The official journal of the Institute of Waste Management of Southern Africa
Promotin g in teg rated res ou rces m a na ge m e nt
Waste streams
Sustainability megaforces
Population increases and high waste costs
A complex, unpredictable system
Shale gas
Asbestos
Environmental and economic risks
Asbestiform and the ‘regulated six’
ISSN 1680-4902 R35.00 (incl VAT) • Vol 14, No 3, August 2012
OilKol
Look out for the frog! PG 6
in the HOT SEAT “There is a major paradigm shift towards providing a sustainable one-stop solution for e-waste recycling.”
Malcolm Whitehouse, sales manager at Desco Electronic Recyclers
is printed on 100% recycled paper
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A well coached team. A game plan perfected through historical success. A scientific approach to the game. The ingredients that work on the field also work in our field. At EnviroServ we have a proven track record in tackling waste. TREAT GREEN LIKE GOLD.
EnviroServ Waste Management Customer Care: 0800 192 783 www.enviroserv.co.za
contents
www.3smedia.co.za ISSN 1680-4902, Volume 14, Number 3, August 2012
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Promoting integrated re source s manage me nt
Waste streams
Sustainability megaforces
Population increases and high waste costs
A complex, unpredictable system
Shale gas
Asbestos
Environmental and economic risks
Asbestiform and the nUHJXODWHG{VL[o
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OilKol
The RĂŠSource team stands firmly behind environmental preservation. As such, RĂŠSource magazine is printed on 100% recycled paper and uses no dyes or varnishes. The magazine is saddlestitched to ensure that no glues are required in the binding process.
12
Look out for the frog! PG 6
Cover story KP VJG +27 6($7 “Th “There Th is a major paradigm shift towards providing a su u sustainable one-stop solution for e-waste recycling.� Malcolm Whitehouse, sales manager at Desco Electronic Recyclers M
is printed on 100% recycled paper
6
OilKol: The environmental treatment experts
Regulars
Air pollution / CDM
3 5 76
48 53
President’s comment Editor’s comment IWMSA news
54
Hot seat 10
Medical waste
Desco: The responsible e-waste recyclers
56
Solid waste 12 22
Solid waste management practices in Western Africa DEA’s waste collection pilot project
The importance of medical waste bins in hospitals
Hazardous waste 59
Asbestiform, asbestos and the ‘regulated six’ International expertise meets local safety standards
Recycling
64
26
Wastewater management
29 31
New carton recycling mill to boost local jobs Wood versus plastic pallets New appointments at Plastics SA
Landfills 33
66
48
Change vector analysis for monitoring groundwater
Plant & equipment
Population increases and escalating waste management costs
71 73
Waste to energy 46
37
Global sustainability megaforces Local solutions for coal dust management Wet flue gas desulphurisation plant for Kusile
New compact recycling crusher hits the market The ‘green’ fleet
Shale gas development and the associated risks
in association with infrastructure news
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59 RÊSource August 2012 – 1
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President'sCover comment strap
Introducing the new IWMSA president...
I
t is indeed an honour and a privilege for me to take up the reigns of the Institute of Waste Management Southern Africa (IWMSA) presidency. I would like to thank all the past presidents, the council, head office and members of the IWMSA for their vote of confidence in electing me as the new IWMSA president. My congratulations, in turn, go to Dr Suzan Oelofse for her appointment as vice-president. The synergy and rapport that we have built up over the past few years will definitely be beneficial to the crucial role we have to play in setting the strategic direction for the IWMSA for my two-year term of office. My vision is to see the IWMSA becoming increasingly instrumental in facilitating dialogue as well as action amongst key stakeholders in the industry; to encourage others with the same vision and concerns to work together for the greater good of effective and sustainable waste management. I feel that as an organisation, we all need to be proactive in ensuring that empowerment seminars, workshops and training inter ventions are brought right down to grass roots level in order for individuals to better understand where they fit into the value chain – to really grasp the fact that waste is a resource and that a sustainable living can be made by nurturing these resources appropriately. Great strides have been made in the past few years in ensuring that we offer quality waste management education and training to our members and the waste industry. Our education prospectus currently comprises both accredited as well
