEVED?

HIGH DENSITY LIVING

DEVELOPING GREENBELT

WHAT

WHO

WILL FASCILIATE THIS?

URBAN GREEN SPACE

WOULD BE WILLING TO FUND IT?

WHERE

BROWNFIELD LAND

WILL THIS BE BUILT?

Dissertation Structure Progression 16

III STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

C H A P T E R T H R E E

THE PROBLEMS OF INCREASING CITY DENSITY AND URBAN GREEN SPACE AS A SOLUTION

The previous chapter emphasised the rate at which the population is growing, how this has created a shortage of both land and housing, and explained the need for high-density living to combat this shortage. High-density living is the only way the planet can manage population growth, however its disadvantages first have to be address for cities to become sustainable. This chapter will explore the social, economic and environmental implications to high-density living and explain how urban green space naturally counteracts these disadvantages despite remaining in short supply within urban areas.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Key AC = Average Cost (Construction Cost)

P Pp

MC = Marginal Cost

(Construction cost after the influence of providing an additional dwelling to the supply is accounted for)

AR = Average Revenue

(Cost per dwelling)

MR = Marginal Revenue

(Profit after the influence of providing an additional dwelling to the supply is accounted for)

C MR 0

Density

Fig .9. A graph explaining the basic economic principles of housing density 3.1

Increasing the Desirability of High-Density Cities

Developers need the incentive of money to build more houses, which is influenced by the demand. Low-density housing is very desirable in the UK and therefore has a high demand. Although this housing typology has been adequate in the past, land shortages prevent the continuation of its construction. There is a need to make higher density housing more desirable in order for developers construct it at the rate it is needed. A. Evans explains housing is built at a density that maximises profit. The main influencing factors are construction cost and desirability of property type. Higher density housing has higher construction costs as a result of the additional structure needed in a taller building.20 The desirability of low-density housing is influenced by the traditional British value of owning a property and pre 1999 British planning policy, which discouraged high-density living claims J. Ball, who continues to explain people

in English speaking countries prefer living at lower densities. J. Ball’s research suggest that, providing all other factors are equal, a house will sell at a higher price if the surrounding area is of lower density.21 This is reinforced by A. Evans, whom used fig 9 to show that a developer with a large land mass can maximise profit by constructing lots of housing at low density. In contrast, multiple developers with smaller plots of land maximise profit by constructing taller and higher density housing. A. Evans uses the West of London as a precedent to show this in action. During the 18th century, land in the area was owned by only a few and as a result, the landowners constructed relatively low-density housing and left vacant ‘squares’ of green space. According to A. Evans, they calculated the “price of the surrounding houses would be higher because of the improved environment, and that this would more than make up for the loss of revenue in respect of the houses that were not built on the sites occupied by the squares.”22 John Ruskin once said, “The measure of any great civilisation is in

Alan W. Evans and Blackwell Publishers, Economics and Land Use Planning, 2nd edn (OXFORD: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 38.

Alan W. Evans, Economics and Land Use Planning, 2nd edn (OXFORD: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 41.

Alan W. Evans, Economics and Land Use Planning, 2nd edn (OXFORD: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 38.

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Fig .10. Talbot square block plan (2010)

Fig .11. Talbot Square, West London (2010)

its cities, and a measure of a city’s greatness is to be found in the quality of its public spaces, its parks and its squares (John Ruskin, 1819 - 1900).” Urban parks provide desirable environments by promoting social interaction and go “beyond their function as green space to marketing and branding tools for investment.”23 Isos Mori research reveals ninety-one per cent of the UK thinks green space improves the quality of life.24 More than 50% of the UK population – roughly 33 million people – “make more than 2.5 billion visits [per year] to urban green spaces.”25 Developers currently get to benefit from the initial higher pay back of low-density housing whereas the local authorities are left to pay the long-term infrastructure cost. The evidence shows urban green space can be used to make higher-density housing more desirable. This principle has been applied in the past to lowdensity housing in a wealthy part of London, however this housing typology is no longer able to cater to the majority of the population. Extracting the idea of increasing urban green space and applying it to higher density housing

increases its desirability and thus, developers will be more willing to construct it.

3.2

Reducing Pollution in High Density Cities

The infrastructure and services used within cities are yet to be economically friendly enough for them to avoid producing high levels of pollution, which contributes to global warming. The risk of illness, which is also a consequence of increased pollution, is suffered most by urban dwellers. In contrast to rural commuters who require infrastructure to span deep into the countryside from a city centre, urban dwellers utilize more sustainable modes of transportation such as walking, cycling or public transport. Introducing more green space raises living standards by reducing pollution and creating more open public space. The increased economic and social opportunities attract people to cities, yet according to L. Harker, overcrowding - caused by a large number of people living within a

Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, Start With The Park: Creating Sustainable Urban Green Spaces in Areas of Housing Growth and Renewal, 2005, p. 20.

Jane Sebire, Isos Mori and CABE, Helping Community Groups to Improve Public Spaces, 2009. Nigel Dunnet, Carys Swanwick and Helen Woolley, ‘Improving Urban Parks, Play Areas and Green Spaces’ (London: , 2002). 25

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Fig .12. A typical power-station used to power mechanical ventilation in high-density cities (2015) confined space - puts a large amount of pressure on the services of a city, causing them to frequently break down. Urban green space has the ability to significantly reduce air pollution, “but concentrations of air pollutants still exceed public health standards in many urban areas.26 Recent research has found that “traffic pollutants are deposited on vegetation at a higher rate than on hard built surfaces”, which is beneficial as according to T. Pugh, “pollutant uptake by plants is much higher in comparison to hard surfaces.”27 Pollutants such as Nitrogen Dioxide, which vegetation can reduce by up to 40%28, can adversely affect lung function and eventually lead to an increase in premature deaths of a region.29 Kenton Rogers explains, “[A] single hectare of mixed forest can remove up to 15 tons of particulates a year from the air whilst a pure spruce forest may filter two to three times as much.”30 The relevance of green space to allow cities to increase in density is clearly supported by its noticeable scarcity within cities and how this

has resulted in inadequate health levels. Green space has the ability to increase the density of a city by reducing pollution, which eliminates the need for long-spanning infrastructure and as a result, more capital can be invested into the infrastructure that already exists. If the populations of cities are to be

Thomas A. M. Pugh et al, ‘Effectiveness of Green Infrastructure for Improvement of Air Quality in Urban Street Canyons’, Environmental Science & Technology, 46 (2012), p. 42.

Fig .13. Urban Mechanical ventilation (2015)

Thomas A. M. Pugh et al, (2012), p. 54.

Lee Newman, ‘Air Pollution–Related Illness’, MSD Manual, 2014. 29

Kenton Rogers, Who Said Money Doesn’t Grow on Trees?, 2010

Thomas A. M. Pugh et al, (2012), p. 55.

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Fig .14. Sketch of an urban heat island profile (2009) increased, infrastructure maintenance and the amount of green space should also be increased to create a liveable environment.

Urban development is the biggest land-use change in human history and is changing the way buildings are designed. Buildings within the urban environment struggle to respond to the changed climate. Historically buildings utilised the natural environment to function, however the problems of increased pollution as described in the paragraph 3.2 – now limit this ability in built up areas. Buildings in high-density urban climates can only use the same natural ventilation strategies – single sided, cross ventilation and stack ventilation – as open area locations.31 However within these dense urban environments, natural ventilation is less effective due to decreased wind speeds, higher

temperatures and the implications that noise and air pollution will have on the internal environment. Insufficient ventilation increases the heat of a building, prevents odours and contaminants from escaping, reduces the amount of oxygen and increases indoor humidity, which results in the production of condensation and mould growth. The combination of these factors led to what is known as ‘sick building syndrome’, a term coined during the 1970’s when “high-rise office buildings were designed to be air tight… for energy saving reasons.”32 Ventilating a building is required to “maintain indoor air quality and thermal comfort”33, however the process of providing human comfort within buildings mechanically contributes to existing environmental problems. Increasing the amount of green space within the borders of a city lowers air temperature making air conditioning more efficient whilst reducing its need. The urban heat island (UHI) effect is more extreme within cities increasing the need for ventilation. The UHI effect is a result of the

3.3

Improving Ventilation in High Density Cities

Francis Allard, Natural Ventilation in Buildings: A Design Handbook, 2nd edn (London: James & James (Science Publishers), 1998).

