Inside Mining February 2015 by 3S Media

www.miningne.ws

IN THE

AFRIC AN UPDATES ON THE

GROUND AND UNDERGROUND

SPOTLIGHT Tonyy Stone S The future of coal

JUNIOR MINING Finding ding the money

UCG Energy from down under

SLURRY The new transport system

MINE IQ Automating the future

Literally

E L B A K A E UNBR ISSN 1999-8872 • R50.00 (incl. VAT) • Vol. 8 • No. 02 • February 2015

CONTENTS AFRIC AN UPDATES ON THE

February F ebrru eb ua 2015 ua

GROUND AND UNDERGROUND

ENDORSED BY

ON THE COVER O

www.miningne.ws

IN THE

AFRIC AN UPDATES ON THE

GROUND AND UNDERGROUND

SPOTLIGHT Tonyy Stone S The future of coal

JUNIOR MINING Finding ding the money

UCG Energy from down under

SLURRY The new transport system

MINE IQ Automating the future

Literally

UNBREAKABLE

V Volvo Trucks put its new FMX mining and n cconstruction truck tthrough a particularly ttough test programme at tthe company’s Hällered ttest facility located deep iin the forests of western Sweden – and it came S out tops. o

ISSN 1999-8872 • R50.00 (incl. VAT) • Vol. 8 • No. 02 • February 2015

8 EDITOR'S COMMENT

3 New innovations, new thinking COVER STORY

4 Volvo FMX: Literally unbreakable AFRICA ROUND-UP

7 News from around the continent IN THE SPOTLIGHT

8 The future of

coal

COMMODITY: COAL

10 Underground coal gasification 22

JUNIOR MINING

12 Finding the money COMMINUTION

15 Karowe upgrade 21 Down to a fine point MATERIALS HANDLING

22 Slurry as a new transport system 25 Innovative excavator MINERALS PROCESSING

27 The popcorn effect 28 Protecting the carcass 29 The facts behind the figures 29

EPCM

32 Business outcomes 33 St Helena island ELECTRICAL CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

34 Optimise your energy ROI 36 Alternatives to load shedding IT & COMMUNICATIONS

37 Mine automation MINE SERVICES

40 Keeping you moving, safely IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015

FUTUREMINE

Driving productivity and cost minimisation This prestigious mining event is focused on innovative problem solving throughout the entire mining value chain. Mining industry leaders will discuss how to implement these new VROXWLRQV RQ D V\VWHPLF OHYHO WR LJQLWHbSURJUHVV Topics include ̽ Innovation in technology ̽ Innovation in labour ̽ New solutions for finance ̽ Mechanisation ̽ Innovation in mineral processing ̽ Latest mine rehabilitation methods ̽ New mine design and surveying software

If you’re involved in mining at senior, operational RU SURFXUHPHQWbOHYHOVbRU LI \RX̵UH D VXSSOLHU WR WKH LQGXVWU\̿ 7KLV LV D QRW WR EH PLVVHG HYHQW FUTUREMINE AFRICA 9 &10 JUNE 2015 | JOHANNESBURG | CONFERENCE AND EXHIBITION BROUGHT TO YOU BY THEBE REED, IN ASSOCIATION WITH OFFICIAL MEDIA PARTNER 3S MEDIA

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DRILLING EDITOR'S & COMMENT BLASTING

Publisher Elizabeth Shorten Editor Tony Stone Editorial assistant Mpinane Senkhane Head of design Hayley Mendelow Designer Kirsty Galloway Chief sub-editor Tristan Snijders Sub-editor Beatrix Knopjes Contributors Dr Michael Blinderman, L Williams, Philip Wood, P Morgan, L van Niekerk, M Duddy, Kevin Norris Production manager Antois-Leigh Botma Production coordinator Jacqueline Modise Marketing & digital manager Esther Le Roux Marketing specialist Philip Rosenberg Financial manager Andrew Lobban Administration Tonya Hebenton Distribution manager Nomsa Masina Distribution coordinator Asha Pursotham Printers United Litho Johannesburg Tel: +27 (0)11 402 0571 ___________________________________ Advertising Sales

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New innovations,

new thinking O

NE OF THE ADVANTAGES of being sixty-something is finding oneself constantly amazed. The ingenuity of humanity, especially the scientists and engineers, in living Moore’s Law, leaves one almost breathless in the race to keep up with technological change. This year’s Mining Indaba was no exception. It shows that there is no ceiling to what we can do and achieve, when knowledge and experience is applied. For example, South Africa is fast becoming the leader in underground coal gasification (UCG), which is a method of converting unworked coal (still in the ground) into a combustible gas that can be used for industrial heating, power generation or the manufacture of hydrogen, synthetic natural gas or diesel fuel. Simply amazing! What’s more, we have plenty of coal. The idea of using a 500 km slurry pipeline to transport coal is a novel idea. It is also a practical one – as we see from neighbouring Mozambique. For Eskom, though, and for South Africans who value their environment, it presents a workable and efficient transport system that does not spew pollution into the atmosphere or damage road infrastructure. This has got to be something to think about. So too are the proposed changes to South Africa’s mining legislation. Listening to Minister of Mineral Resources Ngoako Ramatlhodi speaking at an interview on the sidelines of the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, his preference to have South Africa’s laws on oil and gas exploration separated from mining legislation does make sense in one way, and does not in another. When ignorant (lacking knowledge and expertise), it’s best to listen to those in the know. Oil and gas explorers, including Total SA and Exxon Mobil, oppose any move to change the existing legislation saying that the current proposals are too vague and subject to loose interpretation, which undermines business. So, do we take President Jacob Zuma’s refusal to sign the proposed changes (to the 2002 Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Amendment Bill) on the grounds that it might violate the constitution, and his referring it back to Parliament, as confirmation that ignorance is bliss? In my books, yes! It confirms without a doubt, that ideology prevails and the uncertainty, which has dogged the industry for the last decade, is set to continue. Investor flight, it seems, may have been given the final push. Ramatlhodi’s attempts to quash negative sentiment says that he would want to stay with the principles agreed upon in the old bill, between the government, the mining industry, the chamber and trade unions. This provides very little comfort. In the end, it boils down to the fine print. Nonetheless, what is clear, from common sentiment in the mining industry, is that the minister really does not understand the mining industry. Is there serious consultation or simply dictation? This is illustrated by Anglo Platinum, the world’s biggest producer of the metal, selling four mines and possibly two joint ventures in South Africa without it triggering the government’s alarm bells. Ramatlhodi says it is an opportunity to allow “real ownership by indigenous people.” Given that we have already seen a couple of these indigenised opportunities fail spectacularly, with massive job losses and asset stripping, one wonders about the wisdom of knowledge without experience. It’s not that these initiatives should not be pursued. They should and must be pursued. It is just that we should be looking at splicing experience rather than cutting it. Last but not least, because innovation in mining is critical for both the public and private sectors, Thebe Reed Exhibitions has partnered with 3S Media to bring you the first FutureMine Africa in June 2015. This is a must-attend conference and exhibition for any stakeholder who takes the sustainability of mining in Africa seriously.

There is no ceiling to what we can do and achieve, when knowledge and experience is applied

@mining_news www.facebook.com/ pages/Mining-News

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015

COVER STORY

t i e Driv like you hate it Volvo Trucks put its new FMX mining and construction truck through a particularly tough test programme at the company’s Hällered test facility located deep in the forests of western Sweden – and it came out tops.

IFTY YEARS AGO, the words “drive it like you hate it” were made famous by a Volvo advertising campaign. Today, the company’s challenge is as relevant as it was then. Why? Before Volvo Trucks releases a new truck onto the market, it is put through a battery of really tough tests. With the new FMX, these tests were taken a step further. Testing of components, systems and the complete vehicles takes place according to a standardised programme. Initially, the tests are conducted virtually, followed by a variety of laboratory tests. Once the new truck has come so far in its development that a complete, driveable prototype is available, it is time to subject it to tough physical tests at the Hällered proving ground. It is here that the FMX was put through its paces 24 hours a day for six months and subjected to some of the most rigorous testing a truck has ever undergone. A number of test drivers run the trucks in shifts, putting the vehicles through about 10 highly demanding tests, time

INS I DE MI NI NG 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

after time, throughout the entire test period, the aim of which is to assess how the truck is affected by the total wear and tear that accumulates throughout the vehicle’s expected lifetime. The reliability tests have a different purpose. Here the vehicles are driven without stop for 16 weeks, following a test regime that corresponds to a full year’s operation under normal conditions. Divided into five main categories, namely quality, safety, environment, fuel economy and transport efficiency, Volvo assesses 32 different properties of the truck. Each of the properties has a different specialist whose job it is to measure and evaluate the results from every single test. If any property fails, Volvo’s engineers have to quickly come up with a solution that is then evaluated in new tests, in a ‘loop process’. A mining and construction truck is driven in a different way to other trucks and is subjected to entirely different stresses than a long-haul truck, which spends most of its life cruising on smooth asphalt. That is why the FMX went through an extended

test programme, in which it was subjected to particularly large amounts of dust, gravel, sticky mud and water, as well as plenty of driving while hauling a full load – 26 tonnes of crushed rock. This was done on the special construction test track at Hällered, to impose maximum stresses on the truck’s frame and suspension system, as well as the engine and power take-off.

So, how did it do? Some of the important tests that the Volvo FMX went through at the Hällered proving ground included: • Hill-climbing: The truck is driven fully loaded both up and down hills of different gradients. The engine and transmission are subjected to extremely high stresses through repeated uphill starts hauling a full load. • Washboard: This is a section of the test track where the truck is subjected to vertical shaking at different frequencies. This test assesses durability, build quality and in-cab noise levels, among other things.

COVER STORY

TRUCKS, TYRES & CO2

ABOVE The new Volvo FMX truck is built for the toughest working conditions on Earth RIGHT Regular checking of tyres can reduce CO2 emissions

The test is carried out with the truck both empty and hauling a full load. • Belgian pavé: This section of road replicates an uneven, stone-flagged country highway and subjects the vehicle to continuous shaking at different frequencies, both vertical and lateral. Immense stress is placed on the springs, suspension, steering, wheel bearings and cab suspension. This test is carried out with the truck empty and hauling a full load. • Hollow: The truck is driven at high speed through a deep dip in the road. This puts considerable shock load on components such as the springs, suspension, steering, wheel bearings and cab suspension. The test is also carried out with the truck both empty and fully laden. • Water and mud dip: The truck is driven through a deep trough filled with a

A RECENT STUDY by truck-maker Volvo and tyre manufacturer Michelin found that having the correct tyres, tyre pressure and wheel alignment can reduce truck fuel consumption by up to 14.5%. The two-week-long, 1 000 km-test conducted at Hällered featured two Volvo FH 4x2 trucks, each equipped with a 500 hp 13-litre Euro 5 engine. Each hauled a fully loaded van-bodied trailer and weighed 40 tonnes gross. One rig was driven with a range of incorrect wheel alignment settings, a variety of tyres and different tyre pressures; the other was driven with optimal tyres, tyre pressures and wheel alignment. The trucks were equipped with special instruments that monitored exact speed, tyre wear and pressure, and rolling resistance. The test engineers made adjustments in the test results for factors such as wind, rain and temperature. An independent representative from SP (the Technical Research Institute of Sweden) was on location to

mixture of salt water and fine-grain clay. This blend is very precisely specified by Volvo. The test subjects the undercarriage and wiring to considerable dirt exposure, water spatter and corrosion. • Construction track: The 750-metre-long, exceptionally hilly test track is filled with large bumps and potholes to resemble a typical construction site. With a full load, it subjects the frame, suspension and all the joints to considerable stresses.

ensure that the tests strictly adhered to scientific protocol. Analysis of the test results revealed that there can be a difference of as much as 14.5% in fuel consumption depending on how the wheels are aligned and equipped. Tyre choice can cut consumption by as much as 11%; correct tyre inflation brings a reduction of 1%, while proper wheel alignment can cut fuel consumption by 2.5%. We must try to do everything we can to reduce CO2 emissions. It’s not enough to just build fuel-efficient engines. We know that wheel alignment tyre type and pressure all have a major impact on fuel consumption. Unfortunately, there is a lack of awareness in the transport industry about the importance of checking tyres and wheel alignment, on both the truck and the trailer. Volvo dealers can assist haulage companies to check the entire rig and correct any problems. If everyone did this, it would have a significant impact on CO2 emissions.