as non-accredited training to cater for the between and within the waste sector diverse needs of our waste industry. Our and government collaborative efforts with regulatory authori- • ensuring self-regulation within an approties have borne much fruit, and this has priate legal framework. culminated in the first ever combined DEA Member input into this crucial process will be Waste Khoro and Wastecon 2012. sought during our various branch workshops My thanks to the outgoing president Stan as well as during the workshops to be held Jewaskiewitz and the IWMSA council for during Wastecon 2012. Continued focus will the excellent strides made in this regard. be placed on ensuring that as an organisation During my term, continued focus will be we remain relevant and service the needs of placed on further strengthening the alli- our members. The excellent work that has ances that have been forged with all waste been achieved by the public relations and regulatory authorities, whether national, marketing portfolio of the IWMSA will be used provincial or local. These alliances with as the building blocks to further ensure that our regulatory authorities will ensure that the IWMSA is the organisation of choice of the norms and standards established in the waste management industr y will be of the highest standard. As an organi” Deidre Nxumalo-Freeman, President, IWMSA sation we are on the brink of exciting changes. The IWMSA appointed all stakeholders in the waste management the Centre for Environmental Management industry. Your continued of the North-West University to conduct support and inputs in research on the feasibility and possible ensuring that the vision modalities available to the IWMSA to estab- of the IWMSA becomes lish quality assurance arrangements for a reality is therefore earour organisation members. The benefits of nestly requested. implementing a quality assurance system Yours in waste for our members will include: • ensuring the reputability of our IWMSA management organisation membership Deidre Nxumalo• establishing appropriate linkages Freeman
My vision is to see the IWMSA becoming increasingly instrumental in facilitating dialogue as well as action amongst key stakeholders in the industry
Patron members of the IWMSA
RéSource August 2012 – 3
Editor's comment Publisher: Elizabeth Shorten Associate Publisher: Ferdie Pieterse Editor: Candice Landie Tel: +27 (0)11 233 2600, candice@3smedia.co.za Head of design: Frédérick Danton Senior designer: Hayley Mendelow Senior sub-editor: Claire Nozaic Sub-editor: Patience Gumbo Production manager: Antois-Leigh Botma Production coordinator: Jacqueline Modise Financial manager: Andrew Lobban Marketing & online manager: Martin Hiller Distribution manager: Nomsa Masina Distribution coordinator: Asha Pursotham Administrator: Tonya Hebenton Printers: United Litho Johannesburg Tel: +27 (0)11 402 0571 Advertising sales: Christine Pretorius Tel: +27 (0)11 465 8255 christine.pretorius@lantic.net
Publisher: MEDIA No.4, 5th Avenue Rivonia, 2191 PO Box 92026, Norwood 2117 Tel: +27 (0)11 233 2600 Share Call: 086 003 3300 Fax: +27 (0)11 234 7274/5 www.3smedia.co.za Annual subscription: subs@3smedia.co.za R195.00 (incl VAT) South Africa ISSN 1680-4902 The Institute of Waste Management of Southern Africa Tel: +27 (0)11 675 3462 E-mail: iwmsa@telkomsa.net
All material herein RéSource is copyright-protected and may not be reproduced either in whole or in part without the prior written permission of the publisher. The views and opinions expressed in the magazine do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher or editor, but those of the author or other contributors under whose name contributions may appear, unless a contributor expresses a viewpoint or opinion in his or her capacity as an elected office bearer of a company, group or association. © Copyright 2012. All rights reserved.
ReSource is endorsed by:
WasteCon is back!