Francis Allard, Christian Ghiaus and Agota Szucs, ‘Natural Ventilation in High-Density Cities: For Social and Environmental Sustainability’, in Designing High-Density Cities, ed. by Edward Ng, 1st edn (London: Earthscan Publications, 2009), p. 138 33

Francis Allard et al, 2009, p. 140

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Fig .15. Comparison of solar radiation measured with and without shading from trees(2009) change in land use and “develops when rural cooling rates are greater than urban ones.”34 T. R. Oke lists many factors responsible for the UHI effect. These include: More of the suns energy being absorbed due to the differing thermal and radiative properties of construction materials. Increased anthropogenic heat emissions by buildings, transportation and industry. The inability of evaptranspiration due to increased impermeable surfaces. The prevention of heat released “as long-wave radiation at night” due to sheltering by tall buildings and the inability to cool by convection due to decreased wind speeds.35 According to the forestry commission, the UHI effect causes temperatures to rise by as much as 9 degrees Celsius in some parts of the UK. The stress caused by these high temperatures is responsible for over 1000 deaths per year. Heat waves and high climatic temperatures are predicted to increase in coming years as a result of climate change. Vegetation and water utilise ‘evaporative cooling’ to the cool the air by up to 8 degrees

Celsius.36 Evaporative cooling utilises solar energy to evaporate water from surfaces or aid transpiration by plants and therefore less energy is available to heat the environment. The outcome is the cooling of the air above the vegetation.37 Land use change from a rural to an urban environment has had unprecedented consequences, producing a climate that buildings struggle to naturally adapt to. The process was not planned for and has resulted in a self-stimulating cycle of heat production where the technology used to cool a building heats and releases pollution into the environment during the process, thus restarting the cycle. Cities will be unable to deal with population growth if the UHI effect cannot be controlled. Urban green space is shown to lower the temperature of a city lessening the need for mechanical ventilation and increasing the ability of natural ventilation. This results in less heat being produced and thus the UHI effect is reduced.

Helmut E Landsberg, ‘The Urban Climate, Vol. 28’, International Geophysics Series, 28 (1981), pp. 84 – 99.

Kieron Doick and Tony Hutchings, ‘Air Temperature Regulation by Urban Trees and Green Infrastructure’ (Forestry Commission, 2013), p. 3.

T. R. Oke, ‘Boundary Layer Climates’, 2nd edn (London: Routledge, 1987). p243.

Kieron Doick and Tony Hutchings, p. 1.

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Source

Noise Barrier

Roadway

Noise Barrier

Fig .16. Street canyon diagram(2011)

Fig .17. Street Canyon Image (2011)

3.4 Mitigating Noise in High-density Cities

anxiety, tension and even mental illness. High noise levels during the day reduce productivity in the workplace whilst high noise levels at night cause sleep deprivation. According to K. Willis, noise in urban areas can be mitigated by trees and shrubs, which act as ‘noise buffers’. K. Willis continues to explain how every 30metre width of woodland reduces noise by 5 – 10 decibels. The closer planting is to a noise source, the more effective it is.41 The inability for cities to absorb sound due to the effect caused by street canyons and the building material characteristics is shown to impact on human comfort, thus limiting the capabilities of higher density cities and the countries ability to facilitate a larger population. On the other hand urban green space has proven to reduce the noise levels of a city by absorbing sound at its source and therefore cities can become denser in the future if urban green space is increased.

High noise levels reduce human comfort. Attempting to block out noise prevents natural ventilation and results in the problems explained in paragraph 3.3. Cities lack the ability to absorb sound due to their form and the properties of construction materials. Sound issues could prevent cities from increasing in density, however well designed urban green space has the ability to absorb sound and should therefore be increased. Street canyons are responsible for the high noise levels found within cities. A street canyon is a road that runs in-between two rows of tall buildings.38 Transportation is the main source of noise within cities39 and the sound generated from it is reflected and echoed by the surrounding tall buildings. According to M. Grant, high noise levels are considered an international health concern.40 Noise levels that are high and repetitive cause

Jian Kang, ‘Sound Environment: High- versus Low-Density Cities’, in Designing High-Density Cities: For Social and Environmental Sustainability, ed. by Edward Ng, 1st edn (London: Earthscan Publications, 2009), p. 163.

tish National Heritage, 2004).

Land Use Consultants, ‘SNH Commissioned Report 60: Making the Links: Greenspace and Quality of Life’,- (Scot-

M. Grant et al, ‘Building Health: Planning and Designing for Health and Happiness’ (WHO European Centre for Environment and Health, 2009). 40

Ken Willis and others, ‘NON-MARKET BENEFITS OF FORESTRY’ Phase 1, 2000

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Fig .18. Central Park; bringing in light, reducing heat, and absorbing sound and pollution to support the high-density city beyond (2013) 24

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Fig .19. Vertical obstruction angle restrictions in different cities (2009) 3.5

Increasing Daylight in High Density Cities

would gain 1000 lux of daylight, a figure slightly higher than the 300 to 750 lux most habitable rooms within a dwelling require.43 In contrast, a much denser city such as Hong Kong has a permissible sustaining angle of around 70%. This lowers the maximum available sky component to 1 per cent resulting in a vertical window plane only gaining an illuminance of 50 lux as a consequence.44 50 lux is far below the acceptable illuminance value and therefore artificial light is required. The evidence shows light levels in existing high-density cities are not acceptable. Reducing the height of buildings and spacing them out will allow in more light. However cities such as London – which do have acceptable light levels – are too low density to accommodate the growing population. Urban green space creates openings within cities, which act as light corridors. Increasing urban green space therefore reduced the need for artificial light, which in turn reduces pollution and heat lowering the impact of the UHI effect.

The tall buildings that form a high-density city block daylight. Adequate daylight provides human comfort within dwellings and care must be taken to ensure buildings are naturally well lit. The quality of light and comfort gained from naturally lighting a building is influenced by the window to floor area ratio, the height of a window, the depth of a room, and the unobstructed space beyond the window termed the rectangular horizontal plane (RHP). The RHP is the distance from one building to another and multiplying this factor by the buildings height regulates this distance. As a result, an angle is given called the ‘permissible vertical sustaining angle’. According to J Kang, London currently has a vertical sustaining angle of roughly 25 degrees giving a maximum available sky component of around 20 per cent.42 If an overcast sky luminance of 5000 lux were assumed, a vertical window plane in London

43 Peter Raynham and John Fitzpatrick, ‘SLL Code for Lighting’ (society of Light and Lighting): 2012 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, 2012).

Jian Kang, ‘Sound Environment: High- versus LowDensity Cities’, in Designing High-Density Cities: For Social and Environmental Sustainability, ed. by Edward Ng, 1st edn (London: Earthscan Publications, 2009), p. 186.

44 Jian Kang, 2009, p187

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

MORE HOUSING HOW

RESULTING IN...

CAN THIS BE ACHIEVED?

HIGH DENSITY LIVING

GREENBELT

WHAT

WHO

WILL FASCILIATE THIS?

URBAN GREEN SPACE

WOULD BE WILLING TO FUND IT?

WHERE?

BROWNFIELD LAND

WILL THIS BE BUILT?