Based on a tried and tested design, the FMX surpassed Volvo’s own expectations. The test drivers were particularly appreciative of the comfort and driveability on poor surfaces, not least the new software package for the I-Shift transmission. The new Volvo FMX truck is built for the toughest working conditions on Earth. It’ll be interesting to see how the Volvo FMX is received on the market. No doubt it will be well received.

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015

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AFRICA ROUND-UP

MINING NEWS

from around the world

in associa on with ZAMBIA New tax law for Zambia A new mining tax regime, aimed at increasing royalty taxes, has been implemented by the Zambian government as of January 2015. The new regime has seen an increase in mineral royalty taxes from 6% to 8% for underground mines, and up to 20% for open-pit mines.

Zambia president Edgar Lungu

The Mines and Minerals Act of 2014 was introduced by acting president Guy Scott during his brief tenure, and supersedes the Mines and Minerals Act of 2008. The new legislation has sparked debate in Africa’s second largest copper producer, with mining firms threatening to cut down on operations, while the government insists it will not cave to pressure from mining firms. While the government asserts that the new law is a win-win for both parties, the Zambian Chamber of Mines counters that the looming implementation of the 2015 budget would make a number of operations economically impractical, and likely to lead to further mine closures.

ZIMBABWE Chamber of Mines predicts mining slump The Zimbabwean Chamber of Mines has announced that the country’s mining industry will decline

due to high costs, lack of capital and falling metal prices. The organisation said in a report that the possibility that the industry might contract by 2% was exceedingly high. “The sector continues to operate below capacity amid a host of challenges, not restricted to, but including, depressed metal prices, lower capital and FDI (foreign direct investment) inflows, high cost structures, sub-optimal royalties and shortages of power,” it said. Commodity prices are almost at a 12-year low, with gold down 25% since the start of 2013 and platinum declining 8.2%. Zimbabwe has deposits of gold, coal and iron ore, although extraction of gold has been difficult. Mining is the biggest source of foreign exchange for Zimbabwe, with platinum group metals and gold leading tobacco as the nation’s largest exports. Zimbabwe’s economy is projected to grow 3.2% this year, according

The President of the Zimbabwe Chamber of Mines, Mr Winston Chitando

to the International Monetary Fund, from an estimated 3.1% last year. The government ignored the Chamber of Mines’ request to allow royalties to be classified as a tax expense, the report said. This raised the cost of royalties by between 4% and 7%, depending on the mineral, it said.

MOZAMBIQUE Costly railway disruptions Railway traffic on Mozambique’s Sena line in the Moatize basin was disrupted in January as a result of torrential rains. This led to the line being cut in three places when flash floods swept away ballast and damaged aqueducts and culverts, and subsequently undermined the track bed. The four-day interruption in rail traffic delayed the transport of between 74 000 tonnes and 84 000 tonnes of coal. The Sena line runs for 575 km to the major export port city of Beira, and currently an average of 25 trains run on it every day, with up to eight trains carrying between 18 500 tonnes and 21 000 tonnes of coal daily. In the past, harsh rains had stopped traffic on the line for extended periods; on this occasion, the damage was caused by the torrential rains that started in early January. A consortium of Portuguese companies is currently conducting a €163 million project to upgrade the Sena line and expand its annual capacity from 6.5 million tonnes to 20 million tonnes. Brazilian mining major Vale, currently the main coal producer in Tete, is creating an alternative rail route from Moatize, through Malawi, to Mozambique’s Port of Nacala.

NAMIBIA Namibia’s development plan launched Namibia is set to start tapping markets and investors to finance a five-year, N$23 billion development plan, as the

country aims to become a regional transport hub. The Namibian government has said it will finance N$73 billion of the budget and use a variety of methods to raise the rest of the money for port, railway, road and airport upgrades. “The best way to address these funding needs is to pursue various alternatives including public-private partnerships and listed infrastructure funds, among others,” Emma Haiyambo, a spokeswoman for the Bank of Namibia in Windhoek, told reporters.

Emma Haiyambo

“Our expectation is that there will be domestic investment appetite,” she said. “Local and international investors have confidence in the Namibian economy, its regulatory landscape and the general macroeconomic outlook.” Given this development, Namibia’s economy will then grow by 5.6% in 2015, up from 5.3% in 2014, stimulated by construction, retail trade, diamond mining and manufacturing, the central bank said. Namibia is the world’s fifth largest producer of uranium and the biggest source of offshore diamonds, most of which are mined by Namdeb Diamond Corp, a joint venture between the government and Anglo American’s De Beers unit.

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015

IN THE SPOTLIGHT

The

future of coal

With Eskom’s maintenance problems and electricity generation shortfall, South Africa’s President Zuma announced last year that the country would expand its nuclear energy capability. If so, what is coal’s future? BY TONY STONE

S NUCLEAR ENERGY a threat to coal in South Africa? With the Russians prepared to fast-track South Africa’s nuclear power station build programme with a R580 billion loan, are we wasting our time building the Medupi and Kusile power stations? At a cost of R170 billion a piece – R340 billion in total – Medupi and Kusile, once fully completed, will consist of six units each, with each of the twelve units rated at approximately 800 MW of installed capacity per unit; giving a total of 9 600 MW or 4 800 MW per power station. Elsewhere in the world, large coal power stations can be built in about four to five years. In South Africa, it takes up to 10 years.

INS I DE MI NI NG 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

The typical construction cost of a Generation III nuclear reactor, between 1 400 MW and 1 800 MW, in OECD countries is somewhere between R58 billion and R70 billion. Nuclear power plants, which are complex construction projects, take between five and seven years to build (not including the time required for planning and licensing). To equal Medupi and Kusile, six nuclear power stations of 1 600 MW each would need to be built, at a total cost of between R348 billion and R420 billion. In the final analysis, it’s much of a muchness, with both coal-fired and nuclear power stations having advantages and disadvantages. Given that Medupi

and Kusile should be completed and in commercial operation by 2018, should we be looking at a fleet of nuclear power stations? In 2011, roughly 50% of all new coal-fired power plants used HELE technologies, predominantly supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal combustion units. What does this mean? A 1% improvement in the efficiency of a conventional pulverised coal combustion plant results in a 2% to 3% reduction in CO2 emissions. Highly efficient modern supercritical and ultra-supercritical coal plants emit almost 40% less CO2 than sub-critical plants. TABLE 1 Top 10 coal producers (2013) China

3 561 Mt

USA

904 Mt

India

613 Mt

Indonesia

489 Mt

Australia

459 Mt

Russia

347 Mt

South Africa

256 Mt

Germany

191 Mt

Poland

143 Mt

Kazakhstan

120 Mt

IN THE SPOTLIGHT

TABLE 2 Top 10 steam coal producers (2013) China

3 034 Mt

USA

756 Mt

India

526 Mt

Indonesia

486 Mt

South Africa

255 Mt

Australia

239 Mt

Russia

201 Mt

Kazakhstan

103 Mt

Colombia

81 Mt

Poland

65 Mt

The future of coal According to Eskom, about 77% of South Africa’s current primary energy needs are provided by its coal-fired power stations and this is unlikely to change significantly, as an energy source, in the next decade. The country’s coal reserves are estimated at 53 billion tonnes and, with our present production rate, there should be almost 200 years of coal supply left. According to the German Federal Institute

TABLE 4 Top coal exporters (2013) for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), there are Total of which Steam Coking 1 052 billion tonnes of coal Indonesia 426 Mt 423 Mt 3 Mt reserves left in the world, Australia 336 Mt 182 Mt 154 Mt equivalent to 134.5 years Russia 141 Mt 118 Mt 22 Mt of global coal output in USA 107 Mt 47 Mt 60 Mt 2013. Coal reserves reportColumbia 74 Mt 73 Mt 1 Mt ed by the World Energy South Africa 72 Mt 72 Mt 0 Mt Council (WEC) are much Canada 37 Mt 4 Mt 33 Mt lower at 892 billion tonnes, equivalent to 113 years of TABLE 5 Top coal importers (2013) coal output. Total of which Steam Coking By anybody’s arithmetic, China 327 Mt 250 Mt 77 Mt there is a slight discrepancy Japan 196 Mt 142 Mt 54 Mt in the coal supply data. Who India 180 Mt 142 Mt 38 Mt is wrong? Either way it does South Korea 126 Mt 95 Mt 31 Mt not matter, for this generation or the next. What does Chinese Taipei 68 Mt 61 Mt 7 Mt matter, in South Africa, is Germany 51 Mt 43 Mt 8 Mt coal has a future for at least UK 50 Mt 44 Mt 6 Mt another 20 to 30 years – before nuclear or some other energy source The total capacity of the South African totally replaces coal or the ‘greenies’ win CTL operations now stands in excess of the day with their 2050 phase-out tar160 000 bbl/d. get. Then obviously, we assume, oil will be replaced by some other energy source Underground coal gasification too, by then. But, until then, and whenSasol and Eskom both have recently develever all of this does happen, we are still oped underground coal gasification (UCG) in business. pilot facilities, which is a method of converting unworked coal, still in the ground, into a combustible gas that can be used for Coal to fuel industrial heating, power generation or And, very importantly, South Africa has the manufacture of hydrogen, synthetic been producing coal-derived fuels since natural gas or diesel fuel. So, who knows? 1955. Not only are coal-to-fuel (CTL) fuels used in cars and other vehicles, but South African energy company Sasol’s A last thought CTL fuels also have approval to be used What is quite interesting is the internain commercial jets. Currently around tional support for the construction of 30% of the country’s gasoline and diesel modern, highly efficient coal-fired powneeds are produced from indigenous coal. er plants in South Africa, which demonstrates the importance of coal in meeting the demand for reliable base-load electricOPPOSITE Coal sorting and stockpiling ity to help deliver economic development, FIGURE 1 Coal prices (Europe), $/tonne and eradicate poverty, in South Africa.

TABLE 3 Coal in electricity generation (2012) Mongolia

95%

South Africa

93%

Poland

83%

China

81%

India

71%

Australia

69%

Israel

61%

Indonesia

48%

Germany

44%

USA

38%

39%

Japan

21%

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015

COMMODITY: COAL

Underground

coal gasification Underground coal gasification (UCG) is a gasification process applied to non-mined coal seams, using injection and production wells drilled from the surface, which enables the coal to be converted in situ into product gas. BY DR MICHAEL BLINDERMAN

HE UCG PROCESS developed, refined and practiced by Ergo Exergy of Canada – called the Exergy UCG technology – has been licensed by Eskom and Sasol for application in South Africa. It differs from generic UCG in that it is higher in energy efficiency with lower emissions into the environment. “We are excited about UCG as a technology for Sasol and specifically in the South African environment. UCG has the potential to utilise coal that is not minable through conventional mining technologies,” said Henri Loubser, managing director, Sasol New Energy. During the UCG process, much as in conventional gasification methods, an oxidant reacts with coal of the underground coal seams, and part of the released sensible heat is used in coal drying, pyrolysis and the endothermic reactions that reduce the combustion products. The resulting mixture is UCG gas. The gas composition depends on the coal geology as well as the process parameters. It can be produced using a variety of oxidants, including air and oxygen-rich gaseous blends. Process parameters – such as operating pressure, outlet temperature and flow

10 INS I DE MI NI NG 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

– are governed by coal and rock properties that vary with time and location. Information on the process conditions must be constantly monitored and updated as the underground gasifier develops. Process parameters need to be adjusted accordingly to accommodate the ever-varying conditions of gasification. The UCG technology uses a variety of modern drilling methods, including high-precision directional holes, as well as conventional vertical and inclined (or angled) holes. In its arsenal are various methods of well-linking, the capability to inject different oxidants (air, enriched air, O2/H2O, CO2/O2 and so on), and a great variety of designs of underground gasifiers. It can be applied to coal in a wide range of geological conditions, with the following preferred parameters: • coal seam thickness from 0.5 m to 30 m • dip from 0 degrees to 70 degrees • depth from 30 m to 800 m • calorific value (LHV) from 8.0 MJ/kg to 30.0 MJ/kg (which includes low-quality lignite and bituminous coal). Unmined and unmineable coal deposits, with such obstacles to mining as high fault frequency, volcanic intrusions and other complex depositional and tectonic