T
he much-anticipated biennial event on the IWMSA calendar, WasteCon, is back again, with this issue of RéSource being the official magazine at the event. In this issue, we welcome the new institute president Deidre Nxumalo-Freeman and a new editor on RéSource, starting with the November 2012 edition. After much deliberation and with a heavy heart, I say goodbye to my friends and colleagues in Johannesburg as my family and I prepare for life in the Mother City. Just talking about the amazing people I have the privilege of calling friends and the talented people I have had the privilege of working with, will see my farewell speech fill this entire magazine. So, in summary, I am grateful for the knowledge gained, friendships made and successes shared. This may be the end of my journey in the waste industry but the show must go on, and kicking off this issue are the environmental experts at Oilkol as well as Desco Electronic Recyclers sharing the company’s history and its recipe for success. A very interesting read in this issue is a round-up of KPMG’s recent report Expect the Unexpected: Building Business Value in a Changing World, which looks at the 10 global sustainability megaforces affecting global, environmental and social issues. Each one has important implications for business, which must be understood, assessed and built in to long-term strategic planning. Another one definitely worth a read is the Department of Environmental Affairs’ (DEA) waste collection pilot project in Mafikeng.The programme is being run in the peri-urban areas surrounding Mafikeng
Local Municipality through a ser vice level agreement with the DEA and the municipality. It has provided over 31 850 rural households with kerbside waste collection and two free plastic refuse bags per week. For those of you who haven’t heard, Tetrapak, in conjunction with Gayatri Paper Mills, has launched a new carton recycling mill in Germiston. Gayatri employs a modified hydropulper, not unlike a giant, domestic blender, which separates the paper board from the PolyAlu through a cold water friction process. The pulp is pumped off into the main paper mill where it is turned into cardboard… and the manufacturing process continues. With sustainability a key economic and environmental driver, this recycling mill will also help boost local jobs. On the subject of sustainability, who thinks that an eco-friendly coal-fired power station is nothing more than a fabricated theory? Well, the Cosira Group/Alstom Consortium has been appointed main suppliers of the wet flue gas desulphurisation plant for Kusile power station. A first of its kind in South Africa, the plant will dramatically reduce the sulphur dioxide content from the power plant’s flue gases in order to improve the limits set by international committees on emissions from coal-fired power stations. But I’m going to stop right there before I give away all of the magazine’s content. I probably won’t see most of you until our paths cross someday, so enjoy WasteCon and stay blessed.
After much deliberation I say goodbye to my friends and colleagues in Johannesburg as my family and I prepare for life in the Mother City
Happy reading!
Editor
RéSource August 2012 – 5
Kaliningrad based research ship Academic Joffe in Antarctica.
O I L KO L
R
Defunct Whale Oil Extraction Plant at Grytviken on South Georgia Island where Sir Ernest Shackleton is buried.
The Antarctica Option Is pollution causing Global Warming? Well there are as many views on that as there are people with opinions. What is certain is the fact that we are already suffering the consequences of pollution. The last frontier is Antarctica. All products that are shipped there and produce waste is shipped back to the country of origin for disposal, but the world is changing and our hunger for resources will reach Antarctica. The biosphere of Antarctica is the last real wilderness on the planet and is worth protecting as it is under threat. South Africa is a signatory to the Antarctica treaty. The review of the operations of the treaty is due in 2021 and who knows what will befall this pristine environment. All we can do is to plead with the world to protect this area from exploitation upon review of the treaty. The Rhinos amongst others are species facing extinction, but we are missing the point that the species at the top of the food chain, man, is fast becoming a threatened species. In South Africa with its acid mine water and polluted air, the zero pollution option is rapidly moving from a nice to have to becoming an essential. The planet does not belong to us, we are only borrowing it from our children and it seems more and more like we are busy stealing it from them. ®
OILKOL is convinced that the only way that hydrocarbon waste can be successfully managed is by recording the new product against the waste product removed. If one visits Antarctica, one is struck by the fact that all waste created on the continent is collected and removed for safe disposal. The significance of this is that it is done at great expense and also that this occurs on a continent that has no government at all. It proves that it can be done and OILKOL® is committed to the “Antarctica Option” for South Africa. OILKOL® is unique with the After Treatment Systems® that it offers the country. It looks at Hydrocarbon After Treatment® in a way that Antarctica handles waste. Where it differs though, is that the waste is not just removed off-site, it is treated in such a way that zero pollution occurs.
So what do frogs and OILKOL® have in common? Frogs are the first to leave a polluted environment. It therefore is a good indicator to watch out for and if the frogs leave you can start worrying for they live in the water that we drink. This explains the choice of the frog as symbol on the seal of approval. Therefore, watch out for the Oilkol Frog as a sign of a responsible used oil generator. Oilkol’s focus moved from, just the collection of used oil, to the environment and thus a strategy, to collect and recover 100% of the waste associated with used oil generated in South Africa. The Oilkol Environmental Seal of Approval® system is a unique hi-tech system, designed with South African conditions in mind. OILKOL® has a custom designed paperless record keeping system that will be accessible by its customers. This will greatly simplify the added administrative burden placed on the generators of waste by the Waste Management Act. The Oilkol Environmental Seal of Approval® does not only certify that the generator's waste of the new product purchased is 100% recycled, but also that proper controls, insurance cover and record keeping exist, that are also subject to frequent external audits. The OILKOL® Virtual Data Centre is in the process of acquiring ISO 27000 certification for its Information Security Management System. Information is going to become more important in the near future and the interaction between various databases needs to be secure to ensure a smooth and fast flow of information. Maintaining a high standard of information security is important to OILKOL® as it has to protect its own information as well as that of its customers. This is particularly important if one understands that there were two million reported security breaches in South Africa during the preceding 12 months. The Oil After Treatment System®enables generators of used oil to ensure that all new oil purchased is recovered and treated. OILKOL®, through 33 years of experience, has realised that to achieve its environmental objective of collecting all the used oil that was once new oil, they would have to target new oil sales and not rely on available used oil estimations. Add to this the need for accurate and reputable record keeping, by receiving the Environmental Seal of Approval, the used oil activities of the generator automatically become part of the OILKOL® ISO 14001:2004 Certified Environmental Management System.
