An Assessment of Wetland Valuation: Houston & Istanbul

An Assessment of Wetland Valuation in Outlying Areas of Houston and Istanbul Avantika Gori 4/29/15

Created for Global Urban Lab Rice University: School of Social Sciences

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Executive Summary Across the world wetlands and other vital natural ecosystems are degraded more and more each year. Given that wetlands provide a multitude of ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, fishery support, migratory bird habitat, recreational/cultural value, as well as many others, it is imperative that urban communities take actions to preserve these spaces.

This paper aims to understand the value of wetlands in the outlying areas of Houston and Istanbul. Specifically, this paper explores the ecosystem functions that benefit each city, investigates how these services are valued, and seeks to discover the origins and actions of wetland protection initiatives. In Houston, coastal saltwater marshes are primarily valued for their ability to sequester large amounts of carbon each year, and provide nursery habitat for shrimp and other fish. Preservation actions in Houston have focused on restoring degraded wetlands, and been made possible due to funding from government agencies and local NGOs. On the other hand, in Istanbul freshwater wetlands surrounding the city provide key water purification services, and provide much-needed habitat space for migratory birds.

Environmental activism in Istanbul has often started at the grassroots level, with local NGOs advocating greater protections for these important natural spaces. Both cities have begun to realize the great importance of wetland ecosystem services, and steps have been taken toward integrating the natural environment with the urban environment in a way that is mutually beneficial.

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Table of Contents Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................... 2 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4 Site Area ........................................................................................................................................................ 5 Issue Statement ............................................................................................................................................ 6 Methods ........................................................................................................................................................ 6 Research ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 Findings…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………13 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….14 Works Cited................................................................................................................................................. 15

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Introduction The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines wetlands as areas that “are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater” and that support “a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions” (Wetland Definitions, 2014).

More generally, wetlands serve as a nexus between land and water, conveying sediments, nutrients, and energy between the two systems (Wetlands Overview, 2004). In addition to supporting the health of connected land and aquatic ecosystems, these transition zones also provide crucial habitat space for a wide range of plants and animals. Wetlands, marshes, and bogs provide nursery support for many juvenile fish and mammals, while also serving as important rest stops for migratory fowl. Due in part to the ecological significance of these areas, and the trend in severe wetland degradation observed in the past century, there has been a push for wetland preservation and restoration among the global community. These sentiments were codified in the Ramsar Convention of 1971, which outlined wetland identification criteria, and encouraged nations to designate wetland sites of ecological/cultural importance as protected areas (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2014). This convention and international treaty catalyzed movements within many countries toward greater wetland protection and restoration.

As more attention has focused on protecting and enhancing degraded natural ecosystems, methods for quantifying the value of specific ecosystems have become more popular. The concept of ecosystem services aims to identify specific services that are provided by natural ecosystems and are utilized by humans. Wetlands in particular have the ability to sequester substantial amounts of carbon dioxide per year, provide nursery habitat for juvenile fish and crustaceans, store and purify freshwater inflows, and provide an aesthetically valuable recreational space for the public. These services are public goods - their values not fully captured by commercial markets - and consequently are often undervalued by decision-makers (Costanza, 1997). Ecological economist Robert Costanza was one of the first to attempt broadscale quantification of ecosystem value, and estimated that wetlands alone provided a value to humans of 140,000 USD per hectare of wetland per year (Costanza, 2014).

The outlying areas of both Houston and Istanbul are home to critically valuable wetlands. In Houston these wetlands are found in Galveston Bay (figure 1), and consist mostly of coastal salt marshes. In Istanbul, freshwater wetlands surround several important lakes and streams on the outskirts of the city (figure 2). As urban expansion and development have continued in the 21st century, an alarming trend of wetland loss and degradation in these outlying urban areas has been observed. Along the Gulf Coast, wetlands have been lost at a rate of around 57,000 acres per year (Dahl & Stedman, 2013). Within Galveston Bay, this loss has primarily been due to increased coastal development and oil and gas related activities. In the outlying areas of Istanbul, wetland loss has occurred in large part because of the so-called 4|Page

“crazy projects” – large infrastructure endeavors – that are being pursued by the Turkish government. In both cases, the desire for urban development conflicts with the ecological need for these ecosystems. These trends in wetland loss provide the motivation for this research paper, and demonstrate the need for more thorough wetland valuation by policy makers.

