Moscow's Libraries Atlas by Giovanni Bellotti

155

338

230

422

228

89 145

194

104

356

187

359

93 481

21 483

16 374

476

114

254 504

200

258

442

376

238

372

265

498

24 100

331 41

282

175

111

270 436

451

435

208 520

357

94 136 452

350

172

198 179

243

421

427

144

MOSCOWâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S LIBRARIES 180

312

384

361

135

171

255

395

216

153

272

181

413 457

311 373

35 313

354

235

500

467

ATLAS 14

425

351 380

259

291

131

507

444

348

450

334

365

438 391

299

448 ROOMS WITH A VIEW

146

342

371

330

513 217

289 236

308

307

370

106

160 242

218

475

332

102

333

318

251

263

389

116

516

287

212

51 494

130

449

115 110

31 249

309

290

128

366

288

197

203

168

159

485 19

397

140

463

349

285

295

119

166

277

403

328

321

53 418

117

219

428

11 294

496

469

454

489 47

325

189

185

234 244

381 3

505 7

510

67 133

225

379

281

276

430

383 169

490

386

345

156

253

394

317

252

283

360

247 439

429

390

401

237

139

120 518

479

158

215

271

426

448

453

319

257

419 25

447 127

105 327

392

519

MOSCOW’S LIBRARIES

ATLAS

448 ROOMS WITH A VIEW

project by: Paolo Ruaro Giovanni Bellotti

tutors: Paola Viganò Alexander Sverdlov

Index pg. • Introduction

• Chronology of Events

x x

• History of Moscow’s Library System

• The 448 Rooms of Moscow’s Library

xxx

• The Zero Degree of the Library Scandinavian Experiences Libraries as Places, Books as Objects The Neutral Library • A New Library Geography

xxx

Spatial Equality and the role of the libraries From Free-time to Leisure Heritage Current Issues

Round House n°1 K7 P-44 Kvartal Construction time-line and styles

xxx

“Gardens, parks of leisure and culture, water basins and fountains” Kvartals and Microrayons Underground Rooms and Lines

• Moscow Views

• Bibliographic References

xxx xx

Introduction

The library system of Moscow stands today as a piece of a wider cultural infrastructure that no longer exists. The 448 municipal libraries within the city’s boundaries belong to the list of soviet welfare infrastructures, along with hospitals, schools, clubs and sport centres, a complex social machine of which they are a fragment. Their present connotation, distribution, and function largely depends on this past, although the history of the libraries stretches beyond and before the 75 years of soviet regime. Its architecture can be seen as an element of continuity in Moscow’s XX century history, having survived through the change of three different regimes over one century. This continuity is expressed in their physical presence of the city, in their interiors, their collections, and especially in their direct link to political power; under each regime the libraries expressed the political message of the time. The present condition of the libraries, in this perspective, is that of a large system in transition where the lack of political and economical interests have slowed the changes that affected other institutions. The libraries constitute a huge resource of public space -their rooms alone would cover 25 hectares, an area three times that of the red square. This monumentality, however is expressed in a long list of small interiors, worn out collections and minor histories. Recognizing the library system as a whole, before considering its circumstantial situations, is a way to understand how the network was designed and maintained.

The system embodies principles of soviet urbanism; libraries were related to the number of inhabitants and geographical distance from other services, they occupy the ground floors of the buildings and are evenly spread throughout the city. This quantitative approach in the planning faces today a variety of issues; bringing back the libraries to their present condition, studying their contexts and seeing which of these relations still exist, which don’t and which could be formed gives directions on how the network could be reorganized and on what it could accomplish. Such connections are often hidden behind a curtain of low fences, rows of garages, and blurred by the different management systems of the city’s grounds. The Atlas proposes three ecologies and a series of public elements to which the rooms can relate both on the scale of architecture and of management. Establishing a common language among the diversity of circumstances and building an atlas of relations between the libraries and their contexts is a first step towards the new cycle of the system and in recognizing the new geography of the libraries.

Chronology of events This time line is based on Irina Kharkov’s research “Management structure of the territorial network of public libraries in super big cities. Current trends and prospects for improvement”, and on Evgeny Kuzmin’s “From totalitarianism to democracy: Russian libraries in transition”

Timeline of the most significant events in XX cenbtury Moscow

•1862: “Regulations on public management of Moscow”, chapter on censorship and press (186), institutes “rooms for reading” under the control of the ministry of Interior affairs.

•1881 Alexander II assassinated

•1884: new regulations institute penalties for librarians guilty of displaying censored books.

•1890: new regulations state that public libraries could only acquire books approved by the Synod or the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of Education.

Library n°36 in 1910

•1896: a Catalogue with the authorized books is distributed across the public libraries of the country

•1901: although plans were to have one library every 1000 literate people (estimated around 200.000 in Moscow), only 41 libraries were active in the city. •1904: plans are made to build 161 more libraries in the city

•1910: the public Libraries in Moscow could count on ca 985.000 books in 65 libraries, 12 of which managed by the city, counting on 31 librarians1 , with a budget of 7000 roubles for the large libraries and 500 for the small ones Library n°36 in 1910

•1911: First meeting on librarianship is held in Moscow, a call is made for the training of professional librarians and for the dismissal of the 1884 censorship law, problems related to the lack of a central management are exposed.

•1912: Plans are made for the institution of 300 state owned libraries in Moscow, including small libraries and larger libraries with reading rooms. The investment on Moscow was however never approved, and major investments were only made in St. Petersburg. •1917: On the eve of the revolution, 180 libraries operate in the city, 76 of which are free public libraries and an additional 40 private institutions which provided library service. The centralization of the system begins under the guidance of A. Piskunov.

•1918: Issues regarding the network of Libraries are raised by N. Krupskaya, new libraries are proposed according to location, level of literacy and population density. •1918: City Central Library is opened in January. In December, the 10

•1891 - 1905 Trans Siberian Railroad built

•1894 Accession of Nicholas II to the throne of Russia

• 1896 May Coronation of Nicholas as Czar of all the Russians • 1901 Socialist Revolutionary Party founded

• 1903 Congress of Social Democrats in London splits into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks • 1904 February 8 Russo-Japanese War begins with the Japanese attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur

• 1905 January 22 “Bloody Sunday.” Lenin returns from Switzerland to St. Petersburg. Marchers fired on by Imperial Troops. After internal riots and unrest Nicholas re-establishes his power September 5 Russia defeated. Treaty of Portsmouth marks the end of the Russo-Japanese War. •1906 DUMA - Russia’s first elected parliament

• 1914 August 1 Germany declares war on Russia

•1917 March 16 Abdication of Nicholas II and formation of the Provisional Government • November 6-7 Bolsheviks seize key points including the Winter Palace. Provisional Government is overthrown and Bolshevik government is formed • 1918 March 3 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Bolsheviks negotiate a separate peace with Germany March 12 Capital is transferred from Petrograd to Moscow May Civil War begins, Red armies vs White armies July 16 Czar Nicholas and his family executed at Ekaterinburg November 11 World War I ends • 1919 Founding of the Communist International.

•1921 March Lenin announces the New Economic Policy {NEP)— temporary postponement of socialist measures in agriculture and commerce. War gradually comes to an end with victories of Red Army. Uprising at Kronstadt naval base brutally suppressed. Ban on factions within the Communist Party. 11

centralization of the libraries becomes effective. St. Petersburg and Moscow work as independent branches of the same organism. The system is supervised by Lenin’s wife, Nedezhda Krupskaia

• 1919: The principle of centralization proves to be unrealistic during the years of the NEP. The central system continues to operate 88 libraries, reduced to 80 by 1924, while 448 total libraries operate in the city. • 1921: Dewey classification system is introduced in all Russian libraries Library n°8 built in 1931

• 1930: major reforms are introduced, restructuring the library system (diagram 3)

• 1935: over 220 libraries operate in Moscow, all under strict control of the Party.

• 1941-1945: The number of operating libraries is drastically reduced during the “ Great Patriotic War”, many being bombed or converted to hospitals.

Lenin’s Library in 1936

• 1953: a Minister for the Libraries is pointed, under direct supervision of the Ministry of Culture. The number of Libraries grows rapidly to 300, although most institutions are depending directly on the ministry of Culture and not on the municipality. • 1955: As the city grows in low density prefabricated housing, the ground floor of Moscow becomes more and more public: every micro-rayon hosts a library, the number of cbs and branches rises rapidly to 400.

• 1959: following radical social changes in the post-war decade, libraries in Moscow undergo a series of reforms: Each city with more then one library must adapt one to be the central library, efforts to transform the independent libraries in a single network are made, a library code is issued and delivered to all central libraries in the country.

• 1967: centralization is carried out on rural, urban and regional level. A solution for the library branches (sometimes up to 80) is still not found, although three solutions are proposed: total centralization in one system; a double network, for children and adults; various centralized system for the different districts. The third solution will be adopted for Moscow and Leningrad. • 1975: The city operates 437 free public libraries, united in 33 CBG (Central Library Systems)

• 1985: during perestroika, the libraries struggle to define their role in the Russian changing society. Documentation on the period is inconsistent and gives a multifaceted picture, where single branches open to new contents while others remain tied to party values. The strong ideological character of the libraries still remains, proving the limits of the centralized system incapable of adapting rapidly to 12

•1922 March Stalin is named General Secretary of the Communist party at the eleventh Party Congress •Formation of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

• 1923 Communists convert Cathedral of Saint Basil the Blessed (at Kremlin) into an anti-religious museum • 1924 January 21 Lenin dies

• 1925 Work begins on Lenin’s red granite mausoleum Struggle for leadership of Communist Party gradually won by Stalin and his supporters.

•1927 End of NEP. Beginning of first 5-year plan and campaign for the collectivization of agriculture. • 1935 First stage of Moscow metro opened.

• 1938 Show trials. Tens of thousands of ordinary people, as well as three fifths of all army officers and many famous wrilters and artists sent to prison camps in Siberia, where most of them die.

• 1939 Pact between Nazi Germany and Soviet Union - Poland divided between the two. • 1942 Germans in occupation of most of western Russia. Battle of Stalingrad: Germans eventually thrown back.

• 1953 Death of Stalin, leadership taken over by Malenkov, Molotov and Khrushchev. • 1955 Khrushchev emerges as new dominant figure. Signing of military pact by communist countries of eastern Europe (the Warsaw Pact). Kremlin opened to the public

• 1956 Khrushchev denounces Stalin in “secret speech” to 20th Party Congress. Demotion of some of Stalin’s close associates, rehabilitation of some of his victims. • 1964 Khrushchev voted out of office by his colleagues. Replaced by Joint leadership consisting of Brezhnev, Kosygin and Podgorny. • 1980 Olympic Games held in Moscow, boycotted by USA and some other countries • 1982 Brezhnev dies and is replaced by Andropov

• 1984 Andropov dies and is replaced by the elderly Konstantin Chernenko • 1985 Chernenko dies and Gorbachev replaces him

• 1986 Gorbachev begins policies of perestroika and glasnost 13

changing conditions, although there is a greater availability of foreign newspapers within the libraries.