Sasol gas pipeline in Temane, Mozambique

features, have been often found a part of the UCG resource base. In every geological setting, a specific UCG design will be tailor-made to fit the unique conditions of a target coal seam. Normally, UCG is applied to relatively deep coal in water-saturated conditions, although it is also possible to gasify unsaturated coal seams that lie above the water table. UCG is an industrial technology that operates large-scale gas production facilities consisting of multiple modules or gasifiers. The specific benefits of operating a large UCG underground gasifier include the following: • A practically unlimited supply of coal will be available for gasification; no external coal and water supply are required to sustain the reaction • The UCG process creates an immense underground gas and heat storage capacity, making the gas supply very stable and robust • An underground gasifier comprises a number of underground reactors with largely independent outputs. The gas

COMMODITY: COAL

“UCG is an environmentally friendly and energy-efficient technology.” Michael Blinderman, managing director, Ergo Exergy Technologies streams from different reactors can be mixed as required, to ensure consistency of overall gas quality. The outputs of reactors can also be varied, in order to optimise coal extraction and overall gas output from the gasifier • No ash or slag removal or handling is necessary, since inert material predominantly remains in the underground cavities • Groundwater influx into the gasifier creates an effective ‘steam jacket’ around the reactor, making the heat loss in situ tolerably small • Optimal pressure in the underground gasifier promotes groundwater flow into the cavity, thus confining the chemical process to the boundaries of the gasifier and preventing contamination of the underground environment. Multiple gasifiers may be required to supply fuel to an industrial consumer; the exact number will depend on the size of the fuel supply required and the precise geology of the coal deposit targeted. The UCG process is not only a method of coal conversion; it is a method of extracting coal from the underground beds – for all intents and purposes, a mining technique. There are many similarities between UCG and underground mining: for example, UCG is concerned with typical mining issues such as coal extraction efficiency, roof stability and groundwater influx. As a coal recovery method, UCG supplements traditional mining, often utilising coal seams that are impossible or uneconomical to mine using conventional methods. There are UCG equivalents of conventional underground mining methods including long-wall, short-wall, and board-and-pillar methods. A successful UCG operation factors in roof collapse and overburden deformation as necessary technology attributes. The UCG is a fossil-fuel technology and, as such, must address

concerns over global warming. It does so in the following ways: • The raw UCG gas contains CO2 in concentrations that vary depending on process conditions and the choice of oxidant. The gas is produced under pressure and at a moderate temperature, and easily lends itself to CO2 removal by a range of standard methods, with low energy penalties and at a relatively low cost • So captured and removed, CO2 can be permanently stored (or sequestered) in the underground storage zones created by coal extraction in the UCG operations. The energy penalty and relative cost of CO2 re-compression and sequestering are comparatively low. Along with that, CO2 can be injected into deep saline aquifers and deeper coal seams as well as used for enhanced recovery of oil, natural gas and CBM • As in conventional IGCC, UCG gas can be used to generate electricity with a power island efficiency as high as 55%, and with the overall efficiency of the UCG-IGCC process reaching 43%. These efficiencies translate into very low rates of greenhouse emissions per unit of net power generated

• In chemical manufacturing processes such as Fischer-Tropsch syntheses and the production of synthetic methane or fertilisers, CO2 removal is a routine unit operation. Permanent storage of CO2 in the UCG-created permeable zones and the other sinks will significantly reduce greenhouse emissions of the overall process, from the initial coal conversion right through to the end product. The UCG process is designed and tested to prevent or minimise the other, more traditional environmental impacts on air, soil and water (including surface streams and groundwater). The process is conducted in such a way that gasification pressure in the gasifier is always slightly less than the hydrostatic pressure of fluid in the coal seam and surrounding strata. This creates a pressure gradient directed towards the gasifier. As a result, no flow from the gasifier into the surroundings is allowed, thereby preventing both the loss of valuable product and contamination of the underground environment. The thorough characterisation of existing aquifers in the vicinity of the underground gasifier and careful monitoring of the hydrostatic pressure in the aquifers during operations, form an integral part of the UCG groundwater protection strategy. The UCG is an environmentally friendly and energy-efficient technology for producing competitively priced gaseous fuel for power generation and chemical processing.

FIGURE 1 Schematic of the UCG process

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 11

JUNIOR MINING

Finding the For many years, government and business have spoken about the need to develop SMEs as the means of creating jobs. This is exactly what junior miners do, but finding the finance and beating the challenges can be inhibiting. BY TONY STONE

AKING LIGHT OF what is a frustrating problem, junior miners joke about making a small fortune, by starting with a big one. Mirth aside, their biggest problem is finding the money to fund their projects. Perhaps, though, the problem is actually with the junior miners. Applications for finance do not contain enough of the ‘business case’ needed by investors and financiers. Junior mining companies, usually headed by technically competent people – geologists, metallurgists and/

12 INS I DE MI NI NG 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

or engineers – tend to focus on the ‘product’, the mineral, and getting it out of the ground, processing it and transporting it to market. Mining is not just about the mineral product. It’s also about running a mine as profitably as possible and, given the money involved, a mine needs to be sustained, productively over time to yield the desired return on the investment. Part of the business case is that mines exist within economies and political environments, especially in Africa, and this needs to be taken into

account. What financiers, professional investors and banks look for in African projects is viability and easy entry; security of tenure, investments and returns; and trained and disciplined labour. Sadly, South Africa falls short in four out of five of these aspects. For example, as far as viability and easy entry is concerned, in Botswana, a junior miner can, generally speaking, obtain a water-use license within three to four months. In South Africa, it can take up to three years, as was the case with the

JUNIOR MINING Kangala Coal Mine, and is the case with a number Difference of other applicants on the books at the moment. 7.3 Bureaucratic incompe4.0 tence, or delays brought 12.9 on by the need to avoid 3.1 corruption, prevents jobs 2.9 being created. Then there -3.0 is a niggling question that 6.4 comes to mind. Is it in 4.8 fact bureaucratic incom5.0 petence or part of a deliberate, idealistic socialist 2.2 agenda? Given that, at -2.8 the moment, there is no 8.9 real capping in terms of 2.3 the state’s interest in the 9.5 mining industry. Nation2.5 alisation remains a big 1.0 concern for investors as 0.7 does the frequent changes 0.7 to South African mining 7.2 law that has led to many -4.2 in the investment community becoming increas2.1 ingly concerned. Because -9.1 of this, many investors -5.4 are looking elsewhere, at Africa, despite South 3.0 Africa being the most 1.0 richly endowed country on the continent – with $3.5 trillion in mineral reserves. Then there is, to some degree, political manoeuvring for self-enrichment, often in the guise of Black Economic Empowerment (BEE). Currently, in terms of the BEE Act of 2003 with its 2013 Amendments, black ownership of any mine (company) must be 26%. While this is law at the moment, and a mine is BEE compliant, if, after five years or even less, the BEE shareholder sells his or her 26% to a non-BEE buyer then the mine’s BEE compliance is suddenly gone, through no fault of its own. This is a problem. Furthermore we have African nationalists pushing for dominance with a minimum 51% BEE shareholding. If the South African government takes 20% and the investor who has, or is to, put all the money

TABLE 1 2014 Behre Dolbear’s ranking of countries

Rank

Country

2014 rating

2013 rating

Canada

61.6

54.3

Australia

60.3

56.3

United States

54.6

41.7

Chile

54.1

51.0

Mexico

46.0

43.1

Brazil

42.6

45.6

Peru

42.3

35.9

Botswana

41.6

36.8

Namibia

38.6

33.6

Ghana

38.2

36.0

Columbia

37.7

40.5

Zambia

35.0

26.1

Tanzania

34.2

31.9

South Africa

33.9

24.4

Philippines

32.9

30.4

China

29.7

28.7

India

28.5

27.8

Indonesia

28.1

27.8

Kazakhstan

28.1

20.9

Argentina

24.8

29.0

Papua New Guinea

23.1

21.0

Mozambique

22.9

32.0

Mongolia

21.5

26.9

Russia

20.1

17.1

DRC

18.7

17.7

in gets 29%, it’s no longer a good deal for the investor. Roger Baxter, the chief economist at the South African Chamber of Mines, describes 2015 as a year of obstacles, challenges and opportunities. He said it would be a challenging year for mines, especially on the growth side. If South Africa is to attract investment in the mining sector, the prevailing uncertainty in the sector must be quashed. With commodity prices in the doldrums, mining companies will need to dig deep to find ways to be profitable, otherwise jobs will be lost. How South Africa is ranked affects cost and availability of capital and borrower funding. Shabbir Norath, head of corporate finance at Nedbank Capital, says, “There is definitely a lot of money available to invest on the continent, both from an equity as well as a debt perspective.” This is good for Africa but not so good for South Africa, given its ranking, and given the mining sector being ‘up in the air’ and struggling with profitability. Investors look at a mine’s capital asset pricing model, which describes the relationship between risk and expected return, which needs to be attractive. This means, the higher the risk, the higher the reward; so as to increase the hurdle rate, the minimum acceptable rate of return on a project. But the higher hurdle does not help if a

RISK MITIGATION THE MULTILATERAL INVESTMENT GUARANTEE AGENCY (MIGA) is a member of the World Bank Group. MIGA’s principal role is to provide investment insurance for projects in developing countries. Increasingly, MIGA has taken on the role of co-sponsoring country and regional investment promotion seminars and workshops designed to stimulate direct foreign investment. The agency has developed a useful database of investment projects in Africa and other developing regions, and many of these projects involve manufacturing or processing unfinished products.

“Even if investors wanted to mine, there are real regulatory delays.” Roger Baxter, chief economist, South African Chamber of Mines

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 13

JUNIOR MINING

project is abandoned or confiscated, which is why many projects are most often not pursued. This fact is borne out by the reality that, in 2012/13, Canada and Australia, had 13 000 and 15 000 exploration projects respectively. In the same period, South Africa had less than a dozen. And, in South Africa, 95% of exploration projects do not make it to production. While South Africa does have huge possibilities, and is ranked as world’s top mining opportunity, it is currently ranked 67 in viability/new business opportunities, down from 34. This is a problem. There are far more attractive options available to investors elsewhere in Africa. Just 361.5 km along the R509 and N4 from Gauging, is Botswana, with a massive untapped copper ore body, and a massive coal deposit. And, adding to the allure, the US Geological Survey has identified big aquifers beneath the surface in Botswana. With water available, Botswana, with its stable and investor-friendly government, starts to look very attractive.

Where not to invest

POTENTIAL AFRICAN MINING DESTINATIONS BOTSWANA is the largest diamond miner in the world. The country also has wellknown coal reserves, and coal production is likely to become of increasing value to the country. The country is estimated to have more than 200 billion tonnes of coal reserves and the development of the coal sector has become a key priority. GHANA is the second largest gold producer on the continent, after South Africa. Gold is the most important mining sector. The mining landscape is dominated by foreign-owned firms. Production growth over the long term is very favourable. Companies including Perseus Mining and Endeavour Mining Corporation invested $20 billion in Ghanaian gold mines during 2011/12. MOZAMBIQUE The mining sector’s contribution to overall economic activity is expected to increase significantly over the medium to long term on the back of a sharp projected increase in global coal production. According to the IMF, megaprojects have the potential to make a contribution of 18% of total value added in the economy by 2016. Coal production could reach beyond 100 million tonnes per annum within the next five years. NAMIBIA is the fourth largest exporter of non-fuel minerals in Africa. Mineral exports constitute half of the country’s total export earnings, with the country

Since 1999, Behre Dolbear has compiled annual political risk assessments in the global mining industry. Over time, their assessments indicate a positive correlation between the growth of a nation’s wealth and the prosperity of its mining industry. Only when a country recognises its critical need to adapt and restructure burdensome policy, will it truly optimise this economic potential. The 25 countries considered in this year’s survey, as in the past, are ranked based on seven criteria: • the country’s economic system • the country’s political system • the degree of social issues affecting mining in the country • delays in receiving permits due to bureaucratic and other issues • the degree of corruption prevalent in the country

• the stability of the country’s currency • the competitiveness of the country’s tax policy. Each criterion is rated on a qualitative scale from one (worst) to ten (best) that reflects conditions that promote investment growth in the mining sector. Accordingly, the maximum score attainable for a country is 70 points The higher-ranking countries are those with well-established democratic systems that possess tested mining legislation that protects against governmental or other arbitrary takings of property. Canada, Chile, and previously the United States, lead in this category.

