Inside Mining November/December by 3S Media

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af r ic an u pdates on th e

g ro un d a n d un d e rg ro un d

in the

hot seat Minister of Water and Sanitation

Nomvula Mokonyane South Africa's first lady of Water and Sanitation

NuWater

Treating mine water: Flexibility is key

Focus on Africa

Ferrous & NonFerrous Metals

Exploring gold in Ghana

Geometallurgical model for long-term planning

Materials Handling Testing steel wire ropes

ISSN 1999-8872 • R50.00 (incl. VAT) • Vol. 10 • No. 11 • November/December 2015

contents Endorsed by

Af r ic a n u pdates on th e

November/December 2015

g rou nd a nd u nderg rou nd

on the cover

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AFRIC AN UPDATES ON THE

GROUND AND UNDERGROUND

IN THE

HOT SEAT

NuWater

Minister of Water and Sanitation

Nomvula Mokonyane South Africa's first lady of Water and Sanitation

Treating mine water: Flexibility is key

FOCUS ON AFRICA

FERROUS & NONFERROUS METALS

Exploring gold in Ghana

Geometallurgical model for long-term planning

MATERIALS HANDLING Testing steel wire ropes

ISSN 1999-8872 • R50.00 (incl. VAT) • Vol. 10 • No. 11 • November/December 2015

NuWater continues to take the lead in offering the most flexible and costeffective wastewater treatment solutions to its customers based on its ‘modular and mobile’ servicebased model.

Editor’s Comment

Goodbye 2015

Cover story

NuWater: Mine water treatment flexibility

Africa Round-up

News from around the world

HOT SEAT

Nomvula Mokonyane: First lady of Water and Sanitation

Economics, Finance & Risk

Looking at coal globally

FOCUS ON AFRICA

14 24

Exploring gold in Ghana

Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Metals

16 18

Geometallurgical model for long-term planning IRUP in Merensky Reef?

Greener Practices

Coal mines and carbon emissions

Mine Rehabilitation & Closure

New regulation to go to waste?

Materials handling

Testing, testing… steel wire ropes

PIPES, PUMPS & VALVES

32 35

Gravity flow vs pumped systems Slurry pump solutions for Africa

CONSTRUCTION

Growing into Africa

earthmoving equipment

38 39

Equipment feast at Bauma Earthmover stress

EVENTS

43 39

Showing off at African Mining Indaba

talking points

Minister of Mineral Resources speaks

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015

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editor's comment page strap Publisher Elizabeth Shorten Associate publisher Nicholas McDiarmid Editor Mientjie Kleinhans Journalist Mpinane Senkhane Head of design Beren Bauermeister Designer Ramon Chinian Chief sub-editor Tristan Snijders Sub-editor Morgan Carter Contributors Millien Hendricks, Rosemary Falcon, Jacob Masiala Ngoy, Philip Wood Client services & production manager Antois-Leigh Botma Production coordinator Jacqueline Modise

Goodbye 2015

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South Africa: R550.00 (incl vat & postage) African countries: US$80 Foreign: US$100 Email: subs@3smedia.co.za ISSN 1999-8872 Inside Mining Copyright 2015. All rights reserved. ___________________________________ All material in Inside Mining is copyright protected and may not be reproduced either in whole or in part without the prior written permission of the publisher. The views of contributors do not necessarily reflect those of the publishers.

To our avid readers, be sure to sign up and get the latest updates and inside scoops from the mining industry. Check out what we are talking about on our website, Facebook page or follow us on Twitter and have your say.

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Unbelievable, but true, it is the end of 2015. Christmas jingles will soon announce the start of the festive season, while we will have the opportunity to reflect on the past year. Let’s look at the highlights of 2015.

uring 2015, we saw commodity prices fall, but we also saw new technologies launched, attended amazing exhibitions and conferences, lamented some sad news and celebrated the good news. In the course of the year, I have already had the opportunity to meet some great people in the mining industry. I’ve been underground several times, managed to see some very interesting technology, learnt so much about the mining industry, and I cannot wait to see what 2016 will bring. If I may reveal a little secret: next year’s Inside Mining will look different to the one in your hands. Readers will see some refreshing design changes, and more focus on African countries. But, we want some input from our readers – what would you like to see and read in Inside Mining? Please let us know via email: insideminingeditor@3smedia.co.za or via social media. While we are planning great content for the next year, we would like to have a look at what happened in the industry. The mining industry has seen some major takeovers, we’ve read about the biggest mine dump planned in Potchefstroom (see these stories online at www.miningne.ws), and how companies plan to embrace African projects. We covered stories about mechanisation and automation, and how these affect the labour market. Some industry experts believe that mechanisation and automation are a definite solution for the future growth of mines. Yet, we still have to see the application thereof in the mines. Apparently, it is not only about the cost of the machinery, or the upskilling of

workers, but rather a case of mines that will have to be redesigned – an interesting topic to watch out for. In this issue, we take a look at great exploration work that has been happening at the Namdini project in Ghana. We speak to the managing director of Cardinal Resources, Archie Koimtsidis, who reveals that the company has seen some great gold discoveries from the project. See the article on page 14. Also in this issue, we learnt about wirerope testing and why it is so important in the mining industry to have tests done every six months. We don’t always think about the trust that we place in the rope when we convey ourselves up or down the shaft. Next time, when you do go underground, thank the engineers who look after these ropes so rigorously, making sure that we are safe and sound. Let me not spoil the interesting content in this issue – have a look for yourself. Remember to subscribe to our newsletter and stay current with interesting, up-to-date news on www.miningne.ws. Other than that, we can’t wait to see you next year. Until then, we hope that you will be blessed and save during the festive season.

Mientjie Kleinhans

follow the links www.miningne.ws/category/events www.miningne.ws/category/news

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015

cover story

Treating mine water

Flexibility is key As the mining sector rides out the current down cycle, there is a renewed focus on both opex and capex budgets. In most cases, discretionary spend has already been eliminated and accountants’ attention has shifted to non-discretionary spend.

ine water and wastewater treatment increasingly falls squarely within this non-discretionary spend category and management teams are, therefore, being challenged to explore new ways of reducing the associated costs. As a leading provider of water and wastewater treatment solutions to the mining sector, NuWater continues to take the lead in offering the most flexible and cost-effective solutions to its customers based on its ‘modular and mobile’ service-based model. According to John Holmes, CEO, NuWater, the current pressures on mining companies and their service providers allow NuWater to further differentiate its solutions offering. Holmes explains, “We set up NuWater specifically to deliver mine water

Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

and wastewater treatment and desalination as a service. Therefore, our main focus has never been to sell equipment, but rather to own and operate our own equipment to deliver the service required. “Adopting this business model has meant that we are always motivated to deliver the most efficient, reliable, and cost-effective plants based on the most appropriate technology – whether that is our own proprietary technology, such as our 16” reverse osmosis (RO) plant, or carefully selected third-party technologies,” says Holmes. He continues: “Flexibility is key in the mining sector, as requirements and demand shift very quickly. This is just as true for mine water and wastewater treatment as it is for the core commodity being mined. When we talk

about flexibility, this means both technical and commercial flexibility. In terms of technical flexibility, this means being able to rapidly and cost-effectively deploy and, if necessary, reconfigure a plant’s operational process to adapt to changing feedwater chemistry and product water quality requirements, as well as being able to rapidly scale up and down treatment capacity based on the mine’s operational plans and changes in rainfall. “By commercial flexibility, we mean being able to offer short-term contracts that allow for changing operational requirements and unexpected future events that may impact treatment requirements. In order to offer this flexibility, NuWater has had to develop its technologies and plant designs in tandem with its financing and risk models.”

Pioneer NuWater has been a pioneer in delivering large-capacity, completely modular and mobile water treatment and desalination plants to the mining sector. It was the first company to offer a short-term design, build, own, and operate model to the mining sector, with its 20 MLD (million litre per day) plant at Anglo American’s New Vaal Colliery back in 2010. Since then, NuWater has gone from strength

drilling cover & blasting story

to strength, expanding both nationally and internationally. The company now has operations in Asia, the Middle East, and Central America servicing customers in the mining, oil and gas, power, and municipal sectors. NuWater’s roots in the mining sector, however, remain central to the development of its plant designs and business model. Holmes explains: “What we have learnt from working with top mining companies has been invaluable for us. Customers such as Anglo American have high expectations of their service providers, in terms of both the service provided and how it is delivered. “Health and safety is taken very seriously, meaning there are no shortcuts – training and quality assurance are, therefore, both critical to our overall success. Similarly, customers expect the highest levels of reliability, even in tough operating environments where any downtime can have a serious impact on overall mine operations. While, at times, delivering on all our customers’ expectations can be difficult, it also means there is a constant focus on improving the quality of our technical and service offering, while maintaining profitability. Overall, this has made, and is continuing to make, NuWater a better and stronger business,” he adds.

have simultaneously increased. We have also increased performance and reduced downtime by reconfiguring the pretreatment and clean-in-place systems. We have also benefited significantly from continuous monitoring of the plant by our advanced instrumentation and control system, both on-site and remotely from our control centre in Cape Town. This has allowed us to optimise plant performance.”

Lessons learnt According to Bouwer, the lessons learnt from NuWater’s plant at Anglo New Vaal, as well as other large plants, such as that at Gold Fields’ Tarkwa mine, have been incorporated into NuWater’s broader product suite. This includes NuWater’s completely off-grid water treatment and desalination plants. The mobility of these solutions is relevant to an increasing number of applications, including emergency cover when existing infrastructure fails or capacity is compromised. So how does NuWater plan to navigate the challenges presented by the current economic problems in the mining sector? According to Holmes, while the commodities cycle is heading to a bottom, the requirements for water and wastewater treatment in the mining sector continue to increase, as contamination and salinity continue to increase. “Funding mine water and wastewater treatment will be a challenge for mines as financial pressures increase. In the long term, mining companies are increasingly reliant on a ‘social licence’ to operate, in addition to simply meeting minimum environmental standards. “Therefore, companies need to ensure they are being responsible and meeting the expectations of the communities and countries in which they operate. “This limits the option of ignoring water-related problems. NuWater obviously recognises the challenges within the sector and is working hard with existing and potential new customers to achieve the levels of affordability that are required to ensure mines remain commercially viable. The technical and commercial flexibility of our modular and mobile service-based model gives mines the best chance of achieving both environmental and commercial sustainability.”

“Flexibility is key in the mining sector, as requirements and demand shift very quickly.”