Library n°75 in 1959

• 1988: A new re-organization is implemented, trying to introduce specialization in the library system (leisure, literary history, news, video, computers, local history etc.) and an aim for each library (development of creative abilities, assistance to the elderly et cetera)

• 1991: As the Soviet Union falls, the three principles that restrained the 453 libraries existing at the time (partiinost, spetskhran and censorship) fall with it.

• 1994: Bill on libraries is approved, tying all city libraries to the DUMA authority, meanwhile a process of de-centralization is started.

Library n°79 in 1979

Right: diagrams of the management of the city’s libraries 1871- 2013

• 2010: 448 Public Libraries operate in Moscow, 168 of which are children Libraries, under 36 centralized library systems. 4500 librarians are employed in the city serving 2.5 million users, lending around 50 million books per year.

• 1989 Yeltsin elected leader of Russia

• 1992 A Federation Treaty is signed by 15 Russian republics The Supreme Soviet confirmed the dissolution of the Soviet Union. • 1993 Russian constitutional crisis

• 1999 The State Duma confirmed the appointment of Vladimir Putin as Prime Minister of Russia. Second Chechen War: Russian ground troops invaded Chechnya. The treaty of creation of the Union of Russia and Belarus was signed. Boris Yeltsin resigned as President of the Russian Federation. Prime minister Vladimir Putin became acting president. • 2004 Putin won re-election to a second term, earning 71 percent of the vote. • 2008 Russian presidential election, 2008: Dmitry Medvedev won, earning 70.5 percent of the vote. • 2012 Russian presidential election, Vladimir Putin wins, earning 63.6 percent of the vote.

History OF MOSCOW’S LIBRARY SYSTEM The History of Moscow’s libraries over the last 100 years is as complex and rich as that of the city itself. The core of the system stands today as a monument of soviet network planning, being the only surviving cultural infrastructure of the communist city spared from the privatizations that have reshaped most of the nation’s welfare networks1.

As a heritage of the tsarist period - pre-revolutionary Moscow could already count on 180 collections of books2 - the changes within the libraries management and their spaces reflect the evolving tendencies of Russian politics under the soviet regime, just as their difficulty to adapt to contemporary Russian society. The soviet library system was instituted in 1922 by Lenin and his wife, Nedezhda Krupskaia, librarian by profession3: “[Libraries] were to serve as instruments for eradicating illiteracy and for educating the population; an important element was moral education, one which would make for good Marxist/Leninist citizens. Thus, the role of the librarian was not to facilitate access to material which the reader demanded, but rather to guide the reader to material that was considered appropriate and to keep away from the reader material which was considered inappropriate or harmful.” Since then, partiinost, spetskhran4 and censorship informed soviet librarianship for almost 75 years. 1. Privatization in Moscow,James H. Bater, Geographical Review, Vol. 84, No. 2 (April, 1994), pp. 201-215

2.Those Libraries were not accessible, however, by the entire population, but reserved to specific classes of workers belonging to trade unions or reserved to clergy or nobility. 2. From totalitarianism to democracy: Russian libraries in transition. Kuzmin, E. (1993). American Libraries, 24, 568-570. 3. Raymond, B. (1979). Krupskaia and Soviet Russian librarianship, 1917-1939. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.

4. Under “Спецхран”, abbreviation for “special storage sections”, were listed all the books that were not accessible to the public without authorization. Those prohibited archives, opened only for researches of undoubted comunist beliefs became at one point so vast that became a storage problem for the libraries. Over 60% of the books in the libraries were censored in the year 1930 alone, when their stock had already being purged at least three times. By 1935 only few copies of the censored books were to be kept in a special section of the Lenin library, while the rest was to be destroyed. (Rogers, 1973)

4. N. K. Krupskaya, Part two : Krupskaia on libraries, ed Sylva Simsova (Hamden : Archon Books, 1968) 45–51.

5. Thomas, C. (1999). Changes in Russian libraries in the 1990s. Focus on International and Comparative Librarianship, 30(3), 112-12.

6. Greening, J. M. (1995). Ten years in the life of Russian libraries. International Information & Library Review, 27, 113-127

Krupskaia started her activity directing underground libraries in pre-revolutionary Moscow, when libraries were either reserved for specific trade unions or exclusively for higher classes. After the revolution, Krupskaia initiated a census of the libraries, revealing the inadequacy of the system4: “We have a laughable number of libraries, and their book stocks are even more inadequate. Their quality is terrible, the majority of the population does not know how to use them and does not even know what a library is.” In the 1920s the education of a class of professional librarians was being formed for the first time in Russia. E.I. Samurin, one of the chief ideologists of soviet librarianship described in the 1940s the duties of the Russian librarian: (1) Indicate for each subject its ‘politically acceptable’ place in the classification scheme; (2) Grant first place in every division and subdivision to the opinions of the ‘classics of Marxism-Leninism’, as well as to party directives; (3) Grant priority to materials relating the Soviet Union as the country of ‘victorious socialism’, with the provision that these materials must be clearly separated from those of foreign (‘capitalist’) countries; (4) Grant fist place to ‘advanced’ (communist) theories and practices and literature about them; (5) Provide class, division, and subdivision names in ‘politically acute and distinct terms”

above: Municipal Library n°16 in 1934, below: Lenin’s Library in 1936

In 1990, 115.000 libraries were active in the Soviet Union, all under the tight central planning authority and financial control of the government5. The following year, the ideological function of the libraries and their precise social objective - no person was to live more then 15 minutes from a library6 - became outdated overnight. Much has changed on the shelves of the libraries and in their management, however the spaces of the libraries- niches of public space spread homogeneously throughout the city- appear, in most cases, to have been frozen for over twenty years. 1. Spatial equality and the role of libraries

Most historians recognize two principles shared within the communist party in the 1920s : a radical view of the basic structure of society, shifting from family to com20

1. Planning the City of Socialist Man, Jack C. Fisher, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 28, Iss. 4, 1962 2. The first edition of Tomorrow: a peaceful path to real reform (1898) was translated into Russian in 1901. In 1913 St. Petersburg already hosted a branch of the International Garden City Society.

3. Governing the Socialist Metropolis, Timothy Colton, 1995

3. “leisure” is taken here to define the part of the day not spent working, sleeping or travelling, although in communist Russia - “the nation of workers”- leisure was ill regarded as a concept, and free time had a more active connotation. 4. Idee per la città comunista, A. Baburov, 1966, pg 94

munity, and the abolition of “bourgeois” distinctions between city and countryside1. Both points are rooted in Marxist theory, and the latter, under the influence of Howard’s garden cities2, was to become a major theme of discussion among soviet urbanists from the 1920s. Although the academic positions that lead the urban discourse - Leonid Sabsovich’s City Urbanists and Mikhail Okitovic’s Disurbanists - were not taken into account in the 1935 plan, those Marxist principles influenced greatly the ideas for the communist capital.

As early as 1918 the 17 tchasti of Moscow, the tsarist shell-like division of the city, were replaced by 11 rayoni, a radial system that was to ensure the inhabitant of the periphery, at least by definition, the same district of those living in the centre3. Parks, museums, playgrounds and libraries, as well as most of the cities free-time facilities revolved along the same principles of spatial equality, contributing to the image of a society where everyone had access to the same knowledge, therefore to the same possibilities. Cultural institutions were to build a bridge between cities and villages, the distance of which constituted a source of social inequality.

As communism eroded more and more every aspect of private life - “Communism destroyed private life”, Benjamin wrote in the 20s - and as the working hours were progressively reduced, the problem of infrastructure for “leisure3” became more and more pressing. The issue of free time was addressed as an aspect of the communist lifestyle, “ in the interest of everyone and each one”, and as such required “a well defined place in space and time, equally accessible to everyone”4. Free time thus became an extension of communal living, where each individual could invest his energies on himself in order to better accomplish his individual aspirations. Facilities were heavily subsidized, and ideologically marked; “cultured” use of free time was seen as a mean for the transition from the “realm of necessities” to “the realm of freedom”:“ For a further, greater, growth of material culture, the following will be guaranteed: Increment of the network of Libraries, reading rooms, clubs and culture houses, cinemas (...) The Party retains necessary to distribute homogeneously throughout the nation cultural institutions to elevate gradually the cultural level of the 22

5. Program of the Communist Party of The Soviet Union, 1960

village to that of the city.5” Libraries and cultural institutions played a major role in fulfilling this purpose, and their history is a reflection of wider phenomena within the Soviet Union. 2. From free-time to leisure

6. Time budget studies were conducted in Russia already between 1922 and 1923, however, for political reasons, no further research was conducted again until the early 60s. Free time and Leisure Participations: International Perspectives, chapter 14, Moscow. I. A. Butenko, 2006

7. Moscou: Portrait de Ville, E. Essaian, 2007, pg. 43

There are little information on time-use patterns before the early sixties6, when reading was reported to be the most common free time activity, averaging almost 6 hours per person each week in 1961 (Murray, 1967). In the eighties, during perestroika, libraries enjoyed their peak of success, mainly for the availability of international news. Books were at the time widely considered to be a good investment and a privileged free-time activity - 19% of Russians read “ regularly”, 25% read 2-3 books per month, 21% read 2-3 books per year (Butenko, 1997). Political changes in the 1990s, when cultural activities were no longer tied to ideological constraints, brought government subsidies to be drastically reduced, and many facilities were forced to close. At the same time private enterprise was on the rise, and many of the services became available only to the affluent few, a process accelerated by the 1998 financial crisis that has not reverted since. The artificial homogeneity of the communist city then became evident; within a few years, a new class of wealthy Muscovites re-occupied the most central parts of the city, and a handful of agencies bought, parcel by parcel, the city’s center7, while most of the cities welfare networks were privatized (Bater, 1994). The Libraries are an exception within this panorama; being a hardly economically exploitable resource they have remained public and represent the last social “machine” still active in the city (Zaitsev, 2001).

