3620
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
ITHACA,
N. Y. 14853
I5ne Axts Library Sibley Hall
Cornell University Library
NK 3620.R36
1906
Lettering for draftsmen, engineers
3 1924 020 605 394
and s
The
original of
tiiis
book
is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright
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the United States on the use of the
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924020605394
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LETTERING FOR
Draftsmen, Engineers and Students A PRACTICAL SYSTEM OF FREEHAND LETTERING FOR WORKING DRAWINGS. BY
CHAS. W. REINHARDT, CKiEr Dbaftsman, Engineering Nbws.
TENTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. TWENTY-SIXTH
THOUSAND.
New York D.
:
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 1906.
s^^ Property o f
College of Architecture,; ÂŁofneJI
Univer^
Copyright, 1895.
D.
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY.
F R E F^ C E
.
In looking over the books on lettering, which have come under the writer's notice, he has found, that while
doing
full justice to
the principle of ornamentation and the theories governing the shaping of each
The need
has as yet attempted to treat lettering from a purely practical point of view. however, has been and set forth the proper
is daily
methods
experienced by
ter
readily be copied.
i.
e.,
work on
lettering,
draftsmen, and in the following pages the writer has endeavored to
most commonly committed.
same
The
letters exhibited are actual free-hand
In this respect the writer has made a radical departure from works of a similar charac-
which generally give ornate, carefuUy engraved alphabets, being of
ordinary printed type,
no author
of forming purely free-hand lettering in a simple, easily acquired way, giving, at the
time, the proper safeguards against the errors
work and can
many
of a practical
letter,
little
more use
to the average draftsman than
they can only be copied with a great sacrifice of time and patience.
The whole system
lined is the result of the writer's experience during years of practice on the staff of a leading technical journal
tended to be a thoroughly practical guide for doing the best class of work in the shortest possible time.
Bbooklyn, September, 1895.
CHAS. W. EBINHAEDT.
and
out-
is in-
PEEFAOE TO EIGHTH The encouraging
EDITION".
reception given to former editipns of this book has convinced the writer of the practical use-
fuhiess of the system of lettering which he advocates, and has induced
the scope of the book, making
The more useful
subject
it
of lettering,
him
to
add material which tends to enlarge
complete in eVery respect. as
applied to working drawings and the construction of
titles,
has been taken up
in detail, and the chapter devoted to lettering for purposes of photo-reproduction wiU, be found interesting
by many
readers.
Besides the extension of the text some twelve illustrations and three
have also been added, thus considerably enlarging the work, which, hand-book to those wishing to acquire the art of freehand
it is
full
hoped, will continue to prove
lettering in a simple
page plates a
desirable
and rational way. 0.
and
W.
E.
INCLINED LETTERING. TN
the following system of lettering no attempt has
been made to imitate any alphabet, and for
draftsman
is
all
ornate and elaborate lettering the
referred to
some one
well
form
and describe a type of
upon working drawings ;
of the
What
collections of this character.
to illustrate
one that
is
form of printed
special
rapidly
;
is
is
many
here intended
is
clear
its
simplest
and
under almost any reduction by photography. fact,
is
lettering that looks
reduced to
made and
published
especially designed for photo-reproduction.
distinct It
is,
in
With
the purpose of fairly treating the subject, the lettering
here illustrated has been reproduced without any attempt at
touching up or cleaning
such as should be used
The ordinary
in
when
it
is
actual freehand work,
general practice.
slanting and, further on, the upright
lettering are described in a
as
;
somewhat
detailed manner,
the draftsman once becomes proficient in form-
ing these two types properly,
it
will
then be a very easy
matter for him, to form also the more ornamental letters satisfactory.
The
clean corners
and bold
this tion,
is
first
requisite lines
especially necessary in
on the
and
of uniform strength,
work
as usually such apparently
filled-in
produce sharp,
to
is
photo-reptoduc-
for
unimportant things as
corners and uneven lines are greatly exaggerated
plate.
,
In Fig.
i
of doing this are shown.
the correct and incorrect ways It will
be well
at first, for
the
purpose of obtaining clean
corners,
One Stroke Letter/nq "^
^'^'^"^ 째^
One Stroke Letteri'nq
^nds, as exhibited on the
Incorrect
'^o''''^'^-
One Stroke Lettering Fig.
1
to
resort to the
'"^'^^'^l '""'^l''^
the lines outwards at their
third line of Fig.
i.
For
very large letters the writer finds
a
(Leonardt's 5 1 6 F.) most satisfactory
;
" ball-point "
pen
medium
sized
for
not less than
letters,
millimeters high, he uses Soen-
2
necken's No. 108 or 208, and Gillott's
No. 303, or Blanzy, Poure
All of these pens should be
pen.
small-sized letters,
for.
""
&
crow
Co.'s
broken-in
"
beginner.
A
quill
somewhat
slope of
I
to
down-strokes of the
2^
sufficient fof the
is
stems or
and ordinarily an angle of
letters,
before being applied to lettering; they should also be
45° with the horizontal will suffice for the up-strokes and
when using waterproof ink, especially Soennecken pens. The nibs of the pen should,
the axes of ellipses, excepting that of the letter " o."
frequently cleaned
"
the
The latter angle will have to be increased, of course, when the lettering is compressed, as shown in Fig. 2. In lower case letters, like "b" or "p," with parts extend-
dried-up particles of the ink to drop out from between
ing above or below the
them.
main body of the
the "
while
doing
against
'
paper, pencil guiding-lines will be indispensable to the
As
a
be worked back and
this,
to the type
slanting letter
dimensions,
which
rag,
soft
is
etc.,
process
forth
will
gently
cause
of lettering to be employed, the
the length of these parts
adapted to descriptive matter,
should be about 2-5 the
well
while the upright letter will contrast
total height
well with the former type used as reference letters or
sub-captions.
A
The
—a
trick only acquired
by
practice.
pen should be held pointed forward, as in ordinary
writing, and not sideways, as in lettering
on
Fig,
"
round writing."
In
tracing linen a sheet of black cross-section
paper divided to millimeters, such as given on detached plate (XII) accompanying
this
book,
will
be found useful
for indicating the proper spacing, .^lant, etc.
On
drawing
the body of
;
the letter representing 3
2.
uniform pressure should be brought to
bear upon the pen
letter,
parts of the total height.
The exception part
less
example. rect
by
forms the
correct
beneath.
is
the
total
In
the
of
letters,
writer,
" t,"
than
"b"
height
in
method
lower case
being
are
shown
of
forming
or
in
constantly brackets,
each
letter
is
" h,"
following, the
illustrations
as
which
one for
incor-
observed
and is
thd
shown
Lower Case The
letters "
n
"
and
" m," Fig. 3, should
be made
with almost sharp upper corners
"
;
u
"
is
best
formed by three strokes, as
in
this
way
Fig.
made
the straight lines, which should be
can be then joined by a lower curve. the
first
letter
"r" its
at
the
error
this letter lies in
end.
In
and giving the
The
w
principle as the " v."
making the
horizontal. in
making
" is
letter
the
formed on the
In putting in the short hori-
for
Fig. 6.
be applied to the j
letter
"h," Fig.
" is practically
the
very
little
Fig.
5.
pressure upon the pen, as otherwise the ink
re-
down n" may also
rule laid "
and the down-stroke
as for the " f " revers-
Make bold, oblong dots over the "i " and "j." The third stroke of the letter " k," Fig. 7, should be
ed.
vertical
and begin
at
about the
middle of the second stroke.
In
constructing the letter " x," care
cal or
should be taken to use
6,
same
" t/'
great care
The
forming the
should be taken to have the
5,
shown
any considerable
duction.
for the "
the "f "
;
with
would come out with a heavy black knob
zontal cross-line of the Fig.
space
the
slightly
letter " f," start
down about one
make
of
part
an up-stroke,
at top in
curving the two
lines
letter "
be purely
should
and these
an angle of
The second
impossible.
In forming the
with
The common
same
corners
stroke nearly vertical,
about 45째
appearance of a
clean
in brackets
3.
first,
and the second
Fig. 4,
spread at the intersection of the two lines and
a curve extending
positions are secured for
make
will
curved at
parallel
letter " v," Fig. 4,
Letters.
first
7.
stroke either verti-
leaning slightly backwards, and the second stroke
ought to cross the to
Fig.
first
a
little
above
produce a clean intersection
it
its
centre
may be
in
order
well to
make
;
the
latter
stroke
Fig. 8, should be
two
in
The
parts.
drawn on the
" y,"
letter
lines of the " v,"
and
from the point of the angle
Fig
8.
tail
^"
exact
upper down-stroke, terminating, curve to the
to avoid the
left,
would otherwise form In
letter
this
the
is
if
line
with
the
desired, in a slight
little
blot of ink which
bottom of the stroke.
the second stroke
The "z"
shown.
at
should be drawn
the
best drawn
may be in
modified as
one stroke, stop-
flatter
For the advantages of
than the opposite one.
so doing see Fig.