“We provide our Africa mining clients with sustainable advisory solutions.” Shabbir Norath, head of corporate finance, Nedbank Capital

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producing diamonds, uranium, copper, magnesium, zinc, silver, gold, lead, semiprecious stones and industrial minerals. The mining sector is expected to post a real expansion of 12.5% per annum towards 2017. TANZANIA The mining industry remains relatively small but is exceedingly important as a significant source of export revenues. The sector contributed approximately 3.2% to GDP in 2012. It is estimated that about 90% of Tanzania’s minerals have yet to be exploited. The construction of a nickel mine is set to start in 2014 and large-scale uranium mining is likely to commence over the coming year. ZAMBIA has a wide spectrum of mineral resources including copper, cobalt, zinc, gold, manganese, nickel and gemstones. The country remains dependant on the extraction and processing of copper and cobalt for export; these minerals account for approximately 10% of GDP and around 80% of export receipts. The sector is expected to expand by 2% to 4% per annum over the next five years. Other countries of interest include Angola, Cameroon, DRC, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Rwanda and Sierra Leone. Interestingly, South Africa does not get a mention. Source: KPMG

What to do? Unfortunately, the mining industry cannot go it alone. They need government, as their partners, to assist in improving South Africa’s investment rating. To achieve this: • improve policy • conduct geological surveys • compare minerals database against US Geological Survey • improve investment attractiveness • ensure stability • improve infrastructure • provide investment guarantees. If this is not achieved, and soon, it is quite clear, having attended the numerous mining conferences throughout the past year, that South Africa’s mining industry faces a daunting future, which, if not resolved, may see the collapse of the junior mining industry; not to forget the impact on the big mining houses, and the exit of investors, despite President Jacob Zuma’s recent assurances that South Africa’s mining industry was “settling down”, comments he made while at Davos during January 2015.

COMMINUTION

Karowe comminution

circuit upgrade Boteti is due to begin treating the significantly more competent (Unit 13) kimberlites at their Karowe diamond plant, Botswana, and wish to continue with autogenous (AG) milling as the heart of their process flow sheet. BY P MORGAN, L VAN NIEKERK & M DUDDY, DRA

HIS SYNOPSIS looks at the current performance of the AG mill, and reports on the assessment of the impact of treating harder kimberlites in the near future. The introduction of a Turbo-Pulp Lifter (TPL) system is anticipated to improve upon the difficulties experienced in the original mill grate/pan lifter operation, and reports upon the estimated impact of increased throughput and hard kimberlite reflected in the newly proposed and modified flow-sheet.

a maximum area of 7 ha at a depth of 120 m. The majority of the ore body consists of a competent ore whose main component, identified as Unit 13, is unusually hard for a kimberlite. It is also very abrasive and displays other abnormal properties, including high dense media separation (DMS) yields, high crushing strength and low amenability to scrubbing. The AG high aspect ratio variable speed mill (Outotec 8.5 m diameter x 3.96 m, 4 MW) was required to treat various materials and kimberlite from the Karowe ore body, at a rate of 350 mtph (in closed-circuit with a cone crusher) to

Where it all began Karowe mine developed from Lucara Diamond Corp’s AK6 project and is 100% owned by Lucara’s subsidiary, Boteti Mining. The Karowe mine is located in north-central Botswana and is part of the Orapa/Letlhakane kimberlite district, one of the world’s most prolific diamond-producing areas. The kimberlite at the Karowe mine – AK6 kimberlite – comprises a single, tri-lobate kimberlite pipe, which is ‘pinched’ at the surface and its sub-outcrop consists of a core of kimberlite, covering an area of 4.2 ha, surrounded by an area where the kimberlite is capped by basalt or basalt breccia. Drilling has shown that the kimberlite bulges to TOP RIGHT Karowe resource model RIGHT Karowe diamond mine

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 15

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COMMINUTION

FIGURE 1 SMCC test sample population data plot to date for Karowe

provide a -30 mm product with a waste fraction below 1.5 mm. The cut-off size was changed to 35 mm due to the recovery of large, high-quality diamonds. The various minerals encountered during treatment ranged from soft sandstones and weathered kimberlites, to more competent kimberlites, mudstones and basalts. A large degree of variability was therefore expected, due to the fact that there is a fivefold variation in overall power requirements. As a result of the high variability of the expected ore, a mill was selected as it has the flexibility to operate over the range of different types of material, as well as combining crushing and scrubbing steps in one unit. It was anticipated that the mill would treat 300 tph of the hard Unit 13 (Phase 2); but Boteti wished to maintain the 350 tph name-plate throughout the mine life, which would require some modifications to the circuit to accommodate the hardness and yield variations. It was also envisaged that, during the initial stages of operation, the mill will receive the bulk of weathered and softer materials (referred to as Unit 1), and will later treat more competent materials like Unit 13, together with

mudstones and sandstones making up tests were used by DRA Mineral Projects the major diluents. to compare relative grinding rates and Initially, rubber-lined pebble ports of for population-balance modelling. Table 70 mm and 30 mm grate slots, togeth1 describes the observed peak specific er inter-spaced with blank panels, were rates of breakage (energy-based) relative proposed, allowing for a 5.5% to 10% to the bulk sample (South Lobe) for the open area range. As the mine developlaboratory-tested materials and breakment progressed into more competent age function φ values. areas, it was envisaged that the grate SMCC and JK Tech DWT tests were design would need further optimisation, conducted regularly during the mine and 90 mm port designs were made up ramp-up period and the total sample and later installed. As more competent population history is shown in Figure material was being treated earlier than 1, with the published DWi database planned, principally fragmented kimberdistribution superimposed (red thin lites, the mill production rates reduced line). It became apparent that the Unit and the causes for the shortfall were spe2456 facies originally tested was akin to cifically investigated during two milling fragmented kimberlite (FK). The deeper plant sampling audits, referred to as S1 and S2. TABLE 1 Observed relative grinding rates

Apparent hardness and relative grinding rates The variability of the diamondiferous horizons to be encountered were originally tested and compared using drop-weight criteria, and later minor scrubbing and grind-milling

Type

Relative grinding rates

Unit 1 (U1)

1.45

0.40

Unit 13 (13)

0.25

Sandstone

1.12

1.00

Unit 2456 (FK)

0.37

0.40

Bulk (South Lobe) 1.00

0.80

TABLE 2 Survey grate functions and perceived relative grinding rate

Survey

β,%

d50c mm

Rel. rate

DWi

12.3

0.565

0.52

3.99~4.68

14.0

0.420

0.43

5.711

Not direct measurement but best, least square error fit.

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 17

Rock stars.

You don’t become a star in this business by taking the day off. And that means every machine in the circuit all performing together. That’s the whole idea with Enduron® machines. It starts with an expanded, full-circuit line of equipment – crushers, screens and feeders to meet the toughest demands of the mining, sand and aggregate industries. Each machine built to the highest standards for durability and reliability. And totally almost anywhere in the world. y supported pp Star performance. From Weir Minerals. For more information contact us on +27 (0)11 9292600

To learn more about Enduron® machines go to : weirminerals.com/enduron.aspx Copyright © 2014, Weir Slurry Group, Inc. All rights reserved. ENDURON is a trademark and/or registered trademark of Weir Minerals Europe Ltd; WEIR is a trademark and/or a registered trademark of Weir Engineering Services Ltd.

COMMINUTION

FIGURE 2 Karowe sample ta population

material is apparently more competent. The graphic clearly shows a significant degree of hardness variation that prescribes virtually the complete spectrum of DWi values. The abrasion factor, ta, is remarkably similar to the observed breakage function φ values.

Mill grate performance Mill-circuit sampling surveys were specifically undertaken while treating progressively harder horizon material, principally fragmented kimberlite, and the internal condition was also monitored by crash-stopping the mill. The first survey (S1) was undertaken when the mill grate was severely worn and partly breached. The integrity of several rubber grates was severely compromised. A second survey (S2) was undertaken shortly after the damaged mill grates and worn liners were replaced following scheduled relining maintenance. The two surveys indicated that the grate ports were clogging up and more specifically, that the pan lifters were retaining material that should escape the mill. Simulating the circuit according to direct relative-rate mixtures of known material facies enabled benchmarking of the milling-pebble crusher circuit model. Transfer functions were used to describe the pebble-crusher operation, according size and to close-side setting. Previous data on Excel crushers had been used

to develop a crusher transfer function model, and check survey performance. Population balance modelling techniques made use of a grate function (modified Lynch-Rao partition coefficient equation) to describe ‘hold-up’ load in the mill and thus influence the mill power development. (1)

Where, β α d50c Pc(xi)

- ‘Backflow’ fraction - Sharpness coefficient - Port cut size, mm - Fraction of size retained by grate. Plant data from the surveys was fitted in terms of mill power, mill load, measured tonnage and product stream particle size distributions to ascertain the grate performance and apparent relative grinding rates (see Table 2). The data was simply fitted using combinations of FK u and South Lobe grinding paa rameters. S2 mill feed actur al drop weight index (taken a at the end of the sampling a period) was lower than the p data fitted; but contaminad ttion of sample with softer kkimberlite was suspected. The results clearly show that a significant fraction t of finished product is reo tained by the mill gratet pan lifter system, and p that partial clogging and t bridging was apparent with b FIGURE 3 Observed relationship between relative grinding rates and DWi

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 19

COMMINUTION

FIGURE 4 Proposed new flow sheet

the old grates and was borne out by physical observation. Following the benchmarking exercise, it was apparent that the mill would in the future receive material significantly harder than seen in the surveys. The benchmarking revealed the following proposed relationship between DWi (kW/m3) and observed relative grinding rates. Using this relationship, it was possible to simulate the mill-crusher circuit while ‘treating’ the harder drop-weight (DWi) referenced ores.

harder ores, thus potentially exacerbating the problem. XRT technology was incorporated into the circuit design for the large diamond recovery (LDR) and DMS replacement as a consequence, while the existing DMS will process the fines.

designs with 90 mm and 115 mm pebble ports, the first of which is for fragmented kimberlites and the latter due to be installed for the treatment of hard Unit 13, in early 2015.

Proposed new circuit design Turbo Pulp Lifter system

A 1 300 mm diameter secondary gyratory crusher (KG 4513) will partly crush a proportion of jaw-crusher product, depending upon the coarseness, to prepare a suitably consistent feed to the AG mill. The mill discharge screen recycles 60 mm directly and combined with the -60 mm + 32 mm LDR tails to the existing pebble crusher. Pebble-crusher product can be partially split to bypass mill recycle. Hard kimberlite simulations It was possible to simulate XRT bulk sorting will be used to It became apparent from initial the mill-crusher circuit while recover diamonds on -32 mm design trial simulations that + 14 mm, and 14 mm + 8 mm partial pre-crushing, modified ‘treating’ the harder dropfractions, with a recycle tertiary grate design and bypass screenweight (DWi) referenced ores crush on 20 mm tail using a ing were necessary to control 1 200 mm diameter Cybas fine the mill load and alleviate any crusher; -8 mm + 1.5 mm fracoverloading mill condition. It tion will be treated in the DMS. was also apparent that less fines were port area, grate and pebble apertures, going to be produced, potentially overgrate open area, pan depth and disloading the existing DMS circuit. High charge angle. In consultation with DRA, For a full list of references, please contact DMS yields are also anticipated on the the company has produced two TPL tony@3smedia.co.za.