Site Area

Figure 1 – Satellite image of important wetland sites around Istanbul

Figure 2 – Satellite image of Galveston Bay

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Issue Statement This paper seeks to understand the specific wetland functions and services that are valued by the public in Houston and Istanbul. Though wetlands provide a wide range of services such as nutrient cycling, animal habitat, and recreational space, different urban areas value and rely on these services to different degrees. In Houston the specific ecosystem services that have been identified as important are carbon sequestration and fishery support. In Istanbul, freshwater purification and migratory bird habitat will be the two services researched in this paper.

Wetland conservation and protection efforts will be evaluated in order to understand how the public views wetlands, and to understand the relationship between urban space and the natural environment. In addition, special attention will be given to initiatives that encourage recreational use of wetlands, such as bird-watching, hiking, biking, etc. Through studying the recreational use of wetland spaces, the cultural and heritage value of wetlands can be evaluated as well. These two services are often neglected in wetland studies, but are vitally important from a sociological standpoint.

Thus, this paper aims to capture the ecological and social importance of wetlands to the urban spaces of Istanbul and Houston.

Methods In order to understand the ecological value placed on wetlands in Houston, studies conducted in the Gulf of Mexico, and specifically Galveston Bay, were collected, analyzed, and then reported upon in this paper. Specific emphasis was placed on studies that quantify wetland functions, such as the amount of carbon sequestered per acre. Similar research was conducted for outlying areas of Istanbul, focusing on specific lakes and water bodies that hold ecological significance in the area. Dr. Melek Alhan, Professor of Civil Engineering at Istanbul University, was interviewed about on-going research on Istanbul wetland services and about wetland sites that are under ecological threat.

Research on public awareness and social value placed on wetlands was more subjective and qualitative. In Istanbul, this research came from interviews with several decision-makers including a Koc university professor, director of the Istanbul Policy Center Dr. Korel Goymen, and local municipality deputy mayor Sevgi Atalay. The purpose of these interviews was to shed light on the value the government places on wetlands, as well as the value perceived by the general public. In addition, research was done online to track actions and literature produced

by Turkish environmental groups. In Houston, the research on social awareness and social action has relied on several case studies of wetland restoration along Galveston Bay. These restoration efforts have been undertaken by various federal agencies, such as the National 6|Page

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), as well as non-profit organizations like the Galveston Bay Foundation. In both Houston and Istanbul, special attention has been given to initiatives that encourage public involvement in advocacy and restoration efforts.

Research Carbon Sequestration in Houston Wetlands: Wetlands have the ability to sequester substantial amounts of atmospheric carbon, and store this carbon in their soil. Carbon dioxide in the air is trapped in wetland sediments, or stored in plant biomass. Plants are able to sequester carbon dioxide in the air through photosynthesis and use this CO2 to grow leaves, roots, stems, etc. This process is called carbon “fixation”, and occurs over many years. When plants die, part of their biomass is buried under the soil, which effectively traps much of the carbon underground. Since wetland soils contain low oxygen levels, carbon dioxide can persist in the soil for many years without degradation (Lal et al, 2004). Coastal marshes are unique because tidal flows cause sediments to accumulate on top of each other. Via this mechanism, carbon is buried underneath the soils and prevented from escaping back into the atmosphere. Because coastal marshes are constantly vertically accreting, they are able to continuously sequester carbon from the atmosphere (Mcleod et al, 2011). Thus, coastal marshes have the potential to offset some of the carbon emissions resulting from urban activity in the Houston region.

Since carbon sequestration rates are heavily dependent on sedimentation rates and flooding/tidal patterns, it can be difficult to quantify the carbon offset potential of wetlands. A study conducted on coastal marshes in the Gulf of Mexico found that on average they can sequester around 2500 lbs of atmospheric carbon per acre of wetland per year (Engle 2011).

This represents a significant amount of carbon that is removed from the atmosphere each year.

Some studies find that coastal wetlands can sequester carbon at a rate ten times higher than other wetland types (Bridgham et al, 2006), making them uniquely valuable to the Texas coast.

Furthermore, wetland sequestration potential may become increasingly important in the future. As the sea level continues to rise, marshes and wetlands are able to adapt and expand inward in order to accommodate the higher water surfaces. As marshes move landward, “high marsh” areas transition to “low marsh”, and are able to sequester more carbon per acre (Choi et al, 2001). The expansion of marshland occurs naturally as long as undeveloped land is available at the coast.