3. Physical Heritage

As a heritage of the old regime, libraries still carry spatial principles of the time, being part of a diversified infrastructure of “use” built of canteens, club rooms, music halls, sport centres and other facilities, for a society where possession was reduced to a minimum and private space eroded, sometimes to the size of a small bedroom. 23

In a lounge of a house-hold cooperative (Admiralteyskaya embankment), 1927-28

In a lounge of a studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; commune of the Water Transport Institute. The 1920s

9. The Theology Of Tabula Rasa: Walter Benjamin And Architecture in The Age of Precarity, Pier Vittorio Aureli, Log 27, 2013

10. OMA / Rem Koolhaas, El Croquis, Issues 53 + 79, 2006

“Use” was rapidly substituted by ownership and as investment was diverted from communal facilities free time activities became more private, fragmented and wealth-related. The dispersion of leisure, its “liquid” condition is in this regard not dissimilar to that of labor9, a dispersion which is not only in space, but in time as well. The “well defined place in space and time” (Baburov, 1968) for free-time marks today the change that took place; leisure can now be everywhere, at any time. Already in 1989 Rem Koohlaas, when describing the project for the “Trés Grande Biblioteque” was stressing the irony of designing a temple for books and other media in a moment when culture was becoming less and less tied to material boundaries10, addressing the issue of the role of public cultural spaces in the age of digital information. Being designed as a machine engineered to serve a known amount of people in a very controlled environment, Moscow’s libraries face today a double issue: the problem of defining their role within a society very different from that which originated them, and a global change of the role of public libraries. As a stratified system that grew for over a century libraries occupy today places so diverse that each requires to be recognized as a specific element, the most evident feature that unites them being precisely their appearing “out of context” and “frozen”; elements of a former continuity in a fragmented city. 4. Current Issues

Moscow’s library network compares very poorly with most library systems in the world. A comparison between the networks is possible with systems that share a similar condition - geographical or historical. Considering the Swedish , or Norwegian network, similar for historical reasons, shows the potential of a dispersed library network, while considering a quantitatively similar network - like the library system of Los Angeles - shows how a different management of the network could bring large improvements without substantial changes to the funding. Currently, the city budget for the library network is of 87.5 million Euro per year, 65% of which is spent on

personnel and only 2.2% is spent on the collections. The average of funding for collections in Europe is 15%,; considering that 10 to 15% of the collection should be replaced each year and that new acquisitions are vital for the success of a library, the situation of Moscow’s libraries media collections, although official data are unavailable, is very likely to be bad.

11. SVESMI research on Public Libraries, 2012

Paradoxically, the expenses per library in Moscow are in average with those of most European cities, but the results achieved are very poor; Amsterdam, for example invests on each user 4,5€, in Moscow, proportionally, each visitor costs to the city 43€. A research conducted in 201311 on a sample of 133 libraries reveals that at least one title among the top thirty best sellers of 2011 and 2013 was available in only half of the libraries and 70% of the libraries shares three distributors for the books paying the books at the shelf price. Problems extend to the accessibility of the network; not only it is not possible to borrow books and register at the library without a residence permit, but using the reading rooms is also forbidden for non residents in the city. Building a digital catalogue of the libraries media has been on the agenda for years, but since four different coding systems are in use, this operation involves the complete remaking of each library’s catalogue. The “local” dimension of the libraries, their small size, their even distribution in the city and their resistance to change - largely due to insufficient funding - constitutes a unique feature of Moscow’s library network, and a chance to address issues raised by two decades of development that have revolved almost entirely on housing and office space. Hosted in the ground floor of almost every architectural type the city has to offer, from beaux art complexes to early prefabricated structures, Stalinist kvartaly, 1950s kruschevky, and 1970’s towers, the 448 public “rooms” of the libraries are niches of heated public space waiting to be recognized, the strength of which lies beyond the circumstantial facts that make each library different, but in the repetition and equal distribution of functions throughout the city’s boundaries. This continuity, however, has evolved over the years in the sterile repetition of interiors, of activities 31

7. Specialization in Moscow’s libraries began in the late 1980s, in the meantime the most advanced library systems in the world were abandoning them in favour of a “generalist” approach to the library program

dictated with an agenda far from that of the population and with an anachronistic specialization that was out of date long before its application7. The lack of interest in the libraries since the fall of the Soviet Union, both of the municipality and of the market, where it has preserved for future use their physical space, has marked a distance between the citizens and one of the traditional public spaces of the metropolis. The suspension of the library system between its abstract monumentality and its decaying elements is a challenge that involves a vision for the services offered to the citizens and a perspective on the city’s public dimension.

the 448 rooms of Moscow’s library The municipal libraries of the city are hosted in a variety of types, spread throughout the boundaries of the municipality. The construction of the network lasted over one century and grew - or shrank - according to political agendas, economical contingencies or exceptional events. This process crystallized a variety of moments of the city’s history; the interior architecture of the libraries and of their buildings is a manifestation of these events.

Being a “top-down” institution, there have been few filters between the role of the libraries in the city and the political agenda behind it; this “stratification”, therefore, is not simply one of architectural styles or management, but one of contradictory roles that were assigned to the institution. Most historical narratives on the city develop around a pivotal year which determines a “before” and an “after” in the city in the XX century. This definition, although easily readable in the libraries management, does not apply when it comes to the physical presence of the library in the city; they have not disappeared nor been radically reformed, but rather faded, once their social role was no longer felt as a necessity in Russian society. This continuity of the system, not only historical, but geographical, is today the greatest strength of the network and makes it one of the few public elements of continuity besides the infrastructural networks. The classifications proposed and the architectural types shown describe the variety of structures hosting the libraries as they are visible today.

Round House n°1 The library is hosted in one of the two “round houses” existing in the city. Built in 1979 as part of a grand design envisioned for the 1980 Moscow Olympics, the round houses were to be part of a gigantic five ring logo of the olympics, to be seen from the airplanes landing in Moscow. The library is located on the ground floor of the building, on the south east side of the ring. Due to the terrain slope, the interior facade of the library is half submerged and only low windows appear in the courtyard. The ground floor of the building used to host services and public facilities for the inhabitants of the 936 flats of the building. Most of those places have now become shops, workshops or small offices while the library, although underused, maintains its collection accessible to the public. The libraries here - n°139 and children library n°29 - hold a collection of 116.000 items. Renovated in 2009, it hosts a variety of events, from fairy tales nights to music contexts open to users and neighbours.

The round house soon after construction in 1972

K7 K7s were the first generation of industrial housing, designed by the engineer Vitaliy Lagutenko. The first protoype was built in 1958 by DSK, a special purpose company built for the production of K7s. By the early 1960s a kruschevka could be built in 10-12 days, and inhabited within a month. Assembled like lego bricks - although some exceptions were made, and some were built in bricks - those buildings owed their success to their cheapness; interior partitions were 4cm thick, partitions between apartments were 8cm, elevators were discarded, and their low height is due to medical considerations, 5 stories being considered the maximum height allowable to walk. By the end of the 1960s K7s hosted 54% of the Russian population, and still house today 10% of the population of Moscow. Most K7s are now being demolished due to their fast deterioration, replaced by higher buildings. The living condition in the Khrushovka were terrible, and the project has been openly criticized, even by Lagutenko himself, although the comfortable neighbourhood dimension is often missed by the inhabitants of newer houses complexes. The process of demolition of the K7s involves the libraries directly since over 60 in the city are still hosted on the ground floor of K7s.

K7s were the ďż˝irst gene ing, designed by the en The ďż˝irst protoype was special purpose compa tion of K7s. By the ea could be built in 10within a month. Asse although some exceptio were built in bricks - th success to their cheap were 4cm thick, partiti were 8cm, elevators w low height is due to m stories being consider allowable to walk. By t hosted 54% of the rus house today 10% of th Most K7s are now bein fast deterioration, repl The living condition i terrible, and the pr criticized, even by Lag the comfortable neig often missed by the inh complexes. The proces involves the libraries the city are still hoste K7s.

P-44

A series P-44 (П-44) is ing product of Soviet U multiplied ones. De Moscow, buildings of from 1979 up until th an omni-present symb in the 1980s and 90s. Kon'kovo, Krylatskoye Zhulebino have been structures of that one by P-44T, P-44-K and Ptions of the type remai ing models in Moscow. allowed for a variety along its perimeter, th building was to assure of the services within t

A series P-44 (П-44) is the longest lasting housing product of Soviet Union and one of the most multiplied ones. Developed by DSK-1 in Moscow, buildings of the type had been built from 1979 up until the year 2000 and became an omni-present symbol of capital districts built in the 1980s and 90s. North and South Butovo, Kon’kovo, Krylatskoye, Mitino, Yasenevo and Zhulebino have been built almost solely with structures of that one type. P-44 was replaced by P-44T, P-44-K and P-44TM and those incarnations of the type remain the most popular building models in Moscow. The structure of the P44s allowed for a variety of services to be placed along its perimeter, the “variable profile” of the building was to assure a moderate densification of the services within the micro-rayon.

Kvartal Kvartals are the clearest manifestation on an architectural scale of the city envisioned and built with the “Stalinist” plan of 1935. Those blocks, usually styled in a classicist fashion, were to give the new image of the comunist metropolis; large roads up to thirty meters wide surrounded by a coherent motive of the façades. Kvartals replaced the old blocks of the city, three to four times smaller, and provided an image of order. Due to the housing emergency, however, those blocks often concealed portions of the older city within; being too expensive to be entirely replaced, portions of the old city fabric still exist behind those curtains, like corings from another epoch.

Kvartals are the clearest manifestation on an architectural scale of the city envisioned and built with the “stalinist” plan of 1935. Those blocks, usually styled in a classicist fashion, were to give the new image of the comunist metropolis; large roads up to thirty meters wide surrounded by a coherent motive of the facades. Kvartals replaced the old blocks of the city, three to four times smaller, and provided an image of order. Due to the housing emergency, however, those blocks often conceiled portions of the older city within; being too expensive to be entirely replaced, portions of the old city fabric still exhist behind those curtains, like corings from another epoch.

Quantitative History of the Libraries 1890-2013 The construction of the library in Moscow took place almost entirely in the XX century. Pre-revolutionary Moscow could count on collections accessible to the public, however the low degree of alphabetization and the central location of those libraries made them approachable only to a wealthy minority. Since 1918, the number of libraries in the city grows while their role is redefined and bounded to other cultural networks - schools, clubs, universities.

tsar Nicholas II

V. Lenin

A. Rykov

J. Stalin

G. Malenkov

N. Kruschev

Andropov and Kernenko Gorbachev

L. Brezhnev

• 1999 The State Duma confirmed the appointment of Vladimir Putin as Prime Minister of Russia. • 2012 Russian presidential election, Vladimir Putin wins, earning 63.6 percent of the vote.

• 1972 Brezhnev and U.S. President Nixon sign an arms control agreement

• 1968 Armed action taken by Soviet Union and allies to keep Czechoslovakia firmly in Soviet bloc and to reverse liberalization measures.

• 1956 Khrushchev denounces Stalin in “secret speech” to 20th Party Congress.

• 1953 Death of Stalin. Leadership taken over by Malenkov, Molotov and Khrushchev.

• 1946 - 1950 Kremlin walls and battlements restored

• 1941 June: Germany invades Soviet Union.

• 1935 First stage of Moscow metro opened.

• 1927 End of NEP and approval of first quinquennial plan

• 1923 Communists demolish Cathedral of Saint Basil the Blessed

• 1917 March 16 Abdication of Nicholas II and formation of the Provisional Government • Capital is moved from St. Petersburg to Moscow

• 1901 Socialist Revolutionary Party founded • 1906 Duma Russia’s first elected parliament is founded

•1921 March Lenin announces the New Economic Policy .