20 INS I DE MI NI NG 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

Outotec was approached with the intention of providing the innovative Turbo Pulp Lifter (TPL) system to improve the discharge, and grate efficiency. Outotec has used the JK SimMet modelling tool to assess the proposed circuit, taking into consideration changes to pebble

COMMINUTION

Down to a

fine point

Cost-effective grinding of ore and minerals to precise sizes is important. Added to which, reliability and consistency are absolutely essential aspects of comminution.

ODAY, AS WITH most industrial applications in South Africa, electricity supply is a problem. The need to reduce as well as optimise electricity consumption is critical. This and other factors apply to comminution applications in ore and mineral processing. The key is to find and implement technology that increases the recovery of ores and minerals, reduces operating costs, can operate in a water-scarce area, with minimal floor space, is ecologically friendly, and can achieve all of this in a limited or expensive energy supply environment. Fortunately, technology does exist where, in a dry-milling process, significant advantages can be realised over conventional crushing and grinding technologies in ore beneficiation. These advantages are: • low specific energy consumption • steep product particle size curve • reduced product over-grinding

• in-bed and selective comminution • higher degree of liberation of the valuable minerals • process rationalisation • rapid response to changes in the feed composition • optimisation of throughput through online monitoring • grinding product has a positive effect on the downstream processes.

Technology does exist where advantages can be realised Principle of operation Generally speaking, Loesche mills operate with a compressive comminution system with a shear component. This effect is created by tapered rollers, whose axes are angled below 15 degrees with respect to the

horizontal grinding track. The roller axes do not intersect the centre of rotation of the grinding plate. With pure compressive comminution, the introduction of shear forces is deliberately avoided. This is achieved by tapered rollers, whose axes are angled in relation to the horizontal grinding track in such a way that the roller axis intersects exactly the centre of rotation of the grinding plate with its axis. The different comminution principles are matched to the respective ore characteristics in order to achieve optimum mineral liberation. If an ore reacts positively to shear stress, a combination of compressive and shear is used. The Loesche-patented shear-free grinding is used where pure compressive comminution is desired. Through the use of shear-free grinding, the percentage of finest grain can be additionally reduced with regard to the already steep product particle-size curve. At the same time, the percentage of medium grain size fractions is increased. Further positive effects are additional energy savings and the minimisation of wear. The grinding product altered by shear-free grinding can reduce the amount of fines by up to 50% and thereby result in significant advantages for the downstream sorting processes. IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 21

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MARKET LEADER DOES NOT KEEP US

MATERIALS HANDLING

Slurry as a transport system

Africa, it would seem, is about thirty years behind Europe and the US, even South America, in the deployment of slurry pipelines as a costeffective alternative transport. We look at the technology. BY TONY STONE

22 INS I DE MI NI NG 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

OR THOSE OF US who are not too familiar with slurry pump technology and to refresh the memories of those who have forgotten, and to beg the tolerance of those in the know, slurry is a mixture of a liquid, usually water, and solids, the particles of which can range from small, particle-sized, to large, chunks of coal, and, as in the latter instance, a thickener such as magnetite. The combination of the type, size, shape and quantity of the particles, together with the nature of the transporting liquid, determines the exact characteristics and flow properties of the slurry. From conventionally thickened slurries to paste slurries, as illustrated in Graph 1, we see that different pump technologies are needed. The

thicker the material and the greater the distance, and height, the more complex the pumping requirement – to the point where a thick paste or cake can no longer be pumped.

Slurry characteristics Slurries with very fine particles, which are referred to as non-settling slurries, and which can form stable homogeneous mixtures, exhibiting increased apparent viscosity, usually have low-wearing properties. Even so, careful consideration selecting the correct pump and drive is necessary as these slurries, referred to as non-Newtonian, often do not behave in the manner of a normal liquid. At the opposite end of the scale, settling slurries, formed by coarser particles, greater than 1 mm, tend to form

MATERIALS HANDLING

especially in coal transport. Eskom would do well to look at the possibilities with their coal suppliers, and taking ash to tailings facilities. At the moment, with the hundreds of trucks transporting coal from mines to power stations, the damage to road infrastructure, as well the environment, is substantial. The town of Ermelo in Mpumalanga is a prime example.

Design considerations

GRAPH 1 Flow behaviour vs solids concentration LEFT Slurry pipeline technology offers a sustainable solution in many environments

an unstable mixture. In cases such as this, particular attention must be given to power calculations in terms of flow velocity and friction-loss factors. Coarser particles tend to have higher wearing properties, and tend to form the majority of slurry applications. This type of slurry is also referred to as heterogeneous. In both instances, homogeneous and heterogeneous, height differentials and the distance between source and destination need to factored into the equation. Consulting firms such as Paterson & Cooke and Ausenco can assist with the complex designs and calculations involved.

Breaking new ground Slurry pipeline technology is a safe transportation alternative that minimises

impacts on local communities and the environment. Its benefits include lower pollution levels, road transport and fuel costs and staffing requirements, and a reduced reliance and impact on high-use transport corridors. Slurry pipeline technology offers a sustainable solution in many environments. What is more, the technology is reliable and efficient. Ausenco has designed and engineered long-distance pipelines to transport virtually every type of mineral – from concentrates such as copper, zinc, lead and iron to crushed ore, bauxite, nickel laterite, phosphate, limestone and coal. The company’s experience includes projects in extremely cold climates, over record-breaking distances, at high altitudes, and in mountainous terrain. More recently, Ausenco completed Africa’s first coal slurry pipeline from Mozambique’s Tete province to the Port of Beira, with its port capacity of 20 MT, over a distance of some 500 km. The Chirodzi mine is an open-pit coal mine with proven reserves of 700 million tonnes (MT) and an expected life of mine of 25 years. The mine commenced operations in 2012 and is scheduled to produce in excess of 10 MTPA of high-grade coal in 2015, and onwards. Inside Mining will be reviewing this pipeline project in its April 2015 issue. What this means is that South Africa, and other African countries, can look at this technology with renewed interest,

As Patterson & Cooke advise, increasing solids concentration has a number of requirements that are different from a conventional slurry system. Designing a high-density system requires an overall systems approach, as there is strong dependence between the destination point and pumping requirements, and the preparation facilities at source. High-density slurry pipelines often operate at a higher pressure than conventional tailings pipelines, and pipeline mechanical design must take this into account. Centrifugal pumps will be adequate for medium-density systems with short pipeline lengths, whereas positive displacement pumps will be required for high-density systems with long pipelines. Table 1 illustrates the comparisons between centrifugal and positive displacement pumps in high-density slurry pipelines. Positive-displacement pumps, of which piston, piston-diaphragm and hose diaphragm pumps are a subset, are specifically designed to handle slurry, sludge or WEIR MINERALS’ EXPERIENCE WITH SLURRY PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION USING THE GEHO PUMP: • Longest pipeline (550 km): MMX, Brazil • Highest pipeline pressure (240 bars): Collahuasi, Chile • Highest flow (540 m3/hour): OEMK, Russia • Total number of pumps: 130+ • Total number of long-distance pipeline projects: 36+

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 23

MATERIALS HANDLING

TWO OF THE MORE CHALLENGING LONG-DISTANCE SLURRY PIPELINE PROJECTS:

Antamina Multiproduct Concentrate Pipeline Location: Peru Client: Compañia Minera AntaminaS.A Duration: 1989 to 2009 Ausenco provided a full range of engineering services on this 304 km copper-zinc concentrate slurry pipeline system – the first multiproduct slurry pipeline system in a mountainous region. Work began with a feasibility study, including route planning, constructability evaluation, conceptual design and a ±15% cost estimate. It continued to include basic and detailed engineering and expansion and repair projects throughout the life of the system. The steel pipeline was designed to transport a maximum of 1.4 Mt/y of copper and zinc concentrates from Antamina mine site in northern Peru at an elevation of 4 100 m above sea level to terminal facilities at Huarmey.

Samarco Iron Concentrate Pipeline Location: Brazil Client: Samarco Mineração S.A. Duration: 1995 to 2012 The Samarco project is an integrated open-pit mine, pipeline and port operation in Brazil. The project includes the longest iron concentrate pipeline in the world, which currently spans 398 km with a peak altitude of 1 150 m above sea level. Ausenco has provided Samarco with a variety of services throughout the development of this project, ranging from laboratory testing, simulations, studies and design through construction and start-up support. Though the original pipeline predates the formation of Ausenco, several key members of the design, construction, and start-up team are principals at Ausenco today.

paste applications. These pumps handle long-distance slurry pipeline transport, mine dewatering and backfill, autoclave, reactor and digester feed, gasifier feed and high-density tailings disposal applications. Variations of this category of pump include: • Crankshaft-driven piston pumps: Crankshaft-driven piston pumps handle slurries and sludges with moderate abrasivity, medium to high viscosity, mild corrosivity, up to 6 mm particle size and up to 75% solids content. • Hose-diaphragm pumps: The hydraulically driven, two-chamber, single-acting, high-pressure-hose-diaphragm pumps handle unsettled mine water. • Hydraulic-driven piston pumps: Piston pumps with cone valves or transfer tubes handle slurries and sludges with moderate abrasivity, high viscosity, mild corrosivity, up to 50 mm particle size and up to 90% solids content. • Piston-diaphragm pumps: Crankshaft-driven piston-diaphragm pumps handle slurries and sludges with extreme abrasivity, medium to high viscosity, high corrosivity and elevated temperatures.

In summary Flowing out of this brief overview is the clear picture that high-density slurry pipelines are suited to long-distance mineral transport, including coal. This presents Africa with an opportunity to catch up with the rest of the world in deploying this technology – to achieve efficiencies in operations and costs, and for the benefit of the environment.

TABLE 1 Basic comparison: centrifugal pumps vs positive-displacement pumps

Factor

Centrifugal pumps

Positive-displacement pumps

Mechanics

Imparts velocity to the liquid or slurry resulting in pressure at the outlet (pressure is created and flow results)

Captures confined amounts of liquid or slurry and transfers it from the suction to the discharge port (flow is created and pressure results)

Performance

Flow varies with changing pressure

Flow is constant with changing pressure

Viscosity

Efficiency decreases with increasing viscosity due to Efficiency increases with increasing viscosity frictional losses inside the pump (typically not used on viscosities above 850 cSt)

Efficiency

Efficiency peaks at the best-efficiency point. At higher Efficiency increases with increasing pressure or lower pressures, efficiency decreases

Inlet conditions Liquid or slurry must be in the pump to create a pressure differential. A dry pump will not prime on its own

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Negative pressure is created at the inlet port. A dry pump will prime on its own

MATERIALS HANDLING

Innovative excavator

OMATSU PRESIDENT and CEO Tetsuji Ohashi launched the PC 200i-10 and PC 210LCi-10 intelligent machine control (iMC) hydraulic excavators in Europe and Japan in October 2014, and the United States in November 2014. Beyond this, Komatsu is working to aggressively promote these excavators in advanced countries that lead ICT-based construction. Komatsu has achieved a world first with iMC technology, which controls the excavator boom, arm and bucket without damaging the target surface by checking the position data of the bucket teeth, received by the GNSS (GPS and GLONASS) antenna and the GNSS base station on the jobsite, against the design data. The iMC hydraulic excavators makes earthmoving quicker, easier and safer. When the bucket teeth of the PC 200i-10 and PC 210LCi-10 reach the target surface, the boom, arm and bucket automatically stop movements, or the teeth move along the target surface, thanks to the assistance function. Therefore, the operator can continue excavating without worrying about overcutting. As both iMC models can eliminate a considerable amount of work, such as staking and surveying, which are required for conventional construction, they can help customers not only improve their production efficiency but also enhance safety at job sites by reducing the number of surveyors who work near the machines on conventional job sites.

iMC technology is a world first

Komatsu is also promoting the ‘visualisation’ of construction work by integrating Komtrax (Komatsu Machine Tracking System) and the construction management system. In the near future, Komatsu is going to achieve effective unified management of information concerning both the operating conditions of the machines and the progress of construction, such as the volume of hauled soil, through web services. By deploying iMC construction equipment at construction job sites, Komatsu will become able to incorporate a lot of accurate job site information into this system.