Commitment NuWater’s commitment to customer satisfaction is paying dividends. Its initial two-year contract with Anglo New Vaal, signed back in 2010, has been followed by multiple contract extensions and expansions, meaning that NuWater will continue to provide services to the mine until at least 2018. NJ Bouwer, head: Engineering, NuWater, explains the benefits offered by NuWater’s modular and mobile plant design: “The project at Anglo New Vaal Colliery has demonstrated the flexibility of our plants – over an extended period of operation – where feedwater chemistry and product water quality requirements have changed significantly since we first started operations. “For example, we have recently reconfigured the plant into a two-pass RO system as the salinity of the feedwater has increased, while the quality requirements from Eskom, the user of the treated water,

from TOP NuWater large-capacity 16” RO desalination module at Anglo New Vaal NuWater ultrafiltration module at Anglo New Vaal NuWater off-grid advanced filtration and desalination unit

www.nuwater.co.za

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015

africa round-up

Mining news Angola Wealth fund looking for new opportunities

mining, timber, and agriculture, with a focus on domestic and regional ventures in Angola’s sovereign Angola’s backyard wealth fund (FSDEA) in Southern Africa, has said it is looking The FSDEA's Dos Santos at opportunities in Jose Filomeno Junior said. He gold, copper, and dos Santos did not provide silver mining in details but said the FSDEA sub-Saharan Africa as the was exploring investment continent’s number two oil opportunities in gold, copper, producer tries to diversify its and silver mining. sources of revenue, FSDEA chairman Jose Filomeno dos Santos said. Santos, son of long-serving president Jose Eduardo dos Santos, also said fiscal pressure on the government from this year’s collapse in oil revenues may force it to push through long-delayed private A diamond sector reforms. mine in Botswana “It’s not the best situation for the nation,” Dos Santos Junior told Reuters. “It’s probably going to be an incentive for reforms to take place to enable the private sector to take part.” He further mentioned a Botswana possible overhaul of land Three-hole ownership regulations to drilling programme on facilitate private investment PL 210 complete in domestic agriculture and Botswana Diamonds (BOD) mining. Oil accounts for has completed a three-hole around half of output in drilling programme on licence sub-Saharan Africa’s third PL 210 in the Orapa region of biggest economy, 80% of the country. According to the tax revenues, and 90% of company, the joint venture export earnings – leaving (BOD 50%, Alrosa 50%) it dangerously exposed to drilling programme targeted price shocks. The Angolan an anomaly discovered by government is predicting a Alrosa using its transient budget deficit of 7% of GDP electromagnetic method, this year and the currency, supported by soil sampling the kwanza, fell, losing 30% Two of the three holes of its official value against the intersected the anomaly. dollar, and double that on the The holes intersected black market. intensively altered ultramafic The $5 billion FSDEA is still rock. While kimberlite is an a long way from providing ultramafic rock, initial field any sort of significant state analysis suggests this rock funding buffer. This year, it is older than the kimberlites allocated $250 million each found in the Orapa area. The to three funds dedicated to company said the exploration private equity investing in team was continuing work

Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

on-site, conducting further sampling and ground geophysics. John Teeling, chairman, BOD, commented: “The good news is that the techniques used by our partners Alrosa have worked in this instance by delineating ultramafic rock, of which kimberlite is one type buried under 90 metres of sand. The rock discovered is not Orapa kimberlite, but appears to be another, older ultramafic

mineral resources, including all kinds of ores, gems, and fuels, which could be easily developed. Shagi emphasised that Ethiopia’s investment policy was generally established under the principle and practice of a free market economy. He said: “The government has created a conducive environment to promote and ensure private investment in the mining sector, which is

rock. The core is now being processed to identify what it contains. Exploration on this block continues to identify the source of the two small diamonds we discovered in earlier work.”

to play a leading role in the development of the national economy.” The minister also highlighted that the government of Ethiopia was committed to managing all revenues generated from the mining sector in a transparent and accountable manner, in order to help the nation benefit from the mining resources. Managing director of Ametrade UK Mahad Ahmed told the conference that Ethiopia’s economic transformation agenda continued to enjoy a positive assessment from the global business community. He said the conference aimed to provide a platform to promote and unlock the mineral potential of Ethiopia and allow it to become one of the major emerging mining investment destinations in Africa.

Ethiopia Minister calls for mining sector development Minister of Mines Tolessa Shagi recently called on all Ethiopia’s development partners to assist the efforts of the government to develop the country’s mining sector. Speaking at the two-day Ethiopia International Mining Conference and Exhibition 2015, Minister Shagi said the country’s mineral resources had not been fully tapped, although Ethiopia has good potential and is highly endowed with

africa round-up

from around the continent Tanzania Acacia shares plummet on ‘disappointing’ update Shares in Acacia Mining plunged in October, to their lowest level in roughly a year, following a subdued Q3 production update. The gold miner reported Q3 production was 164 000 ounces in the three months ended 30 September, a lower than expected output level and well below last year’s figure of 190 986 ounces. The firm now anticipates full-year production will come in around last year’s level of over 700 000 ounces, but it said cash costs per ounce sold would be around 5% higher than previously forecasted. Analysts have described the update as “a short-term negative” and the “first major stumble” from chief executive Brad Gordon since he joined the group. Gordon said he was “disappointed” in the quarterly operational performance, as the miners’ output was hindered by lower-grade ores mined at Bulyanhulu and Buzwagi, both also in Tanzania. The company, previously known as African Barrick Gold, said net cash fell by about $45 million, to about $100 million at the end of September.

Zambia Firms ask for reduced royalties to manage dip

cut mineral royalties for underground mines to 6%, from 9%, and those of openpit mines to 9%, from 20%. Power shortages and weaker copper prices, due to slower growth by top consumer China, have put additional pressure on Zambia’s mining industry, placing output, jobs, and economic growth in the Southern African nation on the line. Sources indicated that mining companies also asked the government to quickly pay them their valueadded tax (VAT) refunds, estimated at a total of $700 million. “The meeting went very well, although there were no firm commitments from the government team on some of the demands from mining companies,” the source told Reuters in October. Zambia’s Minister of Mines, Christopher Yaluma, said in June that the government had started paying VAT refunds to mining companies, aiming to put an end to a long-running dispute in which mining companies were then owed about $600 million.

Zimbabwe Miners urged to reduce power use Large mining companies and other huge electricity consumers will have to reduce consumption by up to 25%, while security cantonments

more than half of Zimbabwe’s have been asked to load-shed export earnings. The Chamber non-critical areas, as part of Mines of Zimbabwe, which of measures adopted by the represents large mines, said Zimbabwean government mining companies had been to reduce massive power previously guaranteed, by cuts being experienced the state electricity firm, that countrywide. The measures they would not face power were recently announced by cuts. “We are still doing the Minister of Energy and Power figures on the impact of this Development Dr Samuel Undenge in the National Assembly, when briefing parliamentarians on the power situation. “Noting that there are some large users of power – such as Mimosa, Unki, Zimplats, Zimasco, Zim Alloys, and Afrochine – these An open-pit copper are to be asked by mine in Zambia ZETDC to drop but we won’t be surprised loads by up to 25% on the that output may even fall by basis of existing contracts. 25% or more,” Isaac Kwesu, “It would be up to these chief executive at the chamber large power users to decide told Reuters. Undenge on which areas of their said electricity supply to operations to load-shed. This residential areas and nonis expected to yield 25 MW,” critical areas for the military Undenge said. and police would also be cut. Mining companies in All these measures would Zimbabwe are already reduce electricity power struggling with low cuts in the capital Harare commodity prices as well to 6 hours, from 18 hours a as demands by President day, Undenge said. He said Mugabe’s government to Zimbabwe will – from next sell majority stakes to locals year – ban the use of electric under a black economic water geysers and give users empowerment programme. five years to migrate to solarThe mining sector contributes powered water heaters, saving Harare skyline the country up to 400 MWe.

Mining companies in Zambia have asked the government to set mineral royalties for both underground and openpit operations at 6%, to mitigate the negative impact of falling copper prices on the industry, Reuters reported. Africa’s second biggest copper producing country, in June, In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015

HOT SEAT

The first lady of Water and Sanitation

Nomvula Mokonyane, often described as one of the hardest working ministers in cabinet, has made waves since her appointment as Minister of Water and Sanitation in 2014. The minister’s engagement with her portfolio, in the private and public sector, is truly admirable.

he Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS) has indicated that acid mine drainage (AMD) is considered one of the great-

est environmental challenges, as it impacts water security and has emerging impacts on drinking water. Additionally, the DWS pointed out that fragmented legislation between various departments has been a particular challenge. Recommendations approved by cabinet have included the prevention of decant by pumping underground mine water to protect ECL; the implementation of ingress control to reduce flooding rate and eventual decant and pumping volume costs; the treatment of AMD and water quality management; improved monitoring; the monitoring of other AMD sources within the Witwatersrand; and the investigation and implementation of an environmental levy on operating mines to help cover the costs of mining legacies. Minister Mokonyane discusses some of the developments the department has made with regard to AMD.

How has the mining sector impacted South Africa's water source areas? NM The use of clean water for mining purposes and the potential pollution of clean water resources are two of the major

Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

risks mining presents on the country's water resources. The DWS regulates all water uses in the mining sector, ensuring sufficient water supply, of a suitable quality, to enable socio-economic development and the protection of water resources, as well as general environmental protection. Specific programmes to promote the reuse of mining effluent are promoted, as opposed to a general reliance on clean water. As part of my department’s business plan, assessments of several mining-intensive catchments are under way over the next three years, which will provide an indication of where mine water risks may manifest. These processes will allow for the development of strategies to mitigate mine water impacts.

Has the DWS invested in any recent research addressing issues of water in mining? The DWS coordinates and funds initiatives of its entity, the Water Research Commission, which is responsible for research and currently has local and international linkages in place to test new technologies for mine water management. We are also closely involved with the Strategic Water Partners Network (SWPN) in seeking solutions for challenges in the mining sector, among others.

ABOVE Minister of Water and Sanitation Nomvula Mokonyane

There is growing awareness of rising water in the Witwatersrand’s old, abandoned mines. How is the DWS tackling this? The DWS has appointed its implementing agent, the Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority, to implement a special project as emergency works. This project involves the neutralisation of mine water so that environmental pollution is minimised. I am in the process of taking the emergency works project into a long-term, sustainable solution, which could see the water treated even further so that it may be used beneficially, which is line with the NWRS-2. I will be making an announcement to this effect in the near future.

The World Wide Fund for Nature SA describes AMD as one of the most hazardous threats facing our water resources. How is the DWS handling this? AMD is unquestionably a threat to our water resources and there are various local and international cases to demonstrate negative impacts due to the poor

drillingHOT & blasting SEAT

left The Pongolapoort Water Supply Scheme is set to serve its own communities right and below Minister Mokonyane celebrates the launch of the Pongolapoort Water Supply Scheme

management of AMD. Fortunately, despite the magnitude and complexity of the South Africa's situation, I believe my department has good control, as explained above. All initiatives launched by the DWS endeavour to deal with the legacy challenges in parallel. The assessments that it is performing to establish mine water risks in other mining-intensive catchments will contribute to a more proactive approach. The results of the assessments will lead to catchment-specific strategies to ensure that AMD is dealt with countrywide and that the mining sector implements control measures to avoid the formation of AMD.

A Mine Water Management Unit was established and is addressing several functions that I have described above, as well as other issues on mine water management, which features on my department’s medium-term strategic framework. The unit is also involved in new mine water management policies and strategies, the regulation of mines, and should, as a result, ensure that we deal with all national AMD matters in a more proactive manner.

There is a concern that administrators are only looking at the flooding of the basin, which can be seen as a reactionary approach, rather than addressing the root causes of AMD. Could there be some truth in this? How is the department addressing this?

long-term plans. This is an expensive exercise, which may need additional funding. Has the department made any progress in that regard? My department has made progress regarding funding for AMD mitigation, which is indeed a very costly exercise. It is for that reason I am considering all options so that, when I make a decision on the long-term solution for AMD in the Witwatersrand, I will ensure the best value for money that will benefit our water resources and citizens. The DWS is also assisting National Treasury in the potential implementation of an environmental levy. However, this still needs proper engagements with the relevant role players and is an option we are investigating.

Taking into account these cost implications, what research is being undertaken to determine more cost-effective methods of AMD neutralisation, and can you share some of these technologies and processes?