Given the geography and topography of coastal wetlands in Galveston Bay, they are well-suited to provide carbon sequestration services to the Houston community. Though not a 7|Page

directly tangible service, this function is critically important on a macro-scale, and has the potential to provide long-term carbon offsets to compensate for emissions coming from the Houston area.

Fishery Support in Houston Wetlands Shrimping and fishing along the Gulf of Mexico, and the Texas coast specifically, are vitally important industries. In the Gulf alone, shrimping accounts for billions of dollars of economic activity, with around 30% of this value attributed to the Texas Coast (Commercial landings data, 2003). In 2001, over 77 million pounds of shrimp resided along the coast of Texas, making shrimping one of the most lucrative coastal economic activities (Commercial landings data, 2003). Specifically in Galveston Bay, recreational and commercial fishing and shrimping is valued at $3 billion, and these activities support over 40,000 jobs in the Bay (Wetlands Restoration).

The vibrancy of the fishing industry in this area is due in part to the abundance of coastal marshes and wetlands that provide nursery support for juvenile shrimp and crustaceans. The vegetation and shallow water of coastal wetlands provide protective habitat for growing shrimp as they swim between the vegetated complex of the marsh and the open water. Extensive research has been done to quantify the value of coastal marshes for fishery support, and much of this research has been conducted within Galveston Bay. Minello et al (2008) found that the wetlands of Galveston Bay can support nearly 35,000 shrimp per hectare and over 15,000 blue crab per hectare. These values are 2-4 times higher than shrimp and crab populations observed in open water. Wetland complexes not only support much higher numbers of crustaceans per hectare, they also decrease the risks of crustacean mortality. Haas et al (2004) found that juvenile shrimp survive best in regions of high marsh vegetation. The study also and noted that densely vegetated marshes reduce shrimp mortality by reducing the distance of open water shrimp must traverse to move from marsh to marsh.

Water Treatment in Istanbul Wetlands Wetlands are efficient tools for remediating contaminated water because they are able to treat many types of contaminants and require little to no maintenance. Many countries in Europe have even started building wetlands for the purpose of water purification, as an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional wastewater purification plants (Chen et al, 2009). In Istanbul, research is being conducted on the ability of wetland soils and vegetation to remove both organic and heavy metal pollutants from wastewater and urban runoff.

Natural as well as constructed wetlands remove pollutants through several different mechanisms. Wetland soils are able to remove contaminant particles through the process of 8|Page

adsorption (whereby toxic molecules stick to the surface of soil particles), and this accounts for a large portion of heavy metal removal. Another mechanism involves wetland plants, whose root systems catch and hold toxic chemicals. Many wetland reeds are able to hold large concentrations of toxins in their root system without harming the health of the plant. Different species of microorganisms present in the soils break down organic contaminants through degradation processes, constituting the third mechanism of pollutant removal. Chen et al (2009) conducted a study on heavy metal removal in wetland soils and determined that different wetland soils were able to remove between 95-99% of the lead (Pb) measured in the inflowing water.

During a visit to Dr. Melek Alhan’s hydrology lab at Istanbul University, first-hand observations of heavy metal adsorption in wetland soils were noted. Dr. Alhan gave a tour of her experiments in the lab, and explained how each experimental apparatus worked. Notably, Dr. Alhan described her research efforts being conducted into the ability of soils from the wetland area of the Kucukcekmece Lake (refer to Figure 1) to remove arsenic (As) and lead (Pb) from urban runoff. Her research simulates urban stormwater runoff into a lake by setting up several different wetland cells at the research lab. Water was directed through these cells and incoming and outgoing levels of Pb and As were measured. This experimental set-up was observed during the visit to her lab. Dr. Alhan explained that her research was motivated by the increase in industrial facilities surrounding the Kucukcekmece Lake, which have produced water runoff with high concentrations of heavy metals. Her research aims to assess the degree to which wetlands can remediate urban runoff.