Dissertation Structure Progression 26

IV STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

C H A P T E R F O U R

THE PROBLEMS OF BROWNFIELD SITES TOO CONTAMINATED FOR HOUSING AND HOW REMEDIATION AS GREEN SPACE WOULD PROVIDE A BETTER SOLUTION

The previous chapter explained the problems to high-density cities and how urban green space shows great potential as a solution. However land within cities is extremely expensive and the economic gain from green space is long term and enjoyed by many. Therefore landowners are reluctant to allow their land to be used for this purpose. The first chapter explained 50 per cent of brownfield land within the UK is too contaminated for development. The primary research carried out in this dissertation was done using survey questionnaires of the two case studies and is combined with further literature research to discuss social, economic and environmental implications of brownfields and how they were resolved when the brownfields were converted into urban green space.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .20. An image showing the factories employees worked at, the homes employees worked in, and the graves they came to rest in; all within close proximity for convenience (2014)

4.1 The Problem to Brownfield Development

During the latter stages of the 19th century, Britain was a world leader in the production of manufactured goods. Large areas of land were consumed to support this growth and numerous factories were constructed throughout the country. These factories were built on the urban fringe, a strategic location within close proximity of transport infrastructure. Cars were yet to be available to the mass market so these factories also had to be within walking distance of employee’s homes. When industry declined in the 20th century, most of the land it occupied was no longer needed and became derelict. The manufacturing process that took place on these sites was environmentally unfriendly resulting in land far from usable in its present state. The main problems experienced by these sites are ground

unsettlement and contamination, respectively caused by incompetent waste disposal and the sub-standard backfill of resource extraction sites. “The term ‘brownfield’ originated in the 1990’s when practitioners and researchers saw how emerging regulatory frameworks designed to protect the environment was, as a side effect, inhibiting the reuse, clean-up and redevelopment of former industrial and commercial sites.”45 There is no standard definition for Brownfield across Europe46 however the term is used broadly in England to refer to the alternative of Greenfield.47 The term is used within this paper to refer to land that has experienced development in the past but no longer has a use. J.B. Hollander reasons that in opposition with Greenfield and Greenbelt land, which consists of, “farmland, forest or pasture-lands that have never seen development, brownfields

Justin B. Hollander et al, ‘Principles of Brownfield Regeneration: Cleanup, Design, and Reuse of Derelict Land’ (Washington: Island Press, 2010), p. 1.

Cabernet, ‘Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration: CABERNET Network Report’, Cabernet, 2006

Sylvie Gayda et al, ‘THE SCATTER PROJECT – SPRAWLING CITIES AND TRANSPORT: FROM EVALUATION TO RECOMMENDATIONS’, 2002, p. 21.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .21. Derelict Land (2015) offer a more sustainable land-development choice.”48 Kristian Niemietz describes brownfield redevelopment as a, “win-win situation. Derelict industrial sites can have negative knock-on effects on their surrounding areas, in which case redevelopment would… remove a source of blight.”49 Hollander concludes, “[t]he reclamation of brownfield land… is an excellent design opportunity to fill in the urban core and… carry out design and planning activities that bring back to life project sites that are visual and environmental eyesores.”50 On the other hand, sites that are severely contaminated and/or have remained derelict for a long period of time - nine years or more - fall under the category of ‘hardcore’ brownfield .51 The first chapter explained 50% of UK brownfield falls under this classification.51

Fig .22. Derelict Building (2013) According to Dr D Sinnett, hardcore brownfields are much more “difficult to develop, usually because of site and/or poor market conditions.”52

Tim Dixon, Noriko Otsuka and Hirokazu Abe, Cities in Recession: Urban Regeneration in Manchester (England) and Osaka (Japan) and the Case of ‘Hardcore’ Brownfield Sites, 2010, p. 4.

Justin B. Hollander et al, 2010, p. 1.

Kristian Niemietz, ‘Don’t Count on Brownfield: It Won’t Solve the Housing Crisis Alone’, Institute of Economic Affairs, 2014 50

D Sinnett and others, From Wasted Space to Living Spaces: The Availability of Brownfield Land for Housing Development in England (CPRE, November 2014), p. 18. 52

Justin B. Hollander et al, 2010, p.51.

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Fig .23. Jesmond Dene 4.2 Case Studies: Introducing Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park Comparing the success of two urban parks created on remediated brownfield land

19th century, Jesmond Dene was home to watermills, various quarries, coal pits, and an iron foundry.”55 Lord Armstrong had acquired most of what is associated to present day Jesmond Dene by 1862, and began developing it with his wife. Vast sections of the Ouseburns rocky bed were blasted away to create the waterfall and the land downstream lowered to form the gorge. Lady Armstrong articulated the landscaping by “transform[ing] the uncultivated wilderness into a sophisticated park by creating paths, bridges, dams and weirs.” The park was initially the private garden of Lady and Lord Armstrong, however Jesmond Dene was gifted “back to the townspeople of Newcastle” in 1883, “as some were to say with compound interest.” “The Prince and Princess of Wales officially opened the [25 hectare] public park to the public in 1884.”56

Jesmond Dene, Newcastle upon Tyne is a narrow wooded valley that follows the river Ouseburn between South Gosforth and Jesmond Vale.53 According to A. Morgan, the valley formed as a result of the last ice age melting roughly 20,000 years ago, however the Tyneside area would have been a tropical delta 300 million years prior. Over time, the accumulated sands and clays that washed down from higher ground formed sandstone, plants fossilized to become coal, and the mudflats became shale.54 The history of the land that composes Jesmond Dene is responsible for its various uses before becoming a public park. According to Michael Woodcock, “industry crept in and by the 53

Rebecca Morgan, ‘Jesmond Dene - Parkland / Woodland Garden in Newcastle Upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne’, 2016

Michael Woodcock, ‘Jesmond Dene - History’, Jesmond Dene Old Mill 56

Alan Morgan, ‘Bygone Jesmond Dene’ (United Kingdom: Newcastle Libraries & Information Service, 1999), p. 2.

Alan Morgan, 1999, p. 2.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .24. Thames Barrier Park Thames Barrier Park, London is a level 14-hectare public park featuring a sunken garden of wavy hedges that provide a sheltered microclimate. According to journalist C. Grainger, the design mirrors “the profile of an old lock entrance where the hedges are representative of the waters waves.”57 C. Grainger explains how his mother worked for the PR Chemicals factory, the company that occupied the site prior to it becoming a park. The company was responsible for its title as being one of the most contaminated sites in the country, and took 20 years and £8.5 million to remediate. The park was designed as a collaborative effort between Petal Taylor and renowned French landscape architect Allain Provost in 1995 and has since won many awards.58

Fig .25. The sunken garden

57 Colin Grainger, ‘Chemical Factory That Eventually Became the Thames Barrier Park’, Colin Grainger, 2013.

58 Patel Taylor, ‘Thames Barrier Park’.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .25. Man-made naturally reclaimed waterfall, Jesmond Dene

Fig .26. Armstrongs stepping stones

Fig .27. Armstrongs waterfall

Fig .28. Waterwheel, Jesmond Denes history of industry

Fig .29. Armstrongs Stepping Stones 32

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .30. A couple walking along Thames Barrier Park with a derelict factory in the background

Fig .31. Residential behind Thames Barrier Park

Fig .32. TPB dog Walker

Fig .33. TBP walking towards the barrier

Fig .34. TBP underside of bridge 33

Jesmond Dene (27 Participents)

NO. OF PEOPLE (%)

1 0%

Prior Known of Park? 0% 0% 0%use0% 0% 0% 27 Recipients

ECONOMIC RATING SCALE

THAMES BARRIER PARK

Known ofRecipients Park?18% 4%Prior 27% 11% use 55%11 78%

Yes No

Yes 4% No 96%

82% 18%

01 WORST | 10 BEST

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents)

JESMOND DENE PARK

01 WORST | 10 BEST

SOCIAL RATING SCALE Fig .35. A comparison of the social value of Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park as rated by its occupants Jesmond Dene (27 Participents)

Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents)

JESMOND DENE PARK

THAMES BARRIER PARK

Willingness to participate in a brownfield remediation project similar to Jesmond Dene?