9.
In these letters the down-stroke
should be at exactly the
proper
angle, rather in-
creasing
this
angle at the be-
Fig. 9.
ginning, for the learner almost invariably
take of drawing this stroke too slanting.
may
against this error, the beginner
makes the mis-
To further guard
slightly curve the
ping the pen every time before changing direction. The
end of the down-stroke towards the
left,
letter " o," Fig. 9, is
the angle at the bottom of the " a "
" d,"
produced by two curved strokes,
with their ends sufficiently bent, forming a perfect the axis of which
The ters,
lies in
ellipse,
the direction of the down-stroke.
joining of these two curves, in this and similar
can be effected very neatly after a
The
little
obvious reasons
;
made
and especial care must be taken lie
at
to
For the purpose of increasing the width be somewhat
its
d" and
With
practice
these Fig.
in-
verted letters " q."
an angle of 45째 with
oval, the right-hand curve should
as long as possible in
be shaped exactly as
of the enclosed space at the bottom of the down-stroke
and the
hand curve.
and the down-
by turning very short with the lower leftThe letters " p " and "b," Fig. 10, should
at the top than at the bottom, for
have the axis of these ovals the horizontal.
straight part
g " should be made
practice.
ovals of the following letters should be
somewhat narrower
let-
stroke of the "
and
thus widening
letters
can
also
be made to look well by
10.
using the oval of the letter " o."
The
letter "c," Fig. 11, is
care being taken to have
its
formed with one stroke,
general direction parallel to
The
the down-stroke.
'-'
way, and the upper loop
e "
commenced
is
formed by a second stroke
is
apex
;
the rest
is
If
from
of the
a very short curve to
left
right
little
at
down
its
into
crook upwards.
part of this letter should be nearly horizontal. is
to
be produced,
constructed with one stroke and a the upper curve
somewhat
In the ordinary letter a
it
ogee curve, the
pen
and then descending
flatter curve,
tracing-cloth saturated with ink
and deposit them
outlined (employing two strokes) simplest and quickest
experience
making
this
is
clog up and not
will
way
show.
It
is
therefore
by
of producing a clean will at first
at the
The method
side of the stroke, necessitating erasures.
difficult
separate stroke at the top
will either
wise will in turning detach minute particles of paper or
may be
shorter than the lower one.
first
zontal direction from right to left
give the required strength of line at one stroke or other-
carefully joined on, turned
a very narrow letter
that while turning in a hori-
fact,
again at an angle of 45°.
a neat ogee curve and finished by a
The middle
the
into the
" s " is IT-
made necessary by
with the axis of the loop
The beginning •^'S-
same
in the
far the
letter, as
be a somewhat
matter to the beginner to lay the main axis of
letter
with the down-stroke, but this
parallel
is
nevertheless an essential point and should not be lost sight
qf.
Capital Letters. As the
in the rule laid
capital
letters
down
for the lower case letters,
will generally
be
five
spaces high.
Sharply defined clean corners are again necessary, and to secure this the beginner
may
find
it
advantageous to
curve the upper and lower ends of the down-strokes a little
outwards.
-The
letter
strokes, with
almost
vertical.
"A," the
Fig. 12, should
be made
in three
second
The cross-
stroke should be placed low
—about the second
middle of the
space
from
the
Fig.
bottom.
The
1
2.
short
third
stroke of the " of the
letter,
E"
should be slightly above the center
and should not be too
down-strokes of the actly parallel,
letter "
I " is
by a lower case
two short
horizontal strokes of even length and projection
added
Fig.
first
"K"
13,
at the top of the
of
the
of the down-stroke, and
and
often
the case, a hardly noticeable crook
is
,
at
,
L" can
easily
the
structed precisely
same stroke of
they should be a
"J," Fig.
is
14,
commenced
as a perfectly
is
straight down-stroke to the top of the lower space; then it
turns to the
the base
the
first
space.
and
The
left
down
be
con-
for the cor-
with the exception that
letters,
narrower
in proportion.
The " Y"
;
the "
Z"
is
made
in
one stroke, with the axis
direction
of the
finally rises to the top
of the
trifle
lines laid
to
of the letter in
left in
line,
it.
formed with two strokes without any lower crook to
the
a gentle curve, tangent to
upon the
responding lower case
letter " E."
The
will
15.
are
be made with one
stroke, analogous to the forming of the
both ends
The letters shown in Fig, i5
should join the Fig.
The
If
downwards
improve
letter
the third stroke should join the second nearly one space
higher up.
space.
not perfectly straight, as
if it is
second space from the bottom, and
letter "
the two
should be neatly balanced on top
The second
bottom. stroke
T"
stroke of the "
tal
may be
to the top
first
;
may be made slightly wider at the bottom than at the top. The letter " _N " is also formed by drawing the two parallel strokes first. The horizon-
If the capi-
"1,"
parallel lines first
desired, this letter
and the horizontal stroke should be made
to be followed
two
other strokes should join at the top of the
should be ex-
13,
as directed for the third stroke of the " E." tal "
The two
short.
H," Fig.
ate strokes, putting in the
pig_
"
M"
is
made
down-
stroke.
,4,
found
with four separ10
easier, this
Fig.
Z
"
can be
6
made with
three strokes.
With
practice the letters "P,"
"B" and
"D"can
ter should
each
be formed with two strokes, with the curves terminating
case
as shown.
is
In forming the
two curves of the
letter " B,"
begin at the top, and after joining the stem, return exactly
on the horizontal while the ink
is
" c."
be proportionately narrower than the lower In
required,
making the
and
"
this letter
G," a somewhat wider ellipse
is
most
easily
made with two
strokes; the second horizontal stroke should be about
yet moist and complete
one-half of the
The space enclosed by the lower curve should be somewhat larger than that in the upper oneThe curve of the " D " should be parallel with the downstroke in its middle third, but it may sometimes be advisable to make the lower part of the " D " a shade wider than the upper part. The first and second strokes of the the lower curve.
"
R"
the Fig.
"
"C," Fig. 17,
completing the
is
"
Q"
in joining the
O," though this
ellipse.
The
17.
should be an almost perfect
two curves.
capital
ellipse, special care being
The
third stroke of the
should begin about the middle of the second space,
The
and extend one space below the base.
formed with one stroke, nearly
ellipse of the letter "
O
"
taken
are identical with the letter " P."
The
width of
total
can be formed, for small-sized lettering,
in
letter
two
"
S
"•
strokes,
or with an additional stroke, as shown, for larger letters.
let-
Numerals. As
a rule, numerals should occupy the same height as capital
or
five
is
slightly
modify
18.
this rule.
When the numeral
proximity with " ;
I
"
or "
1,"
otherwise,
sented by a simple down-stroke.
spaces,
fractions
in
short up-stroke at the top
letters,
it
it
is
well to use a
may be repreis commenced
The "4"
with the stroke inclined at an angle of 45°, terminating
though the use of Fig
used
may
at the
second space from bottom and then turning sharply
into the horizontal.
"i," Fig. 18, 11
The down-stroke should
intersect
;
the horizontal in such horizontal to the
left
manner
son the
as to leave about 3-5 of the
The
of the down-stroke
" 7 "
is
The
angle of 45째.
little
of the third space, and then curving into ellipse,
with an axial angle of 45째.
numeral
" 3 "
is
should be drawn in one stroke,
beginning as with the " 7 " to a point a
which can be made
in
ought " 5 " is
to
Fig.
Another type of the
slight
be a perfect
commenced
ellipse of the " 3 " " 2 "
one
Fig.
ellipse, like
the
is
19.
capital "
O."
The
crook at
The
down-stroke running into the base
line,
in
two
on
where a sharp
latter,
working
The
quired.
rest of the text.
the axis of the ellipse.
For that
The
lower part
The
curve, using a
finished
by two other
loop should always be
The numeral
ellipse at the
top is
is
"
9
"
nearly
assumed,
point of the ellipse and
initial
they
chief requisite
except that
point
is
terminates with a
drawings,
they are
initial
its
one stroke when the down-stroke
Though Roman numerals
is
its
The lower
strokes.
made in a horizontal direction. The " 6," Fig. 20, the "p," is commenced Hke
turn
stroke,
somewhat
fuller
curve then that employed in lower case ''g."
an axial angle of 45째, and then turning shortly into a
somewhat beyond
lower end, and
larger than the upper one.
completing the
top of the fourth space, nearly completing an oval with
20.
its
which, beginning at the
with the down-stroke, ending in the
and the horizontal upper stroke.
made
finished in
can be constructed by one stroke, beginning at the
Fig.
commenced with an ogee
curves, as shown.