Research into runoff remediation by wetlands has also focused on organic pollutants. A study conducted by Ayaz (2008), and commissioned by Istanbul Water and Sewage Management, identifies the need for wastewater treatment for small settlements in the outlying areas of Istanbul. Specifically, the settlements around the Omerli dam (one of the main drinking water reservoirs for the city) do not have wastewater treatment systems, and end up dumping their wastewater into streams that feed into the Omerli reservoir. Researchers believe that the use of constructed wetlands in these areas could provide a low cost method of water treatment, and serve as an aesthetic improvement for the communities. Three types of wetlands were constructed at a site in Istanbul, and monitored over a period of three years. In this time biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC), and coliform removal efficiencies were quantified. Biological oxygen demand was significantly lowered by the constructed wetlands, with a removal efficiency of almost 77% in some cases. In all cases coliform removal was very high, with removal efficiencies greater than 90% in all cases, and up to 96% under certain conditions.

Migratory Bird Habitat in Istanbul 9|Page

Wetlands and marshes in the outlying areas of Istanbul support a wide array of migratory bird species. These areas act as rest stops for birds that make long migration journeys, especially those species crossing the Bosporus Strait, or those coming from Europe.

This area covers an estimated 660 hectares, and without this critical habitat space, it is estimated that many birds would perish, and the rich biodiversity of this region would be lost.

Some research has been done to quantify the importance of these wetlands in relation to migratory bird habitat. Studies conducted near the site of the airport have identified many different species of storks, falcons, buzzards, and eagles that fly over the region. It is estimated that at least 500,000 storks and 250,000 raptors fly through Turkey each year. Istanbul is located along one of the main spring migratory routes, so large numbers of these birds pass through the outlying areas of the city. Another study conducted by Porter and Willis (1968) surveyed migration through the Bosporus and found that around 250,000 birds flew through the survey site in a single autumn season. In addition to numerical estimates of birds, researchers have also attempted to quantify species use of this migration route.

Arslangundogdu (2011) monitored autumn migration patterns at a site around the southern tip of the Bosporus. It was found that 27 different species of birds from 4 different families and 3 orders utilized the strait as a migration pathway.

Government Policy and Public Awareness – Houston Given the importance of Houston wetlands to the fishing industry, and due to the significant cultural and heritage value these wetlands hold, there has been a large push in recent years to preserve natural marshland and restore degraded wetlands. Several marsh restoration projects have been successfully completed in Galveston Bay and several more are currently in progress. Minello et al (2012) documented nine different restoration projects, each occurring in a different region of the Bay. The study documented the specific restoration techniques employed, such re-planting vegetation and restoring sediments to the sites. Though the restored wetlands could not support the same amount of fish as natural wetland areas, the projects succeeded in greatly increasing fish populations relative to pre-restoration levels.

Funding for restoration projects of this nature comes from several different sources.

Many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) raise money for restoration projects, and often work in conjunction with government agencies. For example, the Galveston Bay Foundation (an NGO committed to restoration of the Galveston coast) partnered with NOAA (the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) to restore a marsh in the upper reach of the Houston Ship Channel. This project relied on over 100 volunteers to rebuild and restore thirty-three acres of a degraded marsh (Burnet Bay Habitat Restoration Project). Other projects conducted in the Bay have relied on private donors, such as the Snake Island Restoration Project. Two 10 | P a g e

neighboring landowners, who were concerned about wetland loss in the Bay, funded this restoration project. (Snake Island Restoration Project).

However, recent actions toward wetland restoration do not completely make up for the losses in wetland area that have been observed since the 1950’s. Between 1950 and 2002, over 1500 ha of salt marsh, 1600 ha of tidal flats, and 1000 ha of sea-grass beds were lost (White et al, 2004). The causes of wetland loss in this region are numerous, and can be directly traced to anthropogenic activities. Marshland loss occurred primarily due to subsidence, shoreline faulting, and local development. Subsidence in Galveston Bay became a major problem because of over-use of the underlying aquifer. In order to satisfy the water demands of a growing urban city, more and more water was pumped from under ground, causing the land to sink almost 3 meters (White et al, 2004). In addition, faults (or fractures in the earth’s crust) have also caused many wetlands to be wiped out. Many researchers believe faults in the Galveston region have become active due to increased oil and gas pumping (White et al, 2004). The increase in oil and gas activity outside Houston could explain part of the trend of wetland degradation that has been observed since the 1950’s.