Willingness to participate in a brownfield remediation project similar to Thames Barrier Park?

11 Recipients

27 Recipients

Yes No

Yes 78% No 22%

36% 64%

NO. OF PEOPLE

Fig .36. A comparison of those willing to get involved with a brownfield remediation project THAMES BARRIER PARK JESMOND DENE PARK

15-20

21-25

26-30

Jesmond Dene (27 Participents)

Use 27ofRecipients Park?

Use 11ofRecipients Park?

Contemplation 2 Exercise 12 Recreation 7 Sightseeing 4 Walking 3

Contemplation 0 Exercise 2 Recreation 2 Sightseeing 4 Walking 4

31-35

36-40

41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 Fig .37. A comparison of how the two parks (YEARSare OLD)used Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents) DEMOGRAPHIC (AGE) 34

NO. OF PEOPLE

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

15-20

21-25

26-30

Jesmond Dene (27 Participents)

4.3

31-35

36-40

41-45

46-50

51-55

56-60

61-65 (YEARS OLD)

DEMOGRAPHIC (AGE) Fig .38. Demographic comparison of Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents)

Desirability of Greening Brownfields

which corresponds to fig 38. The parks were used by students for exercise and contemplation, by the senior and elderly for walking and sightseeing, and by parents who were playing ball games with their children or allowing them to climb on the apparatus in the playgrounds. According to J Hollander, integrating the community within a project results in long-term support and involvement.61 Fig 36 shows 78% of survey participants would be willing to get involved in the greening of brownfields to create an urban green space similar to Jesmond Dene near their homes. In contrast, it also revealed only 36% would be willing to do the same with Thames Barrier Park. These results correspond to the demographic of interviewees (fig 38), where those with more time are more willing to get involved. The social injustice experienced by those living next to brownfields can be resolved by their green space conversion. The questionnaire results show the bigger the demand for these spaces, the more successful they are. Therefore these projects not only facilitate higher density living, but higher density living increases their effectiveness.

People who live near to undeveloped brownfield sites suffer most. Greening these brownfield sites attract social, economic and environmental value to an area in addition to allowing them to increase in density as discussed in the previous chapter. According to J Hollander, “Across the fence from boarded-up brownfield sites sit the neighbours, who often suffer from long-term pollution and the stigma effect on property values.”59 However C.A De Sousa explains “Reusing these sites brings many benefits to the quality of life in the surrounding neighbourhood, such as reduced crime, enhanced local environment, and improved property values.”60 The survey results (fig 35) reveal Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park both have a highly rated social value. The unfinished building developments surrounding Thames Barrier Park are likely responsible for it’s more widely distributed social value rating. The parks facilitate to a wide demographic,

59 Justin B. Hollander et al, Principles of Brownfield Regeneration: Cleanup, Design, and Reuse of Derelict Land (Washington: Island Press, 2010), p. 3.

60 Christopher A De Sousa, ‘Measuring the Public Costs and Benefits of Brownfield versus Greenfield Development in the Greater Toronto Area’, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 29 (2002), 125–280 (p. 125 61 Justin B. Hollander et al, 2010, p. 12.

Jesmond Dene (27 Participents) STRATEGIC Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents) SMART GROWTH ENVIRONMENTAL 0%

40% 0%

11% 0%

01 WORST | 10 BEST

RATING SCALE

11% 18% 30% 82%

NO. OF PEOPLE (%)

01 WORST | 10 BEST

ECONOMIC RATING SCALE Fig .39. A comparison of the economic value of Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park as rated by its occu0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 7% 0% 0% 0% 4% 27% 11% 55% 78% pants 18% consequently causes brownfield sites to remain 4.4 Economic Viability for unused for years.64 Greening Brownfields The Thames Barrier Park, although located in a now promising area and due to receive a Highly contaminated brownfield sites either £3.5 billion investment65, was initially an area cost too much to remediate or are not in of industrial decline.66 The park was financed appropriate locations. In contrast, greening by the sale of land for residential use on the brownfields has reduced remediation cost and sites western boundary in addition to a fund can economically regenerate an area, making it supplied by a government development agency, a better option. English Partnerships.67 The purpose for the Paragraph 2.2 explained 50 per cent of project was to encourage the private purchase brownfield sites lack economic justification and redevelopment of the surrounding area. for development. In addition, Neal Hudson According to R. Peiser, urban green space can explains using fig 41, increase the value of property by up to 10%.68 “40 per cent of the potential homes are in 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 10the Fig 39 shows the high economic09value of areas where [predicted] new build house 01 WORST | 10 BEST Barrier Park and Jesmond as prices make development financially Jesmond Dene (27 Participents) Thames Barrier Park Thames (11 Particpents) SOCIAL RATINGDene SCALE 62 rated by its occupants. difficult if not impossible.” Jesmond is the most affluent suburb in Land prices have to be high for brownfield Newcastle, likely as a result of Jesmond Dene development to be feasible. SNP politician acting as a catalyst for economic growth linking Alison Thewis explains “the cost of remediating its residential housing to the city centre. Fig brownfield land can range from £50,000 per 40 shows the ratio of locals to tourists of those hectare to over £1.7m per hectare for the most 63 visiting Thames Barrier Park and Jesmond contaminated land.” Therefore the expense Dene. Jesmond dene has a higher ratio of locals of remediation can potentially be higher due to it acting as a local amenity, whereas than the land value post redevelopment and Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents)

NO. OF PEOPLE (%)

Jesmond Dene (27 Participents)

Brownfield Redevelopment’, Economic Development Quarterly, 20 (2006), p. 210.

Neal Hudson, LAND FOR NEW HOMES: Land Use Change Statistics, 2015

BBC, ‘Silvertown’s £3.5bn Redevelopment given the Go-Ahead’, BBC London (BBC News, 22 April 2015). 66

Brownfield Briefing, ‘Opposition MPs Attack Brownfield Development’, Brownfield Briefing, 2015.

H. Bacot, ‘Establishing Indicators to Evaluate

BBC Four, ‘The East End, London on Film’, BBC 2012.

61% 98%

45% 72%

Public Transport Access

Proximity to Work

92% 48%

100% 97%

15%

45%

85%

55%

Locals

NO. OF PEOPLE (%)

MEAN AVERAGE RATING (%)

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Tourists Tourists

Proximity More accessible to than Greenbelt? Home

Jesmond Dene (27 Participants)

TBP

Visitor Type

Thames Barrier Park (11 Participants)

Fig .40. Comparing the value of the two parks as rated by tourists and locals

Fig .41. The sunken garden Thames Barrier Park has a higher ratio of tourists as it acts as an icon for the area. Jesmond dene and Thames Barrier Park show how green space can bring economic prosperity to an area. Utilising the benefits of greenfield to brownfield conversion projects, as Newham council has done with Thames Barrier

Park, less affluent areas receive an increase in desirability and property prices. In addition, the maintenance of the land creates the low skilled and long-term jobs needed to support a sustainable community, justifying development elsewhere.

Richard B Peiser and Gregory M Schwann, ‘THE PRIVATE VALUE OF PUBLIC OPEN SPACE WITHIN SUBDIVISIONS’, Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 10 (1993), 91–104.