19,
same
the
an axial angle of 45째, joining
figure " 8 " is
somewhat
"o"
in
with the bottom of the incomplete second stroke.
of an
strolce also.
The
made, and the pen then returns
ellipse with
shown,
is
where a stop
and, gradually turning to the right, nearly completes an
below the top
a portion
very short, curving to the right
is
the second stroke descends nearly to the base,
best
formed with one stroke, the down -stroke being on an " 3 "
stroke
first
neat
in
are
may sometimes be is
to
as
rea12
the
so form
them
re-
that
ap-
distinguished from the
is
seldom employed
They should be
pig. 21.
of the
same height
Arabic numerals, and short horizontal strokes
—
should be used with them, In the modified forms
noticed that
all
indicated
as
shown
Fig.
in
in Fig. 22
it
will
second a straight down-stroke, tangent to and touching
21.
the curve.
be
The numerals
the letters and numerals are based upon
The second
mands. " r "
stroke of the
in
stroke of the " n
"
u
the
"
is
here
first,
made
" 5 "
and the second
and third strokes of the "m." in
a down-stroke, laid at an angle of 45°, turning sharply
with one stroke, with
tary ellipse, as are also the second "
begins at the upper part in an ellipse and ends
to the right in a horizontal line.
really a part of the elemen-
is
" 2 "
The
the general form of the letter " o," modified to suit de-
follow similar lines of construction.
The
and
ellipse.
two strokes
" 6,"
In the
its
encircling " 6 "
and
The
" 3 "
is
formed
lower curve, as also that of the
somewhat more than " 9
"
half of the
care must be taken to have
the curved down-strokes only tangent to the respective
a down-stroke with the curve attached, and the
and not cutting
ellipses,
off a portion of the latter.
UPRIGHT LETTERING. Upright lettering for reference letters, for
captions.
deemed
In
is
employed most advantageously
is
designating lines of section, and
some
instances however,
it
will
may be
etc.,
to
be given, though, as a
answer
The
this
purpose very
rule, the slanting lettering
well.
relative height of the letters
ought to remain
the same as that of the inclined lettering.
advisable to use uprights also for such descrip-
tive matter, dimensions,
to
which some prominence
The down-
strokes should be perfectly vertical, and in order to pro13
duce
this effect properly,
to form the habit of
somewhat would be
will
making the
be best for the beginner letters at first lean
these letters are being executed in a horizontal direction
over
to
have them lean the opposite way.
number
in
some
as
is
required, as
many portions
at variance
of
of strokes
is
shown
employed
viously described.
in Fig. 23, the
letters are as a rule
than those of the slanting type. the
"
n" and the two
last
strokes of the letter
more
full
upward
off the corner at the top,. making
than
in
the
it
23.
two down-strokes with a
"a" and
" g,"
notice-
which, though
may
be employed.
also
In
constructing the
two slanting strokes ought
same angle with the
make
to
The beginner
vertical.
will
the in-
variably construct the second stroke at a greater incline
"m"
than the
are
direction
first,
habit, until
somewhat
and
after
will
some
do well to guard against practice the'
hand
will
this
become
accustomed to form the point of juncture of the two strokes equidistant from their starting point.
letters.
"
w V
" is
composed
The
letter
two somewhat narrowed
practically of
s.
The'
as usual,
connecting well shaped curve.
be especially
with the ordinary gothic print, look fully
letter " v," the
The letter "u" is made in three Fig.
will
stroke of
corresponding slanting
strokes
which
Letters.
shown,
made wider
The second
started with a very slight curve in an
rounding
same number
as in the slanting lettering pre-
The
fact
much
as well.
Lower Case In the letters
a
possible,
letters are again simplified as
able in the lower case
It will
of the uprights a comparatively
of strokes
The
or nearly so.
to the left at the top, as the natural tendency
be noticed that greater
it
letter
"1"
(Fig. 24)
is
sometimes constructed
when used at the side of is made as a down-stroke
with a lower crook to the right,
the
capital letter " I," otherwise
If preferred,
however, the ordinary form of gothic lower case " u," as
pure and simple. 14
it
The second
stroke of the "
r "
starts
"
from the top of the second space upwards as a very
explained above.
sHght curve, similar to the one forming
stroke
second stroke of
by three strokes right,
the
;
first
a
full^
the second
shown, thereby
parts, as
preventing the forming of a clot of ink at the intersection
The upper part of letter " y The second stroke may either be
two strokes.
of those
third
executed with a slight angle terminating in a vertical
stroke should be
direction, or in a perfectly straight inclined line, according
made sufficiently prominent.
to the
and should be made
easier,
forms a perfect " v."
in
reached.
The
The
first
stroke
nearly the
down
first
left
is
one apparently more inclined than necessary
Fig.
in
26, are as
di-
the
'^'S*
^"•
similarly at the right, thus prevent-
forming of a point
at
the
top
and bottom
The second (right hand) stroke of the ellipse ought to be made apparently more curved than necessary, as that portion is invariably made too flat by the beginner. The ellipses should be made quite full. The vertical
letter
constructed with- two strokes, making the
shown
The
and terminates
junctures.
^'E- ^S-
The
starting point should
terminal
towards
ing the
gins at about the centre of the second one.
as
curve starts in an
rection
to
be-
and
almost horizontal
space.
third stroke
of the letter
points carefully.
latter
of letter "k"'(Fig. 26)
should extend
ellipses
initial
should be almost a semicircle and one space high.
The second
its
is
usual constructed in two strokes, joining the respective
If
however, a second right hand stroke, form-
may be employed.
;
"z"
be vertically above the point of turning into the horizontal.
one stroke, being is
Letter
draftsman's individual taste.
usual formed in one stroke
ought to extend two spaces below the
ing the curved portion,
"x"
two
very
horizontal
perfectly straight until the point of curve
The
in
is
The
line
found
may be made
the pen
being joined by the second or main stroke.
letter " j "
base
best formed
is
very short curve to the
Fig. 24.
The
part of the
first
Letter "f "
letter " n."
When
first
for reasons 15
down-strokes of
letters " a,"
"
d
"
and
"
g
"
Letters " c " and "
ought to run
s " (Fig.
28) are started with a short
the upper end of letter " c
tangent to their ellipses so that the thickness of the
curve towards the right
second curve
should be slightly more curved than the lower one
The curved
at the joint
(Fig.
not increased.
left
almost or nearly the
full
"g"
width of the
27) offers no novel features. in the
If
"
and
"
b
''
ink, the
if
too
is
full,
involuntarily brought
in a
in
turning
somewhat greater
exception
reach one
space
case, the
upper part of
fill
letters " c
of
the
"
the allotted space, or flat-
lower
letters
upon the pen,
are, as a rule, 5
will
their
appearance, as shown.
If at all
These
The completed
all
injure
ovals of
form a perfect
uneven, the lower oval should be
made more prominent than
the upper one.
Letters.
spaces high, with the
line.
28
help matters and otherwise not at
ward^
figure " 8."
resulting
should be
Q," the appendix of which ought to
below the base
Fig.
letter " s " should, as in the inclined one,
Capital
of the "
constructed in three strokes.
appear leaning backFig- 27.
badly proportioned lo^yer end.
Upright capitals
is
should not precisely
making those
may be
into the lower' portion of the curve a
pressure
still,
portions of the curve,
an opposite direction, as shown, as
in
"e"
sometimes the
" e "
tening
completed by a third stroke, running
is
letter
otherwise they should appear too narrow, a slight
the pen, while
lower part
curve
as
and
" of the curve of letters " p and " b," should contain too
much
The
letter. If,
of construction of letters " q," " p
;
"
the form of the perfect oval should be predominant in this
letter.
The mode rounding
is
portion or the fourth stroke of letter
extends to the oval of this
of juncture
;
made narrower
responding lower case
The second
letters 16
in
proportion than the cor-
letters.
stroke of letter
"A"
(Fig.
29),
should
;
be made rather more inclined than the
"
F
The must be made
beginner.
the "
first
strokes
first
of letters
"
letter "
one by
E"
below the
and
of the
two letters will be painfully noticeable, especially in the
letter.
is
The
length of the short third stroke in the " F,"
result
the latter
begins with a vertical
Flg, 29. if
an oval or inclined stroke
attempt, however, to lay
is
stroke,
We
to follow.
down any
definite rule
not
on
this
draftsman's
eye and good
taste.