We know the DWS has carried out a study that warned of the potential risks to the Vaal River system, from 2017/8 onwards, because there may not be enough water to continue dilution. What is being done to remedy this challenge? One must remember that no supply system is foolproof, especially considering our changing weather patterns. As such, and notwithstanding the supply potential of the Vaal Dam, it is good practice to ensure water conservation and water-use efficiency. The model for the Vaal River system is constantly updated and more recent data confirms that the system could be under stress by 2019. I have, therefore, tasked my team to submit to me an accelerated plan to ensure timeous actions in dealing with the severe drought as well as address the challenges in the mining sector with specific reference to the impacts of the Witwatersrand mining area on the Vaal River system. Mine water, once purified to a suitable standard, will be used beneficially, thus augmenting the supply potential of the Vaal Dam.

Flooding of a mine basin could impact surface and groundwater resources, with deleterious consequences, as observed in the West Rand. For that reason, managing AMD within a basin is crucial. However, other AMD sources are also monitored and measures are put in place to deal with AMD and related pollution impacts from such sources.

We are aware that an internal Mine Water Management Unit was to be established within the department. What is the status of this project?

DWS senior manager Marius Keet has said the treatment of AMD and water quality management involves immediate short-term and medium- to

It may be improper for me to divulge matters related to research due to intellectual property rights. But, what I can say is that some options for more cost-effective AMD management are being investigated and that whatever approach my department takes for AMD mitigation in the future will be amenable to adopt new technologies that confirm improved benefits. One must also remember that the quality of the AMD not only differs from basin to basin, it also changes in a specific basin over time. Monitoring is, therefore, of utmost importance to ensure optimum treatment processes.

Thank you for taking the time out of your busy schedule – in parting, do you have one final message? In order to guarantee water security for our country and its future generations, my department is committed to resolving issues around AMD, promoting partnerships with the industry to manage our water resources effectively, and to pursue innovative ways to assist us in delivering clean, quality water to our people In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015

What if it was the last drop?

Economics, Finance & risk

Looking at coal globally Given the recent coal strike by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) against coal companies for, among other things, higher wages, the focus has fallen on the thermal coal sector again. By Millien Hendricks

he NUM strike has attracted national attention due to the effect it could possibly have on Eskom’s ability to supply electricity. A prolonged strike could result in curbed production and a depletion of coal stockpiles, thereby threatening power generation. Coal is the world’s most abundant source of fossil fuel energy. Exceeding known reserves of oil and gas, it accounts for approximately 41% of global electricity generation. Thermal coal is a significant component of global energy consumption, but it is also one of the worst-hit subsectors in coal mining over the past five years. The global economy has seen a fall in Chinese import demand in 2015. China has been a major consumer of coal in the last few years but, given that its economy is not growing at the rate it was predicted it

would, demand for importing thermal coal (and other commodities) has decreased, causing huge stockpiles to rise and the coal price to weaken. Table 1 ranks the top coal producing and coal supplying countries. As can be seen, South Africa is a major producer and exporter of coal – ranking sixth place in production and fifth in exporting coal. South Africa is also home to perhaps the largest standalone coal export facility globally – The Richards Bay Coal Terminal (RBCT), which has an annual capacity of 91 million tonnes, or 250 000 tonnes daily. More than a quarter of coal mined in South Africa is exported via this port. South Africa is a relatively low-cost coal producer with the bulk of coal production used in power generation.

Globally Although China played a key role in the commodities boom cycle in the last decade or so, it appears that the Chinese government is clamping down on coal imports

by applying a protective approach to support the domestic sector instead. It previously imported over 70% of its national coal demand. China has now raised import taxes by 3% to 5%, passed stricter environmental regulations, and imposed higher quality requirements for the use of coal. This ambitious plan by the government will reduce coal consumption substantially – by about 80 million tonnes over the next two years alone. As such, the decrease in China’s demand will change the global supplydemand dynamics. It is unlikely that an emerging demand in other coal consuming countries such as India and Indonesia will offset the decrease in China’s consumption sufficiently. There is also a large drive to reduce carbon emissions caused by the use of coalfired power plants globally. This new supply-demand dynamic may keep coal prices at current low levels for longer than expected. Alternative sources of energy, such as renewable energy and gas-fired plants, are being more aggressively investigated. In Australia, thermal coal production has been stronger than expected in the past year, leaving some coal miners profitable, while others mainly break even. Some coking coal production is currently not being

China has raised import taxes to 5% and has imposed higher quality requirements for the use of coal washed, to reduce ash, but rather being sold as unwashed thermal coal by coal mining companies. Given that supply should

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 11

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Economics, Finance & risk

now be slowing down at some point in the near future, take-or-pay contracts will remain an ongoing issue among mines and will continue to limit the pace of marginal mine closures.

Indonesia In Indonesia, the major coal companies are expected to maintain their export volumes next year, accounting for over 60% of Indonesia’s coal exports. If spot prices persist, we estimate that coal exports could decline by a lower percentage in Indonesia for 2015. Indonesia is making an effort to save local coal miners by increasing domestic demand obligations amid the weak seaborne export outlook. However, local coal demand may not be sufficient to support coal prices. The government will boost domestic coal demand with the planned construction of 35 000 MW of IPPs (independent power producers) in Indonesia, under the PLN transformation plan. They plan to increase IPP contribution to between 50% and 60% of total electricity generation over the next five to ten years. Every 5 000 MW power generator would require 20 million tonnes of thermal coal annually. In Indonesia, open-pit mining and a relatively flat landscape provide a cost advantage relative to other countries. The largest coal producers there still remain fairly profitable, despite lower earnings. However, global coal supply still remains fairly stable and this has not affected the current equilibrium. This implies that miners are willing to continue production even for less profitability or even at negative margins, simply in order to service their debts under takeor-pay agreements. This type of behaviour is found beyond just Indonesia and it will continue to drive up supply. A recovery in the coal price is necessitated. Otherwise, production cuts and decreases to supply are what it will take to turn coal into a profitable industry again. At the current market prices, new coal projects are limited on the grounds that they would not be economically feasible. This is reflected in the compiled global coal miners’ capex in the USA, Indonesia, and China, where Bloomberg’s expectation is for global coal miners to reduce capex in the next two years. This is also reflected by lower capex-to-sales ratios.

Coal prices Coal miners believe that the coal price has to be at least $80 to $85 per tonne for an

Table 1 Top coal producers and suppliers across the world

Production

Demand

Seaborne exports

Seaborne imports

China

USA

Indonesia

Japan

USA

Japan

Australia

China

India

Europe

Russia

India

Indonesia

China

Columbia

South Korea

Australia

India

South Africa

Taiwan

South Africa

Other

Europe

Russia

Other

USA

Singapore

Columbia

Other

acquisition or a new project to be feasible while, in the last few months, coal has been averaging at $50 per tonne. US coal prices are at their lowest in six years, and there are signs of this worsening. Like the EU, US coal demand is facing a structural slowdown, because of stricter environmental and emission regulations. The only reason coal-fired power plants are still being operated is because they are

South Africa is also home to perhaps the largest standalone coal export facility in the world cheaper to operate than gas-fired plants. But, as gas becomes cheaper than before, we will witness a shift to gas-fired plants. Moreover, renewable energy, despite currently only accounting for about 10% of the US power generation mix, is slowly picking up. The increasing calls to reduce SO2 and NOX emissions are forcing power plants to install anti-pollution systems and use coal with lower sulfur content. As the cost of implementing these is quite high, the use of gas is being promoted. The price of natural gas has dropped over the last six months, and the price differential between gas and coal has narrowed substantially.

Other

demand gap will reach 98 million tonnes, with the country needing to import coal in order to fulfil local demand. Given India’s less superior infrastructure and transportation system, local coal production may not expand and, hence, the country may continue to rely on seaborne coal imports. India is, however, price-sensitive but urgent demand for coal will support coal prices while, on the other side of the coin, India may purchase less coal if prices rally. Only time will tell just how sensitive they are. The IEA World Energy Outlook 2013 forecasts coal consumption for electricity generation to grow by 1.2% per year (cumulative annual average growth rate) under its New Policies Scenario, from 2011 to 2035, with growth slowing after 2020, owing to the effect of environmental regulation. In developed economies, demand is expected to steadily decline as environmental regulation hastens the retirement of older coalfired power stations and reduces the incentive for new coal-fired capacity. Alternative sources of energy such as nuclear, gas, and renewable power generation, as well as international decisions on climate change and environmental legislation, could result in the global economy using less coal and more alternative sources of energy, much like the USA is doing.

Millien Hendricks, credit analyst at RMB

India

India’s coal imports will remain consistent throughout the year and will probably continue to do so in future, given the country’s low electrification rate. According to India Energy Book, India needs more than 200 million tonnes of coal by the end of the 12th Five Year Plan and the coal supply and In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 13

focus on africa: ghana

Exploring gold

in Ghana

The Namdini gold exploration project, located in the northern part of Ghana, has delivered some excellent results so far. Australian company Cardinal Resources is hoping for continuous high-grade ore discovery. Mientjie Kleinhans looks at the exploration process to date.

uring a time when commodity prices are low, it is very encouraging to find companies still exploring gold, while most companies in the mining industry have halted exploration projects. Listening to the company’s managing director, Archie Koimtsidis, it is clear why Cardinal Resources chose to explore gold in Ghana. “Ghana is the second largest gold producer in Africa, and the country has been politically and economically stable, with over 20 years of continuous democratic rule,” explains Koimtsidis. He adds that the country is one of the most developed and affluent countries

14 Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

in Africa, with a well-developed mining code, making Ghana very attractive – combine that with the fact that the north-eastern region of Ghana remains relatively underexplored. Namdini project The Namdini project has been divided into two phases. Phase one will test the Namdini strike extensions to the north within the Birimian volcaniclastics, while the second phase will evaluate the monzonite granitoid containing quartz vein stockworks. Both phases will run concurrently, for about six months. “The end results of these exploration programmes will determine the next steps. We will do our first

top Right Cardinal Resources drilling BELOW Ghana countryside

cognisance, and then delve into a more detailed programme to increase the understanding and confidence in the ore body,” says Koimtsidis.He adds that the company will continue drilling to define the feasibility of the ore body to make the appropriate decisions to either mine and/or continue exploring and drilling the ore body in search of gold. Cardinal Resources uses its own drill rigs, which saves about 50% of contractor rates. That is one of the reasons why it refers to itself as a low-cost gold exploration and development company.

focus on africa: ghana

holes. “We will continuously submit the samples and be on standby as we receive the results. After assessing the results, we will be able to plan further drill holes to maximise expansion of the gold inventory within the Namdini project,” says Komtsidis. So far, Cardinal Resources hasn’t encountered any major challenges, except for the annual raining season, and, analysing the recent results from the various drill holes, Koimtsidis wishes for more high-grade discoveries at the Namdini project.