Outstanding productivity improvement Cutting-edge machine control technologies offer: • Auto grade assist: The boom adjusts the bucket height automatically, tracing the target surface • Auto-stop control: The work equipment automatically stops when the bucket edge reaches the design surface • Minimum-distance control functions: The bucket automatically selects the point on the bucket closest to the target surface.

Integrated machine control With integrated sensors, iMC excavators achieve real-time position detection of the bucket teeth. I N S I D E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2 0 1 5 25

MINERALS PROCESSING

The

popcorn p corn effect

EPARATING SOLIDS from solids is a critical function in mineral processing. Because of this, ongoing reliability is an extremely important decision factor in selecting the right equipment. First off, what have popcorn and mineral processing got to do with each other? In solids from solids separation, a high-frequency vibrating screen achieves a high degree of efficiency in separation. It also breaks down the surface tension between particles. The high level of RPMs also contributes to increasing the stratification of material, so they separate at a much higher rate. Separation cannot take place without stratification. Because the screen vibrates vertically, there is a ‘popcorn effect’ where the coarser particles lift or bounce higher, with the finer particles passing through the screen. In some high-frequency vibrating screens, the flow rate of the feed can be controlled. In such instances, the ‘popcorn effect’ is proportional. If the flow rate lowers, the effect is also decreased. Quite simple yet very effective! However, as already pointed out, it all whittles down to the choosing the right technology and the right supplier.

Competitive pricing As a competitively priced supplier of capital equipment and consumables, screening

and vibrating equipment solutions provider Aury Africa, with its 5 000 m2 manufacturing facility in Jet Park, Boksburg, is able to deliver fast turnaround times for its products, which are used primarily in comminution and separation applications. Aury Africa’s woven-wire products are manufactured locally, while screening and vibrating equipment is imported from its China-based sister company, Aury Tianjin.

Screening and vibrating equipment

solution specialists Aury Africa manufactures a complete range of high-quality vibrating screens, centrifuges, crushers and sieve bends for the coal, gold and mineral processing industries.

No doubts about quality Contrary to what is a common and unfairly negative perception about Chinese products, the Aury Tianjin factory carries the much sought after and internationally recognised ISO 9001 quality certification. The facility is also backed up by the technical expertise of a number of engineers who have extensive experience in vibration technology within the international mining sector. It is this combination that creates a truly unique product offering – delivering reliability and cost minimisation. Aury Africa managing director Mark Houchin is quite firm on this issue. “We have successfully distanced ourselves from the stigma of inferior quality and service associated with the Chinese manufacturing sector. With a four-year track record, our highly competitive price-to-quality ratio, which together with our commitment to after-sales and technical-support service, we have a strong footing in the South African mining sector, especially in the local coal mining and mineral processing industries.” Aury Africa supplies a complete range of consumable products, including polyurethane and rubber panels, cyclones, woven wire screens, weld mesh, wedge-wire products, pipes, pumps, belt scrapers and ceramics. The company’s capital equipment offering features vibrating feeders and screens, fine and coarse coal centrifuges, crushers, conveyor systems and scrapers. Aury vibrating screen

I N S I D E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2 0 1 5 27

Our range of consumable products ->1 01?53:10 @; ŋ@ numerous OEM brands, and complement a vast range of mineral process equipment, wear resistant applications and process consumables.

Aury Africa is made up of a dedicated team of professionals, who strive to provide the African mining market with a fully-comprehensive and value-addedserviceoffering. Call Aury for your free quote on 011 026 6642 or visit us at www.auryafrica.co.za

MINERALS PROCESSING

Protecting the carcass R BY L WILLIAMS

UBBER BELTS with ‘multi-ply’ textile reinforcement are the most commonly used type within the bulk handling industry and usually consist of two elements. The basis of every conveyor belt is the carcass, which typically contains layers of extremely strong but flexible fabric embedded in the rubber. It is the carcass that provides the inherent characteristics of a conveyor belt such as its tensile strength and elongation (elasticity or ‘stretch’ under tension). An outer cover of rubber protects the belt carcass. Different types of rubber compound are used. Each designed to withstand damaging effects such as wear caused by abrasion, tearing and cutting, heat, fire and oil penetration. Selecting the best type of outer cover will largely determine the

effectiveness and operational lifetime of conveyor belts. The wear-resistance qualities of a conveyor belt are major factors in determining its life expectancy and ultimately the truest test of its value. As a general rule, 80% of conveyor belt surface wear occurs on the top cover of the belt with approximately 20% of wear on the bottom cover. Wear on the top cover is primarily caused by the abrasive action of the materials being carried, especially at the loading point or ‘station’ where the belt is exposed to impact by the bulk material, and at the discharge point where the material is effectively ‘accelerated’ by the belt surface. Contrary to popular belief, short belts (<50 m) usually wear at a faster rate because they pass the loading and discharge points more frequently.

For these reasons, the selection of the correct type of cover quality and the thickness of shorter-length belts becomes even more important than usual. Wear on the bottom cover of the belt is mainly caused by the friction contact with the drum surface and idlers. The rate and uniformity of this type of wear can be adversely affected by many other factors, such as misaligned or worn drums and idlers. Factors such as ozone penetration or an unclean environment where there is waste material buildup can accelerate wear. Belt cleaning systems, especially steel-edged scrapers, also cause wear to the top cover surface. It is important that buyers of conveyor belts remember that DIN and ISO standards are only the minimum benchmarks of acceptability.

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Coralynne & Associates +27 (011) 849 3142

ABSOLUTE MATERIAL FLOW CONTROL

• • • • • •

Optimum material flow Up to 80% decrease in material degredation Reduced dust and noise levels Virtually maintenance free Greatly reduced spillage Significant reduction in belt damage

Tel: +27 (0) 11 827-9372 Fax: +27 (0) 11 827-6132

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MINERALS PROCESSING

The facts behind the figures Digging a little deeper into the facts and figures around South Africa’s water usage, especially in the mining industry, we gain a deeper insight into the challenges and importance of effective water management. BY PHILIP WOOD, WYATT INTERNATIONAL

INING IS THE second largest industrial user of water in the world, with only power generation being responsible for higher water consumption. Globally, around 7 billion m3 to 9 billion m3 of water are used for mining purposes each year, which is as much as a country such as Nigeria uses annually in total. In Africa in particular, the responsible use and conservation of water used in mining operations is therefore vital to sustainability. According to a 2011 De Beers report, arid lands cover around 60% of African land, which, although it is home to around 15% of the world’s population, has only 9% of global renewable water resources. Putting the spotlight on South Africa in particular, 2.5% of national water supplies are used to sustain mining activities in the country, which may not seem a lot, but the 2004 National Water Resource Strategy

puts this in perspective by contrasting South Africa’s annual average rainfall of 450 mm with the world average of 860 mm. Recent evidence points to a 61% increase in mining projects in South Africa from 2005 to 2013, placing additional pressure on a stretched resource. The same study also looked at the common location of mines, finding there is often an overlap between mineral deposits and fertile agricultural land – for example, platinum group metals are most concentrated in the Limpopo basin, in close proximity to cattle and crop lands – creating greater demand for South Africa’s most stressed and economically important groundwater source. The uses of water in mining operations are varied and substantial. Water is employed to recover mineral ores from chemical solutions, cool equipment such as rock cutters, and wash minerals once extracted. Ores can also be transported away from

ABOVE An open-pit mine in a dry, arid area

the site through pipelines in slurry, which can cut the costs associated with road or rail transport but increase the amount of water used by a mine. Arid climates often lead to dusty conditions, particularly on service roads, and here water is used to damp down and control dust. Finally but no less importantly, high-quality water is also required to meet the drinking, cooking and washing needs of workers throughout the life of the mine. While high-value minerals such as gold are fairly low in production volume, large quantities of water are nevertheless required to transport and process ore. For example, 1 t of gold uses 250 000 m3 of water, whereas coal and other non-metal mines need less water per tonne of mineral produced. As mines reach the end of their working life and exhaust supplies IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 29

We define performance the way you do.

Uptime and Reliability .FUTP DSVTIJOH TPMVUJPOT BSF GPDVTFE PO UIF CPUUPN MJOF

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MINERALS PROCESSING

Avoiding the wastage of water once used is equally as important as using it responsibility of high-quality ores, the remaining lower-quality ores begin to be extracted, which requires greater quantities of water in order to produce each tonne of metal. Coupled with increasing production, a reduction in ore quality means access to water becomes a business-critical issue. The mismanagement of water can disrupt production, as many extraction and washing processes depend upon clean water, as well as disrupting the transportation of minerals, which is often run to a tight schedule. Where water is wasted and mismanaged, more water than is truly necessary is pumped on to the site, all at considerable cost – meaning properly managed water use can save money as well as optimise production and reduce downtime. Water mismanagement can also lead to damage to the wider environment through unintentional contamination, as well as a dangerous lack of fresh water available for workers. Only with the right pipework infrastructure in place to transport, store, supply and drain water, can this resource be properly managed on a mine site to reduce water stress, maintain high water quality, and prevent flooding or damage to the environment. Avoiding the wastage of water once used is equally as important as using it responsibly in the beginning and, whether available fresh water is plentiful or limited, it is clear that wastage can be more closely controlled. In a typical mining operation, only around 35% of water discharged to a tailings dam is reused in the process plant, making tailings ponds the biggest culprit in terms of water wastage. While a quarter of water remains in the dam, 5% is lost to seepage and up to 35% to evaporation. As seepage from pipes can account for up to 50 000 m3 lost per month in a mine using 1 million m3 in the same time period, robust yet flexibly engineered pipework solutions are essential in minimising lost and wasted water. For mine water management systems, polyethylene (PE)

is the ideal choice for pipework. Well suited to the demands of mining operations, PE pipes offer inherent strength combined with the reduced weight and flexibility needed for transport to, and installation in, remote mining environments – unlike traditional metal or concrete pipes, which are cumbersome to move. Plastic pipes are also much more adaptable than traditional materials, as bespoke lengths and angles can be designed to circumnavigate tailings ponds or fit around existing infrastructure. Traditional materials, on the other hand, would generally be more difficult to handle and may require on-site fabrication, increasing the leakage risk. PE pressure pipes can be jointed using butt-welding or electro-fusion techniques to form a continuous, sealed pipeline that affords no risk of leakage. Additionally, the

ABOVE PE pipes are anti-bacterial BELOW Installation of PE pipes at the Marampa Mine in Sierra Leone

extremely smooth bore of PE pipes reduces the friction that is often a feature of traditional pipes – meaning less turbulence when water is transported at high velocity. While the chemicals used in water treatment processes can have a corrosive effect on many traditional pipe materials, modern PE piping offers the resistance required to cope with even the most aggressive acids, bases and salts. Suitable for use in tailings pipelines, mineral extraction and treatment applications, it can also be used to transport treated and potable water as it is resistant to both galvanic corrosion and bacterium sediment build-up – unlike steel or concrete pipes, which can be badly damaged. Its inherent strength offers protection against abrasion from metals or mineral particles, including rock fragments, while its exterior surfaces are impact-resistant and suitable for underground installation if necessary. PE withstands UV degradation temperatures in the range of -40°C to +60°C, ideal for mines at high altitudes where temperatures can drop well below freezing, and also for mines in arid, hot climates. The interior surfaces of PE pipes resist bacterial growth – an attribute which is essential for the supply of drinking water to remote mines where no mains supply is available. Concrete and metal pipes, meanwhile, can be badly damaged by both bacterium sediment build-up and galvanic corrosion, to which PE is resistant. IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 31

EPCM

Realising possibilities...

Business outcomes

...from mine to market.