Letter "
best formed in one stroke, care being taken to
nearly
letters
the
between
its
length of
again, as in the case
and the succeeding
vertical part
letter.
part of letter "J " (Fig. 31) ought to be a
well shaped semicircle, beginning
and ending not above
the middle of the second space.
The second and
"M"
To
attain this
converge
second
at the
line,
third
and
be at an even distance from the
end
exactly,
some
make
draftsmen
will per-
"
is
The
obvious, that by unduly lengthening that
is
is
Z
L"
"
be vertically
vertical strokes.
haps find
especially the inclined portion perfecdy straight.
The
It
this point should, of course,
point, as the determining factor in eachi case should be
the
letter
F," determined by the succeeding (lower case)
strokes of letter
longer, will
"
formed
point of the second stroke.
initial
The curved
(lower case) letter if
in a well
portion of the letter, an unproportionally wide space will
generally depending on the shape of the succeeding
shorter,
should
the horizontal portion of the
perfectly vertical or leaning back-
wards, as even the slightest inclination forward in these
" F."
K"
it
Fig.
easier to put in the
two
31.
verticals first
and the
comprising Fig. 30 are constructed upon
oblique strokes afterwards,' as in the construction of the
same
letter "
N."
The
angles in those two letters should be
principles given in
sharply defined, the strokes forming them ending in a
the case of the cor-
clearly cut,
responding slanting capital letters.
The
Fig.
termination
horizontal
30.
though somewhat blunt point. stroke of letter
"
T
"
ought
balanced upon the main or down-stroke.
of the last stroke of 17
The second to
be evenly
;
The
construction of the letters
shown
in
Fig.
guided by the principle that the rate of
chiefly
32
forming of
is
The two
inclina-
the
Fig. 32.
lines
In the case of
"V"
and
"
W
is
"
care should be taken
the second
that only the center
fully
small
"
illustration.
and
W"
Fig.
32a.
strokes
fourth
made apparent The
is
the
of
ought theoretically to be made
parallel
but as
to
the
the
second
latter
and
third;
point
pjg
first
one, the fourth stroke should
made more slanting to correspond with The reverse mode of procedure would result in shaped letter, as shown in brackets. Letter again be
made in two strokes, be made in the second stroke
or, if
usually
first,
continuing
it
the
first.
a badly "
X"
preferable, a stop
side,
at the top of the
right angles
at
third
"
D"
the curve,
The
is
stroke of
as
a
first,
second,
letter "
B
stroke
begins
"
perfectly
"B"
of letter
the
care-
it
If
a slight
"
ought to be
a
enclosing
The second
the
stroke
a hori-
should happen
its
lower portion.
sagging near
in
slightly
"
forming of the second stroke of
applies also to letter " R;" at
straight
begins at the
should begin and terminate
rule given for the
The two
may
point
its
of curve
vertical strokes of letter "
U
of "
third inclined
the
are
second.
made
first
a right hand carefully formed semi-circular curve con-
shortly before crossing the
on the other
constructed in two strokes,
is
Fig. 33.
zontal direction. in
to the base line.
^„
curve
of
of letter
32^
should join on the
down
larger area than the second one.
imom^
two strokes are involuntarily made
more upright than the
The
line.
letter
of intersection.
from there the second stroke
first
stroke again
the
in
(Fig. 33)
"
round-
and joining
This
;
one beginning
two extremes, either
point.
Y
in a vertical direction
"P"
Letter
the formation of a vertical short end or the reverse, a
first
continued
ing the curve
flattened-out
of ink at the point
inclined parts of letter "
of the inclined strokes join at the base or top
lines of the ruling, thus avoiding
lump
top of the second space
tion of the slanting strokes should be uniform in each letter.
a
avoiding thus the
nects the two. 18
;
Letter "
C"
(Fig. 34)
is
made with two
simply a repetition of the lower case
The second
narrower.
strokes,
letter^
stroke of letter "
G
"
and
way outlined the downward stroke is
cute the second stroke neatly in the
is
suggestion of a separate vertical
relatively
made.
follows the
The mode
"Q"
of construction of the ellipses of the
outline of the
"O"
ellipse up-
case letters
wards
order to lessen the chance of a point forming at the top
nearFig-34
"Q"
there a short
stop
is
;
differ
made and
the pen point
is
carefully
The
oval.
is
that of the lower
shifted diagonally in
third
stroke
of letter
begins as shown, and extends one space below.
The second stroke of
pushed up-
somewhat from
the point of juncture
and bottom of the
space
a
ly
and
letter "
"
S
should for a very short
space run perfectly horizontal.
The
shown.
forming of the lower case
otherwise apply to this
too
letter also.
wards
in
a vertical direction, terminating that stroke as
The final horizontal stroke should not be made short. To those who- might find it difficult to exe-
letter
rules given for the
Numerals. Upright numerals ought to be five spaces
high.
Figure
"
i
"
like the inclined ones,
shown, whence
may
given above and illustrated by Fig.
again,
if
used
in
it
assumes a horizontal
direction.
-^la
The
rule
on the forming of
proximity with
a clear cut angle, applies to the top part of this figure espec-
capital letter"!"
ially.
or "1,"
lower
be
The lower
terminal point of numeral
formed
case
in a perfectly
con-
of the horizontal portion.
Fig. 35.
structed with a very short upstroke.
Numeral
"
4
"
started with a perfectly straight inclined downstroke, as
its 19
construction
is
should,
be vertically below the center The upper part of numeral "2"
figure,
ought to form portion of a flattened oval.
is
"7"
clearly
shown
The mode
of
in the illustration. Fig. 35.
Numeral "5" nearly the
to
be part of a perfect
(Fig. 36) begins with a vertical stroke
middle of the third space; from there
nearly
ellipse,, which is to
the stroke follows the outline of the
two-thirds
ellipse
of
its
and comprising as circumference,
The middle
difficult to construct.
it
does,
somewhat
is
portion of the second
stroke should for a short distance, run almost vertical.
stroke of
The middle portion of the second "6" numeral ought to follow the vertical
direction
a
short
Roman num-
distance,
as
the
erals, Fig. 37,
be three spaces high.
tendency
general
is
Fi^. 36.
to have that part too
much
stroke ought to enclose a perfect is
formed
curve,
in three strokes
with
horizontal.
its
The
upright
^
are constructed,
in constructing this
figure
The
;
its
first
ellipse.
first
middle portion
curved.
The
Numeral
"
a well-shaped ogee
running very
analogous to the inclined ones, with
upper and lower short horizontal strokes.
After explain-
mode of forming nothing new can be said concerning
V"
of capital letters "
ing the
third " 8
Fig. 37-
as a general rule
narrower
nearly
it
will be well to
and
"
X,"
these, except that
make them
a
trifle
in proportion.
stroke of numeral " 9 " ought to
Extended Form of Upright Lettering. In the following illustration, Fig. 38, the upright letter-
ing
is
shown
in
extended form.
for the construction of
tively greater
number
of the ellipses
lie in
and
it
will
It will
some of those of strokes
is
them, decidedly
be noticed that
letters a
required.
flat,
sometimes going to the extreme to
have the top and bottom parts of the
compara-
perfectly straight for a certain distance.
The axes
The complete type are shown
a horizontal direction in every case,
be well to shape parts of the curves, composing
lettering 20
as
ellipses
running
alphabets of the slanting and upright in Plate
used on
I.,
together with samples of
working drawings.
The
single
letters,
composing a word, should, especially
lettering,
be placed as close as possible, so
in
slanting
Sufficient space
Fig.
that
they sometimes nearly touch each other.
principle
is
erning the
followed out at
first,
spacing of letters
beginner generally spaces
his
soon
letters
prevail.
too
far
all
different
the theories set forth upon the spacing
38.
of lettering
If this
"
the golden middle gov-
will
Of
words.
close, in fact,
should be allotted between
The
works
"
in
the writer has found that practice
;
therefore he
no one
really
would advise the
draftsman to depend solely upon his eye in determining the proper space.
apart. 21
The spacing
of a
word
for instance.
when
should be so arranged
that,
some
looked
distance,
or
is
the drawing
is
the theories upon spacing, and should appear corrected
held at
at with half closed eyes,
as in Fig.
shown
example
for
printed type,
of
excepting the instance
Fig.
demonstrates the
dash
'
39.
fallacy
of one
Lettering as applied to working drawings, should be clear
and uniform
in
when numeral
is
The
employed.