TM
OILKOL® started a Filter After Treatment System® as a project to provide an even better service to its customers and the environment in 2011. This project has been hugely successful and therefor OILKOL® is happy to announce that its Filter After Treatment System® has progressed past the project phase and is now a fully fledged service, that OILKOL®provides to its customers. FATS®is the most environmentally friendly system on offer in the market as it meets all the legal requirements for the after treatment of used oil filters in South Africa. The used oil filters are cleaned before being recycled. The physical process, combined with the detailed record keeping, allows OILKOL® to also offer the Oilkol Environmental Seal of Approval® for the 100% pollution free disposal of used oil filters. The essence of the Filter After Treatment System®, is the Oilkol Environmental Seal of Approval® and the drive to clean the filters to the point where we have zero pollution. This is another OILKOL® first. Millions of litres of waste engine coolant are generated each year during routine preventative and other maintenance procedures. By recycling engine coolant, the user helps to protect sewage treatment plants and keep ethylene glycol out of storm water and sewerage, consequently protecting waterways. OILKOL® recently commissioned a waste Coolant After Treatment® facility. This Coolant After Treatment System® results in a recycled coolant that is virtually identical to the new product. A pre-requisite for this service to be successful is separation at source. Our customers are storing their waste coolant in separate containers without mixing it with foreign substances, for separate collection. Oily rags can be recycled, thereby increasing their span of usage about fivefold depending on the type of cloth ® ® and extent of oil contamination, because of this OILKOL has initiated the Rag After Treatment System . In the four years that OILKOL® has been offering the Environmental Seal of Approval to users of oil we have seen an exponential rate of growth in the number of participants. This is good news as it means that the records available and the active management of used oil in South Africa is fast approaching the point where it will be the best of its kind in the world. These successes are what encouraged OILKOL® to extend the Oilkol Environmental Seal of Approval® certification to all the After Treatment Systems®.
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OIL AFTER TREATMENT SYSTEM
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AFTER TREATMENT SYSTEM
Hot seat
DESCO ELECTRONIC RECYCLERS
The responsible e-waste recycler Reaching its 20-year milestone, Desco Electronic Recyclers has made strides in the e-waste industry, setting benchmark standards in the education and recycling of electronic waste products in South Africa. Malcolm Whitehouse, sales manager at Desco, talks about the company’s history and shares its recipe for success.
Q. Why was the company formed? MW The company was formed in 1992 by Costa Airaga and his wife Desiree. It is a family business that was based on the opportunity in recycling electronic waste identified by the founder. Initially, emphasis was placed on printed circuit boards, because there were more mainframe computers in service that contained high-quality printed circuit boards. The main thrust of the business in the early days was based on the recovery of precious metals, but as time passed it became more and more apparent that a fully fledged, sustainable one-stop electronic waste (e-waste) recycling service was a better alternative. In those early days, when e-waste recycling was practically unheard of, developing and establishing the business presented challenges and frustrations, with the fact that glass, paper and tin cans were commonly
10 – RéSource August 2012
recycled and very few South Africans had heard the term e-waste or electronic waste. It demanded tenacity of purpose to make Desco the leader of this industry in South Africa.
From an industry perspective, what are the laws/regulations governing the recycling of e-waste in South Africa? MW Desco adheres to and has the requisite permits for the following environmental laws and regulations: • A Section 20 permit (Section 20 of Act 73 of 1989 as amended) of the Environment Conservation Act, which allows storage on site of e-waste for more than 90 days, as well as authority to operate a recycling facility on said site. • The Second Hand Goods Act (No 6 of 2009), which dictates the relevant rules and regulations of recycling, reprocessing
•
• • •
•
and dealing in scrap metals (related also to e-waste). A localised permit from the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development to operate a waste reprocessing facility. Various transport waste hub permits related to the hazardous nature of e-waste. Hazchem legislation pertaining to certification of vehicles and drivers. The Consumer Protection Act (No 68 of 2008), which is applicable to retailers or resellers of equipment, as well as importers or manufacturers of OEM equipment. A Precious Metal Refiners licence.