Government Policy and Public Awareness – Istanbul In Istanbul, the relationship between the government and environmental groups is more complicated than in the Houston region. While visiting Istanbul, it was observed that the term “crazy projects” was frequently used to describe large infrastructure projects being spearheaded by the central government. These projects included a third bridge across the Bosporus (being constructed currently), a third airport for the city (early in construction period), and a second canal through the city (still in development phase). These projects in some way characterize the priorities of the central government, and represent a desire for continued urban expansion and development. This desire is by no means unwarranted, as the city of Istanbul continues to grow rapidly each year. Rapid population growth and economic development have resulted in a significant increase in car usage and reliance on Istanbul’s transportation infrastructure. Currently, more than 1.3 million vehicles drive through the city every day, placing strain on the two bridges that convey traffic across the Bosporus Strait.

Projections estimate that 4.2 million vehicles will utilize the Istanbul transportation system by 2023 (Environmental and Social Impact Assessment, 2011), which demonstrates the need for an expansion of the transportation network.

However, many of these infrastructure projects will cause detrimental environmental effects to wetlands in the outlying areas of the city. For example, the site of the third airport is currently home to many small lakes and ponds that make up nearly 660 hectares of wetland space (Bayradkar & Durmaz, 2014). These wetlands are vital resting stops for migratory birds that fly through this region from across the Bosporus. Without this critical habitat space, it is 11 | P a g e

estimated that many birds will perish, and the rich biodiversity of this region will be lost.

Furthermore, these wetlands and the streams emanating from them serve as important recharge sources for Lake Terkos, which provides 22% of drinking water for the city of Istanbul (Bayradkar & Durmaz, 2014). Draining of these wetlands could cause water shortage problems in the future. Another so called “crazy project” is the Canal Project, which would cut another sea route through the outside of the city to connect the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara.

While it is true that ship traffic has greatly increased through the Bosporus in the past several years, this canal would have irreversible negative impacts on the wetlands of the Istanbul region. The Kucukcekmece Lake and the Buyukcekmece Lake are located in the southern part of Istanbul and near the projected route of the canal. These two lakes are important ecological assets, and had previously been designated as protected areas. These two lakes would be completely destroyed during the construction of the canal. The wetlands along the banks of these lake not only serve ecological functions, but also hold significant heritage and cultural value. The Kucukcekmece Lake has several cave settlements and lighthouse ruins along its banks that date back several hundred years. These ruins hold important cultural significance.

In response to the announcement and construction of these “crazy projects” there has been a backlash by some members of the public. Notably, during a conference with several government officials from Sariyer, one of the northern municipalities of Istanbul, the deputy mayor (Sevgi Atalay) voiced concerns about the forested wetlands of Sariyer being destroyed by the third Bosporus Bridge. The deputy mayor stated that the forested areas of the municipality are considered valuable by the local government, and that the municipal government opposed the construction of the third bridge. According to the deputy mayor Sevgi Atalay, Sariyer has the largest forested area of any municipality, and the public utilizes this area for picnicking, jogging, and other recreational activities One professor at Koc University in Istanbul (who spoke on the condition of anonymity) explained that many environmental movements – especially in regards to wetland preservation – occur at the grassroots level since public officials often are hesitant to speak against the policies/actions of the central government. This theory was confirmed in some respects when one of the senior members of the Istanbul Policy Center, Dr. Korel Goymen, seemed hesitant to answer questions about the status of wetlands located at the site of the third Bosporus bridge.

On the other hand, environmental groups have been vocal and active in their calls for wetland protection. In response to the siting of the third airport, BirdLife International (an environmental NGO) organized a meeting in Istanbul to protest the construction of the airport, re-iterating the devastating effects its construction will have on migratory birds (Bayradkar & Durmaz, 2014). Other opposition voices have been published in popular news sources in Istanbul. For example, the Turkish paper Today’s Zaman has published many opinion pieces, blogs, and reports advocating wetland protection in Istanbul. In one article the paper states 12 | P a g e

that Turkey’s wetlands are “under an increasing threat from the destructive policies of the Justice and Development Party (AKP Party)” (Altintas, 2014).

Findings In both Houston and Istanbul wetlands provide valuable services to the urban population. These services differ in each city and have been valued and utilized in different ways through the 20th and 21st centuries. The degradation of wetlands that occurred in Houston throughout the 20th century demonstrates that Houston policy-makers had been greatly undervaluing these wetland services. By encouraging development of the coast and increasing the oil and gas activities in the area, decision-makers effectively sacrificed wetland space in favor of greater urbanization. This phenomenon is not unique, and has occurred in many growing cities across the globe. In many ways, the Houston urban space has been in conflict with the natural wetland space of the coast.