"
4
"
happen to be
several lines of lettering
to side,
and a dotted reference
line
with arrow head point]<-/j|"...x-/?|'-)K-/y-'-x-/i'l->(
1'
the exception of the sub-captions, which
may be
a
cramped
trifle larger.
lettering
never look
well.
If possible,
ing should be kept distinctly by
itself
some words can not be put on
ject
itself,
cribe,
iWW
will
iaitlmn,
Tt
hick, irionq.
variable
the letter-
never be allowed to run across If
'
Diminutive and
on a drawing
l,6mf
and
lines.
the ob-
which they are intended to des-
compos-
Working Drawings.
with
size,
to place
ing a sentence, for instance, should be placed rather close.
of
Freehand Lettering applied bold,
is
the latter, in which case, for obvious reasons, a slanting
(Corseted.)
an actual specimen
custom
between numerator and denominator,
a horizontal dash
ONLY STANDARD,
in Fig. 39a, which,
were, a more even tone
In expressing fractions, the accepted
°"
letters, as
it
of coloring.
:;::;::';":: only standard. between
showing, as
39<!i,
K
Z'b'Sidewalk. ->k-5-'-'*'?'-)i?|«--6"—:i4)i
ENti.NEWS.
Roadway.
Expansion Joints.
they should be boldly placed out-
Fixed Fig. 40.
22
Ends.
„
ing to the subject attached, as shown especially in Figs.
and
40, 41
42.
The
dimension
lines,
and an appropriate space
while drawing those.
lettering should be placed so as to
If the
open
left
space allotted for a dimen-
read from the base
sion
and right hand side
is
too
small
the
same
to place MafmalforReentorangBetiomajofti! Rn/rf.Pl. 24'iiS'itb'6"tjii^.al}eyschiird.
of the
sheet, that Qij1Si5tWsne/5,IZ0, /:r
j> ,|"^ I'loS"
running
at
be-
tween arrow heads,
to say, lettering
is
comfortably
'
me/:s,6SiM-j<2'lliS,'
•'
'J •5!
^
an angle
Bearing Pl.m Bom ii-xr'S'O" Matsnalpf Long Distn'ijufj'ngOinieren
WeHandFlanai;:^
„,
,
EndCom: B3ntPlfk6'i6^Ki"ic4<s!^ "
of 90° to the base
,'
"
Fi/lerSf
6'6k"xl"/f3'9-
the figures
should
be written outside,
Bom Uiorii:
line should be made
read from the
to
right
hand
sion line,
ence
side, if
base should be
its
that
it
with
can be
the Cross Section,
read from the lower left
hand corner;
Details of Long Raising Girder
the angle be smaller,
and Truss Connection.
Fig, 41.
from the lower
hand corner,
even
sides,
two
strokes
them
composing in
thick-
ness from the point;
as Fig.
ones
should be avoided.
be enabled to read
right
bold,
" lop sided "
one should then iV_
it
used.
be
tapering
if
refer-
heads
should
reversed in such a
way
and
line
Arrow
at a greater angle,
dimen-
to
parallel
The
leng^th
of
the arrow heads depends upon the size of the dimension
44 demonstrates.
numerals, which are to go between them
Dimensions should be placed between, not on top of 23
;
at
any
rate,
the numerals themselves should stand out free and not
touch the former. this,
Where
an inset sheet
may be
used, so as to
cut,
low.
In the
same
row of dimensions from
figure the
relative size
even under a magnifying
glass.
The
and clean
pin points, as
shown, are also made prominent by using upright refer-
leave a clear space between them, as shown, for instance, at left of Fig. 40, in second
"Engineering News'' and yet shows
the lettering of the strain-sheet legible, sharp
the space does not permit
the reversed arrow heads
in
ence
be-
letters.
Similar prominence
may be
stance, to portions of a building, as
of upright
given, for in-
shown
in Plate
XI
5pl.PI,20iยง'
t22'lo!ioverall(Ba!J< mBack of End Stiff. I?.j
Fig.
lettering, as
In Fig.
used
for captions
44 and on Plate
III,
and sub-captions
upright lettering
is
is
shown.
also
on plan of station building.
em-
has been considerably reduced
in size
to
draw-
and be used as
" fillers."
order to have same appear distincdy different from
ordinary dimensions or descriptive matter.
Notes referring
ings should run parallel to base of sheet
ployed to denote the strains for the respective members, in
42.
.In Fig.
maps
This plate
from a drawing for
is
43 and Plate
shown.
Here
II,
lettering as used
four distinctive styles,
on sketch
composed
of the two alphabets above described, are employed. 24
The
recommends,
writer
in
such a case, to have the
Profiles of railway lines, etc.,
physical features of a map, such as creeks, rivers, lakes,
mountains, bays, letters
case in
"
proposed engineering works
;
"
denoted by
inlets,
of the same type
;
" all
in "
cap
"
ilar
manner
;
upright
tering
caps and lower
and be written outside, not upon the
The use
villages, railway lines, stations
lines of the scale.
of the four distinct types of lettering will at
once allow an easier reading of the pro-
let-
file.
A
good ex-
counties, townships
ample of
or
Is
cities
" all
upright.
caps,"
These all,
in
rules
and
horizontal scales, should, however, be placed in uprights
slanting
finally,
;
treated in a sim-
the margin figures denoting vertical
cap and lower
case "
may be
of course, sub-
kind
given
in Fig. 45.
The
arrange-
ment
are
this
margin
of
here
figures
will
more or less
permit the approx-
modification, as oc-
imate elevation of
ject to
casionally
etc.,
may
Plate
contour
any desired point
soundings,
lines,
II
f^'g'
also be designated In small upright numerals. illustrates the
relating to rivers
and railway
parallel to those objects. lines is resorted to.
above said very
well.
lines should
Otherwise, lettering
If this should,
43.
tained
easily to
by laying a
rule across the vertical scales,
upper edge touching the point
Letters
in question.
be placed
46, the general style of lettering a diagram
in straight
The margin
however, be Imprac-
upon the
ticable, lettering in neat curves is used.
be ascer-
In Fig. Is
shown.
figures again are uprights, set opposite, not
lines,
which they are to designate.
The
letter-
ing of the curves, being of a descriptive character, 25
its
is
done
in the slanting type.
Since this lettering has to run
well
across the ordinates and abscissae of the diagram, great care has to be exercised to keep
same open and
adapted for
well
also slightly
more elaborate
meridians and scales are given on Plate XI.
former are easy to construct and
are best
work, although the upper one, in-
be used for that purpose.
simpler type of scales
it
is
In constructing the
advisable to employ four
different heights of graduation lines, a
All of the
will materially
look neat on any
will
map
scales
tended for ordinary working drawings, can also very
clear,
especially avoiding filled in corners.
Examples of simple and
The lower two
map.
finished
increase
its
method which
clearness.
VARIOUS FREEHAND ALPHABETS. The
principles of construction of the shaded inclined
(Italic)
ally
the
lettering,
shown on
Plate IV, which
is
the pen has to outline and shade the curves at the time, necessitating a slight turning
occasion-
used on working drawings and maps, are practically
same
for the ordinary (Gothic) slanting let-
as given
The
tering.
relative height of letters
of down-stroke remain unchanged.
ed rather
flexible
A
and
shaded
script.
very much like
The shading
is
common
shading
is
The
letters "
S
"
" 2," " 7 "
English
and
of this
plate
is
in the
upper
devoted to demonstrating the
Italic lettering,
in
letter and. the
sequence
order to look well, re-
slanting lettering, the hair line upstrokes in
lower case letters adding to their width.
most of the
After
all
has been said about slanting lettering in general,
that
no
trouble will be experienced in constructing these letters
In " 8
delicate operation at first
quires a considerably wider spacing than the ordinary
produced by an even
and numerals
motion of the holder,
be noticed, that every second row
of strokes.
Gillott's
gradually released at the proper moment.
somewhat
proper method of forming each
pressure exerted upon the pen, wh'.ch in turning into curves,
will
portion
fairly fine point-
pen should be used, such as
letters are
It
inclination
No. 303 or No. 290 (Gillott's lithographic pen). lower case
to the beginner a
same
"
satisfactorily. 26
.
When
reduced considerably,
Italic lettering, as
a
shown on
rule,
does not show up so well as the same size of the slanting
Plate V.
lump of ink
is
As
is
known
to
every draftsman, a
apt to form at the end of a straight stroke,
Gothic type described before, the light lines in that case
dropping
out, thus leaving only the
shaded portions
vis-
ible.