Resource Evaluation

Mineral Processing

Mine Planning

Tailings & Waste Management

Mining & Mine Development

Smelting & Reﬁning

Materials Handling

Environment & Approvals

Transport to Market

Non-Process Infrastructure

WorleyParsons adds value through our full scope of services from pit to port including studies, mine planning, impact assessments, permitting and approvals, project management, construction management and global procurement.

countries

166

offices

37,500

T IS WELL recognised that the decisions made during the early stages of an investment have the greatest impact on the ultimate business outcome. Unfortunately, it is also the time when the least amount of information is available. It is this juxtaposition of the criticality of making the correct decisions, and the absence of detailed information on which to base them, that creates the challenge that WorleyParsons’ specialist ‘Select’ service has been designed to answer. Through its focus on the critical early phases of projects, this service: • adds technical definition, thus reducing technical risk • optimises the opportunity and maximises the inherent value • creates the business case and assesses the probable costs • secures the necessary approvals and prepares for the delivery phase. Select advises asset owners, operators, investors, financial institutions and governments. WorleyParsons combines the niche specialist skills required within the front end of projects with its extensive practical experience in total project delivery and plant operation. Select utilises a global database of major capital projects to enable customers to make strategic investment decisions with accurate and reliable planning data, significantly increasing their confidence that the critical planning decisions will support their ultimate business objectives. Select specialists have a thorough understanding of the business value chain, including market analysis, financial modelling, technology selection, greenfield site selection, approvals management, new plant configuration, existing plant optimisations and the development of detailed project realisation methodologies. The combination of strategic front-end planning skills, integrated with extensive project execution capabilities, together with WorleyParsons’ technological and commercial neutrality, differentiates Select in the consulting market. As we face a carbon-constrained future, with changing regulatory frameworks and an uncertain business landscape, Select is focused on working with customers to future-proof their businesses through WorleyParsons’ knowledge of technologies, and environmental and carbon management techniques. Decisions made during the early stagess o off an investment have the greatest impact

people

www.worleyparsons.com

32 IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

EPCM

Saint Helena island S

T HELENA IS located in the South Atlantic, roughly 2 200 km from southern Angola/northern Namibia. In the past, getting to the island has been restricted to travel by ship. However, that is about to change. Basil Read is making impressive progress with its R4 billion contract to build an international airport on the island. The airport is being built on Prosperous Bay Plain, on the east side of St Helena. It will have a concrete runway of 1 550 m with taxiway and apron. Approximately 8 million m3 of rockfill embankment, through which a 750 m long reinforced concrete culvert runs, has been built. It boasts an airport terminal building of some 3 500 m2, with support infrastructure, air traffic control, safety, a bulk fuel installation for 6 million litres of diesel

and aviation fuel, and a 14 km access road from Rupert’s Bay to the airport. What does this mean for mining and mineral exploration? In geological terms, St Helena is a very young island. It is an isolated, broadly conical volcanic structure, rising more than 3 000 m above the ocean floor; the island itself being just the top of the volcano, with only a small amount of it exposed above the sea. The island may be small but its supporting structure is immense: the base on the sea floor measures some 130 km in diameter and the volume of the cone is estimated to be twenty times that of the largest European volcano, Mount Etna. Despite its volcanic origin, volcanic activity is no longer a threat to St Helena. Tectonic movement since the last eruption has carried the island east and it is now some way

from the active part of the ridge, on the African side. The lavas of the island are of mantle origin and tend to contain no quartz. There are unusually high concentrations of sodium and potassium, and there is a characteristic pattern of radioactive and trace element abundance. While St Helena has always been said to lack natural resources, this may change ange once the aairir-ir port development been ment has bee een n completed. With gravity ith gravit ty gradiometry and an nd LiDAR, who knows no ows what will be disdis iscovered. And, d, where there are volcanoes, one usually finds nds diamonds.

17552a tenaka.co.za

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 33

BUILDING LEGACIES

Basil Read is so much more than just a group that has become synonymous with excellence in the construction sectors of Southern Africa. Our reputation is built on quality, expertise and the most innovative solutions to complex and challenging projects. Our impressive and diverse portfolio includes our ﬂagship airport project on the island of St. Helena, the rehabilitation of roads and the building of hospitals. The development of new housing structures and ﬁnding sustainable energy resources contributes to a better future for all as Basil Read is involved in diverse communities across South Africa every day. Our legacy lives on in our people, our passion and our promise to make this country a better and more enriching place for all.

W: www.basilread.co.za | E: communications@basilread.co.za | T: +27 11 418 6300

ELECTRICAL CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

Optimise your energy ROI

Energy costs continue to increase every year, placing additional pressure on organisations that are already struggling in a challenging economy. The time to be smart is now. BY KEVIN NORRIS, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF JASCO POWER AND ENERGY

34 INS I DE MI NI NG 0 2 | 2 0 1 5

S A RESULT of the continuing increases in energy costs, and a growing need for greater efficiency, and reduced carbon footprint, mines are increasingly looking towards energy optimisation initiatives to not only lower the cost burden of utilities, but to decrease the planetary impact as well. Reducing costs and energy consumption also needs to be balanced against business impact – operations should not be negatively affected by any energy savings projects. Significant time and money is often invested into such ventures, typically around replacing older equipment with more modern and energy efficient versions to provide savings without negatively impacting the business. However, unless continual improvement can be assured, realising returns on this investment can be difficult. Professional

services around energy optimisation and efficiency can help organisations to deliver on-going value and ensure that maximum benefit and return on investment (ROI) is delivered in the long term. One of the prime market drivers behind the implementation of energy efficiency programmes, aside from a well-known shortage of available energy, is the fact that the cost of energy has increased dramatically over the past five years. To put this into perspective, 1 000 units of electricity used to cost in the region of R500, and now costs around R1 500 for the same amount. While the National Energy Regulator has delayed the inevitable by limiting electricity price increases to 8%, this is not sustainable, and we can expect

ELECTRICAL CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

Measurement is critical to management and to ensuring that energy savings objectives are met

to see another exponential increase in 2015. In addition, the implementation of a Carbon Tax, which is due to come into effect in January 2016, is putting further pressure on organisations to reduce and optimise energy consumption. When it comes to reducing energy consumption, there are several initiatives that are often employed as quick wins, such as the replacement of inefficient light fittings with technology such as CF or LED bulbs, which use less electricity. Other areas that can be addressed include the heating, ventilation and cooling (HVAC) systems, which often use legacy equipment and do not function optimally for the requirements of the building. Turning off lights automatically, installing motion sensors to detect when there are people in the building for lighting and HVAC purposes, and other automation tools, can also be deployed. In addition, organisations are increasingly looking at alternative energy solutions such as solar panels to help take away some of the cost pressure. However, implementing alternative energy without first optimising consumption is an unnecessarily costly task, and simply changing equipment without proper thought given to management and monitoring, can lead to organisations failing to realise full ROI from their energy optimisation initiatives. Leveraging the benefits of professional services as part of an energy optimisation project can help to ensure that this challenge is minimised.

In order to ensure maximum returns from any energy optimisation or efficiency drive, it is vital to follow a comprehensive process that includes three important phases. Firstly an audit needs to be performed to establish the current usage. Obtaining sufficient information to establish this is not always possible from electricity bills alone, so it may be necessary to install Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), which enables the real-time monitoring of consumption. Measurement is critical to management and to ensuring that energy savings objectives are met and continue to be realised in the long term. Information from this audit can then be used to establish a usage trend line, which will make it possible to determine where the areas of opportunity exist for leveraging savings. These opportunities should always be driven by a number of factors, including potential cost savings, ease of implementation and any rebates that may be available at the time. ROI is then determined by the savings that can be achieved from the energy efficiencyÂ intervention. Once these two phases have been implemented, professional services come into effect to ensure maximum ROI is realised in the long term. An energy partner offering professional

services will continually monitor energy consumption and savings, creating greater visibility into the success or otherwise of an energy optimisation project. The service provider can also provide guidance as to the accuracy and suitability of monthly electricity billing, which opens up the potential for further savings. The service provider can also offer advice and guidance on any energy programmes to be introduced that may have a positive or negative impact on the business, for example renewable energy solutions, or the impending Carbon Tax. Professional services around energy optimisation is about the creation of a partnership that will ensure the organisation remains as energy efficient as possible, and continues to comply with the ever-changing regulations around energy consumption and carbonÂ emissions. As energy prices continue to rise and regulatory compliance around energy consumption becomes increasingly onerous, implementing energy optimisation initiatives has never been more important. In addition, energy interventions are often required prior to the implementation of alternative renewable energy solutions such as solar. Engaging the services of an energy partner throughout the process, and in an on-going manner through professional services, will ensure that ROI is leveraged from the start and continues to be realised, to ensure that energy savings can be measured, monitored and adjusted as needs change. OPPOSITE A typical extractor fan installation for mine ventilation ABOVE AND BELOW In a mine, wellmanaged ventilation is critical, especially at depth

IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 35

ELECTRICAL CONTROL & INSTRUMENTATION

Alternatives

to load shedding

SKOM’S LOAD SHEDDING is wreaking havoc with the economy. Energy-intensive mining, already challenged by the events of 2014, must have a stable energy source to maintain productivity, or an instant alternative. Are instant alternatives available? Yes. However, the critical question to be asked is whether the alternative has the power-generation capacity to meet a mine’s energy needs. Putting this speculation aside for the moment, the reality is that mines are frequently finding themselves challenged by Eskom’s load shedding. What was

an irritation initially has fast become the driving force behind mines looking at the prospects of private electricity production. Diesel generators, already known as a reliable source of alternate energy, are cost-competitive when compared to other renewable energy options. The rising costs of Eskom electricity will also drive the transition to alternative energy sources. Additionally, given the long time horizon for ‘bridging’ fuels such as nuclear or shale gas, it is uncertain whether these technologies will be attractive in the long run. Private investors – especially foreign investors – have shown strong interest in

the renewables sector in South Africa, especially in the newer technologies of solar and wind, the practicalities of which, such as constancy of supply and cost, are currently unsuitable for mining. Even so, while there has been a $14 billion investment in renewable energy in the country, and companies are looking to springboard into the rest of SADC, there needs to be an enabling environment. Equitable resources should be invested in renewable technologies, and public resources should be directed at the implementation of renewable energy technologies. To overcome the current uncertainty in the renewables industry, government policies such as feed-in tariffs or net-metering might be useful to overcome upfront capital costs. Building political will on green energy in mining could be particularly challenging, but any government support has the potential to see substantial dividends in increased electrical capacity for the entire region. In the meantime, diesel generators will carry the day as reliable, alternate energy sources.

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WHEN YOU REALLY NEED DEPENDABLE POWER SOLUTIONS DISCOVER THE DIFFERENCE AT ENERGYST.COM

Mining and Industrial Oil & Gas are the most demanding sectors in the industry. It requires reliable power for a diverse range of equipment, deep underground and for essential and critical facilities on the surface. When there is not enough power available to meet the demand this can have far-reaching effects for high-energy users. Interruptions may cause costly delays. Energyst puts real energy into power challenges by providing long-term high quality rental solutions with proven dependability. When it comes to power, a reliable partner is vital to the success of your operation. Energyst has an outstanding track record with a 24/7 call-out facility and 24/7 remote and early warning systems. If the effects of load shedding challenge your operation, you can trust Energyst to deliver 100% reliable power. TO DISCOVER HOW ENERGYST PUTS REAL ENERGY INTO MINING AND OIL & GAS VISIT ENERGYST.COM CALL +27 11 898 0000 OR EMAIL GERHARD.DUVENHAGE@ENERGYST.COM OR IP.AFRICA@ENERGYST.COM O C @ G S CO

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & COMMUNICATIONS

Mine automation The 4th Annual Mine Site Automation Africa Conference, presented by Mining IQ, was held in early December last year. This is a brief overview of what they had to say.

SANDVIK’S AUTOMINE SANDVIK’S AUTOMINE SYSTEM is a highly innovative automation system where operators, who would normally drive a single heavy-duty machine underground, can now sit in the comfort and safety of an airconditioned control room on the surface, and simultaneously monitor

LL CREDIT TO Mining IQ for putting on an outstanding and informative conference. With an exemplary array of speakers, mine automation in Africa was put under the spotlight, with a number of very informative papers. Needless to say, South Africa leads the way on the African continent and, over the last 12 months, we have seen great shifts occur to the mining industry. The economic climate, coupled with a drop in commodity prices, has meant that all miners have had to review their current operations to determine where costs can be cut, production improved and efficiencies gained. Mining automation is seen by leading companies as the future of the industry. And they are quite right. Companies who have implemented automation improvements have seen increases in production levels and precision, and improved levels of safety.