Following Krupskaia’s reform of 1922 the growth in number of the libraries follows steadily that of the popu-

• 1992 A Federation Treaty is signed by 15 Russian republics The Supreme Soviet confirmed the dissolution of the Soviet Union

If the years of war see most libraries converted to hospitals, the post war period, under the leadership of Nikita Kruschev, becomes the moment of maximum expansion of the network. The library system will enjoy in those years, between 1960 and 1970, its golden age; many libraries are opened in the ground floors of prefabricated housing blocks and their role becomes that to serve a second generation of comunist citizens. For those born • 1982 Brezhnev dies and is replaced by Andropov

• 1980 Olympic Games held in Moscow

lation as well as that of the boundaries of the city. Their role as propaganda machines is, at this point, very clear: library purges had taken place at least four times, and over 60% of the collections were not accessible to the public.

Y. Luzhkov

S. Sobyanin

6 250

5 200

4 150

3 100

2mil 50 libs

1890

1918

1924

1935

1950

1960

1972

1980

1990

2000

2013

square meters/inhabitant number of libraries inhabitants

1980 11,0

1960: As the city grows in low density prefabricated housing, the ground floor of Moscow becomes more and more public: every microrayon hosts a library, the number of cbs and branches rises to 400 within 1960.

1920 9,5

1953: a Minister for the Libraries is pointed, under direct supervision of the Ministry of Culture. The number of Libraries grows rapidly to 300.

1912 7,4

1935: over 220 libraries operate in Moscow, all under strict control of the Ministry of Culture.

1922 7,4

square meter per capita

3 100

2mil 50 libs

1961 6,4 1925 5,9 1926 5,8 1930 5,5

1931 5,2

1939

1934 4.137.000 4,2 1940 4,1

principle of centralization proves to be unrealistic during the years of the NEP. The central system continues to operate 88 libraries, but many more are open in the city.

1910: the public Libraries in Moscow could count on ca 985.000 books in 65 libraries, 12 of which managed by the city, counting on 31 librarians , with a budget of 7000 rubles for the large libraries and 500 for the small ones

1941-1945: The number of operating libraries is drastically reduced during the “ Great Patriotic War”, many being bombed or converted to hospitals.

1959 5.032.000

1950 4,2

1924: Public libraries are reduced to 80

1901: although plans were to have one library every 1000 literate people (estimated around 200.000 in Moscow), only 41 libraries were active in the city.

1926 2.019.500

1897 1.038.625

1890

1918

1924

1935

1950

2010: 426 Public Libraries operate in Moscow, 168 of which are children Libraries, under 36 centralized library systems. 4500 librarians are employed in the city, serving 2.5 million users, lending around 50 million books per year.

1989 8.967.332

1970 6.941.961

1917: On the eve of the revolution, 180 libraries operate in the city, 76 of which are free public libraries and an additional 40 private institutions which provided library service. The centralization of the system begins under the guidance of A. Piskunov. 1919: The

4 150

1971 9,3

2002 10.382.754

1979 7.850.509

1924 6,2

6 250

1975: The city operates 437 free public libraries, united in 33 CBG (Central Library Systems)

1966 8,2

1923 6,8

5 200

1991: As the Soviet Union falls, the three principles that restrained the 453 libraries existing at the time (partiinost, spetskhran and censorship) fall with it.

1976 10,3

2013 11.794.000

1985 11,4

1960

1972

under the regime, the priority is no longer mere alphabetization, but the formation of convinced marxist-leninst citizens. The libraries nature adapts to that of their new environment, stretching from the wide halls of the Stalinist blocks to the more modest rooms of the standardized houses. As the government compensates the chronicle lack of private space with a more developed welfare system, the libraries become extensions of the houses, covering the need for activities that the tiny K7 apartments could not allow.

During Perestroika, although the libraries collections had been purged numberless times, the libraries granted access to some international publications and enjoyed a period of active participation to the city’s life. Since 1991, although the number of libraries has not being reduced, its growth ceased to follow that of the population, while no strategy to reform the system has been proposed since recently. The changes in the libraries over the last years appear to be related to the ability or interest of the librarians while no clear plan is readable though the various reforms that have involved them in the past twenty years; as the libraries become more and more the “houses” of the librarians, the population diverts its attention from them. 1980

1990

2000

2013

THE ZERO DEGREE OF THE LIBRARY The role of the libraries as “places” has been in the past ten years a topic of studies mainly in Scandinavian countries, where advanced welfare systems are facing questions common to all cultural institutions in times of digitalization. The Swedish and Norwegian library systems share the spatial principles of the Muscovite network: a large amount of medium to small libraries, evenly spread in the major cities12.

Sweden and Norway enjoy today two of the world’s most advanced library systems, with over 60% of the population using the libraries regularly. Scandinavian and soviet network shared from the 1930s a similar history; where social-democratic positions in Sweden paved the way for a strong welfare state, Russian communism was building a lifestyle that did not revolve around private properties - and relationsbut on collective rituals and places. Reforms allowed libraries in Sweden to develop an identity as an institution less bound to ideological constraints, while Moscow’s libraries once missing all the range of services that completed them - sport centres, clubs, study circles, canteens et cetera - struggle to define their role. Revealing the “grade 0” of Moscow’s libraries is an operation of clearance of the historical stratification and of the ideological positions that the libraries have been carrying, reading them as a diversity of spaces with a flexible program, united by their neutrality and ability to interact with over services and places within their reach. The operation allows to develop a unity of the system and show what it can accomplish as a whole. Neutrality, therefore, is not intended here as the absence of a program or role, but as a condition where all the possible developments are implicit within their physical space, a first step in order to bind the libraries to their physical context. 12. In 2012 Sweden ran 289 Library networks and over 2000 libraries in the country with an overall collection of 44 milion books. 60% of the population uses the library regularly, a number growing to 95% for children aged 5 to 13. (Thomas, 2004)

1. Scandinavian Experiences

13. Global Librarianship. Public Libraries in Developed countries: a success story from Scandinavia, by Barbro Thomas, 2004

15. PLACE - Public Libraries Arenas for Citizenship studies the libraries role in promoting community and building social capital.

The origin of the library network lay, in Sweden, in the parish libraries,t born as an enforcement of the church law of 1686, according to which the clergy was responsible to teach reading “so that the children may with their own eyes see God’s holy laws and commands”. By the end of the XIX century parish libraries, incapable or unwilling to cope with the challenges of a new time, were being gradually substituted. The new actors in the development of the library network became then popular movements -labour and peasentry organizations- often animated by a left-wing agenda, which introduced new contents in their “study circle libraries”. These groups established and for a long time ran a nationwide network that played an important role in the democratic process. The study circle library movement promoted contents beyond the religious restrains of their parish predecessors; by the 1930s 3000 libraries proposed to their public philosophy, literature, politics, fiction and poetry, ranging from Marx to Jack London. In the 1950s these libraries were gradually absorbed by local authorities, paving the way for the present public library landscape13. Between the 1950s and the 1970s the growth of the libraries was huge; the overall media collection passed from 1.5 milion to 24 millions and circulation almost doubled. In the meantime, the architecture of the libraries was undergoing structural changings; the number of libraries was reduced from the over 3000 study circle libraries to around 1000, until a new left reformist wave in the 1970s, lead by young librarians, inverted, once again, the trend; libraries were to be the medium of a culture for all, and education was regarded as the mean for the lower classes to raise their social condition. The number of libraries in Sweden is today above 2500 for a population of less the 10 milion. The country is considered to have one of the most advanced library systems, which, although touched by cuts in the early nineties, still functions as a fundamental social tool for its citizens. In Norway the role of libraries as public spaces is currently being developed through a series of projects related to the PLACE15 program. The program studies the role of libraries in building community values by providing free public space, services, and a sense of 72

16. How do public libraries function as meeting places? Svanhild Aabo, Ragnar Audunson, Andreas Varheim, 2009

17. Use of Library space and the Library as space, Svanhild Aabo, Ragnar Audunson, 2012

ownership from the community. Statistics show that the libraries in Norway are used as public spaces to a great extent and that around 60% of the users do not visit the library to borrow books, films or other library material during their visits, but use it as a meeting space (ABM-utvikling, 2008). Ragnar Adunson, founder of the place project, identifies six categories of meetings that are held in Libraries: libraries as community squares, where acquaintances happen randomly; libraries as places where people are exposed to diversity; libraries as a public sphere; libraries as places for joint activities with friends and families; libraries as meta meeting places and libraries as virtual meeting places16. The public role of the libraries became evident during the research as patterns of behaviour were revealed; users would frequently bend the rules, personalizing their space, consuming food and frequently interacting within the premises of the libraries (McKechnie et al. 2012). The design of the libraries physical spaces played a major role in these behaviours. A similar study conducted in a British University (Bryant et al., 2009) revealed that the free plan area was the most widely used in the premise, and that diverse activities co-existed within it. 2. Libraries as places, books as objects

19. It has been announced that funds for public libraries will be raised by 50% from 2014, and that digital cataloguing of all the collections will be completed within 2015. http://www.mn.ru/moscow_people/20130830/355164966.html

History of librarianship shows how the focus of libraries has been in the past mainly oriented towards the number of media in the collections. Most of the libraries in the world still publicize their institution with a quantitative statement of kind; the more books, the more comprehensive the coverage. Development in information technology is influencing this standard heavily; the British Library, in its 2020 statement reckons that within 7 years 75% of new books will be published in digital versions, Amazon sold in the last years more kindles then Harry Potter books. The Scandinavian stories illustrate how book collections and their renewal19 have been an important tool, although not the only one, in granting the libraries success. Equal attention has been placed in studying the libraries as ecologies, their user’s habits and the patterns of behaviour. Although most libraries in Moscow still offer incomplete collections - authors such as Tolstoy, Kant or 73

20. Lenin’s wife, Krupskia, when asked for reasons why Kant should be censored, replied: ”The Masses do not read Kant”. Robert Rogers, Censorship and Libraries in the soviet Union A Journal of Library History, Philosophy, and Comparative Librarianship Vol. 8, n°1, 1973 19. Each library in Sweden receives special funds for the government besides ordinary grants to renew their collection. On average each library receives 700 free books a year to add to their collection. (Thomas, 2009)

James still miss from some library shelves, a reminder of censorship laws from over 70 years ago20 - Moscow’s network is currently undergoing changes reforming their databases, digitalizing their contents and upgrading their collections, which have been degrading since the early 1990s19. These reforms are inevitable and open chances to work on the public functions of those spaces and on the historical significance of their current archives. David Pearson, director of Culture, Heritage and Libraries for the City of London foresees a future where public libraries will share more traits in common with museums - libraries as museums of marginalia - the value of books shifting from their pure content to their totality as objects, where collections will not be valued solely by their numbers but by the history of their items. Pearson reminds how, although most librarians shudder at the thought of libraries transformed into museums, many museums have renewed their civic role by proposing different ways of exploring their archives and using their spaces. At the same time, with more and more content being available online, the choice of users tends to be more oriented towards the closest library rather then to a content specific one. This choice is influencing the development of libraries in Scandinavian countries (Thomas, 2012), where specialized public libraries have now disappeared after reforms undertaken in the 1980s, and efforts go in the direction of unifying research libraries with general public ones- as in the case of the towns of Harnosand and Visby, where under the same roof municipal and University libraries coexist (Thomas 2004).

the temporary institution of “private” domains, together with the small size of Moscow’s libraries makes them the ideal continuation of the private space of the homes and a service to larger and less specialized public areas.