Techniques The exploration team has been taking quality samples, according to the industry standards, with duplicates taken every 22nd sample. The team has also used industry-standard reverse circulation drilling to obtain 1 m samples from which 3 kg was pulverised to produce a 50 g charge for fire assay. Geology Cardinal Resources is the first company to explore in the region of the Namdini project. The deposit type in this location comprises gold mineralisation within sheared and highly altered rocks containing pyrite and arsenopyrite sulfides. The project is set in a Proterozoic greenstone belt that comprises Birimian metavolcanics, volcaniclastics, and metasediments. Koimtsidis explains that the company’s technical and management team evaluates all of the available data on a daily basis and adds that the company will continue drilling selective

left Cardinal Resources' Ghanaian project locations TIMELINE • 18 August 2015 67 m high-grade gold zone at Namdini extension • 29 July 2015 83 m mineralised zone further along strike at Namdini • 2 July 2015 99 m gold zone and current drill hole are similar • 23 March 2015 Wide gold intersections continue at Namdini • 3 February 2015 Cardinal hits 42 m gold up dip at Namdini • 19 January 2015 Cardinal intersects 41 m high-grade gold down dip at Namdini • 12 January 2015 Further high-grade gold interested along strike at Namdini • 27 January 2015 Cardinal hits 51 m high-grade gold along strike at Namdini • 12 January 2015 Further high-grade gold intersected along strike at Namdini • 28 November 2014 Further high-grade gold intersection at Namdini • 5 November 2014 Cardinal hits 43 m gold intersection • 26 August 2014 High-grade gold, shallow intercepts at Namdini continue

“Ghana is the second largest gold producer in Africa, and the country has been politically and economically stable, with over 20 years of continuous democratic rule.” Archie Koimtsidis, MD, Cardinal Resources

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 15

Commodity: Ferrous & non-ferrous metals

Geometallurgical model for

long-term planning In the technical paper ‘Geometallurgical model of a copper sulphide mine for long-term planning’, the authors – G Compan, E Pizarro, and A Videla – discuss how geometallurgical models can be developed to assist with reliable decisionmaking processes.

he use of a geometallurgical model of a copper sulfide mine can form part of reliable decision-making tools to assist with good investment decisions, according to the authors. They mention that these tools, designed to predict ore or operational characteristics, lead to better design, investment, and operational decisions. For the paper, the authors used the Chuquicamata copper mine to conduct their studies, where they used operational

16 Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

data – on mill feed grades, ore hardness, particle size, mineralogy, pH, and reagents – that represented several months of operation, to predict recovery at the plant. According to the authors, recovery is one of the most important variables for a mining project, and defines the performance of the mineral concentration process. In economic terms, the income of a concentrator can be calculated, in a simple form, as follows: E = P.g.T . R where P is the net price of the valuable metal, which is usually defined by the market; g is the ore feed grade, which is defined as the result of the cut-off grade policy applied by the mine plan; T is the mill plant throughput, which should be fulfilled to achieve a fixed production capacity. The recovery is an intrinsic variable of the concentration process and it can be managed in long-term planning by operative decisions. The authors continue that it is well known that accurate forecasting of recovery is important due to its significance for the economic viability of a project and because it is a variable of major impact on processing plant results. A good recovery prediction model makes it possible to take mitigation and control actions to guarantee a minimum return on investment. “The aim of the study is to model ore

recovery as a function of operational data and ore characteristics obtained from a historical database at the Chuquicamata A2 plant, with the idea of contributing to long-term management decisions and planning mitigation initiatives in the event of major deviations in plant performance.”

Plant description Copper-producing Chuquicamata uses three different plant facilities – namely A0, A1, and A2 – each with different process technologies, which collectively produce copper cathodes. See Figure 1 for a simplified process flow chart. The author details the processes, the plants and the designs in the paper, as well as the ore feed mineralogy. For the study, the authors used a systemic approach to develop a multivariate regression model that represents the copper recovery in the plant. “A projection of the average P80 has been done based upon energy consumption in the grinding step, and the resulting particle feed size is the input for the froth flotation recovery model.”

Results and discussion Various formulas are explained and discussed, together with applications of the model, methods, and analysis of data sets in the paper. The final response function for copper recovery is also discussed in

Commodity: Ferrous & non-ferrous metals

Model recovery (%)

detail. The authors then dis- Figure 1 Q-Q plot for real copper cuss how the statistical anal- recovery vs fitted model ysis shows that recovery is Real A2 copper recovery vs fitted model more sensitive for specific 100 variables. “These variables are copper feed grade (Cu), 95 iron feed grade (Fe), and the 90 work index of the DMH ore. 85 This implies that, for long80 term projections, better con75 trol over these variables will 70 have a beneficial impact on 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 the recovery projections and Real recovery (%) control variability. “Each variable in the modchalcopyrite, digenite, the work index of el has a constant coefficient the ore from DMH, and P80. “A methodolthat shows its impact on the ogy based on a systemic approach and an copper recovery projection. As adequate selection of variables were used expected, the significant plant to adjust a multivariate regression model variables affect the recovery that represented the copper recovery. The in the same way that empirical best model found used 8 out of 32 variaevidence does.” bles collected in the database. The model fit achieved a correlation coefficient of 75.6% with a mean absolute error of 2.4%, Conclusion The authors conclude the paper by stating that the results presented show that it is possible to improve, with an acceptable certainty, recovery estimations for a concentration process based on operating and ore characteristics data. “The database used included information relating to feed grades, ore hardness, particle size, mineralogy, pH, and reagent mix for froth flotation. The final regression model used only copper, iron, and soluble copper feed grades, molybdenite,

Each variable in the model has a constant coefficient that shows its impact on the copper recovery projection

which is acceptable for medium-term projections purposes.” The authors continue that the model validation was performed for the developed regression model. According to them, the results show a correlation coefficient of 89.7% and a mean absolute error of 2.75% between the real observations and the predicted values. “These high correlation and low error values indicate that the model has the ability to predict recovery variability with an acceptable confidence, which shows the model is an improvement compared to the use of a fixed value. “This improved forecasting capacity assists investment decisions and would allow for the optimisation of production plans, due to its ability to identify low- and high-risk options. The usefulness of these improvements in forecasting capacities, evaluating risks, and defining risk values for mitigation control will be the focus of a forthcoming study.” Accordingly, the model variables impact the recovery as expected, with the exception of P80 and digenite. They state that further study is needed to elucidate the unexpected behaviour of these variables on recovery. Originally published by SAIMM

follow the link http://bit.ly/1O0NSda

Figure 2 Chuquicamata simplified process flow chart

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 17

Commodity: Ferrous & non-ferrous metals

The paper ‘Predicting the probability of Iron-Rich Ultramafic Pegmatite (IRUP) in the Merensky Reef at Lonmin’s Karee Mine’, by D Hoffman and S Plumb, discusses the probability of IRUP in the region as well as why and how the authors conducted the study.

he Merensky Reef is known for PGM deposits and the authors explain in the paper how IRUP formed in the Bushveld Complex, due to hot iron-rich fluids and gases replacing local stratigraphic zones. The study focuses on the possibility of IRUP at the Marikana Karee Mine. “IRUP is an iron-rich ultramafic pegmatite rock that occurs as discordant pipe-, vein-, or sheet-like bodies that formed subsequent to cumulate crystallisation within the Bushveld Complex. “The occurrence of large IRUP zones in platinum mining operations results in changing reef conditions that adversely affect mining layouts and efficiency,” claim the authors. According to the authors, it is due to: variable strike of the reef associated with slumping of the strata, thus influencing haulage positioning poor stope extraction where iron replacement on the reef horizon

IRUP in Merensky Reef? has obliterated the economic zone and redistributed part of the platinum group metal mineralisation more complex processing conditions related to harder mill feed and poorer concentrator recoveries arising from the increased petrological variability of IRUP ore. Apparently, due to the current mine planning practice, a 100% geological loss to IRUP-affected Merensky Reef where there is no on-reef development, means effectively discounting about 1.4 million centares of mineral resources. Therefore, the authors suggest a predictive model for the occurrence of IRUP ahead of mining. This could be used to determine the geological loss value that needs to be factored more proportionally to the risk associated with the estimated possibility of IRUP presence.

Data preparation The authors compiled a pseudo-borehole data set using the mapping data. The onreef development mapping was divided

Table 1 Probability of IRUP occurrence estimated for the 500 m study blocks

SB 1

SB 2

SB 3

SB 4

Reference model (all data)

0.80

29.10

54.08

6.49

100 m (50 m declust.)

2.34

25.83

49.52

6.53

100 m (100 m declust.)

5.43

32.51

53.81

11.18

100 m (250 m declust.)

13.31

31.31

31.48

9.92

100 m (500 m declust.)

20.26

54.76

14.11

13.17

100 m (SBH)

19.44

67.01

54.50

25.63

100 m (SBH simulation)

9.46

73.74

58.18

9.18

Approximate % stope depletion

>90

<10

>60

18 Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

into 10 m intervals and used to compile a database for the occurrence of IRUP. The actual percentage of IRUP exposed in the development was not determined, but a visual estimate, consisting of three categories, was defined. In the paper, the authors detail the methods of the study, the data preparation, and the block model process.

Conclusion In conclusion, the authors state that the application of categorical indicators to estimate the occurrence of IRUP has revealed useful trends in the distribution of the IRUP probability. “Block model kriged estimates of IRUP probability derived from mapping and surface borehole data at 50 m and 100 m intervals correlate well with the actual IRUP occurrence.” A quantitative approach to modelling the occurrence of IRUP can provide an additional tool to refine the estimate of the geological losses that inform the long-term mine plan in such high-risk zones. “This is a work in progress and will be considered in the next planning cycle. Further testing of the simulation model by constraining the estimate to the aeromagnetic domain is a potential enhancement that could prove to be a more reliable predictor of IRUP occurrence,” write the authors. Originally published by SAIMM

follow the link http://bit.ly/1Rasekw

greener practices

Coal mines and carbon emissions A reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of between 50% and 85% by 2025 is necessary to limit global temperature rise. Jacob Masiala Ngoy and Rosemary Falcon* look at strategies coal mines can implement for sustainable carbon wins.

as molecules absorb radiation energy by increasing its kinetic energy through molecular translation, rotation, and vibration, as well as electron translation and spin, and nuclear spin. The longer the radiation travels through a gas, the more energy is converted. Water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the two main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect. The other ‘natural’ greenhouse gases are: methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), halocarbons (gases containing fluorine, chlorine, and bromine), and ozone (O3). Their presence is beneficial since, without them, the temperature on Earth would not exceed -18˚C. The two most abundant gases in the atmosphere – N2 and O2 – contribute almost nothing to the greenhouse effect, as homonuclear diatomic molecules (such as N2, O2, and H2) neither absorb nor emit infrared radiation.

Development At present, carbon-based fossil fuels provide approximately 80% of the world’s energy needs; CO2 is generated by these energy-producing processes. Due to increasing anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases, climate change has become a major concern. At COP 17, Zuma said: “Global warming has far-reaching consequences for the world, with changes in weather patterns threatening millions of lives and expected to affect food security in developing countries.” Many solutions are being considered with regard to the question of how to reduce CO2 emissions, but an efficient solution requires special attention. According to Pacala and Sokolow, CO2 emission reduction strategies can be divided into five broad categories, as shown in Figure 1: • Control of energy consumption by: (a) improving the energy efficiency of automotive vehicles, (b) limiting the use of

vehicles (development of public transport, teleworking, etc.), and (c) improving the energy performance of buildings (insulation, low-consumption equipment, etc.). • Use of renewable energies for power generation, which includes the use of hydroelectric, wind, solar, and biomass energy. • Enhancement of natural CO2 sequestration (storage or use) in order to limit the increase of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere by feeding the soils or forests with CO2. • Implementation of nuclear power, as this can produce electricity with zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, but it needs more development for safety improvement and waste disposal. • Management of fossil-fuel-based power generation to reduce CO2 emissions either by changing the fossil fuel mix, for example, by co-firing coal with biofuels, or by substituting coal with gas for power

*Jacob Masiala Ngoy and Rosemary Falcon are part of the Clean Coal Technology Research Group (CCT), School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand.

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 19

greener practices

generation or the incorporation of CO2 capture and storage (CCS). It is obvious that fossil fuel utilisation, due to large CO2 emissions, among other pollutants, is of concern to the environment. The suppression of fossil fuel utilisation, on the one hand, would be a rapid solution to reduce CO2 emissions in the atmosphere but, on the other hand, this would result in a breakdown of industrial development and world economic growth. Fossil fuel energy will continue to play a central role over the next few decades due to the increase of world population going hand in hand with increased energy demand per capita. Thus, reducing CO2 emissions and CCS is a widely accepted selected track towards the sustainable application of fossil fuels. South Africa is a major consumer of coal, mainly for power generation. South Africa has rich coal deposits concentrated in the north-east of the country and this results in the majority of South Africa’s coal fired plants being located in

20 Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

Mpumalanga province. Seventy-seven per cent of South Africa’s overall energy demands and 95% of the country’s electricity are directly generated from coal, with 81% of all coal consumed domestically going towards electricity production.