The type of lettering shown is
in
fact
in
lower part of Plate IV,
only a modification of the ordinary upright
Side
Elevation
Fig. 44.
freehand lettering, and used as a part of well
when used with
title
when
looks very
the black faced Gothic lettering,
is
27
the pen
made use
is fairly full.
This propensity of the ink
of in constructing this type of lettering
and
The
the flow of ink thus diverted.
relative
number
of
strokes remains the same, as with the ordinary upright style.
A few
modifications are introduced in the shape
of which have
been exhaustively explained
in the fore-
going, will experience no trouble whatever in sketching
good shape.
these letters in
As shown,
the relative
height of lower case and capital letters
remains unchanged
stem of the in
some
capital
cases
;
the width
maybe
of the
taken as 4-5,
7-8, that of the
lower
case letters as 3-6 the width of a square.
" 2000'
3000'
7000'
5000'
4000'
cs
03
Fig. ,45.
cr>
o
EZ
Dollars.
of lower case
duced with a
"
a
"
and
" g."
This lettering
is
best pro-
ball point pen, insuring a stroke of
uniform strength.
As
a precaution,
the pen should never be too
full
it
may be
almost
said that
while making this type
V
to
VII
inclusive, contain
ing suitable for main structed
;
titles,
which
by dividing the space
and sketching
shown
V
Plate
in the letters
on tracing
to in
Freehand Letter-
may
be con-
be lettered into squares outline
linen, cross-section
course be used for this purpose.
easily
A
afterwards, as
paper
may
of
draftsman able to
satisfactorily construct the upright lettering, the principles
sug-
gestions
made
50 5
80 40 4
methods of
eral
letters,
as
100
are
as to sev-
60 30 3
shading
of lettering. Plates
On
a
look
although,
rule,
they
very
well
without
When
these
it.
this
of lettering
kind is
de-
40
EO
E
20
10
1
expeditiously be constructed in the 4712
:
Tlirow
in the
way shown by
stems of
the letters with a broad nibbed
a
insuring
bold stroke
these strokes in a direction towards him.
WAYNC
{Original)
pen,
turning the paper, so as to permit the draftsman to draw
Fig.
case
analogous to ordinary Gothic upright lettering, with the exception
the
of
the tops and bottoms letters, rule in,
exercise of
and
with
in the
borne
47a
strokes
are
\']b.
therefore this tnethod
difficult is
will
some
be
able,
mind, that a
letters,
title,
other hand, a simple letters of
ing
draw
it,
it
title,
reasonable
size,
centered, will
his
devolve the It
eye and the letters
de-
should, however, be
composed of highly orna-
may be
attached, but
on the
constructed of well executed
with the several lines compos-
make an ample heading and conform
well executed drawing,
horizontally,
more ornamen-
does not atone for any poorly drawn and
Fig. 476.
to
by the aid of
originality, to
lettered sheet to which
As, is well known, short freehand
somewhat
in
mented
corners freehand, as shown en-
larged in Fig.
he
sired out of the types given.
WW Fig.
of the
fill
\A/AYN P
(Plain bathh.)
horizontal
strokes, which, together
be, the draftsman should desire
letters,
tal
AA/^^YNF
(Spurred bathic)
may
as the
If,
in style
for
any
with the
subject represented.
certainly preferable to that of
LETTERING OF TITLES. >
On
Plates VIII
figures,
and IX, and the accompanying text
reduced specimens of freehand
and pains have been taken
to present, as
sible, different types of easily
anced
titles,
titles
formed and
routine
in the drafting office of a technical journal,
These samples,
are given.
much
work
as pos-
originals
fairly well bal-
as given here, represent reductions
which range
in
size
from
from one-half to nearly
one-fifth linear measure,
such as could be selected during the daily
The specimens 29
exhibited on those two plates
show
—
more or given
t<3
less clearly, that the
prominence which
different portions of a
title,
depends upon the
The draftsman
relative Importance of the lines.
drawing, and the blanks are subsequently
to be
Is
is
by
In
filled
hand.
A
gener-
style of title
seldom used nowadays
The
In Fig. 49.
Is
that
shown
arranged in curved
letters are
...3^:.
and an
lines
sought
Bridge 720 B/^ /?un, Evanst//7/e, J^r/zona. M. K. and TRy. M/ddleD/v.
3 Spans,
Top
eral
Track, Through /7S-o'c,c.£^ndP/ns.
S/'n^/e
Chords
jfm
A may
End Posts.
letters
Charge of.../J^/-?.?/?.-
A.B.COL Comr. Ne...^S2.
In
Miul.by-i_Z^-
SlM.^/ZfJ>?.RBv....&/J.O..
Checkm by-j^li^L^
DataJ?/2.7/a«.Rev,
Is
desirable, the gen-
is
in
regard to centering of
A
title
titles
should in nearly
all
be arranged systemetlcally about a vertical line.
After the location of this line and.
have been determined, the spaces equal to
the width of the letters can be
marked
off with
,
pencil
a/
Order Ho.K2.3Q,—%wx.t
Ink Border
effect
the height and spacing of the different lines of
EDGEMOOR PLANT.
if
such
flourished
a fairly satisfactory one.
here be added.
center CO.,
is
few words
cases,
AMERICAN BRIDGE
Where
after.
scheme
ornamental,
on the edge of a
strip of
paper and the
Mo../2.
center of the strip placed on the vertical center
^
Ci/^S/i/aPr/TTfo/rf^/s/me
line of the title,
Fig, 48,
given considerable latitude
The
title
given under Fig. 48
In Is
The lower
A
regard to this matter.
one of the standard
part, as noticed,
edge just below the
The
letters
line
can then be
penciled In very readily.
arrangements of the concern named and shows good points.
Its
of letters to be sketched.
^k—^^—A^o/^^oe/jw o7rM/s///7»
ally
with
Is
stamped on the
space between words counts as a letter In spac-
ing, therefore,
a line containing three words of
and 6
represents 18 divisions, so
letters
sions, or the first 30
J,
3
that 9 divi-
word, one space and one letter of the
second word are to come to the line,
after
and the remainder of the all,
left
of the
shows the draftsman's lack of practice
center
line to the right.
while relying sole-
If,
the spacing of a line of letters needs re-ad-
justment after the
man may line again,
letters are
sketched
easily rectify the matter
working
first
to the left
in,
upon
freehand work,
^heetJ^i
his skill
bow pen and ruling pen. The
the drafts-
by going over
and then
ly
in
with
that
writer would
to the right
consider this
of center.
not
work
ENDANiD^ECTniOINALi OF
VmEW
EUREKA DRIERS
<jomplete without
Qcn^J^
giving passing
outlet Sewer r^'T. rSsVl ty V<.^t Ca^keCity
U
^^^^
Alio
1
Fig, 50.
Round
N DEX TO MAP IN
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
notice to
the principles of which are
â&#x20AC;&#x201D; SHEETS ATTACHED
Writing, shown on
Plate X.
For the
production of this kind of lettering regular round writ-
Fig 49.
ing pens are used, although very satisfactory lettering of In Fig. 5o, an actual fac-simile of a is
exhibited.
It
explains in short
title
how
once met with
not to do
it,
this
and
type can be produced with goose-quills cut by the
draftsman, and the writer even yet prefers the
31
latter.
LETTERING FOR PHOTO-REPRODUCTION. The lettering and drawing for reduction purposes may be made on any quality of drawing paper, tracing linen or paper. rule,
Yellowish tinted papers however,
will as
at considerable reduction,
unbroken
In order to insure good,
tracing cloth the writer would rftbbing of the surface with
recommend
lines
A good standard
a
tion
The
other
materials mentioned, of course, require no special preparation.
part to be erased, and a
little
is
have the smaller lower case
more than
drawing
is
fourth
â&#x20AC;˘
sprinkled upon the
its
to
-^^
in.)
in height
;
be reduced three-fourths,
original length)
Freehand
make
be applied with a
soft
Letters and lines must be fine lines are
made
perfectly black
used on a drawing, they
will still
;
if
if
a
to one-
e.,
T,^
> A
(about
in.)
high
with
the
Fig. 51a.
Where, however,
brush over the discolored
(i.
Leftering.