New technology development tips

mobile maintenance in the workshop, operate a haulage truck, oversee PLC systems in the plant or monitor security onsite, there’s always a new and shiny technology being lauded as the new best thing to happen to mining. Technology is an absolute enabler, a fundamental necessity for the future of the sector, and must be embraced in order for the industry to claw back productivity levels and try to reduce cost levels across the board. However, poor technology (whether we’re talking software, hardware or equipment) purchases can be devastating to an operation. It can have negative effects on productivity, finances or the safety of your workers. Here are the highlights and lessons learned from senior leaders from BHP Billiton, Rio Tinto, Glencore, Newcrest, Newmont, Anglo American and many more when introducing new technology in mining. • Ease of integration and legacy issues: This is now a fairly obvious statement to

Technology in mining is always changing and evolving. Whether you work in

Sandvik's AutoMine system in action

the movements of a fleet of driverless loaders or trucks hundreds of metres below the surface. Sandvik loaders or trucks navigate their way between the load and discharge points under the control of a supervisory system that manages traffic and monitors the machines. AutoMine is equipped with a number of intelligent functions; e.g. if one of the machines strikes a large rock in the roadway, the system would then place a restriction on the speed in that area to ensure that machines following behind either slow down or stop at the obstacle, thereby reducing potential damage to equipment. AutoMine is a modular system that can be adapted to specific customer requirements: • PCS – production control system, for planning, optimisation of production execution, and reconciliation of production inputs and outputs especially for block cave mines • MCS – mission control system, supervisory system that controls and monitors the autonomous operations, including traffic management, and provides the remote operator’s user interface • MineLAN – broadband, high-speed, data/video communication system for connectivity to automated underground loaders and trucks and associated equipment • on-board automation systems – for machine control, monitoring, and navigation • ACS – access control system, for isolating the autonomous operating area to ensure safety of personnel.

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & COMMUNICATIONS

make, and yet purchases are still made every year in the sector without full consideration given to how much data can be moved over from past systems and how much the new one will ‘talk’ to those it directly needs to interact with. • Interfacing and interoperability: You must consider the impact on all other systems further down the value chain. If you’re upgrading scanners on the conveyor system within the processing plant, you cannot ignore any impact that may have on the PLC system, or the SCADA system. Mapping out the knock-on effect of upgrades on all interrelated systems is critical to ensure there are no failures or glitches when the implementation occurs. • Beware of the vendor lock-in! Open source is the way forward, and should absolutely be considered when creating supplier shortlists and selections. It may whittle out the majority of the vendors, but will give you a far greater freedom to select add-on products from the best providers, rather than being forced to purchase an overarching solution from one provider. As we well know, mining today is a hightech undertaking, and in some decidedly

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hostile environments. Safe and efficient mine operation requires precise coordination of some of the world’s largest, most expensive machines in settings characterised by punishing heat and cold, as well as extreme shock and vibration. However, mine operators must understand there are limitations to automation and communications systems. No doubt, these will be surpassed in the near future. If we can put a robot on Mars, sample material and send the analyses back to Earth, imagination is the only limitation we will face.

Managing your fleet This quick guide provides information from those who are already in the process of implementing and integrating automation technologies, to help you understand what needs to be considered to have an effective and efficient fleet. It provides insights in how to embrace new technologies in this ever-evolving industry to help you stay ahead and operate safely. Managing your mobile fleet more effectively and efficiently is one of the top focuses for many miners around the world today. Between the cost of trucks, fuel, tyres, operator salaries and any loss of productivity caused by machine downtime, the

fleet is one of the biggest cost and risk centres of any mining operation. Even if you are contract miner, these issues are your everyday reality. From fleet management specialist companies, including Rio Tinto, BHP, Fortescue Metals, Newmont, Leighton Contractors, MMG and Northparkes, here are the top seven tips and insights compiled into what they’re doing to improve productivity and equipment availability in their fleets. This is what you should be looking into if you intend on automating your mine: • Increase GPS coverage throughout the mine. Last year, Newmont Mining increased its GPS coverage in the pits, from 70% to 97%, at Boddington mine in WA, Australia. Obviously, if your fleet is automated, it is absolutely fundamental to have total GPS coverage, but in operator truck environments it is still important if you’re looking to drive efficiencies. The reason being that if you

A driverless 930E Komatsu truck being loaded at Yandicoogina mine in Pilbara, Australia. One of the 160-odd driverless trucks Rio Tinto will have operating across Pilbara over the next three years

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & COMMUNICATIONS AUTONOMOUS HAULAGE SYSTEM (AHS)

Sandvik's AutoMine system improves mine safety

cannot track your truck everywhere in your site, it almost renders it pointless being able to track it anywhere. If your truck has entered a black spot, how can you redirect it if it needs be to elsewhere on-site? How can you be sure it’s not sitting somewhere idling the engine and wasting fuel? How can you be really sure on coverage, haulage routes and efficiency? The answer is: you can’t. So if there’s one system right now you should be upgrading to ensure you’ve got the best, it’s your GPS system. • Access and analyse data in real time: Following on from your GPS system, this, or getting as close to real time as possible, is the goal. Being able to make changes on the go with your fleet is the major way efficiency and productivity gains can be made. This data can be location related, but also equipment health, tyre pressure, driver fatigue, fuel levels, collision avoidance or mine operations. • Multi-system interface usability is critical: There’s now a system for anything and everything you can think of in a cab and providing your operator with five to fifteen different screens each showing information is confusing, complicated and overwhelming – not to mention rather distracting! It’s important to think about how you can consolidate data and the number of screens to present layered information that is accessible when required, rather than presenting all possible information. • Think carefully about your operator training: The use of simulation

training is becoming more prolific through the mining sector, particularly for truck operators, to ensure that those early mistakes and mistreatment of the equipment occur on a simulator rather than multimillion-dollar equipment. Incorporating fatigue management awareness and drug and alcohol education into the training schedule is important too, as even experienced operators will make mistakes if over-tired or under any influence. As a follow-on from the above point regarding interface, if operators are not correctly trained on using any advanced systems installed into your fleet and dispatch system, then it will not be used to its fullest and many of the potential benefits of an upgrade will be lost. • Invest in your maintenance and reliability team and systems: Improvements here will significantly improve equipment availability, which is fundamental to lifting productivity levels. Improving availability will have a knock-on effect on how many trucks you actually need in your fleet, which of course is a huge potential cost saving. Too much maintenance can still be reactive in mine operations and for fleet management to be really optimised, predictive maintenance, reliability testing and risk-based inspection should be incorporated more to prevent equipment downtime. • Consider how effective your fuel filtration and management is: Cleaner fuel has a low consumption rate and, with diesel and fuel in general being the second highest cost of any mining operation (behind labour), lowering the consumption rate is critical. Equipment life expectancy is also proven to be

KOMATSU IS THE FIRST manufacturer in the world to commercialise autonomous haulage systems in the mining industry. Each autonomous dump truck is equipped with vehicle controllers, a high-precision GPS system, an obstacle-detection system and a wireless network system. These features allow the dump truck to safely operate through a complex load, haul and dump cycle, and to integrate with the dozers, loaders and shovels that are also part of the autonomous system. The autonomous haulage system (AHS) allows unmanned operation of ultra-class mining trucks. Komatsu’s AHS delivers the following key benefits: • reduced number of drivers working in hostile and remote conditions • increased safety on mine sites • reduced operating costs – extended tyre life • increased productivity and efficiency. The environmental benefits of the AHS system are reduced fuel consumption and emissions.

longer when the fuel running through it is cleaner, and unexpected downtimes less likely. Typically, the cost of a fuel filtration system is cheaper than one single piece of equipment failure due to unclean fuel causing blockages. Not a bad ROI! • Haulage road design, truck route planning and dispatch scheduling: These are all options for significantly increasing efficiency. There are so many different variables that can crop up each day on a mine site that’s not necessarily built into the plan and route schedule; so having alternative routes that can be communicated quickly to truck operators and save time is an important strategy for fleet optimisation. Communication between plant requirements and the fleet is also fundamental to best practice fleet utilisation and equipment availability, as knowing if there is a delay in throughput at the plant should obviously have an impact on dispatching trucks to collect more ore, and vice versa. If Moore’s Law is anything to go by, and with everything becoming microprocessor-driven, we will see a doubling of technology capability every two years. In an average 30-year LOM, that’s a lot of doubling up – 32 767% taking into account the exponential effect. IN SID E M IN IN G 0 2 | 2015 39

MINE SERVICES

Keeping you

moving safely

ATE IN 2013, Trysome, the largest single-source supplier of heavy-duty, auto-electrical components and collision-avoidance systems in South Africa, opened its doors in Tete, Mozambique – touted as the current mining hotspot in the world and predicted to remain so for the next ten years. The move is part of the company’s plan to increase its capabilities in Africa, geographically positioning itself to take its products and services closer to the customer. Each branch comprises branch management, sales, admin, field service, a remanufacturing workshop, warehousing and distribution. In order to further enhance its offering with a broader African footprint, Trysome added two new authorised distributors to its network: Preston Investments in Gaborone, Botswana, and Erongo Auto Electric in Walvis Bay, Namibia. The result? Trysome is now well represented in Southern Africa with branches and distributors throughout South Trysome is committed to the development and innovation of auto-electrical and safety products

Africa, Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana and Namibia. The rest of Southern Africa is serviced by the well-established Export Division. In addition to servicing the mining sector, Trysome supplies parts and services to operators of heavy-duty automotive and earth-moving equipment. Full man-on-site services are also available where required, and most of its branches now offer re-manufacturing services for rotating equipment and componentry.

The above-mentioned products can be used independently but operate better as an ‘all-in-one’ collision-avoidance system. This product has already been successfully adopted by open-pit mines in Africa, including Anglo Coal and Kumba Iron Ore. Trysome’s systems also operate in mines in Zambia, Namibia and Botswana.

Sole distributor partnerships

In addition to sourcing, Trysome is committed to the development and innovation of auto-electrical and safety products. The company’s state-of-the-art technology in collision avoidance and safety systems has already been adopted by, and is fully operational in, many of South Africa's mines. Most fatalities in open-pit mining can be attributed to two main factors – blind spots and operator fatigue. Trysome has a broad product offering that focuses on operator safety and specifically collision avoidance. Trysome’s range of systems covers: • collision avoidance • fatigue monitoring • radars • back-up alarms • camera and monitor • work lights • strobe lights • solar lighting towers • speed-monitoring trailers • wheel chocks • tyre-pressure monitoring.

Trysome has developed strong partnerships with world-renowned brands to bring to the market only the highest-quality products and is the sole distributor, in Southern Africa, of the following: • SAFEmine – a compact GPS/RF traffic-alert and collision-avoidance warning system suitable for all vehicles in open-pit mines. • PreView – radar systems designed to detect objects in zones obscured from the operator’s view. • Q2 – Q2’s rear-vision camera system supports up to four camera inputs and the seven-inch flat screen offers various connection possibilities • Delco Remy – Delco Remy’s worldwide facilities manufacture an extensive range of heavy-duty products for both OE and aftermarket customers. The range includes starters, alternators and components used in a variety of applications and brands, including Caterpillar, Cummins, Daewoo, ERF, Fiat, Freightliner, GM, John Deere, Mack, MercedesBenz, Renault and Volvo. • Nordic Lights – manufacturer of a vast range of original equipment and aftermarket work lights used extensively in underground, construction and mining equipment.

M&J Engineering

The latest in safety

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS Aury

Future Mine

Basil Read

Komatsu South Africa

Trysome Auto Electrical

Babcock

28 OBC

Metso

Sandvik

IFC

DRA Global

KSB Pumps & Valves

Weir Minerals

Energyst

Loesche

WorleyParsons

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