South Africa is ranked among the top 20 countries in the world in terms of CO2 emissions Historically, this has given South Africa access to cheap electricity. However, South Africa is ranked among the top 20 high CO2-emitting countries in the world, with emissions per capita in the region of 10 tonnes per annum. Eskom and Sasol convert coal for electricity and chemical fuel production respectively. An investigation conducted in 2010 stated that

Eskom emits 225 Mt of CO2 per annum, and Sasol emits 72.7 Mt of CO2 equivalent per annum. According to international information, in 1999, the global CO2 emissions were estimated to be 8 666 Mt, and an increase of 66% was recorded in 2011. South Africa is the largest producer of CO2 in Africa and 13th in the world; the annual quantity of CO2 emitted in South Africa has been estimated to 350 Mt.

Predictions It is predicted that, by 2020, South Africa will increase the quantity of CO2 emissions significantly due to the increase in energy demand caused by industrial and the population growth in South Africa. Thus, Eskom will be required to generate more electricity than is currently the case by making totally operational the

follow the link www.environment.gov.za/nsoer/ drivers/general/Energy.doc

greener practices

Figure 1 CO2 emission reduction option, 2005–2050

(Source: IEA-2008, Energy Technology Perspectives, Scenarios, and Strategies to 2050)

follow the link

http://careers.slb.com/whoweare/ news/climatechange.aspx

two new biggest power stations, namely Medupi and Kusile. These have the capacity to produce approximately 4 800 MW each. All coal-fired stations in South Africa combined, including the three smallest power stations, which are Kelvin, Rooiwal and Pretoria West, currently have the capacity to produce 48 500 MW. When including the 2 444 MW from gas turbine plants, the total capacity from fossil fuel power plants to generate electricity in South Africa will be approximately 51 000 MW. The annual quantity of CO2 emissions from power stations to generate electricity is anticipated to be approximately 264 Mt in 2020, which would represent an increase of 39 Mt, or 17%, from 225 Mt in 2010. These statistics illustrate the reasons why South Africa is counted as being among the countries that must be bound to the international agreements/obligations to reduce their GHG emissions via the Kyoto protocol or other mechanisms. During the 17th Conference of the Parties (COP 17), hosted by South Africa, the country reaffirmed its commitment to voluntarily reduce its GHG emissions to below the business-as-usual trajectory by 34% by 2020, and 42% by 2025. The reduction of CO2 emissions for South Africa is considered necessary to prevent the

future climate change, which could affect the South African economy through disasters in the agronomy and human life sustainability. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has assessed, from present levels, a 50% to 85% reduction in emission would be required by 2050 in order to limit the global temperature to less than 2˚C by 2100, thus preventing major climate change. CCS, via the capture of CO2 from power plants, and its transportation after com-

required to implement CCS, the CO2 must be stored or utilised in a way that would promote useful products. In Norway, the research community is developing the knowledge and technology necessary to enable large-scale storage of CO2 on the Norwegian shelf by 2018. Particular attention is being paid to using CO2 for enhanced oil recovery by incorporating Norwegian petroleum expertise and business opportunities. In South Africa, CO2 storage in deep unmineable coal seams would be beneficial for enhanced coalbed methane recovery (ECBM), which, in turn, would promote the use of natural gas. Compared to natural gas, coal-fired electric power generation emits around 900 kg of CO2 for every megawatt-hour generated, while natural gasfired electric plants emits 495 kg of CO2 for every megawatt-hour generated. Thus, the reduction of coal and the increase of natural gas for power generation are considered, by many, to be a further approach to CO2 reduction and, thereby, a step towards the mitigation of climate change. Nowadays, the development of technology has also provided opportunities for greater industrial use of CO2 – for example, in the production of chemical, fuel, plastics, and beverage commodities. However, total industrial use of CO2 is only 0.5% of

In South Africa, CO2 storage in deep unmineable coal seams would be beneficial for enhanced coalbed methane recovery, which, in turn, would promote the use of natural gas pression to deep geologic strata (known as sinks) for storage presents a viable approach to reducing CO2 emissions in South Africa. However, the cost of implementation of CCS is relatively high. This, in turn, would lead to significantly higher electricity tariffs, which may not be affordable for many communities in the country. There is, therefore, a need to develop safe and economical CCS technologies that will make deep cuts in South Africa’s GHG emissions. To circumvent the high economic cost penalty

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 21

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greener practices

bio-energy plays with carbon capture and storage. Recent reports in the IEAGHG news, the IPCC, and the International Energy Agency acknowledge that the use of carbon crops can play a role in reducing atmospheric CO2 emissions by delivering ‘negative emissions’.

Conclusion

the total anthropogenic CO2 emissions. The greatest challenge for the industrial use of CO2 is the storage lifetime. The limited cycle time of the industrial products requires that they either be recycled into new or different products, or disposed of as waste. The compounds produced using captured CO2 must have a long lifetime before the CO2 is liberated by combustion or other degradation processes. Thus, an efficient CO2 storage system will be required in order to increase the amount of CO2 used in industrial production or increase the amount of industrial waste. Industrial steel and cement wastes have high alkalinity and calcium content, allowing them to sequester carbon in the form of stable carbonate minerals. The industrial use of CO2 alone is not sufficient to mitigate CO2 emissions, as enormous quantities of CO2 are produced from fossil fuel and industrial processes. More investigation is required for large-scale industrial use of CO2 to synthesise products with a market of several millions tonnes per year, and one that requires a low energy input. This approach would eliminate the high costs related to CO2 capture and storage as well as prevent the risks of CO2 leakage from underground storage. This, in turn, would reduce the potential for induced seismicity caused by change of stress regime in rocks associated with stored CO2 strata and pressure due to the storage of large quantities of CO2 underground. Additional methods to reduce CO2 in the production of power include the role

Regarding the impact of carbon constraints on different sectors of the economy, it is important to set specific environmental and economically sensible approaches to controlling GHG emissions – the primary driver of global warming. To this end, the government has proposed policies relevant to pricing CO2 emissions through a carbon tax in order to encourage companies and households to pollute less by investing in cleaner technologies and adopting greener practices. Furthermore, Eskom is being forced to develop approaches to reduce CO2 emissions, but this needs to be balanced by providing cost-effective and inexpensive power to industry and the population, both of which are likely to increase the demand for energy exponentially in the foreseeable future. Given the need to reduce CO2 in South Africa, one of the only feasible methods of potential use includes the storage of CO2 in unmineable coal seams, which would, in turn, promote the extraction of coalbed methane within the seams. This energy source, along with other sources of natural gas, when substituted for coal, has considerably lower CO2 emissions. Further options include the expansion of renewable energies, the use of biomass in co-firing with coal, and the development of co-generation (reuse of waste heat) for energy production. Such steps need to go hand in hand with the control of energy consumption in order to develop a national policy of clean energy for future industrial growth and development. above Jacob Masiala Ngoy

follow the links http://bit.ly/1PcvYEg http://bit.ly/1R8yOb4

I n s i d e M in in g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5 23

mine rehabilitation & closure

New regulation to go to waste? New waste legislation could potentially cost mining companies a large sum of money, and changes to the National Environmental Management Waste Act (Nemwa) have unsettled the industry as stakeholders await government’s decision. Mpinane Senkhane looks at the challenges surrounding this new law.

hanges applied to NEMWA have rattled the mining industry of late, threatening to completely reconstruct the way waste on mines is managed. Ideally, the intention of the new act is to reform the law regulating waste management in order to protect the environment. To achieve this, Nemwa provides for institutional arrangements and planning matters; it also establishes a national waste information system and provides for the licencing and control of waste management activities. Previously, for the most part, the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA) regulated mineral waste. The mining houses did not need water licences for their waste; instead, all that was required was a water use licence and an environmental management plan (EMP). Now, mineral waste falls under Nemwa and it is the application of the waste regulations that come with Nemwa that could be problematic. About the news

act, Prof Anthony Turton, Centre for Environmental Management at the University of the Free State, comments: “There has been an ongoing state of policy war in the industry for some time, manifesting itself in various events such as the threat to revoke mining rights over labour responses by the industry in the platinum sector.” He adds that the problems with the new act – which was officially introduced towards the end of 2014 – is that it has the ability to make the SA mining industry unattractive to foreign investors, in which case the nett effect will, therefore, be “just another nail in the coffin for the deeply embattled mining industry.” The revised version of the act predefines mineral waste as hazardous, and applies the same technical requirements of small landfills to larger mine deposits. However, these amendments can cost mining houses an exorbitant amount of money, because disposal of mineral waste and disposal of waste in the landfill design are particularly different.

Waste disposal Waste disposal remains the principal way of dealing with waste in South Africa and a number of other African countries. The reason for this, in many cases, is largely attributable to the implementation challenges and inadequacies identified in Nemwa, which have made it difficult to establish an integrated approach to waste management. “A fundamental problem with waste management in SA is the fact that 80% of the total waste stream in the country is from mining, yet it is not called waste. No mine dump can ever be adequately rehabilitated because of the assumption that some future technology will be able to reprocess the minerals in that dump. Unless we deal with this central obstacle to the release of funds set aside for final rehabilitation, we will continue to have a growing problem with mine dumps,” Turton indicates. The different engineering

The new legislation includes stockpile management

24 Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

mine rehabilitation & closure

property of each kind of waste means that there are different specific engineering applications to suit the individual needs of the type of waste concerned. The new legislation classes minerals waste as hazardous, and applies the same technical requirements of small landfills to larger deposits. The concern with this is that there are a number of hazardous substances in mine dumps. Turton says, “Depending on the mineral processed, typical hazards may include residual reagents like cyanide (in the case of gold) and a range of metals (including uranium, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, etc.). This is but one of the hazards of a mine dump – others include slippage or failure, if constant maintenance is not done.”

NEMA will be applicable,” the statement said. A few challenges evident in Nemwa include the lack of clear definitions of waste, reuse, and recovery, making it problematic to confirm which materials/ substances and activities require a waste

New waste legislation could potentially cost mining companies a lot of money

Concerns Another concern is that the construction of pollution barrier systems for specific types of mineral waste – conforming to Nemwa regulations – has the potential to be very costly, although it hasn’t been made clear what the cost implications might be, especially because these systems had initially been built for temporary use. In December 2014, the One Environmental System looked to streamline processes for mining, environmental authorisations, and water use. “The system represents the government’s commitment to improve the ease of doing business and further enhance South Africa’s global competitiveness as a mining investment jurisdiction,” said the departments of Mineral Resources and Environmental Affairs in a joint statement. Before this new approach was adopted, there were different regulatory approvals that an applicant needed to acquire – each of these processes had different requirements and needed to be approved by different regulators. But now, the centralised approach sees the Minister of Mineral Resources, Ngoako Ramatlhodi, being the one to issue environmental authorisations and waste management licences in terms of the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), and Nemwa, for all mining and related activities. Subsequently, the Minister of Environmental Affairs, Edna Molewa, will be the appeal authority in this regard. “Until all the legislative amendments have been effected to formalise these timeframes, the timeframes stipulated in

management licence. Until the regulations regarding residue stockpiles and residue deposits as well as the financial provision for rehabilitation regulations are clarified and finalised, the MPRDA remains in force.