3. The Neutral Library

Lofland (1998), studying cities and urban life, classifies spaces in three categories; a public realm, where interaction is between strangers; a parochial realm, where the main form of relation is communal, and private realm, where interactions happen between people who know each other. When observing the use of public libraries, those three categories seem to exist within the same building; private activities are carried out within micro private spaces defined by the users, often personalized, yet the institution is accessible to all, and interactions happen as soon as people divert their attention from their private activity. The appropriation of space and

Libraries n°139-29

356 square meters available, 165 accessible to the public

356 square meters available, 315 accessible to the public

The library is hosted in one of the two “round houses” existing in the city. Built in 1979 as part of a grand design envisioned for the 1980 Moscow Olympics, the round houses were to be part of a gigantic five ring logo of the Olympics, to be seen from the airplanes landing in Moscow. The library is located on the ground floor of the building, on the south east side of the ring. Due to the terrain slope, the interior facade of the library is half submerged and only low windows appear in the courtyard. The ground floor of the building used to host services and public facilities for the inhabitants of the 936 flats of the building. Most of those places have now become shops, workshops or small offices while the library, although underused, maintains its collection accessible to the public. The libraries here n°139 and children library n°29 - hold a collection of 116.000 items. Renovated in 2009, it hosts a variety of events, from fairy tales nights to music contexts open to users and neighbours.

The Round House Library is located in a micro-rayon that has maintained its original characteristics almost unchanged since its construction. The round houses offer to their inhabitants a closed garden, easily controlled by the tenants, where children can play freely without supervision as the local community assures constant control over the courtyard. The round garden contained within hosts playgrounds, car parks and greenery accessible directly by the inhabitants but open to the rest of the micro-rayon community by four large gates distributed along the perimeter. The domain of the library can stretch easily to the garden, engaging the surrounding spaces with open air activities; the library can be seen as a large open courtyard and a covered niche, where the inner ecology of the Round House enriches the public space of the local community.

oid: 494-499

oid: 488

Library n°35

257 square meters available, 142 accessible to the public

257 square meters available, 225 accessible to the public

Library n°36 - Tolstoy Library - in the Domodilovo district was opened in 1931 and named after J. Stalin. It was one of the few libraries active during the war, and became one of the largest in Moscow in the early 1960, when, after being renamed Tolstoy library, was holding a collection of over 150.000 books. Hosted in a Stalinist kvartal, the library offers to the public generous rooms, with ceilings up to five meters in height. The large courtyards of the block, accessible yet hidden from the street, hold within fragments of the pre-soviet city, in this case dense XIX century fabric. Today, the library holds a collection of 53.000 items available for its 8000 users.

oid:464

Library nÂ°175

323 square meters available, 156 accessible to the public

323 square meters available, 240 accessible to the public

Library nÂ°175 is located in the Cheryomuski district of Moscow. The library was opened in 1958, soon after the construction of its building. Hosted in one of the first generation K7s, this space shares with all other first generation Krushevky buildings an uncertain future; scheduled to be demolished by 2012, thousands still survive in the city. The replacement of prefabricated structures from the 1950s and 1960s is among the most controversial issues the city is facing today, where the need for replacement of those structures is evident, the new generation of buildings raises many concerns, their height been often tripled while the services provided to the neighbourhood is progressively eroded. The library provides 65.000 items between books and magazines to its users.

Library n°151 802 square meters available, 346 accessible to the public

oid : 280 Library n°151 was instituted in 1980 and moved to the current building in 1984. It holds a collection of 43.000 books and has subscriptions to around 50 periodicals. Located in the remote Kapotnya rayon in the south east of Moscow, the library is built as a single story prefabricated building, an extension to the profile of a P44 tower from the late 1970s. The variable profiles of the buildings allowed for a great versatility of the ground floor spaces, and used to host a variety of public services.

Library n°151 802 meters available, 695 accessible to the public

Library n°95

502 square meters available, 290 accessible to the public

502 square meters available, 420 accessible to the public

oid: 426 The library was built between 1955 and 1959, it is one of the last buildings designed by the soviet architect Ivan Zholtovsky. Zholtovsky’s work spans from the early days of the soviet Moscow when he was, together with Schushev, assigned by Lenin the task to prepare the urban plan for Moscow - a plan to be dismissed by Stalin in 1932 - till his experiences with prefabricated structures in the 1960s. This classicist structure maintains in the library most of the original furniture, although the interiors have undergone many transformations over the years. Due to the very small number of visitors - not more then two or three people a day the library is facing eviction.

Library n°128

1205 square meters available, 550 accessible to the public

1205 square meters available, 1000 accessible to the public

oid: 85 The original collection of Library n° 128 was instituted in 1953 and moved to the current structure in 1973. Located in the north-east of the city, it is part of an almost unaltered micro-rayon built following the 1972 plan, offering freely accessible recreation grounds, courts and playgrounds in the inside. Located on the edge of the micro-rayon the library is an elegant single story structure, where the flexible structural plan has allowed for a series of subdivisions over the years. The library has access and view to the large green “mat” of the micro-rayon, where the low maintenance has allowed greenery to develop freely among niches of sport facilities and open air services. No data are available regarding the collection or the number of users.

Library nÂ°22 136 square meters available, 81 accessible to the public

oid 424

Library Ivan Zabelina hosts a collection of around 40.000 books acquired both through the cbs and through independent agreement with publishers. It is located in the south western Obrushevky area of the city.

Library nÂ°22 136 square meters available, 109 accessible to the public

Library nÂ°48 278 square meters available, 146 accessible to the public

oid: 004 Named after H. C. Andersen for the 200th anniversary of the authors death, Library number 48 was established in the early thirties, probably in 1932. The library specializes in children literature with a collection of 30.000 books.

Library nÂ°48 278 square meters available, 226 accessible to the public

A NEW Library geography The libraries seen as a single entity build a continuity that enables to read specific aspects of the growth of the city - the shift from the dense wooden city of the early XX century to the monumental interventions of the Stalinist era, the development of prefabricated structures in the late 1950s or the most recent Euro-remont fashion while disregarding another - the specific value of each piece in its context and its role in the public realm. This role is one to be re-found, since the libraries have developed into a closed and self referential system, that not only doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t interact with its context, but struggles to work coherently. The street life described by Benjamin, Bulgakov or Rodchenko in the 1930s embodies this idea of a local community sharing routines and places in the open. This reality changed when streets and squares became â&#x20AC;&#x153;decorationsâ&#x20AC;? to the strictly functional purpose of the streets envisioned in the 1935 plan. The public spaces were then identified with the large forest-parks, surrounded by public services for culture and leisure- Gorky park with its air balloon, the library and other amenities. The development of the post-war period brought life to the court yards of kvartals and to the wide green surfaces of the microrayons, as the functional elements of the houses were spread not in the apartments, but in the block as a whole. The issue of contemporary public spaces is pressing since the changes in the management of the districts and the arrival of new Muscovites in areas that had over time developed as micro-villages is changing the geography of those areas.

1. “Gardens, parks of leisure and culture, water basins and fountains”

1. The text is held at the manuscript section of the Museum of the History of Moscow n the Barsov fund

2. In “Mosca, 1900-1950: Nascita di una capitale”, De Magistris, 1994, extract from a speach by J. Stalin in 1935

XVI century Moscow covered barely two thirds of the surface available, the remaining land was a rural landscape, intervaled by few unpaved roads. The “List of gardens and palaces in Moscow and in the villages of Moscow’s districts” of 17051 lists the various gardens and parks that enchanted the villagers of the region. From the Kremlin gardens to the Vasil’evskij in the white city, Dutch baroque style inspired the most celebrate designs of the time. The XVIII century left Moscow with new parks and gardens, the bul’var ring and a variety of aristocratic gardens, creating a collection of closed microcosms in the city. The following centuries saw this landscape develop into an extremely rich system of parks, forests and gardens within the city’s boundaries. (to the right, a plan of Moscow in 1700 from the David Rumsay map collection) “In Future Moscow, in the city of happy people, once imaginable only in utopic stories, vast areas will be occupied by gardens, parks of leisure and culture, water basins and fountains”. Today 2.345 hectares of large parks, 748 of neighbourhood parks, 126 of gardens and 1.080 of bul’var form the “green sea” that covers 4,3% of the municipality’s surface (Frattini, 2007). The 1935 plan introduced in the city vast green areas, enhancing its radial structure in an attempt to control the development of industrial areas. Those large green areas often coupled “parks of leisure and culture” with vast unmaintained forests, stretching into the city from the forest surrounding it. The double nature - urban and wild - of these parks is of great importance for the ecology of Moscow. The densification of the city in the past years has left many neighbourhoods facing the paradox of large green areas that are virtually inaccessible due to their lack of services; understanding the role of those ecologies as public spaces means giving value, thus protecting, one of the most visible heritages of the soviet era. The proximity of the libraries with forests, large parks and water courses is one to be explored; while those areas are vital as low maintenance reserves, the libraries can adapt in order to become their portals. 94

2. Moscowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s metro

The connection of the libraries with the metro lines is one that works on a temporal basis. The social geography of the city with its artificially maintained diversity was dismantled very rapidly in the early 1990s; this meant a change not only in the social panorama, but in the use that the public transport was to bear. The hours spent in the metro lines have almost doubled only in the past five years, as workers cover more and more miles on a daily basis. Libraries can offer a service for this time, if the different branches of the network were to be understood on the basis of transport; a cbs based on abstract municipality boundaries can hardly embrace a community that is built not only on residents, but changes throughout the day. The liveliness of the libraries, depends largely on their ability to serve this wider public. The recognizability of the libraries as systems such as this, in terms both of architecture and service is necessary if the libraries are to be truly open. 3. Blocks and super blocks

Microrayons and kvartals were built as a system where each part was necessary for the functioning of the whole; canteens and laundries, club rooms and sport facilities, libraries and museums, cinemas and theatres were highly specialized public rooms built for a purpose and functioning as one entity. As those connections fade, new can be found. The maps proposed are a draft for a series of local systems that can bring together the existing facilities. 4. New Geographies

Large scale networks, such as the metro lines, local services- police stations, hospitals, schools - and vast natural ecologies were discovered through the mapping of the libraries surroundings. Forty-eight 500m by 500m corings were used as a sample unit to measure the potential connections between those three ecologies, revealing a hidden web of opportunities. 96