Tom Turner, ‘London Landscape Architecture Guide: Thames Barrier Park - Landscape Architecture by Groupe Signes’, Garden Visit.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

4.5 Health implications of Brownfields Brownfield sites are dangerous and reduce the health of residents living nearby. Leaving brownfields undeveloped should be prohibited as they can attract illegal activity and contain old unsafe machinery. Landowners unable to develop these sites enclose them in high perimeter fences in an attempt to reduce liability. J.B. Hollinder explains, brownfield sites are “often contaminated, dilapidated, and dangerous to occupy.” The structures of abandoned factories can be significantly weak and unstable due to deterioration and may contain toxic waste as well as large and heavy machinery.69 “Abandoned properties [also] attract illegal activities such as prostitution and drug use, while empty sites are used for illegal dumping.”70 Waste generated from these types of illegal activity is more expensive and difficult to dispose of. M.R. Greenberg argues “owners [that] ‘mothball’ their brownfields in order to hide from legal and environmental responsibilities… only makes things worse for themselves.”71 Researchers at Durham University combined brownfield data from the National LandUse database with health data from English Census and premature death data from Office for National Statistics to discover brownfield can have both negative psychological and toxicological impacts on the wellbeing of people. Professor Clare Bambra believes her “study shows that local authorities and central government need to prioritise the remediation and regeneration of brownfield land to protect the health of communities.”72 Further research by R. Mitchel reveals depression and mental illness costs the UK economy £26.1 billion per year73, yet J. Mass studied over 300,000 GP records to discover mental illness decreased for those living within

Fig .42. ‘unsafe machinery’ 1km of green space.74 The greening of brownfield land in Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park has produced healthy environments enjoyed by tourists, walkers, joggers and cyclists as shown in fig 37. According to researchers at University College London, green space naturally reduces anxiety and depression by facilitating increased physical activity.75 Jill Peay believes there is a clear link between better mental health and a reduction in criminal activity. It is clear brownfield sites are enclosed due to their danger and illegal misuse attraction, however as Durham University explained, this negatively impacts the health of the local community and the case studies prove reuse as green space to have an opposite and much more positive effect. This is because urban parks provide benefits to where they are needed most, the heart of a city.

Greenberg, M, and D Downton, Are Mothballed Brownfields Sites a Major Problem?, 2003

Justin B. Hollander et al, Principles of Brownfield Regeneration: Cleanup, Design, and Reuse of Derelict Land (Washington: Island Press, 2010), p. 1.

C Bambra and others, ‘Healthy Land? An Examination of the Area-Level Association between Brownfield Land and Morbidity and Mortality in England’, 2013, p. 436

Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC), Vacant Properties: The True Costs to Communities, 2005

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .43. An less developed area of Jesmond Dene showing some old quarry cliff faces

Fig .44. Thames Barrier Park Walkers

Fig .45. Jesmond Dene runner

R Mitchel and F Popham, ‘Effect of Exposure to Natural Environment on Health Inequalities: An Observational Population Study’, The Lancet, 372 (2008), 345

Maas and others, ‘Morbidity Is Related to a Green Living Environment’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 63 (2009), 967–73 75

Shepley Orr, James Paskins and Sarah Chaytor, Valuing Urban Green Space: Challenges and Opportunities, 2014

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .46. Thames Barrier Park Flood Zones 4.6

Contamination of Brownfields

Climate change can disrupt dormant brownfield sites and pollute the area around them, calling for their remediation regardless of end use. A combination of melting ice caps, thermal expansion of water and ‘post-pleistocene isostatic readjustment’ is causing sea levels to rise. B. Ellis explains the chances of UK cities flooding will increase, resulting in the spread of contamination by transporting and releasing contaminants into the watercourses.76 Fig 46 shows the Thames Barrier Park being located in ‘flood zone 3’, an area of highest flooding probability.77 Despite the effort of the Thames Barrier, the water occasionally breaches the banks to be stopped by a second line of defence.78 The parks soft landscaping allows faster drainage whilst any water that re-enters the Thames is not polluted. Harmful air pollution may also increase. According to K. Lee, asbestos and volatile

organic compounds (VOCs) - commonly found on brownfield sites - will pollute the air if disturbed and “can cause cancer and other serious ailments if people come in contact with them.”79 The increased stormy weather caused by the warming climate is enough to disturb weak and abandoned structures. The ground may also reduce in stability as a result of climate change. According to Dr Tony Cooper, a reduction in the stability of the ground means sinkholes are now 5 times more common.80 The sinkhole that opened up in St Albans, Hertfordshire in October 2015 is the result of a resurrecting historical brownfield site, a small clay pit used to supply the London brick company during the late 19th century. A report issued by geological survey specialist Groundsure reveals that after its original use, the site became landfill prior to being filled in and developed for housing.81 The remediation that was required to stabilise and repair this street consumed 77,000 litres of concrete.

Bryan Ellis, ‘Urban Runoff Quality in the UK: Problems, Prospects and Procedures’, Applied Geography, 11 (1991), 187–200.

Kevin Lee, ‘Types of Pollution Found in Brownfields | the Classroom’, by Demand Media, Synonym, 2014. 80

Environment Agency, ‘Flood Map for Planning (Rivers and Sea)’ (The Environment Agency, 1999).

Tony Cooper, ‘Terrifying Holes That Are Opening up All over Britain’, Daily Mail (Daily Mail, 17 February 2014).

Michael Snasdell, ‘High Tide at the Thames Barrier’, 2014.

Adam Grant, ‘St Albans’ Sinkhole Reason “Unearthed”?’

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .47. St Albans - Historical Map overlay

Fig .48. St Albans Sinkhole

This solution is environmentally unfriendly and extremely expensive. A. Grant believes this remedial action may present future issues regarding plasticity and drainage.82 According to Kieron Diock, redeveloping brownfields to have a soft end use “can require less stringent remediation objectives than the building of residential properties.”83 Tony Hutchings adds, “trees and plants have been shown to demonstrate huge potential in the reclamation and remediation of brownfield land” and are key to successful carbon management plans within cities.”84 According to Nick Boles, “There are millions of people with young kids who cannot get a place with any green space... for those kids as they grow up.”85 Climate change implications on brownfields prove remediation viable in order to maintain a healthy and sustainable environment. Greening

Fig .49. Controlled Thames barrier park overspill brownfield sites not suitable for housing is shown to be cheaper, continues the remediation process naturally past the initial clean up, and will provide the much-needed green space for recreation within range of housing. Forestry Commission, 2002).

Adam Grant, ‘St Albans Querie’, Email, 12 October 2015.

Planning, Housing and Growth - Oral and Written Evidence (London: The Stationary Office Limited, 15 October 2012), p. 11

Kieron Doick and Tony Hutchings, Greenspace Establishment on Brownfield Land: The Site Selection and Investigation Process 84

Tony Hutchings, The Opportunities for Woodland on Contaminated Land (United Kingdom: Great Britain,

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH 0%

0% 18% 19% 9%

15% 28% 66% 45%

NO OF PEOPLE (%)

10 01 WORST | 10 BEST

ENVIRONMENTAL RATING SCALE Fig .50. A comparison of the environmental value of Jesmond Dene and Thames Barrier Park as rated by its occupants Jesmond Dene (27 Participents)

4.7

Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents)