However, in the past couple decades the public and government have largely adopted a new mindset in regards to wetlands. Instead of viewing these natural spaces at odds with the urban environment, there has been a push to integrate the two spaces and allow each to benefit from the other. Restoration efforts of Galveston Bay marshes have aimed to revitalize the fishing industry of Houston, and have encouraged community involvement in wetland protection. Government funding has been made available to educate the public on the value and importance of these ecosystems, and state parks on the Bay have allowed wetlands to be utilized for recreational purposes. The research efforts being conducted on carbon sequestration in Gulf Coast marshes demonstrates a desire to understand the macroscopic benefits of wetlands. As more attention has been focused on cutting carbon emissions in urban areas, this type of research signifies another way that Houston can rely on its outlying wetlands.

While Houston’s environmental movement in regards to wetlands has largely occurred through a top-down approach – whereby large amounts of government funding have been made available to restore wetland sites – Istanbul’s environmental advocacy has occurred at the grassroots level. Given the tremendous growth experienced by the city of Istanbul and the resulting strain on the transportation systems from this boom in population, it is justified that the government has made large infrastructure projects a top priority. In fact, many journalists and government officials have begun using the term “crazy projects” to describe these large infrastructure endeavors. However, many advocacy groups and academics are seeking ways to reconcile urban expansion and development with natural ecosystem preservation. The use of wetlands for water purification purposes has been extensively researched in Istanbul, and could provide a natural alternative to conventional wastewater treatment methods. This potential is starting to be realized by academics and government agencies – the wetland pilot study referred to above was funded by an Istanbul municipal agency. Recognizing the water 13 | P a g e

treatment value of wetlands in Istanbul by academics and municipal policy-makers is the first step toward more comprehensive wetland protection.

Migratory bird habitat is another issue of importance in Istanbul. Many groups within the city are becoming more aware of the threat to migratory birds and the habitat value that freshwater wetlands have. The activities of BirdLife International aim to educate Istanbul residents about the rich biodiversity of the city, and many articles published in papers like Today’s Zaman call for the recognition of Turkey as a globally important biodiversity hotspot.

Opponents to the third airport and Canal Project have placed large emphasis on the potential deaths of thousands of migratory birds. These efforts exemplify the nature of many grassroots movements that aim to preserve the natural landscape of Istanbul. In addition, the public interacts with wetlands in several different ways. Bird tours of Turkey are popular, and Ms. Atalay of the Sariyer municipality explained that picnicking near wetlands and marshes is common among Istanbul residents. Viewed holistically, it can be seen that many groups within the city share a vision for Istanbul that encompasses both urban areas and outlying natural ecosystems.

Conclusions This paper has investigated the wetland ecosystem services potential in outlying areas of Houston and Istanbul. This research has aimed to understand what functions these wetlands serve, and investigate on-going preservation initiatives in both cities. In Houston, wetlands provide a multitude of services including carbon sequestration benefits, and nursery habitat for juvenile shrimp and crab. In Istanbul, wetlands are able to treat polluted urban storm runoff, and serve as vital resting stops for traveling migratory birds. The analysis of academic literature conducted in this paper has demonstrated the high value of these services to both cities, and has explained the need for conservation actions. Specific environmental initiatives in both city have been investigated, and it has been found that while Houston environmental remediation often occurs in a top-down manner, in Istanbul the bulk of the environmental advocacy starts at the grassroots level. By characterizing the nature of environmental action in each city, one can understand how the public in each respective city values wetlands. This research is important for the future of wetland conservation since it investigates not only the progress that as already been made, but also highlights areas in which both cities can continue to make progress in subsequent years.

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Dahl, T. E., & Stedman, S. M. (2013). Status and trends of wetlands in the coastal watersheds of the Conterminous United States 2004 to 2009. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, 46 Engle, V. D. (2011). Estimating the Provision of Ecosystem Services by Gulf of Mexico Coastal Wetlands. US Government.

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Wetlands Restoration, Galveston Bay Foundation, n.d. Web. 1 April 2015. http://galvbay.org/how-we-protect-the-bay/on-the-ground/wetlandsrestoration/ White, W. A., Tremblay, T. A., Waldinger, R. L., & Calnan, T. R. (2004). Status and Trends of Wetland and Aquatic Habitats on Barrier Islands, Upper Texas Coast, Galveston and Christmas Bays, Coastal Coordination Council, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

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