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a ay nsk

nd museum po iy ich

Library n°219

w sco Mo

metro

�ield

school

Library n°34

Library n°41

039

cinema 10’

497

cinema

488

metro

3-4

-4

015

school

Library A. T. Twardowski

026

school

096

Library n°36

217 353

school

Library n°127

Library n°87, n°122 and n°124

school

Samad Vurgun pond

school

er riv

252

school

r ive

theatre 8’

362

college

li ub

w co

wr sco

444

471

cinema

ve ri

er riv

’

5 a1 em ’ cin y 10 it ers univ

er riv

w sco

244/253

Library n°30

tu Se

Library n°34 and n°68

metro

Dmitrovskiy park

school

Kalin

cinema

0’

Library n°8

9 school -3

metro

w sco

ve er es rr

school

397

metro school

a Koltsevay

Library n°27

8k 8-2

Izmaylovo Park

aya insk

sit

390

school

Library n°12

6-2

32-4

ive r

school 158

school

Izmaylovo Park

kaya

File

489

school

metro

vs okro Academician Korolyov Street o-P tsk

Library n°98

sev aya

metro

museum

078

met ro 1 3’

y lle 159

007/025

11-3

Library n°64 Library n°81 and n°112

museum

261

school

Library Libraryn°171 n°41

college

Ko lt

Serebryano-Vinogradnyy pond

museum

college

Library n°128

202

school

Library n°97

ko -R izh s

Mo sco wr ive r en gard drov skiy

Soko

lnich

eska

Aleks an

aya Serpukhovsko-Timiryazevsk

school

bli

u Ly

Library A. T. Twardowski

Moscow river

school

085

a ay nsk

-A

metro

464

museum

metro

sport center

er riv

093

Library Libraryn°101 n°36

metro school

metro

�ield

3-9

school

�ield

w sco

metro

447

cinema

school

metro

Library n°121

Library n°30

sport center

’

school

Library n°175

Koltse vaya 012/013

museum

479

035

10 metro

Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya

metro

Library n°14

Berezovaya Roshcha park

theatre

cinema

ver w ri sco

a Filevskay

Udaltsouskiye pond

r va

es ka ya metro

re et

0’

sit

r ive

ka ya

ich

school

Library n°28

031

494/499

2’ ool

museum

051

school

Library n°77, n°160 and n°184

Russian State Library

cinema

kiy ep

ul'

ko ln

129/134/141/142

sch

Library n°23 and n°33

b yy dn

021/089

museum

metro

Library n°29 and n°43

Nezhinskiy park ko va

school

ru op ist

cinema

187/228

school

Library n°120 Library n°29

Ko ny on

391

school

alt

Berezovaya Roshcha park

school

Set

Library n°99

Library n°87

ki ya

Library n°74 and n°214

metro

11-34

rve ese rr

e riv

theatre

060

zh s

school

059

Ka lu

-3

school

173/174

a 3’

cinem

Ka lu

Teplyy Stan reserve

ukho vsko -Tim ir

024

344

school 8’

408

426

re e

172

metro

171

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ov a

bul'var

theatre

school

Arbatsko-Pokrovskaya

Ul ya n

Sreten skiy

school

za r

iy a

339

metro

Ya u

itr

Library n°248

nskaya

Lyubli

Ka luz hsk o-R izh ska ya

Library Turgenev

Sirenevyy bul'var

113

school

’