OKIGINAL FOB THBEE-FOUKTHS REDUCTIONS.
erasures have otherwise been made, Chinese white
therefore,
those letters 4 times
e-
lettered over again
without danger of the ink spreading.
one millimeter
ters
colored pumice with fresh powder, will thoroughly clean
may be
such as
letters,
brisk rubbing with the end
of the finger or a hard rubber, while replacing the dis-
the effected surface, which
to
(slightly
Erasures on tracing cloth are also best made
with the same agents the powder
is
to adopt for lettering for reproduc-
" a," " e," etc., reduce to not less than
on
the thorough
pumice powder.
formed by a
is
solid ridge of ink.
not give as good results as the pure white or blue-
ish ones.
provided each
strength
body
may
portion
;
the height of the capitals and numerals
A
in accordance.
parts.
very
size
reproduce
(one-half
its
in pro-
must be
drawing to be reduced to one -half
length) has to
twice the standard given above. 32
of
cohtain
lettering just
The lettering on
drav/-
ings to be reduced to a size about
made
three-fourths and two-thirds reduction, should be
miiHmeters (about Lettering- ^i
•Freehand
j
N
3Ud^.J:rM!~ Fig. 51
rail-joint
illustrations
and
^minimum
the foregoing
made
&.
OBIGINAL FOB REPBODUCTION BETWEEN ONE-HALF AND TWO-THIEDS.
The two
high,
clear,
is
shown on
Plate
XI
a
size.
and
called
All
the two-thirds
type of lettering for reduction
c.
Freehand
Lettering-
Fig. 51c. BEPRODUTION FROM EITHEB OF THE ABOVE ORIGINALS.
reduction
is
one-third
its
condensed on
drawings
purposes a proper safeguard to adopt
such as for instance of the letter
section of reservoir) have been reproduced
sizes.
used
What may be
original length.
to
the
is
at a lesser rate
is
to
exaggerate somewhat the width of ovals or small loops,
(details ot
" filling
the
study
Al-
of
in "
A
those parts.
times their re-
spective
e.,
(i.
When
length.)
illustra-
its
good average
a
in.)
from originals five and four
drawing should never be reduced
than to three-fifths of
sufficiently
by the
tions, Fig. iia, b
A
between
halfways
"
e," to
guard against
of
close
i'tliicir-..
Note:- The circle will
three
the
7o/j
^
cfCap will
he sliqirtly oval, and weCeii' frat square, triangle, and
j^above
Da raised about
ttie lettering.
s«u.tt.xoAT,;o.vv,\.«,,
though the draftsman 'is
types
supposed to know
of
given on
lettering
Fig.
i
work, which tend
the exact rate of re-
this
duction, the directions'
to illustrate the
to the engravers are
principle, will also
better given in inches
useful.
or
fractions
placed in pencil un-
derneath 5
1(2;
and
;
b,
Fig.
reduction
52a.
they are for our puposes reproduced on Fig.
same be
The reason
for giving a
thereof,
of
(i.
limit of e.,
Section of Cast Iron Cap
Fig. 526.
one
millimeter height for smaller lower case letters) and the
employment of gothic
but would, of course, not be reproduced by
made evident by
the engraver ordinarily. 33
letters
of uniform strength
is
referring to the illustrations, Fig. 52«,
which presents an example of engraving, such as sometimes indulged reduced to some
The
in,
and
Fig.
52<5,
redrawn
and
For larger reductions
show as much
ble, for instance
it
will
The
be quite essential
.work should in
all
this detail, immaterial as
it
drawing
ink^
rubbed
stick
perhaps blacker than the ordinary
however,
cases
may
or the
ing
processes of photo-reproduction ordinarily em-
is
ink
the
difificuh.
34
however,
kind of black
suitable for the purpose
;
well
objection to the use of ordinary inks,
their
liability
of blurring,
when
handled,
mixing with the Chinese white, render-
application '
is
Any
India ink will permit of very fine black
The main
lines.
appear, not be overlooked.
The
is
kind and possesses more body,
rate of re-
such as designates the thickness of flange
of an I-beam in elevation.
writer uses on such drawing the water-
proof ink, which
of a white space between lines as possi-
be clear and open, and
The
drawing.
strength of the lines of a drawing to be repro-
duction.
Both require a similar grade of preparation of the
cess.
scale.
duced depends of course altogether upon the
to
ployed are the photo- lithographic and zinc etching pro-
is
of
the
color
sometimes
very
)
:
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz.',
I
2
345 d 7 89
I894-.
10.
ABCDEF6H/JKLMN0PQR5TUVWXYZ. Ordinary II I W VVim WEX. CROSS SECTION OF GIRDER. of Framing. Extended Lettering. EONOITUDINAE SECTION. Type.
Details
Cross
S^.
Compressed
Type.
INTEHSTATE BRIDbE. 5purWMXDiam.jr(7ce,3pifili,3iTeeth,5.2lfey!5.6lhm^
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ABCDEFGHIJ Ordinary Lettering.
Elxi-eriolool.
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Beam. Eye Bar.
95
Compressed. Ue't,Hb5.peryd.
P'-h.
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-
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,7Z"xX>^8'0"nextfoWeb.
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.
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4"x3fxp2E'0"
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NEW YORK
Material for Reenfprcinq Bottom ChordI
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2Webs,48"x2"
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The Samples ofLefterinq on Lower Portion or thl5 Plate showapproxlmaie
Spaa'ng olLines and also Mode of Crowding in Fmction Numerals. Itwillalsobeseen that it becomes
necessary to oaasionally shorten a Capital orlonger Lower Case Letter. Occasional Brackets orHorizontal Dashes are best made Free Hand the latter with a slow, "wobbling" 5trol<eafthePen.
PLATE
II.
Highest Paint gfHgqf^ _
l,짜Plfimdii-
Z%'Plfoutside'
a
h c
d
e
^d Ut^^ icf짜
A B
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'
i'S^'SB-^ffi'^Shaded Inclined (Italic) Lettering, Used
Printing _
for
Working Drawings.
bcdefg hij klmnopqrstuvwxyz ABCDEFG HIJKLMNOPQESTUVWXYZ a
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23456789
Freehand Lettering
for Captions,
10.
Produced very Fast.
Through Passenger Service^ etc. PLATE
IV.
)
PLATE V
PLATE
VI.
PLATE
VII.
PeVaAs SV\'\p
C
.
Carva\-
/^ ?. .
Appsirat-us for the*
Aeration of Water.
t)u\u\h.VA\T\u.
Scale
"Vumer — ^no^meeT.
12=
\
-
William Whcel&r,
June
Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
NORTH GERMAN LLOYD, PLANS FOR PROPOSED PIERN9 3, (
90
FT
Consulting En|,ineer,
i4-,i9oo.
Metropolitan Water Works.
Standard
—
WIDE J
HOBOKEN,
'^«-
Lifters
N.J.
OCT. 1900.
Details
OF
-+>+<
for Screens ^ AND -^
Stop- planks. W. f:tV.
.,
0'W/EnSln& er,
Hoboken, New Jersey.
Full
Size.
\
OF
J1PP/QN6EMENT
—TESTING STATION-—
INSIDE 6H0P/A/0
U.3.S. A/fi7\^y
y^^o^'^^'uG^r' soi^^^-o.
—=C0LUMB1AN
OPEOON. c>e:ros£-e,
OF THE
FIREPROOFING C0.=-
BOSTON, MASS. /^
/ffO/,
PLATE
VIII
ROUND CORNER DETAILS.
COMMONWEALTH OF MASSACHUSETTS.
METROPOLITAN WATER WORKS.
SC/JLE
WACHUSETT DAM.
'/z
INCH^IFT.
These details forS.E,Corner-5iinilar construction at N.E.corner,
GENERAL PLAN OF DAM
— Soo/ve Coc//^ry /fy —
AND APPURTENANCES.
G&nero/ E/eyoHon, Cross •Secfr'ons
^V'5/o//ces
Sco/e i'/i'=/0:
C/j/ef£yfp'neers Ofifce.
Chicago %'//orf/7-iyesMrn /?y. C/7/COOO. Oec.3o'^99.
(S^
Approy^cf Consu/^rry^^T!^'/:
Oraty/'/iffJ/^ Z78/
PITTSBURGH, PA.
New York
&
Brooklyn
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS BUREAU OF FILTRATION
Bridqe
Present. Details of Bottom Connections.
CONTRACT
Scale ^in.to
1
-R-.
Sept.
130I.
PLATE
NO,
I
FILTERS.BASINS AND APPURTENANCES INTERIOR DRAINS DETAIL PLAN OF ONE FILTER
Suspenders Sc Stays.
IX.
a/ /&
/iy i5 cl/
/^/f ^a/ /^ A/ Jv
^^ ^ aa/v/w o
AOypf /tx-^
/wux&C' UvA-ce"
PLATE
X.
/fc^
^^/M/xe/ of ihe/
Meridians.
PLATE
XI
.1
.
.
.1
PLATE
XII.
Cross Section, Millimeters.
BOOKS FOR DRAUGHTSMEN. POK SALE BY
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY,
D.