Legal response According to Walter Anderson, associate at Cullinan & Associates, there are three significant changes that took effect on 24

“Non-compliance with Nemwa regulations or the waste management licence may have criminal and civil consequences for the company, its directors, and its employees.” Walter Anderson, associate at Cullinan & Associates

July 2015. “It is important to note that, in terms of the transitional provisions of Nemwa, management measures approved at the commencement date and anything allowed under Nemwa remain valid,” explains Anderson. He explains that the first change refers to the construction of residue stockpiles or deposits that require a waste management licence, which requires an EIA process, compliant with the stricter requirements of NEMA, 1998. “The second notable change is that stockpiles must be designed by registered civil or mining engineers, as opposed to the broader ‘competent person’ requirements under the MPRDA. Lastly, residue stockpiles must now also comply with national norms and standards for the assessment of waste for landfill disposal, and the national norms and standards for disposal of waste to landfill,” says Anderson. He explains that, in a broader spectrum, these changes may cost more to comply with waste management obligations, because mining companies will have to comply with additional and stricter legal formalities than under the MPRDA. In addition, the penalties for non-compliance under Nemwa – and the environmental management regime generally – are considerably higher and further reaching than those under the MPRDA and, in certain circumstances, directors and managers may be held personally liable for contraventions of Nemwa.

Sentences The shift in regulations from under the MPRDA to Nemwa will have significant implications for mining companies, its directors, and its employees. Non-compliance with Nemwa regulations, or the waste management licence, may have criminal and civil consequences for the company, its directors, and its employees. Before discussing the particular penalties, it should be noted that contravention of Section 43A of Nemwa, which deals with the management of residue stockpiles and deposits, In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 25

mine rehabilitation & closure

The new legislation includes mine dump management

is a criminal offence listed in Schedule 3 of Nemwa. If a company is found guilty of committing a Schedule 3 offence, directors and certain employees may be deemed equally guilty and could be personally liable for the fine or term of imprisonment. The penalty for contravening Nemwa is imprisonment of up to 15 years or an appropriate fine. Since penalties are intended to serve as a deterrent, the financial benefit derived from the non-compliance is likely to be taken into account in determining what constitutes an appropriate fine. The penalty for non-compliance with the provision of a waste management licence is 10 years’ imprisonment, a R10 000 000 fine, or both. “From a civil liability perspective, the company may be held liable for any harm to others and the cost of mitigation or remediation if non-compliance with the provisions of Nemwa or its licence does,

or may cause, significant harm to the environment,” says Anderson. He explains that a further notable consequence of the company committing a Schedule 3 offence is that the courts are empowered to decide civil claims for damages caused by the non-compliance as part of criminal proceedings against the company or its directors. Since the state carries the cost of litigation in criminal proceedings, the cost of claiming damages in this manner will be a fraction of the ordinary cost of such proceedings. The implication for the mining company will be a definite increase in the number of claims where non-compliance causes environmental harm.

80% of the total waste stream in the country is from mining

Mine rehabilitation and closure “A mine can create and exhaust multiple stockpiles and deposits in its lifetime. Nemwa facilitates the phased closure of mines by enabling the decommissioning

and closure of each stockpile and deposit when it reaches capacity, whether within the operational phase of the mine or on its closure,” explains Anderson. In conclusion, Anderson says that decommissioning, closure, and post-closure management of residue stockpiles and residue deposits must be done in accordance with the applicable legislation, environmental management programmes, and environmental authorisations, which include the closure conditions in the waste management licence. “Naturally, when the mine closes, there will be stockpiles and deposits to close as part of the general closure exercise, and the conditions of the waste management licence may well prolong final closure of the mine. Depending on the class of waste, the post-closure condition can take up to 20 years. In addition, it would be wise not to forget about the NEMA duty of care, which obligates the mining company to manage its waste for as long as it may cause significant harm to people or the environment,” says Anderson.

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 27

Change that doesn’t cost the earth Dust solutions: Dust is a pervasive hazard that undermines the health of workers, impacts negatively on the environment and substantially reduces the lifespan of machinery. In a water-scarce country, I-CAT is committed to ensuring that vast quantities of this precious resource are not wasted. GreenBit is a natural binding agent combined with an emulsified bituminous product to create a durable gravel road sealant. It is an environmentally-safe alternative to pure chemically-based products for permanent gravel roads on mines and residential areas. 086 112 ICAT www.i-cat.co.za

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materials handling

Testing, testing… steel wire ropes When conveying man and materials up and down a shaft, the steel wire rope doing all the hard work is the last thing on one’s mind – until something goes wrong. Luckily, there are regulations in place to ensure the safety of human lives. By Mientjie Kleinhans

ne of the Department of Mineral Resources’ (DMR) safety regulations stipulates that wire ropes used in winders have to be tested every six months. According to the regulations, the destructive tensile tests have to be done on a sample taken from the front end of the rope, and mainly determine the rope breaking strength and the plastic fraction of elongation. The DMR stipulates that any new wire rope also needs to undergo testing and the only authorised centre in South Africa is the CSIR. “Even ropes that have been tested in other countries, under their stringent regulations, have to be tested by the CSIR as well,” says Riaan Bergh, business manager: Mining Initiatives at the CSIR Implementation Unit. Bergh explains that the CSIR is the only authorised centre accredited by the South African National Accreditation System (SANAS) to conduct the necessary test. Although many mine managers are aware of these compulsory tests and understand the necessity of the tests, most people have no idea what the tests entail.

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Qualities Apart from testing the rope breaking strength, the CSIR also tests the plastic fraction of elongation. “This technical concept basically refers to the ability of the rope to absorb shock loads, overloads, or sudden load application without brittle failure,” explains Bergh. One such example

“If the breaking strength reduces to less than 90% of the new rope strength, it is always an indication to discard the rope.” is when the brakes are suddenly activated on a conveyance moving down a shaft, resulting in the cage mass – with its payload – rapidly decelerating. “This action places higher strain on the rope than normal acceleration and deceleration. The rope may

4 act like a spring and can permanently elongate in the process. The ideal situation is the ability of the rope to absorb much of the kinetic energy without releasing the energy in the process,” says Bergh. The South African National Standards code of practice dictates the reduction breaking strength and minimal plastic fraction of elongation criteria. If the breaking strength reduces to less than 90% of the new rope strength, it is an indication to discard the rope. If the plastic fraction of elongation is less than 0.5%, then this is a reason to discard the rope as well. This means that if the new rope is less than 0.5%, it doesn’t contain the necessary qualities to qualify, according to the SANS 10293 code of practice. Wire ropes for winders are tested every six months for the same qualities as new ropes. Due to wear and tear, and various other factors, the conditions of the ropes deteriorate. The factors at play determine the rate of deterioration and, as a result, one cannot base the life of the rope on a certain timeline. “Therefore, the engineers have to do regular visual and electromagnetic inspection over the entire length of

materials handling

“The primary requirement is a rope that offers a satisfactory service life, while presenting a good relationship between the rope’s mass and lift payload.”

the rope, in addition to front-end samples that are taken every six months and sent to the CSIR for the necessary tests,” says Bergh. After the destructive tensile test, the CSIR also assesses the degree of corrosion and abrasive wear of rope wires, the nature of wire failure modes, and the condition of the lubrication of the rope – all of which are set out clearly in the test certificate issued by the CSIR. Test procedure Depending on the diameter size of the rope, a piece of between 2.0 m to 3.5 m will be cut from the end of the rope, which will

5 then be sent to the CSIR. “Typically, the competent person will schedule a stoppage of the winder, move the cage to the top of the mine, and then secure the rope. The rope will then be moved to the bank and a sample will be taken, labelled, and sent to the CSIR,” explains Bergh. At the CSIR Rope Testing Laboratory the strands and wires at both ends of the sample are unlaid, degreased and a conical socket is cast on each end. Thereafter, the rope is installed in the tensile testing machine and tested to destruction. Weight and length of rope What one doesn’t necessarily think of are the weight and length of these ropes. Mainly, sampling of the ropes is the main reason why engineers order ropes that are much longer than the required length.

When a rope is ordered, the engineer has to keep the typical sample length, depth of the shaft, the number of times the rope has to be sampled, and the expected life expectancy of the rope in mind. The extra length of the rope, which could easily be 100 m or 200 m, is wrapped around the drum of the winder. Such a lengthy rope is heavy. Bergh explains that most of the weight hanging from the winder is actually the rope’s own

consist of some material in the form of a rope. He explains that the structure of ropes is such that even if multiple wires in the rope break, the rope is still able to carry the weight necessary to complete its action – provided that the wire breaks are dispersed over a sufficient length of rope. This provides the opportunity to detect broken wires and other types of rope degradation through periodic inspections and testing, while the rope remains safe to use. Bergh adds that technical performance requirements are continuously becoming more demanding; therefore, the future technology of wire ropes is hard to predict. He concludes that the primary requirement is a rope that offers a satisfactory service life, while presenting

mass. Depending on the application of the rope, typical size varies from between 30 mm and 63 mm in diameter. The world’s deepest shafts are in South Africa and this is where the 63 mm rope will be used. A typical example would then be: a 43 mm diameter rope of about 8 kg/m x 1 000 m = 8 tonnes – that is the weight of the rope alone. Or, in a deeper mine, one might find a 63 mm diameter rope of 17 kg/m x 2 800 m = 47.6 tonnes. New technology Due to this massive weight, the energy consumption of the winder is high and Bergh reckons that future technology in wire rope design will be to reduce the weight or energy consumption in some way. This could be done by using new materials, though Bergh reckons that the winder rope will always

a good relationship between the rope’s mass and lift payload – the ideal recipe for future wire rope technology.

nlaying of rope strands into U individual wires.

Unlaying of rope strands

Casting white metal socket on the end of the rope in preparation of the test

ope specimen installed in the R tensile testing machine

easuring rope diameter before M the test

easuring the depth of abrasive wear M of outer wires as part of the post-test inspection of the rope

arious samples of wire ropes are V tested at the CSIR

Riaan Bergh of the CSIR (Photographs courtesy of the CSIR)

Extract from the Minerals Act No. 50 of 1991: • 16.41.2 The manager must send the sample of the rope cut off in terms of regulation 16.41.1.1 within two weeks to an approved rope testing station where the actual breaking strength and general condition must be determined. • 16.41.3 The approved rope testing station must provide the manager with a certificate showing the results of the test performed in terms of regulation 16.41.2. • 16.41.4 If the sample of the winding rope received at the approved rope testing station is in a condition not permitting a satisfactory test, the manager must upon request of the approved rope testing station provide a new sample.

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 29

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pipes, pumps & valves

Gravity flow vs pumped systems For many mining applications, pumped water management systems are an absolute necessity. However, towards the end of a mine’s water cycle, pressured systems are still being specified when gravity pipes would be appropriate and more economical. By Philip Wood*

hile many mining applications will rely upon the delivery of high-pressure water, requiring high-power pumps and heavy-duty pipework, there are other aspects of effective water management systems that can often be run without the need for pumps. Tailings management and heap leach processes can sometimes be configured to use cost-free gravity flow instead, along with general rainwater or stormwater drainage management as non-pressurised systems. However, it is common to see pumped pipes systems specified for such applications – leading to unnecessary expenditure both on the pumps and high-specification pipes themselves, but also on the ongoing maintenance of the pump itself. Similarly, higher-pressure pipes are frequently specified where there is no benefit in doing so. Fully certified, high-quality high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipes designed for gravity application pressure grade would still provide all the required corrosion and abrasion resistance required of mining applications without the added expense of a higher bar rating. All pressure pipelines carry a pressure nominal (PN) grade, which indicates the pressure (in bars) the pipe can support when the water inside is at 20°C. For many gravity applications, PN10 or even PN16 is frequently specified, when, in actuality, the water or slurry within is drip-fed, meaning a less expensive gravity pipeline would be more than sufficient for the purpose.