At Desco, how important is it to educate the youth on recycling, and what programmes are you currently involved in? MW We feel that it is vitally important to
Hot seat
HOW MANY DROP OFF CENTRES DOES DESCO HAVE NATIONWIDE? Do you provide an online site map of these drop-off locations and, if so, how does this functionality work? What is your book a collection service all about?
create awareness among the youth about the importance of e-waste recycling. One of the main reasons for this is that, in general, South Africa is very far behind in terms of awareness of e-waste recycling. We have embarked on a number of awareness programmes with schools in Gauteng as pilot projects. Based on that success, we aim to soon roll out more projects in the main centres.
Desco has reached its 20-year milestone. What have been some of the key challenges along the way, both as a company and in terms of recycling, and how are these issues addressed? MW The first challenge was to change the prevailing mindset, which was based on a general ignorance of recycling, to one of recycling e-waste responsibly. Another challenge was to keep abreast of legal and industry standards. Desco’s commitment to adhere to ISO Standards, attain relevant certification, the implementation of a safety, health and environment management system, as well as legislative requirements to structure and formalise our business excellence approach, has allowed us to establish a culture of responsible recycling of e-waste. This is a major paradigm mind shift towards providing a sustainable one-stop solution for all e-waste recycling. Finally, with electronic technology becoming smaller, lighter, faster and more efficient, volumes have had to increase to maintain our sustainability.
What have been Desco’s collection and recycling statistics from 2010 as compared to 2011? MW During 2010 Desco processed essed a total of 3 400 t of e-waste and during 2011 we processed 5 500 t. This amounts to an increase in volume of 62% year-onant increase year. Although it is a significant in volume, there is still a need ion for more awareness creation on programmes and education regarding the importance off e-waste recycling.
We currently have 119 drop-off or collection points: • Incredible Connection: 60 stores nationally • Hi-Fi Corporation: 33 stores nationally • Makro: 13 stores nationally (soon to be 18 stores) • Builders Warehouse: 1 Strubens Valley • Schools: 6 in Gauteng • Shopping malls: 2 in Gauteng: Kolonnade and Northgate – in conjunction with Incredible Connection • Universities: 2 in Gauteng • Other: 2 in Gauteng • Agencies: Nelspruit, Durban, East London,Polokwane, Port Elizabeth, George, Cape Town, Bloemfontein, Kimberley, Rustenburg, Vanderbijlpark, Klerksdorp. For your convenience, there is an online Google map on our website depicting all the collection or drop-off points. Book a Collection is a service whereby anyone requiring an e-waste collection from Desco only needs to fill in the form on the website. This form is then sent to the logistics coordinator. He will make contact and arrange the collection. Typically, one of the criteria for the collection is that a 1 t capacity bakkie load or more qualifies for a FREE collection and disposal service. The form is very comprehensive in terms of what information Desco requires to schedule a free collection service. All mandatory fields as well as other fields should be completed to ensure an efficient service.
What is your comment on the illegal shipments of e-waste to Africa? MW This is a practice that a lot of developed countries are using to try and address the problem around the digital divide. Unfortunately, this has exacerbated the problem of disposing of redundant and end-of-life electrical and electronics equipment in the developing nations in Africa. Electronic goods were or are exported to Africa under the ‘pretext’ of second-hand equipment. Unfortunately most countries on the receiving end of this scrap do not have the skills, knowledge or infrastructure to deal responsibly with it. This has resulted in widespread malpractices. Typically, the ‘feel good’ objective has turned into a nightmare for the governments of the countries concerned. People living in a developing country have the same dreams and aspirations as those who have the best of everything at their fingertips in the developed countries.