23 Murray and 27 Warren. Andre, Geo. G. —The
Draughtsman's Hand Book of Plan and Map Drawing including Instructions for the preparation of Engineering, Architectural and Mechanical Drawings. 8vo, cloth ;
Barber, T.
3.75
W.—
The Engineers' Sketch Book of Mechanical Movements, Devices, Apphances, Contrivances, Details employed in the Design and Construction of Machinery for every purpose. Nearlv 2,000
illustrations.
Cathcart,
W.
Li.
".
8vo, cloth
—Machine Design.
Part
I,
Fastenings.
net,
4.00
3.00
Cryer, T. and Jordan,
Instruments their Construction, Adjustment, Testiiig, and Use, Comprising Drawing, Measuring, Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. Enlarged edition, for the most part re-written. With numerous diagrams and figiires. 12mo, cloth
for Machinists
1.20
and Engineers.
Comprising a complete course of Drawing adapted to the requirements of Millwrights and Engineers also, course of practical instruction in the coloring of Mechanical Drawings. 4th edition, 16mo
— Problems in
;
Machine Designs.
Second edition.
2.00
Lobben, P. —Machinists'
and Draftsmen's Handbook; containing tables, rules, and formulas, with numerous examples explaining the principles of mathematics and mechanics, as appUed to the mechanical trades. Intended as a reference book for all interested in mechanical work.
8vo, cloth, illustrated
2.50
;
Donaldson, Jas.
1.50
—
Drawing and Eough Sketching for Marine Engineers, with Proportions, Instructions, Explanations and Examples, intended for the use of Seagoing Engineers and others in preparing Working Sketches and Eough Drawings also, how to Design Engines, 4th Boilers, Propellers, Paddle Wheels, Shafts, Eods, Valves, etc. edition. Illustrated. Cloth
The Building and Machine. —A
gifide to the projection
Engineers' and Machinists' Drawing Book.—A course of Instruction for the Practical Engineer. numerous engravings, 4to, half mor
Wm. and Chas. "W.
4.00
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Ripper, William. — A
by 10.00
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Thomas. A Practical Course in MechanDrawing. Being a course of progressive lessons illustrated with and figures. Especially adapted to use of schools, colmany diagrams Second edition revised. 12mo, cloth leges, etc.
Fox,
2.00
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Illustrated
illustrations for Drawing Plans, Sections and Elevations of Buildings and Machinery an Introduction to Isometrical Drawing, and an Essay on Linear Perspective and Shadows. Illustrated by over 200 diagrams, engraved on steel. With an Appendix on the Theory and Application of Colors. 8vo, cloth, 9th thousand Geometrical Drawing. Abridged from the octavo edition, for the Illustrated with 48 steel plates. use of Schools. Ninth edition, revised and eiHarged. 12mo, cloth ;
2.40
practical
and delineation of subjects met with in the practice of the Engineer, Machinist and Building Constructor, etc. 12mo, cloth
Wni.—Mechanical
Drawing. A Text-Book of Geometrical Drawing, for the use of Mechanics and Schools, in which the Definitions and Eules of Geometry are familiarly explained; the Practical Problems are arranged from the most simple to the more complex, and in their descriptions technicahties are avoided as much as possible.
Minifie,
With
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Draug'htsnian,
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;
Davidson, E. A. —Drawing
York.
The object of this work is to provide a simple, practical course of progressive lessons in Mechanical Drawing. All instructions are given in connection with a special concrete exercise, instead of being presented in an abstract and general manner.
Innes, C. H.
H.G.—Machine Construction and Mechanical Drawing including Spur and Bevel Gearing. For the Use of Students in Science and Technical Schools. Quarto, cloth
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Heather, J. F. —Mathematical
8vo, cloth,
iUustrated
Streets,
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Course of Instruction in Machine Drawing and Design for Technical Schools and Engineer Students. With 52 plates and numerous explanatory engravings. EoUo, cloth Rose, Joshua.- Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught. Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Drawing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical Motions, Engines
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AMERICAN RAILROAD BRIDGES. eOpages,
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page plates
CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. MANUAL OF Axeman, Chainman and Eodman, Answers Questions and
Transitman and
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Assistant Engineer,
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Price $1.50 Complete Volume $1.00 $1.25 Volume Complete
Draftsman, Topographical and Structural Inspector $0.50 Three Volumes Complete in one
$4.00
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ENGINEERING NEWS A
Journal of
Civil,
Mechanical, Mining and Electrical Engineering. Founded 1874.
Published every Thursday at 220 Broadway,
New
Subscription $5 a year to any part of the trorld.
Tork.
The Engineering News
circulates in every part of the world
paid subscribers than any other Engineering Journal published. interests in the field of Engineering,
Engineering Education,
As
etc.,
a literary magazine
Its
finds a personal value in
its
many
Municipal work,
forms a continuous and up -to date weekly record of Engineering
sable to Contractors, Manufacturers and others
who
exceptional opportunities for buying and selling
all
all
of actually
pages.
progress in America that cannot be equaled, and as a commercial medium
competition on
list
readers represent the
Contracting, Railroading, Manufacturing,
and every one it
and has a larger
are on the ^wzz/zz/^ for
it
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indispen-
new business, presenting
kinds of machinery and supplies and for wide
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ENGINEERING LITERATURE A
Supplement to Engineering News, issued about the middle of each month, gives lists of books published during the month and reviews of all the principal books written by recognized authorities on the different subjects, together with other information regarding Engineering Literature.
)
Second Edition
Postpafi
Price, $1.00
" Awhile deprecating any needlessly elaborate finish, the writer
"
advises the use of just sufficient
shading and finishing touches to render a drawing thoroughly comprehensible and to preclude
any possible ambiguity.
It is
of course to be under-
stood, that this
manual it
'
serves
book
is
beginners' exactly
its.
purpose best, where
used by the draftsman
"
The illustrations in this work, quite a number of which have
not a
for
who
;
is
familiar with the mathematical
principles of mechanical drafting.
appeared in the columns of 'Engineering News,' are inserted to demonstrate the points involved and have been reduced more or less in size so as to save space. They may however be
It will
then, as the writer hopes,
prove a valuable aid to the rapid production of neat, correct and legible
drawings." (PREFACE.
copied by enlarging to about 3 or
4 times their linear dimensions.''
Second. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, Edition Price. $1.00 90 Text Illustrations, 11 Plates.
TESTIMONIALS Mr. Rein"I have examined the book carefully and am much pleased with it. the hardt is to be congratulated on having clearly, simply and briefly explained clearness great for their methods he has used in making his drawings remarkable draftsman."— of every desk be on the that should book is a It legibility and Prof. C. B. Wing. Leland Stanford, Jr., University. ••1
Prof.
find
it
Walter
most excellently adapted Flint,
to tlie
purpose for which
"Am
greatly pleased with ing, "—Prof. Robt. L. Lund,
it;
"It admirably
I
is
intended."—
itoccupies a
field
of its
own among books on
fills
draft-
Vanderbilt University,
"-Prof. C. "It should be in the library of every draftsman. State University. Civil
it
University of Maine.
W. Marx,
Missouri
a long-felt want."— Prof. John L. Mnnn, Thayer School of
Engineering.-
elegant examples that "It is certainly the best compendium of instruction and Thayer School of Civil Engihave slen."-Prot. Robert Fletcher, Ph.D., Director
neering,
"It will form a useful supplement to Mr. Reinhardt's 'System of Lettering.' —Prof., E. H. Lockwood, Sheffield Scientific School.
"
Your "Have adopted it as a reference book for our civil engineering students. 'Lettering' has been the means of bringing about a distinct lift in the standard of freehand lettering, and, 1 predict a like result in the field covered by your new work."— Prof. W, D. Pence, Purdue University. "Reinhardt's 'Technic of Mechanical Drafting,' is a book that should he in the It describes those subtle details in drafting department of every engineer's office. execution which constitute the essentials of effective expression in a drawing, both This stateas to truthfulness in its representation as well as its artistic finish. ment is admirably illustrated by the contrasts shown in Figs, 6, 7, 22 and 46. In view of the important part of detail drawings in all kinds of construction, it is an important service/ to show how the element of thorough legibility may be assured without necessarily increasing the cost of the drawing. My early experience of six years in a drafting-room leads me to appreciate the importance of many hints which might otherwise appear to be of little, it any, value.* Each of the chapters on 'Outline Shading," and on "Section Lining,' are alone worth the price of the book." —Prof. Henry S. Jacoby, Cornell University,
The Engineering News Publishing
Co.,
220 Broadway,
New YorR