Cost Pump manufacturers typically estimate that up to 90% of a pump’s lifetime cost is attributed to energy usage, wear, and parts – making them one of the most expensive components on a mine site and even more costly if they are improperly specified. Poorly maintained pumps, or those working in the harsh conditions typical of mining environments, fare even worse, with one leading German pump manufacturer estimating that, of the 2 700 pumps they have examined since the 1980s, more than a third were running at less than 40% efficiency. These high operating costs can, in some cases, be avoided Installing pipes downhill allows gravity to do all the work

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pipes, pumps & valves

Gravity pipe installation at a remote mine

by designing in a gravity flow solution in preference to a pumped system. Leading pipe companies can assess a mine’s water management system design to determine if a pumped system is required, identifying areas where a gravity flow system would be appropriate and more cost-effective. In designing an efficient and safe tailings management facility, establishing a stable water balance will prevent future problems such as overflow. This can be achieved by taking into account not only the daily in- and outflow expected of the facility, but also allowing for storm surges. Using a series of gravity pipes to drain into the tailings pond itself can help maintain a manageable, steady flow while, at the other end of the system, gravity pipes can be used to decant water from the dam walls to water treatment facilities.

Heap leaching Heap leaching is a popular method of gold and silver extraction, whereby crushed aggregrate is piled on to an impermeable pad and saturated with solvent chemicals. This solution converts the desired minerals into a chemical compound, which, at the bottom of the pile, enters a perforated pipe and is carried by gravity to the final extraction process, usually via a pregnant pond. With no pumping required, heap leaching is gaining in popularity as a successful method of mineral recovery with a minimal level of capital expenditure compared with other, more intensive methods – though it does require a greater time investment over other methods such as tank leaching. Bypassing pumped systems at the recovery and wastewater stages can provide tangible cost benefits, but this must be carefully planned to ensure the chosen pipes perform at their optimum level. At the specification stage, the American Water Works Association offers the following guidance in its Standard for PE Pressure Pipe and Fittings (1990): “The working pressure of the system, plus recurrent surge pressure associated with a specific piping arrangement

or operation, should not exceed 150% of the pipe pressure rating.” For gravity flow or low-head pipeline applications, HDPE is a proven, effective solution thanks to its smooth bore and low resistance to flow. If large volumes of liquid are being transported, there is very low friction within HDPE pipes, meaning less drag or turbulence at high flow rates and greater resistance to scaling than traditional materials. Used for non-pressurised surface and subsurface drainage, as well as sanitary sewers, leachate collection and storm drainage, HDPE solutions are easy to install and maintain while providing the robust durability required of mining environments. Importantly, HDPE has the capability to transfer its load to the surrounding soil and substrate under stress, resulting in long-term structural stability and assisting in the longevity of the pipeline. Regardless of the PN grade, all HDPE pipes possess key characteristics that make them suitable for mining applications. Highly resistant to abrasion from both minerals and substrate carried in slurry, they are also resistant to many of the chemicals commonly used in mining and mineral extraction – including acetatic acid, ammonium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide, and calcium hydroxide.

Gravity flow system Utilising a gravity flow system will not only deliver cost savings in terms of avoiding expensive pumps, ongoing maintenance, and high-pressure pipes

Ideally suited to harsh operating environments, HDPE water management solutions can withstand temperatures ranging from -40°C to 60°C – HDPE pipes are lighter than traditional materials and are, therefore, cheaper, easier, and safer to transport and install. They can be supplied in longer lengths than more expensive concrete or ductile iron solutions, meaning fewer joints are needed, which further reduces the possibility of leakage. Ideally suited to harsh operating environments, HDPE water management solutions can withstand temperatures ranging from -40°C to 60°C. Correctly specified pipes for mining applications can help save money in several ways: from the initial purchase cost, to the added expense of running an unnecessary pump system when gravity could be exploited within tailings management and heap leach applications, among others. Working closely with a water management specialist can help optimise a mine’s pipeline design without compromising on the quality of materials. When a pipeline points downhill, use the power of gravity – it is as free as the air we breathe! *Philip Wood is the business development manager at Polypipe.

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 33

pipes, pumps & valves

Slurry pump solutions for Africa Some parts of Africa feature harsh mining conditions, placing equipment under tremendous strain. Furthermore, there is a growing need to reduce costs without impacting on operational efficiencies or reliability. Integrated Pump Technology (IPT) offers the solution to these challenges.

PT is the exclusive Southern African distributor for Grindex and is achieving considerable success with its Bravo submersible pump range – an efficient, cost-effective alternate solution to vertical spindle pumps. This is one of numerous IPT products gaining traction within the mining sector, which will ensure its growth trajectory continues. Colin Adams, general manager: Exports, IPT, says that the Grindex Bravo slurry pump footprint is also growing quickly because of its robust design. These pumps can operate reliably within the most arduous African mining conditions. Because submersible pumps operate in the slurry, infrastructure construction

“This approach guarantees higher efficiency rates, and lower running and maintenance costs.”

TOP The submersible pump will operate directly in the slurry RIGHT A Grindex Bravo 800 submersible pump being tested at Integrated Pump Technology’s 90 KW test tank facility

is unnecessary and pumping start-up is immediate. Bravo submersible pumps, in particular, are engineered to pump slurry and fluids with a high content of abrasive solids, with particle sizes up to 50 mm. The range offers reliable pumping performance and the pumps are fitted with a cooling jacket and an agitator for effective slurry handling, eliminating the issue of silt build-up.

Tough stuff The robust construction, with all hydraulic components manufactured from NiHard 4, ensures optimum wear life. The pumps are engineered to operate over the complete pump curve, not just on specific duty, and can handle from 30 litres per second up to 130 litres per second at a maximum head of 45 metres. The compact

design facilitates quick and easy installation, while low noise level operation is another advantage. “This new approach to pumping slurry with submersibles guarantees higher efficiency rates, lower running costs, as well as lower maintenance costs. It is the most cost-effective pumping solution for slurry handling applications,” says Adams. In line with its growing slurry pump presence, the company has also developed a new slurry product that easily removes silt and built-up sediments from lined water storage areas. Locally designed and engineered, the SlurrySucker dredge unit effectively desilts or de-slimes dams without damaging the lining, explains Adams. The concept took about six months to develop and test. The SlurrySucker comprises of a slurry pump in combination with dewatering pumps to create a jetting system. In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 35

construction

Growing into Africa focusing on partnering with clients, rather than just building once-off projects. It claims that this has been crucial to its sustained growth and is reflected in the return business, following the successful delivery of projects. “Our whole team takes this business personally and we work actively towards transferring this to our clients, partners, and associates,” says Frans Pienaar, chairman of Inyatsi Construction. Another one of Inyatsi Construction’s secrets to growth is the personal touch and quick reaction time, which the company reiterates is vital to relationships with clients in highly competitive and dynamic markets. “Mining companies are exposed to the cyclical nature of resource markets and need to respond quickly to change. Our assistance in this is appreciated. Obviously, our ISO 9001/2008 certification and NOSA four-star rating also provide the peace of mind that we bring consistency and credibility as an entry point,” says Pienaar. He adds that communication with clients is fundamental to ensuring that client expectations are consistently met.

During a downturn in the construction industry, Inyatsi Construction has been fortunate to maintain high growth levels, and is about to take Africa by storm. It clearly knows how, as it has managed to grow into a R1.8 billion company in 10 years.

he company's phenomenal growth has earned Inyatsi Construction a rightful place in Africa’s construction market, lending it the opportunities to make sizeable contributions to the industry, boost economies, and create job opportunities. Even though it is a small company, it has identified enough opportunities to sustain its growth. The company attributes its success to its partnership model,

“This ability to consistently engage, while remaining human, builds relationships and trust over time. We are not perfect, and we know it,” adds Pienaar.

African relationships Africa is no exception when it comes to relationship building. “Our business model is relationship driven and we approach our stakeholders in a unique way to ensure that we can meet and exceed expectations. Our ‘New African Contract’, based on a relationship approach, is the future for our industry and the future of business in Africa,” explains Pienaar. He adds that one cannot focus on the rights of parties under a contract and ignore the fact that all are fallible. To him, cooperation and compromise are essential. “While the rest of the world works by insisting on one’s rights under a contract, Africa does not.”

African experience By working in various African countries, the company managed to grow, and Pienaar ascribes this success to the exposure to different markets and economic cycles – protecting the company from too much exposure to one economic entity. When one market slows down, another market picks up. “This has helped us to be able to redistribute resources from weaker areas to stronger areas. It enables us to keep key resources, such as people, skills, business

Mbadlane access road to King Mswati III International Airport

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In each issue, Inside Mining offers advertisers the opportunity to promote their company’s products and services to the appropriate audience by booking the prime position of the front cover which includes a two-page feature article. The magazine offers advertisers an ideal platform to ensure the maximum exposure of their brand. Please call +27(0)11 233 2600 to secure your booking.

drilling construction & blasting

BELOW Hotel Boutoque in South Africa RIGHT Nhlangano Wastewater Treatment Plant, constructed by Inyatsi Construction

units, and equipment,” says Pienaar. He explains that the consistency creates confidence internally and assists the company to move confidently in a market where many are struggling – and one can so easily be overcome by fear. Pienaar believes that fear immobilises and kills growth.

implementation. While new innovations develop the way we think about building and creating infrastructure, ongoing improvement cycles ensure that we become more efficient,” explains Pienaar.

risen. This is why we outperform others,” he exclaims.

Big or small

From upgrading a sidewalk for primary school children in Manzini or constructing the Sikhuphe International Airport Awards (both in Swaziland), to constructing the Innovation, experience, and growth are road from Goba to Impaputo or upgradgood, but accolades distinguish the exInnovation ing the harbour in Beira (both in Mozamceptional companies. Such is the case for Innovation and growth go hand in hand, bique) – no project is too small or too big and Inyatsi Construction is no exception. Inyatsi Construction. Apart from winning to take on. “We will continue to pursue The company has come up with a solu- several awards, such as four Platinum growth strategically, as the market is mastion to sustainable infrastructure: in situ Stars during the 2014 NOSA Five Star sive and opportunities abound. We firmly concrete houses, which are part of its en- Audit, the company is most proud of its believe that our success is based on our vironmental drive – called eco-building. award as the single leader in the employemployees,” says Pienaar. According to Pienaar, sustainable infra- ee wellness field. Its wellness programme, He believes that the way to sustain sucstructure must be designed to create a together with its social corporate recess is to keep on creating opporbalance between social, economic, tunities for employees to grow and and environmental issues. In a achieve their life objectives through nutshell, the company uses a plasInyatsi. Pienaar concludes with a tic, reuseable shuttering system powerful remark: “We do not exto set up the whole house before ist in isolation and our interaction the concrete is poured. All the serwith society, at all levels, through vices, like electrical and plumbing Frans Pienaar, our employees, will unlock the fureticulation, are inserted before chairman, Inyatsi Construction ture for us. the concrete is poured. We will focus on growth to diThe shutters take two days to versify risk and limit exposure to any set up and, once in full production, the sponsibility programme, has won several one market, product, or industry.” This company can produce an average of eight awards. Inyatsi Construction realises that is a company to watch – from its inhouses per week. For Inyatsi Construction, its greatest asset is its people. The companovative construction approach to its eco-building covers a variety of aspects ny started off in 2004 with 350 employees relationships with clients and commuwithin the business – from optimising fuel and no wellness programme. The signifinities, it continues to go from strength consumption to emission control, and the cant impact of health issues on the busito strength. use of materials that limit environmen- ness led to the formation of the company’s tal impacts. An example of optimising wellness programme. Pienaar says that eco-principles is reusing a shutter 50 times the company experienced fewer deaths and then recycling the base materials. “The from chronic illness last year, with a total impact of eco-building on the world, and of 3 000 employees, than they did in 2004. specifically for civil engineering, is that it “Our attendance levels have improved will change the way we think about project dramatically and employee morale has www.inyatsi.net

“The rest of the world works by insisting on one’s rights under a contract – Africa does not.”