Informal e-waste is growing in countries such as Nigeria and Ghana and e-waste contains many different substances, most of which are toxic. What are some of the environmental and health hazards surrounding e-waste? e-w MW The main mai hazardous materials found in electronics devices are lead, mercury, mer beryllium oxide, lith cadmium, lithium and brominated
flame retardants (plastic computer casings). If these materials are not handled properly, they can lead to serious illness or even death. If they are discarded on landfills, they leach out and contaminate the groundwater systems. Desco complies and is certified to ISO 14001 standards, as well as all other national legislation regarding e-waste recycling. Desco has achieved a target of up to 98% of all electronic waste handled being fully recycled. This is achieved through dismantling all e-waste into prescribed fractions of e-waste.
How has becoming a (new) official sponsor to the Miss Earth pageant opened doors for Desco on a commercial scale? MW This sponsorship of the Miss Earth pageant has been of benefit to Desco in that we are seen to support a truly worthy cause. We have had many corporate clients take notice of Desco through this collaboration, specifically as the pageant is endorsed by so many large organisations, such as WWF, Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, South African National Parks, Consol Glass,United Nations Environment Programme and TUNZA. We are proud of our association with Miss Earth and what it stands for and achieves. Tel: + 27 (0)11 979 3017 www.desco.co.za
We feel that it is vitally important to create awareness among the youth about the importance of e-waste recycling.” Malcolm Whitehouse, sales manager at Desco
RéSource August 2012 – 11
Solid waste
PART I OF V
Solid waste management practices in Western Africa In Western Africa, the rapid rate of uncontrolled and unplanned urbanisation coupled with a high density of urban settlements and changing consumption patterns have accelerated the need for water supply, sanitation and waste management infrastructure.
12 – RÊSource August 2012
A
frican countries are characterised by the world’s highest urban growth rates (Achankeng, 2003). Approximately 9 000 t of solid waste is collected daily in Lagos, Nigeria; in Accra, Ghana, the amount reaches 1 400 t/day. The situation in medium-size cities and in semi-urban areas is not much different: regular waste collection only reaches higher income neighbourhoods and the proper disposal in adequate landfills is virtually inexistent. Discarded waste composed of paper, plastics, clothes and organics has become part of the urban living environment. Refuse bins that are not always emptied become miniature waste dumping sites. People living in the vicinity of these dumping sites are exposed to bad smells and smoke caused by the intended or unintended burning of the waste heaps. Waste lying in the
recycling should be improved, reducing the environmental impact caused by improper handling, recycling and disposal practices, including open-air incineration. The informal sector, representing a significant part of today’s waste collection, reuse and recycling system, has to be fully integrated both economically and socially, while designing future waste management schemes. The European Commission FP-7 financed programme on Integrated Waste Management in Western Africa (IWWA) has compiled and analysed relevant information on waste management practices and approaches from African and European countries with the aim to provide tools and build local capacities for future solid waste management planning and decision making. This series of articles summarises the status of solid waste management prac-
The public administration and the private sector are challenged in developing adequate waste management policies streets is blocking the rain and wastewater drainage system, which leads to the flooding of the surrounding living areas and negatively impacts the water supply system and the water quality. Waste pickers living adjacent to the dump sites sort waste and try to make a living with revenues from recyclable goods. In the past, remedial efforts towards a functioning waste management system could not cope with these challenges, mostly due to the lack of finances and insufficient or inefficient public administrative capacities. The situation has reached extreme levels in most towns and it is widely recognised by international organisations and policy makers that a functioning waste management system that copes with the specific urban challenges is a prerequisite for improving the living conditions of the urban population while decreasing the environmental degradation. The public administration and the private sector are challenged in developing adequate waste management policies and in implementing environmentally, socially and economically sound waste management systems. The deficient waste collection scheme needs to be upgraded and adjusted to the waste quality and quantities. Waste separation, reuse and
tices in four countries of Western Africa: Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria and Senegal.
Methodology To get an overview on the current solid waste management practices, a comprehensive survey was conducted by the IWWA AfroEuropean research team together with the partner institutions in the four project countries. Prior to the survey, characterisation criteria for the solid waste management system were defined in order to retrieve comparable data. The criteria covered the areas of waste characteristics, collection and transportation practices and infrastructure, reuse and recycling practices and infrastructure, secondary markets, downstream processors and final disposal practices and infrastructure. The sur vey was composed of four different questionnaires, which were completed by the par tner institutions in the respective countries. The municipal solid waste management and the plastic waste management practices were assessed through selected case studies. For each countr y, two towns that were considered to be representatives for the countr y’s respective waste management system were selected and documented, one an urban area (>100 000 inhabitants, equal to a large city) and one a semi-urban area
RéSource August 2012 – 13