cin

Mo sco wr ive r

metro

ni ns

Library n°28 school

Kaluzhsko-Rizhskaya

Library n°12

ko ln

Library n°59

Library n°95

Veteranov park

140

081

131

Dzhamgarovskiy park 078 105

471

Izhorskiy park

082

220/222 208

Chermyanka river Dmitrovskiy park

121

Yeniseyskaya street

Natural ecologies - parks, gardens rivers ponds and streams

118 116

Severnoye Tushino Park

Chicherina street 210 518 519

223

Geroyev Pan�ilovtsev street

Druzhby Park

206 213

Likhoborka river

Likhoborka ecologic park

520

Turistskaya street

102 103

514 430/505

Novogorskiy forestpark

517

Novoposelkovaya park

508 509

Penyaginskiy pond

Losinyy Ostrov forestpark

Rechnogo Vokzala Park

Yana Raynisa bul'var

515

Botanical Garden of Science’s Academy

Bolshoy Golovinskiy pond

098

Reservoir Khimki basin

Malyy Golovinskiy pond Verkhniy Golovinskiy pond

Skhodnya river

Bolshoy Sadovyy pond

427

165

516

Penyaginskaya park

507

Moskva river

510

146 151

Ostankino Park 125

VDNKh Ostankinskiy pond

Pokrovskoye-Streshnevo park

511

Nemanskiy park

217

Dubki Park

120

157

Kibalchicha street

214

Putyayevskieye pond

232

388

Khabarovsk street

Zvezdnyy bul'var

069/072 073

377

235

Golyanovskiy pond

Kazenyy pond

Gorenskiy forestpark

Putyayevskieye pond

Marshala Katukova street

233

443

Stroginskiy bul'var

170

231

Raketnyy bul'var

219

143

Novopodmoskovny lane

152 128

Academician Korolyov Street

Dubovaya forest

Moskovskoy Forestpark

474

436

433

434

096

Shchukino park

Samad Vurgun pond

090

155/230

154

092

162

Sirenevyy bul'var

114

Shchukino district

Cherkizovskiy pond

Leningrad Avenue

124

091

Marshala Biryuzova street Zhivopisnaya bay

Kosmonavta Kamanova square

076

127

113

130/468 Savelovskogo Vokzala square

378

174 173 171/172

159

158

064

070

021/089

442

Yamskogo street 093

435

452

M. S. University botanical garden

Miuss Square

016

Generala Karbysheva bul'var 002

020 065

Graden ring

Karetnyy park

028/033

Tishinskaya Square Strastnoy bul'var

061/062

346/347/369

Rozhdestvenskiy bul'var Sretenskiy bul'var

Lefortovskiy park

059/060

Reserve Krylatskiye Hills

475

Chistoprudnyy bul'var 053 012/013

Tverskoy bul'var

1905 park

Kvasnogvardeyskiye pond

365

184

246

018

447

Taynitskiy garden

Novyy Arbat street Aleksandrovskiy garden

Stalevarov street

489 491

252

244/253 448

492

Krasnokursantskiy avenue

Terletskiy Forestpark

010

Krasnaya Presnya park

Fileviskiy park

1st May park

Izmaylovo Park

250

Pokrovskiy bul'var

048

035

255

036

030 031

058

Aviamotornaya street

Gogolevskiy bul'var 039

488

Perovskiy Park

057

147 150

051

Rogozhskoye pond

364

188

Pryamikova park

Voroshilovskiy park 416/490

Mazilovshiy pond

Romashkovskiy park

229 180 202

Serebryano-Vinogradnyy pond

Novoslobodskaya street

Berezovaya Roshcha park

Berzarina street

201 176

453

Yegerskiy pond

003

Festivalnyy Park

440 444

Rublevskiy park

Sokolniki Park

Izmaylovskiy bul'var

156/234

226

438

367

161 175

179

Pan�ilov street

Troitse-Lykovskaya �loodplan

256

Rogozhskiy Val street

368

149

Pobedy park Kremenchugskaya street

Verkhnyaya Khokhlovka street

454

Bolshoy Novodevichiy pond

Kuskovskiy Forestpark

245

Zhitnaya street

026

Setun river

160/242

334

Gorky park

349

Komsomolskiy alley

389 370

182 191

033

497

Bolshoy Grafskiy pond

023

Dovzhenko pond

371 396

Setun river reserve

276

Serpukhovskaya square

197

Serpukhovskiy Val street

Nezhinskiy park

402

Moscow University botanical garden

494/499

238

336

Sadki pond 251

Ramenka river

259

196

Gagarinskiy park

Kuzminkiy forestpark

338

356/422

502

50th Anniversary of October park

Ramenka river

Dmitriya Ulyanova street

Krupskoy street 326/393 357

Leninskiy alley

Garibaldi street

198/263

354

Armavirskiy square 330

399

479

Bolshoy Ochakovkiy pond

409

504

275/279

Cheremushkinskiy pond

340

Udaltsouskiye pond MKAD

284

391 353

500 498

501

Ochakovka river

Kuzminskiy forestpark

463

424 423

Samorodinka river

296

Korobkovo garden

Vorontsovskiy park

Sadovniki park Troparevskiy forestpark

503

Borovika park

Pechatnikiy pond

Dyusseldors�kiy park

277 374

261

358

Chobotovskaya forest

264

Bratislavskiy park

Ruzskaya street 272

268

262

Donetskaya street

271

Borovskoye highway

199

Troparevskiy reserve

406/407

Kakhovskiye pond

362

Myachkovskiy bul'var

Novocherkasskiy bul'var

283

Chernomorskiy bul'var

361

Moscow's 850th anniversary park 281

Chertanovkiye pond

269

315

Chertanovka river 462

307

412

Klyuchevaya basin

Brateyevskiy park

375 419

305 304

Teplyy Stan reserve 403/418

291

Zhulebinskiy forestpark 328

339

Ochakovka river Navershka river

333

Topolevaya park Lyublinskiy park

426

Vernadskogo alley

332

60th years of October avenue

Ramenki pond 496

Yeseninskiy bul'var

Volzhskiy bul'var

282

kapotniskiy forest

The main lane of the Kirov Park, August 1937

106

Swimmers on the Moscow rivers, 1920s

107

Parks and forests Kuzminkiy forestpark Losinyy Ostrov forestpark

Topolevaya park Lyublinskiy park

284 151

152

406/407

231

Kazenyy pond Yauza river

375

Zhulebinskiy forestpark

332

333 328

Ulyanovskie forestpark

Butovskiy forestpark 330

481 421 311

Kuzminskiy forestpark

108

500m

109

500m

399

161 175

Rublevskiy park 367

296

Moscow river Moscow river

159

158

Sadovniki park

Bolshoy Sadovyy pond

Bittseviskiy forestpark 403/418

Moskovskoy Forestpark

475

Terletskiy Forestpark Izmaylovo Park

069/072 073

Ochakovka river

Raketnyy bul'var

092

Kibalchicha street 503

Putyayevskieye pond 233 154

226

Sokolniki Park

362

Yauza river

Yegerskiy pond 160/242

Kuskovskiy Forestpark

Troparevskiy reserve

110

500m

334

111

500m

Reserve Krylatskiye Hills

Penyaginskaya park

416/490

346/347/369

Troitskiy forestpark Pobedy park

Ochakovka river 482 510

503

365

Berezovaya Roshcha park 113

Izhorskiy park 501

Fileviskiy park

Samorodinka river 362 021/089

Moscow river

Troparevskiy forestpark

492

093

105

358

364

Voroshilovskiy park

Troparevskiy reserve 121

Shmelevkiy forest

50th Anniversary of October park

Gagarinskiy park

Dzhamgarovskiy park

338

MKAD 292 461 500

Korobkovo garden

208

Leninskiy forest

479

463

Chobotovskaya forest

Perovskiy Park

494/499

188

269

Novogorskiy forestpark

Veteranov park

Nezhinskiy park

Vorontsovskiy park 078 471

409

082

M. S. University botanical garden 452

424 423 508

Dmitrovskiy park

147 150

125

Dubki Park

Pryamikova park

500m

517

Novoposelkovaya park

113

500m

Streets and boulevards

Borovika park

Dyusseldorsďż˝kiy park Strastnoy bul'var

261

061/062

Rozhdestvenskiy bul'var Sretenskiy bul'var 059/060

262

Chistoprudnyy bul'var

Donetskaya street 264

Bratislavskiy park

053 012/013

Tverskoy bul'var

199

Myachkovskiy bul'var

Novocherkasskiy bul'var

283

Pokrovskiy bul'var

048

Moscow's 850th anniversary park

018

281

Gogolevskiy bul'var

Moscow river

462

Brateyevskiy park

114

Panďż˝ilov street

Altufeuskiy pond

Novoyasenevsky avenue

124 404/405

Marshala Biryuzova street

Lianozovskiy forestpark

167

438

Lianozovskiy park

132

Yasnogorskaya street

440 444

410

420 378

Berzarina street

166/168

Altufyevskoye highway

Yasenevskiye forestpark

129/134/141/142

081

Zhitnaya street

436

454

Navershka river 276

Shchukino park

Shchukino district

Gorky park

197

434

336

Sadki pond

MKAD

VDNKh

196

Academician Korolyov Street

504

091

474

Kosmonavta Kamanova square

Leningrad Avenue

Dubovaya forest

Volzhskiy bul'var

217

219

Zvezdnyy bul'var

114

500m

115

500m

374

076

271

Moscow University botanical garden

127

Savelovskogo Vokzala square

Borovskoye highway

128 272

065

Graden ring

Karetnyy park

Novoslobodskaya street

268

064

070

Raketnyy bul'var

Yamskogo street

Vernadskogo alley

518 519

356/422

120

Ramenka river

Novopodmoskovny lane

Turistskaya street

Krupskoy street

Chicherina street

Miuss Square

210 206/213

002

514 430/505

Yana Raynisa bul'var 357

Leninskiy alley

340

238

Garibaldi street

Yeseninskiy bul'var Nemanskiy park

Khvoynaya park

130/468

388

003

Festivalnyy Park

377

Marshala Katukova street

60th years of October avenue

443

Stroginskiy bul'var

433

244/253

Generala Karbysheva bul'var

245

252

Aviamotornaya street

442

435

Verkhnyaya Khokhlovka street

426

Dmitriya Ulyanova street 447

339

Taynitskiy garden

Aleksandrovskiy garden

396

Serpukhovskaya square

Serpukhovskiy Val street

322

402

30th anniversary of Victory park

028/033

Tishinskaya Square

162

030

Sirenevyy bul'var

1905 park

Kvasnogvardeyskiye pond

179

036 010

Izmaylovskiy bul'var

Krasnaya Presnya park

201 176

184 229 180

116

174 173 171/172

500m

Chernomorskiy bul'var

361

Novyy Arbat street

Stalevarov street

117

500m

10km 039

326/393 023

491

Zhivopisnaya bay

026

488

TroitseLykovskaya ďż˝loodplan

391

251 402

051

031 035

489

Bolshoy Novodevichiy pond

275/279

Moscow River

259

1km

Komsomolskiy alley

154

016 020

Youza river

Setun river

371

389

165

223

448

058

131

246

233

462

Brateyevskiy park

118

Dovzhenko pond

497

494/499

Setun river reserve

119

Verkhniy Golovinskiy pond Bolshoy Golovinskiy pond

103

137 102 140

368

202

182 191

Chermyanka river Likhoborka ecologic park

Serebryano-Vinogradnyy pond

Likhoborka river

Bolshoy Grafskiy pond

353

Mazilovshiy pond

287 303

143

354

118 116

Cheremushkinskiy pond

324

Komeyevskiye pond

313

Severnoye Tushino Park

520

515

256 314

098

090

319

Rogozhskoye pond Kirovogradskiye pond

507

096

Samad Vurgun pond 500m

511

Reservoir Khimki basin 297 291

Tsaritsynskiye pond

509

Borisovskiy pond

307

Skhodnya river

315

304 427

Gorodnya river

516

Chertanovka river

120

121

Putyayevskieye pond

Altuďż˝ievskoe highway

131

Dmitrovskiy district

Bibirevo district

ghway

way high rov Dmit

Severnoye Medvedkovo district

Ostas hkov skoe hi

471

A MK

Districts analyzed

080 075

Timiryazevskiy district Ostankinskiy district

y hwa v hig itro Dm

ety evo s

tre et

217

rem

Aeroport district

She

096

Len

ing

rad

090

Preobrazhenskoye district

ave nu

156/234

Vostochnoye Izmaylovo district

hway e hig

Izmaylovskiy bul'var

vsko elko

171/172/173/174

Sch

Shchukino district 113

202

a kay ays

Khoroshevskiy district

vom Per

021/089

en m nk ba m

Basmanny district

ay ae

stre

s ra

yb no

061/062

Krasnoselskiy district

Sre

ten

skiy

059/060

187/228

var Basmanny district

op ist

Zele

Val street

ree

Zemlyanoy

Mok

Garden Ring

244/253

252

y hwa v hig asto

058

Perovo district

Entu

085

024

Balchug

ae ay

448

Lefortovo district Tagansky district

051

t Ku

274

Arbat district

u Ra

ven vA uzo

488

hov aya st

447 007/025

489

ar l'v

035

u aven nyy

031

Ivanovskoye district

012/013

yy dn

Presnenskiy district

all

ay ighw ov h ziast

Entu

bul'

Tverskoy district

015

r 'va ul

Narod

skiy distric ine

ov sk

nogo

Kuu s

Meshchan

Opolc

093

ky ovs mit

158

159

Izmaylovo district

heni ya st

reet

444

eet str

Dorogomilovo district

ye ch

vi de

ya ka

497

Khamonviki district

s ov

ďż˝il

o ov 026

e re

Troparevo-Nikulino district 397 494/499

Donskoy district

r aven

Aminevskoe highway

464 339

po l av enu

y le

Seb asto

60 ye

Leninsky avenue 426

ars of

Octobe

Gagarinskiy district

Nagatinskiy district

Lomonosovskiy district 353

s ya ska

et Lublin stre

lo Ko

423/424

tre

Akademicheskiy district

457

261

Maryino district

Pr ofs oy u

ay as

tre et

Obruchevskiy district

362

M Passage number 5467

Obruchevskiy district

Kapotnya district 280 403/418

Microdistrict life in 1972

124

Winter jim class in the micro-district, 2007

125

1st RING

way igh 252

Presnenskiy district

vh sto

ia tuz

244/253

e km an

Troparevo-Nikulino district 497

Kuus in

treet

Arbat district

Krasnoselskiy district

096

Le lle y

113

ky a

Troparevo-Nikulino district

397

3rd RING

035

090

tr ee

hy e

026

494/499

Khamonviki district

Tagansky district

evi c

da ven

iy as

058

ovo d

gra

y alle

ky ovs mit

nin

oy Val s treet

st re e

ena s

Arbat district

Zemlyan

ay a ďż˝il m os M

024

051

Garden Ring

059/060

Meshchanskiy district 004

en Ri

Gard

Sretenskiy bul'var

007/025

Mira avenue

093

ov sk

Mok

021/089

hova ya s tree t

Tverskoy district

031

Khoroshevskiy district

e ya ska

1929

012/013

ar ul'v

u sh

061/062

Lefortovo district

yb no

st tra

dny

Arbat district

039

pr u

r 'va ul

sto Ch i

447

Basmanny district

Op ol Na

ro d

444 Shchukino district

ay ighw

2nd RING

eh sko inev

Donskoy district

489

rs ye a 126

Basmanny district

Dorogomilovo district

sto ba Se 353

464 Akademicheskiy district

la ve nu e

er tob Oc of rs ye a

015

274

339

488

Oc tob

en ov sk

ave nu e

ay ae

t Ku

av en

nu Ave v o uz

ba nk m

en t

1972

Akademicheskiy district 127

Akademicheskiy district

av en ue

lle y

Le ni ns ky

ky a Le ni ns

423/424

426 Gagarinskiy district

Schelkovskoe highway

Lomonosovskiy district

156/234

Vostochnoye Izmaylovo district

158

Preobrazhenskoye district

479

Obruchevskiy district

Vostochnoye Izmaylovo district

Zelenyy avenue

Vostochnoye Izmaylovo district

171/172/173/174

Pro

261

fsoy

uzn

Izmaylovskiy bul'var

aya st

085

159

403/418

n stre

Perovo district

ree t

Obruchevskiy district

Ivanovskoye district

Lubli

Konkovo district way igh

ov h iast

Ent

Maryino district

408

187/228

Nagatinskiy district

y Teply

391

aya nsk

075

362

y lle

a ky

n Le

Izmaylovo district

s in

202

eet str Timiryazevskiy district

128

m rvo Pe

Obruchevskiy district

129

tre

s ya ka

ays

lo Ko

Dmitrov highway

080

Stan

stree

Passage number 5467

Dmitrov highway

Dmitrovskiy district

280

471

Kapotnya district Bibirevo district

Altuďż˝ievskoe highway

141

130

131

Evolution of neighbourhood services

dwellings

Dwelling and services dwellings garages

garages

hospital

church dwellings

kiosks

Volumes pro�ile

Freely accessible and gated areas

post of�ice bar

school

museum

bank pharmacy

library

PRESENT SITUATION

bar bank post of�ice shops shops

kindergarten

post of�ice loundry

school

museum

canteen pharmacy

library

services: bank of�ices shops restaurant pharmacy

kindergarten

132

PLANNED SITUATION

100m

club canteen pharmacy

bar library shop laundry post of�ice

Ground �loors

133

50m

Evolution of neighbourhood services dwellings

dwellings

dwellings dwellings

garages

shop

Dwelling and services

shop

dwellings

school

Volumes pro�ile dwellings

dwellings

Freely accessible and gated areas school

bar supermarket

shops

supermarket

shops

library

bar bank post of�ice of�ices

PRESENT SITUATION

bank school

restaurant

pharmacy

bank

post of�ice bar

library

supermarket

laundry library club shop

shop

laundry canteen library club post of�ice garage works

PLANNED SITUATION

shop

club shop

canteen

134

post of�ice bar

Ground �loors 100m

135

100m

y: 25355.1321823

x:4049.01286779 y: 24812.9831501

Library 105 x:-257.14626904 y: 23980.465364

Library 144 x:4616.85516927 y: 23432.8763358

Library 109 108 x:1173.5877617 y: 22938.5299256

Library 519 x:-4927.39013342 y: 21190.9582459

Library 508 x:-9470.653225 y: 19790.2916538

Library 518 x:-4244.008475 y: 21362.5625756

Library 77 x:3900.50835 y: 21263.5353962

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Library 121 x:-283.41085 y: 23109.6045518