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 37

Earthmoving Equipment

Equipment feast

at Bauma

Inside Mining found some of the best earthmoving equipment launched at the exhibition.

SDLG B877 backhoe loader, distributed in South Africa by Volvo (www.volvoce.com)

Bell Equipmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 220E Rockscaler (www.bellequipment.com) Bell Equipment also launched the L2706E wheel loader (www.bellequipment.com)

LiuGong unveiled its 890H wheel loader (www.liugong.com/en_sa)

JCB 455ZX wheel loader (www.kemachjcb.co.za)

38 Ins i de Mi n i n g 1 1 | 2 0 1 5

Vermeer R1255 drive train leveller (www.vermeer.co.za)

any launched the SY465C excavator S (www.sanygroup.com/group/en-us)

Earthmoving Equipment

Dragline excavators are some of the hardest-working earthmoving machines found in open-pit mines, moving overburden material without the assistance of a haulier. One of the most stressed components is the bucket.

n the white paper ‘Investigating of stress in an earthmover bucket using finite element analysis: a generic model for draglines’, by O Gölbaşi and N Demirel, the authors discuss how to develop a generic finite element model of the stress on an operating bucket. Eliminating unnecessary stress plays a big role in reducing downtime of the machine. According to the white paper, the development of a generic finite element model entails: • three-dimensional modelling of a dragline bucket • analytical estimation of resistive forces in the bucket movement • three-dimensional simulation of the moving bucket using finite element analysis (FEA) • sensitivity analysis to examine the effect of formation characteristics on stress variation. “Simulation results imply that the drag hitch and digging teeth are the elements of the bucket that are most prone to failure. In addition, sensitivity analysis indicates that the internal friction angle of the formation is the dominant parameter leading fluctuations in stress values. Changes in stress level are least influenced by formation density,” the authors state.

Earthmover

stress Dragline buckets need extensive maintenance programmes

Downtime

The paper also discusses the reasons for and duration of downtime on these machines – something that most mines try to keep as low as possible. But, downtime for maintenance is a necessity, as a result of the demanding working conditions of the machines. Factors such as fractures, wear and tear, and fatigue failures in the components are some of the main reasons for extensive maintenance programmes. A damaged bucket is not the only component In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 39

Earthmoving Equipment

that results in downtime, but the bucket absorbs and transmits resistance to other components such as the drag chain, hoist chain, rigging, and boom. As the bucket is the source of external forces, it is important to find the stress location on the bucket. The authors discuss how FEA can be effectively used to simulate actual cases of the dragline earthmoving process. “FEA has been extensively utilised in many studies to develop models of the interaction between formation and digging tool,” state the authors, who then discuss how this method has been used since 1999 and how new developments assist in examining stress distribution on the bucket body. According to the paper, FEA constitutes a virtual environment to measure the reaction of a solid model under external and internal loads, using nodal displacement of solid elements. “Prior to implementing the analysis, pre-processing items – such as

Dragline buckets absorb and transmit resistance to other components

Factors such as fractures, wear and tear, and fatigue failures in the components are some of the main reasons for extensive maintenance programmes material and element type – loading, and boundary conditions should be satisfied to ensure the authenticity of the model under the prescribed limits. “One important issue in FEA pre-processing is the designation of loading and boundary conditions in a

simulation, ensuring the cutting movement of dragline bucket.” The paper also highlights the actions of the bucket, the forces, and the resistance in the processes.

Results By using formulas (see the white paper for all formulas, values, and examples), such as T = w(ygd2Ny + cdNc + CadNca + qdNq + yv2dNa) and T = w(ygd2Ny + cdNc), the authors were able to reconstruct a model that clearly indicated various factors, such as resistance of the medium against the cutting force. The authors go into detail about the stress distribution on the bucket, stress accumulation, and resultant failure of the formation that initiates the earthmoving process. “Exposure of the bucket to continuous resistance by the medium can also lead to surface fractures on the bucket body. A non-homogeneous medium and irregularities in the area being excavated may initiate

follow the link To read the unedited white paper: bit.ly/1P5Lce9

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Earthmoving Equipment

stress growth and cause mechanical failure. Detection of the zones that are most prone to failure in these conditions is essential for planning preventative maintenance,” explain the authors. The authors also discuss sensitivity analysis results when they examined the sensitivity of stress value to variations in formation properties such as density, cohesion, and internal and external friction angles.

Conclusions In the conclusion of the paper, the authors discuss how “severe operation conditions on draglines, coupled with pressure for continual production and high utilisation, lead to frequent breakdowns of dragline components and ensuing pauses in production. These capital-intensive earthmovers should be operated with high reliability and availability, as well as longevity, to sustain effective production scheduling.” The authors continue to discuss the elements of deterioration, detecting areas of stress, and how to use an analytical resistance approach. According to the authors, the simulation results indicated that the tips of the digging teeth and drag hitch elements are the most stress-intensive points and, therefore, the most prone to failure. “Sensitivity analysis revealed that internal friction of the medium has the greatest effect on stress distribution in the bucket, whereas the density of the medium has the least influence,” the authors conclude.

Figure 1 A line drawing of research methodology

Originally published by SAIMM

Figure 2 The output of FEA of stress distribution on the bucket (Source: O Gölbai and N Demirel)

Slection of the dragline bucket

Data acquisition

Estimation of resistive forces in earthmovinf processes

3-D solid modelling of dragline bucket

PREPROCESSING OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS Assigning formation material characteristics

Assigning bucket material characteristics

Estimating loading conditions

Determingin boundry conditions

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SIMULATION Investigating stress distribution on bucket

Detecting the most stress concentrated solid locations

Performaning sensitivity analysis

Interpretation and discussion of the results

In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 41

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Showing off at

African Mining Indaba Anticipation is building once again for the next African Mining Indaba, which will feature prestigious speakers from across the mining industry, industry insights, and new technology reveals.

nce again, the organisers of African Mining Indaba bring a full programme to a major event of the year, to be held from 8 to 11 February 2016, in Cape Town. Said to be the world’s largest mining investment event and Africa’s largest mining event, the organisers had to pull out all the stops and bring a programme to entertain, inform, and educate.

Programme The African Mining Ministerial Forum will provide a platform for 16 African mining ministers to outline the various mining opportunities that their respective countries have on offer. Africa is currently in the spotlight as a continent that boasts unexplored mineral resources; therefore, this forum is a must for companies and individuals interested in investing in Africa.

Career skills

companies will present their thoughts and ideas about the mining industry in the Mining Thought Leadership presentation forum. This forum should be very interesting to those who would like to know more about the industry and its thoughts.

Networking roundtables The networking roundtables are the ideal forum to meet other delegates in 40-minute sessions, with eight to ten roundtables. There will be three different discussions taking places and delegates will be able to exchange business cards.

Sustainable development One of the key challenges and objectives in the mining industry is sustainable development. This forum will allow investors, policymakers, and miners to debate the challenges in a series of interactive

discussions. These are just some of the discussions and forums that will take place at the African Mining Indaba. Of course, there will be exhibitors from around the world to showcase their new products, latest technologies, and excellent service models to the industry, as well as many opportunities to network with other industry experts. It is the one African event not to be missed.

The indaba is the world’s largest mining investment event and Africa’s largest mining event African Mining Indaba attracts speakers, exhibitors, and delegates from across the African continent

The career skills workshop is part of the Mining Indaba Young Leaders Career Development Programme. The workshop is a platform for the programme participants to get an understanding of talent development and career opportunities in Africa’s mining sector.

Country case studies This is an opportunity where delegates participate in a two-hour interactive discussion of mining opportunities in specific countries. The delegates are able to share insight, knowledge, and experience in this forum.

Mining Thought Leadership presentation A combination of industry thought leaders, service providers, and junior mining In sid e M in in g 1 1 | 2015 43

Talking Points

The Minister of Mineral Resources speaks Following his recent appointment, Minister Mosebenzi Zwane indicates what is on the agenda for his portfolio.

ration Mining and Finance Corporation (AEMFC), under which all state interests in mining would be consolidated. During a short speech at Harmony Gold’s Doornkop mine, Zwane also indicated that some firms were willing to ‘hand back’ their mining rights as faltering metal prices weakened. “Low commodity prices will be used to identify assets that will enable us to empower the people of South Africa,” Zwane said. AEMFC’s portfolio includes coal, uranium, and limestone. The government has said it wants the state-owned firm to focus on strategic minerals such as coal and uranium to ensure sufficient supplies to its power plants. On 27 October, Zwane, together with the State Diamond Trader, hosted the inaugural SA Diamond Indaba at the Sandton Convention Centre. In his speech, Zwane urged the mining industry to collaborate in a bid to add value to the country’s mineral wealth. “It is necessary for stakeholders to develop a common vision and set out realistic goals that will propel South Africa to become the heartbeat of diamond beneficiation in the world. The task is not impossible – what is required is candid discussion on the challenges that face the sector and identification of practical, implementable interventions,” Zwane said. Zwane continued to instil confidence in the industry, reassuring stakeholders that he was more than fit for the job. “We are all aware that the South African mineral

Minister Mosebenzi Joseph Zwane

AEL 26

Department of Water and Sanitation

KSB Pumps & Valves

African Construction &

DRA Mineral Projects SA

Mining Indaba

Minister of Mineral Resources Mosebenzi Zwane was relatively unknown before his surprise appointment in September this year. Zwane’s appointment came following some speculation regarding a cabinet reshuffle, when President Jacob Zuma announced a replacement for the late Minister of Public Service and Administration, Collins Chabane. Zwane was the ANC's Free State provincial treasurer and a former agriculture MEC. Some have argued that his appointment came at an inconvenient time, particularly just weeks before the launch of Mining Operation Phakisa – a conference aimed at fixing the problems marring the mining sector. Soon after taking office, Zwane revealed some of his immediate plans for the sector, indicating that the government is exploring the options associated with buying depressed mining assets as the industry grapples with weak commodity prices. Government, he said, has been seeking greater state involvement in the economically vital sector, hence the 2011 launch of a company called African Explo-

and mining industry has historically been deeply racialised. The situation needs to be addressed through meaningful transformation across the entire value chain. We need to see more black people, women, and youth playing a significant role in mining as well as in the cutting and polishing of diamonds. In this regard, compliance with relevant statutes should form the basis of a licence to operate in order to enable optimal, sustainable exploitation of South Africa’s diamonds, consistent with the National Development Plan and the African Mining Vision,” he added. The jury is still out on whether Zwane is ‘fit for the job’ but, following his firm stance at the Diamond Indaba and his reliance of the Mining Operation Phakisa conference, there is more clarity on his view for the future of the industry. “Given the heritage of mining on the continent, coupled with the concept of limited mineral resources, Africa has recognised the need for a knowledge-driven mining sector that contributes to the broad-based growth and development of a fully integrated African market through downstream linkages into mineral beneficiation and manufacturing,” he said.

follow the link

Read more about Minister Zwane on: www.miningne.ws

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