Natural Reclamation of Brownfield Sites

40% 0%

11% 0%

11% 18% 30% 82%

NO. OF PEOPLE (%)

value. Fig 50 shows the environmental value rating of Thames Barrier Park and Jesmond Dene as rated by its occupants. The greening of these brownfields provided a similar habitat The term brownfield is evocative of an area to what initially attracts wildlife into urban lacking environmental value, yet insects, areas. Jesmond Dene is now home to a wide plants and animals are reclaiming these urban variety of flora and fauna. Various insects, wastelands and increasing biodiversity within fungi and the exotic vegetation planted by Lady cities during the process. Armstrong now occupy the area.87 According According to The Wildlife Trust, “wildlife J.R Rouquette is more resilient than we give it credit for” “urban green space can act as a wildlife and insects, plants and animals thrive in the corridor, linking together parks… and rural most unusual of locations. “15 per cent of areas on the outskirts of towns and cities.”88 all nationally scarce insects are recorded Michael Woodcock explains Newcastle’s from brownfield sites”, low nutrient soil is 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 wildlife corridor spreads from the Tyne responsible for a greater diversity in plants “as 01 WORST | 10 BEST Jesmond Dene (27 Participents) through the ECONOMIC Dene to Gosforth Park, and then fast-growing species are unable toThames get a Barrier hold”,Park (11 Particpents) RATING SCALE 89 beyond. Owls, dippers, kingfishers, sparrow and the “open character of PDL [Previously 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 7% 0% red 0%squirrels, 0% 4% otters 27% 11% 78% can 18% all hawks, and55%foxes Developed Land]… makes it excellent for 86 be found in Jesmond Dene. The park has also invertebrates and reptiles.” created a comfortable enough environment to The encouragement to develop all brownfield accommodate a varying species of non-native sites for housing threatens the biodiversity that animals and birds kept in what is being called occupies it. ‘pets corner’ and can be visited by both local On the other hand, urban green space is residents and tourists. protected due to its more apparent environmental

James R. Rouquette et al, ‘Species Turnover and Geographic Distance in an Urban River Network’, ed. by Ralph Mac Nally, Diversity and Distributions, 19 (2013), 1429–39

R Smith, ‘Brownfield | the Wildlife Trusts’, by The Wildlife Trust, 2012 87

Michael Woodcock, ‘Biodiversity in the Dene’, JesmondDene (Winter in the Dene, 2016)

Jesmond Dene (27 Participents)

R06 Smith, ‘Brownfield |08 the Wildlife Trusts’, by The 07 09 10 Wildlife Trust, 2012 89

Thames Barrier Park (11 Particpents)

01 WORST | 10 BEST

SOCIAL RATING SCALE

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .51. Thames Barrier Park

Fig .52. Jesmond Dene Wildlife Corridor

THAMES BARRIER PARK

JESMOND DENE PARK 1

Prior Known use 27 ofRecipients Park?

Prior Known use 11 ofRecipients Park?

Yes No

Yes 4% No 96%

82% 18%

Fig .53. The difference in those who know about / remember the previous use of each site as bronwfield Thames Barrier Park, although also attracting a wide variety of plants and animals, is relatively new and therefore nature has not yet had the benefit of time to fully carry out the reclamation process. JESMOND DENE PARK Willingness to participate in a The brownfield sites too impractical for housing brownfield remediation project can be developed into urban green toDene? 6 similar space to Jesmond 27 Recipients

provide a place of relocation for biodiversity on sites that are practical for housing. This allows cities to increase in density and grow, whilst maintaining a healthy supply of wildlife. THAMES BARRIER PARK 6

Willingness to participate in a brownfield remediation project similar to Thames Barrier Park? 11 Recipients

Yes No

Yes 78% No 22% 4

36% 64%

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

“A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the air and giving fresh strength to our people” – Franklin D. Roosevelt

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Fig .54. Jesmond Dene Path

Fig .55. Mortar Joints in the stonework by Jesmond Dene waterfall

Fig .56. Pets Corner, Jesmond Dene

Fig .57.Old Quarry Pit

Fig .58. Pets Corner, Jesmond Dene 45

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

MORE HOUSING HOW

RESULTING IN...

CAN THIS BE ACHIEVED?

HIGH DENSITY LIVING

GREENBELT

WHAT

WHO

WILL FASCILIATE THIS?

URBAN GREEN SPACE

WOULD BE WILLING TO FUND IT?

WHERE?

BROWNFIELD LAND

WILL THIS BE BUILT?

Dissertation Structure Progression 46

V STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

C H A P T E R F I V E

THE STRATEGIC USE OF THE GREENBELT TO FUND THE SOLUTION

The previous chapter demonstrated using case studies how brownfield unsuitable for housing could be used to provide urban green space, a necessity to increase the population density of a city as explained in the first chapter. This chapter will explain the problems of preventing greenbelt development, how not all of it is as idyllic as we believe, and how it can be used to fund the remediation of brownfields as urban green space.

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

5.1

The Need to use the Greenbelt

lowland Great Britain [to] become exurbs, acting as dormitory towns for the major economic centres.”96 Colin Wiles explains, “[t]he green belt has not stopped growth; it has just pushed it further out into rural areas not defined as green belt.” As a consequence, large sections of motorway and train-line cut through the greenbelt and the increased travelling means more fuel, more pollution and more greenhouse gas emissions. Colin Wiles continues, the “London commuter belt now… stretches from the Isle of Wight to Yorkshire.”97 Preventing the expansion of cities goes against the basic principles of sustainable high-density living and should therefore not be an option.

Greenbelts are the ribbons of countryside surrounding major British cities, introduced after the Second World War as a method to combat unsustainable urban sprawl. They account for roughly 13% of the total land area in the United Kingdom90 and have strict planning laws that prevent them from being developed.91 It is understandable why two thirds of the UK Population - as revealed by an Isos Mori survey poll92 - are against building on the countries greenbelt when “urban development [is] swallowing land at a rate equal to converting a county the size of Worcestershire into concrete every ten years.”93 On the other hand, Luke Burroughs explains, “some organizations who propose further development on Greenfield and Green Belt argue that brownfield land is a finite resource that can only meet a fraction of [the] housing need.”94 This reinforces the calculations made in section 2.2, which exposes the inability of brownfield to fulfil demand at the rate housing is currently being built and Graham Norwood believes “it seems foolish to the point of negligence to rely” on it to do so.95

5.3 – Perceived Value of the Greenbelt “Greenbelts are not the bucolic idylls some imagine them to be” believes Tom Papworth, who carries on to explain how “more than a third of protected greenbelt is devoted to intensive farming, which generates net environmental costs.”98 Economist Tim Harford also suggests greenbelts are of little environmental benefit and only exist to control house prices. Harford believes residents ensure the continuation of greenbelts not as a method to maintain the town’s environmental credentials, but as a means “to preserve the bourgeois status quo of those already living within the zone...[and] to advantage the landlords who profit from a scarcity of houses.”99 According to Arthur Quarmby, the value of greenbelt land rises from £12,000 per hectare to over £1,000,000 per hectare if it receives planning consent.

5.2 Implications of not using the greenbelt Preventing sustainable city expansion is logistically wrong and causes those who are already living in towns and villages to endure long commutes to work. According to Tom Papworth, “the contribution of agriculture to the UK economy has shrivelled”, causing “almost all towns and villages of

Merijnou Demerijn, ‘Retracing the Garden City’, Merijnoudenampsen (MO, 2013).

the Housing Crisis. Here’s How We Can Build on It’, City Metric (CityMetric, 2015).

Graham Norwood, ‘Are Brownfield Sites the Solution to the UK’s Housing Shortage?’, Estate Agent Today (Estate Agent Today, 2015).

Jon Kelly, ‘What Would Britain Look like without a Green Belt?’, BBC Magazine (BBC News, 15 September 2011). 92

Jerry Latter, ‘CPRE Green Belt Questions Final’ (Isos Mori, 15 July 2015). Victor Bonham-Carter, ‘Land and Environment: The Survival of the English Countryside’ (United States: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press,U.S., 2012), p. 13.

96 Tom Papworth, The Green Noose an Analysis of Green Belts and Proposals for Reform, The Green Noose an Analysis of Green Belts and Proposals for Reform, 1st edn (London: ASI (Research) Ltd., 2015), p. 9.