Library 513 x:-4054.97362425 y: 21860.8025169

y: 24913.2903359

Library 78 x:2179.20129526 y: 24203.8730708

Library 304 x:15304.4793326 y: -3692.29294454

Library 305 x:16299.02505 y: -3486.28530757

Library 282 x:18749.237399999998 y: -3501.02918028

Library 280 x:19173.8152973 y: -3745.11228832

Library 332 x:21755.348 y: 3512.55582476

Moscow Metro in 1935

138

Concert in the Myakovskaya station, 2011

139

435

440

580

435

444

1015 435

442

1740

435

113

580

13051305

437

725

290

251

356

435

290

1160

258

359 870

580

435

1015

306

725

435

316

435

259

422

431

378

1305

112 580

Varshavskaya

338

870

438

Baumanskaya

295 285

89 21

124

580

Kozhukhovskaya

Universiteit

Polezhaevskaya

Oktyabrskoye Pole

310

290 435

1595

496

435

Slavyanskiy Bulvar

Profsoyuznaya

Avtozavodskaya

Tagansko-Krasnop

Akademicheskaya

Prospekt Vernadskogo 502

426 360

257 580

870

349

725 580 1160

580

355 1015

402

580

500 1450

464

870

725

339

1160

353

1160

424

2030

494 499

Novye Cheremushki

Chertanovskaya

Rizhskaya

Prazhskaya

Park Pobedy

Shipilovskaya

340 492

322

361 409

435

145

870

315

435

416

290

145

435 290

1015 580

307

1305

435

870

313

1015

414

1305

319 314

417 497

Molodezhnaya

Ulitsa Akademika Yangelya

Konkovo

Proletarskaya

Timiryazevskaya

1160

148

311 870

325

580

290

318 312

1160

145 435

580 870

290

354 725

418

725

143

1015

580

435

463

348

140

425

580

725

Nagornaya

125

412 308

390

479

423

2030

370

357

1015

247

580

1740

725

141

Savelovskaya

Kolomenskaya

Shipilovskaya Krasnogvardeyskaya

Domodedovskaya

Kuzminki 395

Kolomenskaya

237 394

401

580

300 580

435

1015

196

290

580

294

435

288

302

435

1305

870

399

1015

580

870

290

870

460

336

435

290

127

1305

1740 1740

391

1305 1305

286

296

393

Mayakovskaya

242 160

2320

335

725

235

870

580

473

225

435

145

435

153

290

150

145

1740 1595

1160

290

227

1595

161

238

254 249

Aviamotornaya

255

1305

250

Skhodnenskaya

870

Maryino

512 514

262

580

253

244

870

520

1160

145

Vystavochnaya 32

1450

1160

261

505

290

580

515

580

Strogino 433

199

283 281

725

435

1450 1740

435

725

443

725

174

580

435

290

725

Zamoskvoretskaya

179

580

159 445

142

Pervomayskaya

145

197

725

488

377

2175

276

725 435

870

Arbatskaya

2175

Tekstilshchiki

580

517

Kiyevskaya

Chistye Prudy 435

580

264

277

192

232

1595

162

870

Bratislavskaya

157

63 580

329

435

169

1595

580

147

290

170

226 64

435 580

Shchelkovskaya

Belorusskaya

239 1305

435

Marksistskaya

Sokolniki

Ryazanskiy Prospekt

275

143

111 290

171

725 725

180

172

870

158

114

870

96 435

580

435

0 31

290

31 06

8 29

1015 870

7 28

3 30

435

870

580

28 95 290

1885 580

435 1015

435 1450

90 96

1015

29 7 11 0 5

725

29 1 2030

8 93 4

6 29 580

870

22 91 870

10 7

580

6 28

870 580

9 290

580

435 435

40 2

435 5843 0 5

46 5049

40 1 580

3 23 8

29 3

30 0 1015 725

92 0

28 8 46 0 870

4 39

435

1305 435

145

435

3 48 2

40 6612 580

580

25 7

24 7

137

140

1885

2030

129

1305

1885

1015

133

1015

10 2

132

1015

Zamoskvoretskaya

167 580

166 168

580

145

1740

136

146

1885

2175

1015

143

1450

469

725

870

725

1740

144

79 71

870

290

435

580

125

725 870

145

10 1

3190

3045

472

69 73

870

290

127

870

290

580

164

126

76 580

1305

208

392 327

212

14 53

447

145

870

435

580

449

870

400

2 220

203 246

435

580

290

39 580

290

1160

317

870

11 9 7

396

309

463

2030

145

210

207

454

580

1450

6 54

128

221

452 580

145

145 8 39

353

425 1015

351

10 8

215

101

206

145

435

209

101

214

290

580 435

464

116

354

1015

290

3335

131

145

474 435

580

145 8 6 21

435

725

352

1160

315

320

2610

870

290

174

870

435

145

219

145

397

339

355

417

407 406

145

870

314

319

2030

145

135

165

870

580

457 456

145 290

101

413

435

361

290

307

435

322

580

1305

325

1305 1160

211

580

870

451

870

101

426

101

313

580

130

159

101

217

870

101

116

324

290

308

1160

145 144

360

340

409

116

411

580

145

410

870

12 1

223

412 725

435

580

Sherpuskovo-Timiriazevskaya

139

358

130

4 5 40145

421

311

470

188

312 318

408

159

116

580

419

482

420

Kaluzhsko_Rizhskaya

145

6 1

294

461

725

292

580

435

302

435

174

145

304

580

145

199

290

725

305

145 261

261

304

580 870

262

264

282 280

330

2900

281

232

188

217

278

2320

283

725

1305

580

217

725

435

19 268 3

725

145

195

284

580

870 725

5 72

5 10 15

0 87

5 43

50 14

7 22 3

41 3

10 95

29 87

8 45 5

3 5

6 35 4

147

45 17

146 23

Sokolnicheskaya 1160

725

254

279 5

130

19 263 0 194

1740

192

277

391

130

2175

323 39 6

580

174

290 725

435

1450

259

1160

190 458

435

1450

290

145 145

14 668

290

255

435

Lublinskaya 57

246

870

149

290

725

147 150

258

290

435 435

435

870

725

580 1305

53 12 13

435

580

246 250 181

251

145

Kalinskaya

247

59 60

130

249 475 187 228

870

1160 1740

1305

184

189 88

2900

87 183

236 185

245

148

149

150

151

Main Bibliography and Filmography Baburov, A., and A. Ė. Gutnov. The Ideal Communist City,. New York: G. Braziller, 1971. Baker, Adele Marie. Consuming Russia: Popular Culture, Sex, and Society, since Gorbacev. N.p.: Duke UP, 1999.

James H. Bater, Privatization in Moscow, Geographical Review, Vol. 84, No. 2 (April, 1994), pp. 201-215 Benjamin, Walter, Enrico Ganni, Claudio Magris, Peter Szondi, and Giorgio Backhaus. Immagini Di Città. Torino: Einaudi, 2011. N. pag. Print.

Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations: Essays and Reflections, Unpacking my Library, Schoken, 1969.

Berry, Ellen E., and Anesa Miller-Pogacar. Re-Entering the Sign: Articulating New Russian Culture. N.p.: University of Michigan, 1995.

Borges, Jorge Luis. Labyrinths: Selected Stories and Other Writings. N.p.: New Directions, 1988. Butenko, Irene A. “Russia.” Free Time and Leisure Participation. Ontario: Cabi, 2004. 221-32.

Colton, Timothy J. Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis. Cambridge, MA: Belknap of Harvard UP, 1995.

De Magistris, Alessandro. Mosca, 1900-1950: Nascita Di Una Capitale. Milano: CLUP, 1994. Eco, Umberto. The Infinity of Lists: An Illustrated Essay. N.p.: Rizzoli, 2009.

Essaïan, Elisabeth. Moscou Portrait De Ville [numéro Spécial D’Archiscopie]. Paris: Cité De L’architecture Et Du Patrimoine, 2009. Farinelli, Franco. Geografia: Un’introduzione Ai Modelli Del Mondo. N.p.: Einaudi, 2003. Farinelli, Franco. L’invenzione Della Terra. N.p.: Sellerio, 2007. Print.

Fratini, Fabiola. Arcipelago Mosca: Dal Palazzo Dei Soviet a Ikea. Firenze: Le Lettere, 2007.

Greening, J. M. (1995). Ten years in the life of Russian libraries. International Information & Library Review, 27, 113-127

I Step Through Moscow. Dir. Georgiy Daneliya. 1964. Kontroll. Dir. Nimród Antal. 2003.

Kuzmin, Evgeny, From totalitarianism to democracy: Russian libraries in transition. (1993). American Libraries, 24, 568-570. Luna Park. Dir. Pavel Lungin. 1992.

Manguel, Alberto. A History of Reading. N.p.: Penguin, 1997. Manguel, Alberto. The Library at Night. N.p.: Yale UP, 2008.

Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears. Dir. Vladimir Menshov. 1980.

Moscow Institute of Architecture, Yuri Grigorian, and Alexander Pavlov. “The Inventory, Supplement to the Draft RUSSIA (№ 62, 4/2011).” N.p., n.d. Web.

O’Loughlin, John, and Vladimir Kolossov. “Moscow – Post-Soviet Developments and Challenges.” Moscow – Post-Soviet Developments and Challenges. Web. 01 May 2013. <http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pec/johno/pub/introduction.html>.

Raymond, B. (1979). Krupskaia and Soviet Russian librarianship, 1917-1939. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. Stalker. Dir. Andrei Tarkovsky. 1979. Taxy Blues. Dir. Pavel Lungin. 1990.

Virilio, Paul. Open Sky. N.p.: Verso, 1997. Print.

245

492

178

209

126

440

302

248

501

103

367

486

184 27

410

205

488

314

320

239 362

149

315

316

445

186

341

220 358

152

188

472

363

221

192

404

165

306

335

495

170 222

352

161

301

269 143 412

405 74

408

339

173 398

432 129

424 423

174

458

346

113

364

491

150

154

300

512

256

461

399

347

369

284

279

122

278

441

310

482

340

508

162

246 63

462

207

443

199

176

223

275

274

343

297

45 60 502

148

132

229

273

147

464

387 296

241

478

138

286

337

324

433

293

35 48

101

8 456

298

417

231

414

193 260 112

191

233

266

497

329

125

167

514

304

268

303

262 36

121

226

322

267 2

393

375

455

326

377 406

400

206

336

473

124

280

431

201

368

232

509

460 402

385

162

353 4

409

210

323 437

204

151 157

227

118

261

396

224

292

305

378

517

183

484

407

182

471

190

214

20 411

137

470

459

388 477

515

415

355

503

109 108

446

195

54 202

177

493

420

163

107