97 Nicholas Watt, ‘Free up Green-Belt Land for New

Luke Burroughs, ‘Brownfield Land Is the Answer to

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

Nick Boles, planning minister from 2012 to 2014 claims that by releasing just 2% of the countries greenbelt, equivalent to 1500 square miles, 8 million homes may be created.100 Sam Bowman considers a more rational approach. Bowman suggests “we [should] stop thinking “of the greenbelt as one single unit and differentiate between areas of beauty… and the intensive farmland that really constitutes a lot of the greenbelt. Then it will be easier for us to compromise and protect places… while growing over [other] places that aren’t very valuable.101 A BBC documentary narrated by Rachel Royce attempts to assess the idea of building within 2 kilometres of railway stations located in the greenbelt. Professor Paul Cheshire from the London school of Economics explains development would only take place, “If it is not valuable for other purposes, if it is not a recreational area, if it is not an area of outstanding natural beauty and if it is not a wild life site. It is not that you would want to build on every bit of that 2 kilometre by any means at all.” In reference to a suggested site at Beltring, near Maidstone in Kent, Professor Paul Cheshire describes, “A high intensity field [with] a railway station about 50 yards away used for growing rapeseed, one of the most environmentally destructive crops you can find. We are desperate for sites to put houses on so this seems a possible spot one should be thinking about.”102 Greening brownfields, although cheaper than remediating such land for housing, still costs money and is not something the taxpayer should fund when developers benefit the most financially from its advantages. Granting planning permission on strategic areas of the greenbelt is

proven to be extremely valuable and therefore doing so can be seen as a compromise in exchange for the remediation of these highly contaminated brownfield sites.

Housing, Says Policy Exchange’, by Policy Exchange, The Guardian (The Guardian, 21 May 2014).

102 BBC, ‘Inside out London - BBC One’, BBC UK (BBC, 2015)

98 Tom Papworth, p. 3.

103 Euan Hall, ‘Is Brownfield Development the Answer to Housing Needs? - Property News Magazine’, Property News

5.4 – Benefits to Strategic Development of the Greentbelt Not all developable brownfields are desirable places to live. In contrast, strategic development of the greenbelt is, in some cases, more environmentally beneficial. D. Knowles describes the scenery of a developed brownfield site in Barking, London as being a “collection of [decommissioned] 1980’s power stations”, “enormous electricity pylons” and a “sewage treatment plant.” Knowles explains, “these are all things that a city needs, but not necessarily things that you want to live next to” and although “the developers have done an excellent job of trying to make the surroundings appealing… there is only so much you can do.”103 The environmental value of private domestic gardens is overlooked when considering building development. Gardens can provide all the benefits of urban green space, yet are managed privately and are therefore of less expense to the taxpayer. Peter Franklin believes “It’s not a case of whether we develop the green belt, but how we do it.”104 Housing that is in keeping with its surroundings can be viewed as an enhancer of the landscape as opposed to something that damages it. Strategic development of the greenbelt provides desirable housing on the urban fringe, whilst the greening of brownfields within the urban centre improves the liveability of high-density cities.

99 Tim Harford, The Undercover Economist (London: Little, Brown Book Group, 2007).

104 Peter Franklin, ‘It’s Not a Case of Whether We Develop the Green Belt, but How We Do It’ (Conservative Home, 2016)

100 Nicholas Watt, ‘Free up Green-Belt Land for New Housing, Says Policy Exchange’, by Policy Exchange, The Guardian (The Guardian, 21 May 2014) 101 Adam Smith Institute and Sam Bowman, ‘ASI Research Director’s Film on Green Belt for BBC News London’, YouTube (YouTube, 2014) 49

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

MORE HOUSING HOW

RESULTING IN...

CAN THIS BE ACHIEVED?

HIGH DENSITY LIVING

GREENBELT

WHAT

WHO

WILL FASCILIATE THIS?

URBAN GREEN SPACE

WOULD BE WILLING TO FUND IT?

WHERE?

BROWNFIELD LAND

WILL THIS BE BUILT?

Dissertation Structure Progression 50

VI STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

C H A P T E R S I X

A CONLUSION TO COMPROMISE

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

WHAT THE DEVELOPERS WANT

WHAT THE COUNTRY WANTS

GREENBELT DEVELOPMENT

BROWNFIELD DEVELOPMENT

THE COMPROMISE BOTH NEED

Fig .59. The compromise needed

CONCLUSION The compromise of granting planning permission on strategic areas of the greenbelt will provide more housing on the urban fringe and fund the creation of urban green space, which is needed to facilitate higher density cities. Developers gain from this compromise as they are given the ability to construct on highly profitable land whilst increasing their credibility by optimising the use of what would otherwise be derelict land. The local and national government will benefit as the housing demand will be fulfilled, existing infrastructure will be utilised, and the desirability of cities will increase. The general public will benefit as more housing is being supplied where it is needed, there will be more accessible urban green space, and overall less undeveloped land will be constructed on. The solution to the housing shortage is not as obvious as first perceived, however by taking advantage of the strategic smart growth this dissertation has discussed, cities in 2040 will be more equipped to deal with an increased population of the estimated 9 billion.

Fig .60. Developable parts of the greenbelt

STRATEGIC SMART GROWTH

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Pugh, Thomas A. M., A. Robert MacKenzie, J. Duncan Whyatt, and C. Nicholas Hewitt, ‘Effectiveness of Green Infrastructure for Improvement of Air Quality in Urban Street Canyons’, Environmental Science

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& Technology, 46 (2012) <http://dx.doi. org/10.1021/es300826w>

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Siikamaki, J., and K. Wernstedt, ‘Turning Brownfields into Greenspaces: Examining Incentives and Barriers to Revitalization’, Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, 33 (2008), 559–93 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/036168782008-008>

Raynham, Peter, and John Fitzpatrick, ‘SLL Code for Lighting’ (society of Light and Lighting): 2012 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, 2012).

Simms, Richard, Heads up, 7 May 2014 <https://500px.com/ photo/69717741/heads-up-by-richardsimms?ctx_page=1&from=search&ctx_ q=crowd&ctx_type=photos&ctx_ sort=relevance> [accessed 17 January 2016].

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Rouquette, James R., Martin Dallimer, Paul R. Armsworth, Kevin J. Gaston, Lorraine Maltby, and Philip H. Warren, ‘Species Turnover and Geographic Distance in an Urban River Network’, ed. by Ralph Mac Nally, Diversity and Distributions, 19 (2013), 1429–39 <http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12120>

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Scott, Catherine, A BRIEF GUIDE TO THE BENEFITS OF URBAN GREEN SPACES, 2015 <http://leaf.leeds.ac.uk/wp-content/ uploads/2015/10/LEAF_benefits_of_urban_green_space_2015_upd.pdf> [accessed 14 January 2016].

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 7, Leen, Sarah, Northern Virginia Housing Development, Wallpaper, Download, Photos -- National Geographic (National Geographic, 2015) <http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/ urban-sprawl/> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 1, Parfitt, George. ‘Structure of Dissertation Diagram’. (2015), [Digram]. FIGURE 2, JACQUET-LAGREZE, Romain, Vertical Horizon #44, 21 December 2015 <https://500px. com/photo/133058053/vertical-horizon-44-by-romain-jacquet-lagreze?ctx_page=1&from=search&ctx_type=photos&ctx_ q=urban+density+abstract> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 8, Yoong, Ren Hui, Vertigo, 28 December 2013 <https://500px.com/ photo/47661936/vertigo-by-ren-hui-yoong?ctx_ page=1&from=search&ctx_type=photos&ctx_sort=relevance&ctx_ q=low+density+housing> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 3, JACQUET-LAGREZE, Romain, Look UP!, 14 March 2015 <https://500px.com/ photo/133058053/look-up-byromain-jacquet-lagreze?ctx_ page=1&from=search&ctx_type=photos&ctx_q=urban+density+abstract> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 9, Evans, Alan, Housing Density Diagram, 2009, Economics and Land Use Planning, 2nd edn (OXFORD: Blackwell Publishing, 2004).

FIGURE 4, Stoddart, David, Wasteland 2, 25 January 2015 <https://500px.com/ photo/96809069/wasteland2-by-david-stoddart?ctx_ page=1&from=search&ctx_q=derelict+wasteland&ctx_type=photos&ctx_sort=relevance> [accessed 18 January 2016]

FIGURE 10, Westminster City Council, Westminster Crest Project Grey, 2010 <http://myparks.westminster. gov.uk/workspace/uploads/talbot-square-gardens.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2016] FIGURE 11, Westminster City Council, Westminster Crest Project Grey, 2010 <http://myparks.westminster. gov.uk/workspace/uploads/talbot-square-gardens.pdf> [accessed 18 January 2016]

FIGURE 5, Dixon, Mathew, Idyllic Rural Farm, Cotswolds UK, 30 May 2015 <https://500px.com/photo/113621193/idyllic-rural-farmcotswolds-uk-by-matthew-dixon?ctx_page=1&from=search&ctx_ q=english+village&ctx_type=photos&ctx_sort=relevance> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 12, Ologenu, Mihai, ‘2050 - Dark Age’ <https://500px. com/photo/127650455/2050dark-age-by-mihai-ologeanu?ctx_ page=1&from=search&ctx_ q=air+pollution+city&ctx_type=photos&ctx_sort=relevance> [accessed 18 January 2016]

FIGURE 6, Morgans, Robert, M4 J28 at Tredegar Park, Newport | the NewPort Media Hub, 10 April 2015 <http://new-port.co.uk/266/> [accessed 18 January 2016].

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FIGURE 13, K, JX, ‘Urban Sprawl’, 30 October 2015 <https://500px. com/photo/127040565/urbansprawl-by-jx-k?utm_medium=pinterest&utm_campaign=nativeshare&utm_content=web&utm_ source=500px> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 19, Edward Ng, ‘Designing for Daylighting’, Designing High-Density Cities, ed. by Edward Ng, 1st edn (London: Earthscan Publications, 2009). FIGURE 20, Wenwisser, Venessa, Live.work, Die <http://www. vw-photos.com/graveyards01.htm> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 14, Edward Ng, ‘Sketch of an urban heat island profile’, Designing High-Density Cities, ed. by Edward Ng, 1st edn (London: Earthscan Publications, 2009).

FIGURE 21, Stoddart, David, Wasteland, 14 January 2015 <https://500px.com/ photo/95652855/wasteland-by-david-stoddart?ctx_ page=1&from=search&ctx_type=photos&ctx_sort=relevance&ctx_ q=derelict+wasteland> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 15, Edward Ng, ‘Measure of solar radiation with and without trees’, Designing High-Density Cities, ed. by Edward Ng, 1st edn (London: Earthscan Publications, 2009).

FIGURE 22, Stoddart, David, Derelict Building, 14 January 2015 <https://500px. com/photo/95652855/wasteland-by-david-stoddart?ctx_ page=1&from=search&ctx_type=photos&ctx_sort=relevance&ctx_ q=derelict+wasteland> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 16, Gurley, Evan, Street Canyon Sound, 17 February 2011 <https://www.google.co.uk/ search?q=street+canyon+sound&biw=1440&bih=838&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZxYXX57HKAhVCVhQKHQE7A5oQ_AUIBygC#tbm=isch&q=material+reflecting+sound+diagram&imgrc=O5n_7_ HaJfgRVM%3A> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 23, Parfitt, George. ‘Structure of Dissertation Diagram’. (2015), [Digram]. FIGURE 24, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

FIGURE 17, Kiner, Justin, Manhattanhenge, July 2011 <https://500px.com/photo/3725058/ manhattanhenge-july-2011-by-justin-kiner?ctx_page=1&from=search&ctx_q=Street+Canyon&ctx_ type=photos&ctx_sort=relevance> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 25, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 26, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 27, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

FIGURE 18, Haddad, Raymond, ‘Central Park’, 2014 <https://500px.com/photo/23103317/central-park-by-raymond-haddad> [accessed 18 January 2016].

FIGURE 28, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

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FIGURE 29, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

FIGURE 46, Environment Agency, ‘Flood Map for Planning (Rivers and Sea)’ (The Environment Agency, 1999) <http:// maps.environment-agency.gov. uk/wiyby/wiybyController?x=531500.0&y=181500.0&topic=floodmap&ep> [accessed 14 January 2016]

FIGURE 30, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 31, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 33, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

FIGURE 47 Grant, Adam, ‘St Albans’ Sinkhole Reason “Unearthed”?’ <http://www.groundsure. com/news/st-albans-sinkhole-reason-unearthed> [accessed 14 January 2016].

FIGURE 33, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 34, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

FIGURE 48 Grant, Adam, ‘St Albans’ Sinkhole Reason “Unearthed”?’ <http://www.groundsure. com/news/st-albans-sinkhole-reason-unearthed> [accessed 14 January 2016].

FIGURE 35, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data]. FIGURE 36, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data]. FIGURE 37, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data].

FIGURE 49, Snasdell, Michael, ‘High Tide at the Thames Barrier’, 2014 <http://michaelsnasdell. blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/high-tideat-thames-barrier.html> [accessed 14 January 2016].

FIGURE 38, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data]. FIGURE 39, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data].

FIGURE 50, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data].

FIGURE 40, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data].

FIGURE 51, Google 2016, <https://www.google.co.uk/maps/ place/Thames+Barrier+Park> [accessed 18 January 2016]

FIGURE 41, Hudson, Neal, LAND FOR NEW HOMES: Land Use Change Statistics, 2015

FIGURE 52, Google 2016, <https://www.google.co.uk/maps/ place/Thames+Barrier+Park> [accessed 18 January 2016]

FIGURE 42, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 43, Parfitt, George. (2015), Photography].

FIGURE 53, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Survey Data].

FIGURE 44, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

FIGURE 54, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

FIGURE 45, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography].

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FIGURE 55, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 56, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 57, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photorgaphy]. FIGURE 58, Parfitt, George. (2015), [Photography]. FIGURE 59, Parfitt, George. (2015), [illustrated graphic]. FIGURE 60, Adam Smith Institute, http://www.rtpi.org.uk/media/1352302/green_noose_presentation_to_rtpi_conference.pptx+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=uk. [accessed 14 January 2016].

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APPENDIX 29.11.15

Occupant value rating of Jesmond Dene

Dr Steven Dudek (supervisor), George Parfitt (UG) Introduction 50 percent of brownfield land within the United Kingdom is either too controversial or too impractical for development. Vast hectares of derelict land sit vacant within towns and cities whilst the demand for housing continues to rise. The greenbelt has prevented cities from unsustainably expanding outwards and therefore its continued protection is vital. Most greenbelt is important environmentally, however there is also a significant portion that is not. A substantial restriction

has been put upon the greenbelt preventing its development, pushing the expansion of cities further away and into the country and creating larger commuter belts with more scattered sprawl in the process. . The government is supplying 100,000 houses less per year than we need. Therefore we need to find somewhere to build these houses and fulfil demand. The aim of this research is to assess the credibility of urban green space in order to determine its value in comparison to the greenbelt.

Age: Location (Local or Tourist?): Occupation:

Would you be prepared to volunteer in a greening brownfield to create a public park new to where you live?

On a scale of 1 - 10, 1 being worst and 10 is best, what do you rate the social value of Jesmond Dene? What do you usually do on your visit(s) to Thames Barrier Park? (i.e walking, meeting people, recreational activities etc)

On a scale of 1 - 10, 1 being worst and 10 is best, what do you rate the economic value of Jesmond Dene? On a scale of 1 - 10, 1 being worst and 10 is best, what do you rate the environmental value of Jesmond Dene?

Please rank (out of 100) Jesmond Dene for public transport access, work proximity, home proximity and accessibility comparison to greenbelt

What was the prior use of Jesmond Dene prior to it become a public park?

Note: Thames Barrier Park Questionaire is the exact same 67

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George Parfitt BA Hons Architecture Dissertation ARC3010 2016