WHAT SHAPES VALUE—A CONSIDERATION OF THE VALUE OF ARTWORKS BASED ON JADE

WHAT SHAPES VALUE A CONSIDERATION OF THE VALUE OF ARTWORKS BASED ON JADE

C.H.S · DISSERTATION · 2020 LU ZHANG

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CONTENTS

WHAT SHAPES VALUE

Abstract

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1. The Existence of Artwork as Art

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2. The Discussion on Factors Influencing the Value Assessment of Artworks

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2.1. The Commodity Value of Artworks Endowed by Market

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2.2. The Internal Value of Artworks

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2.3. The Spiritual Value Endowed by Non-material Factors

A CONSIDERATION OF THE VALUE OF ARTWORKS BASED ON JADE

3. The Discussion on the Differences of the Value Assessment of Artworks

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3.1. The Differences in Value Assessment of Artworks Between East and West

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3.2. The Differences in Chinese Value Assessment of Artworks in Different

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RCA LU ZHANG

Historical Periods

Conclution

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List of Illustrations

26

Bibliography

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P. 4 2 Figure 1:

·The Jade Mined in Hpakant ·Photograph: The Washington Post/Getty Images ·Source: <https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2019/feb/25/deadly-landslidesdrug-addiction-myanmar-toxic-jade-trade> A jade trader in Myanmar’s Kachin state displays a selection of stones for sale. ​

1. The Existence of Artwork as Art The Neolithic Jade Cong1, which was unearthed in Yuhang County, China in 1986, was auctioned at a whopping price of RMB 109,020,000 (approximately US$15,403,527) just when China art market was beginning to flourish in early 21st century, and was listed as the 14th among the 67 pieces of Chinese national treasures that are not allowed to exhibit abroad. The news became viral in public discussion. People could not help asking, why that "stone" is worth so much money? Does it demonstrate superior artistic skills and rich aesthetic taste, or does it carry new cultural ideas, or is it a witness to a certain historical node? As a type of artwork that was originated in Asia, and especially China, jade crafts has often been auctioned at remarkable prices that constantly refresh people’s perception of the value of important art pieces. But what do the numbers reflect? Is it the true value of the artwork or the price of "commodity"? For a long time, under the influence of

Key Words: Value; Art; Artwork; Jade.

mainstream social culture and personal subjective preferences, the public often did not delve into these questions, which undoubtedly brought some obstacles to the valuation of artworks. Therefore, before discussing the value assessment of artworks, it is necessary to sort out what the existence of artworks means.

Abstract This paper examines jade as a form of artwork. The core theme of the discussion is around value assessment of

Figure 2:

·Jade Cong King ·Height: 8.8cm, diameter: 17.1~17.6cm, weight: 6,500gram, inner hole diameter: 4.9cm ·Dated to: 3,300~2,250B.C., Neolithic Period ·Unearthed: 1986, Fanshan, Yuhang, Zhejiang ·Culture: Liangzhu Culture ·Current Location: Zhejiang Museum ·Source: <https://chinablog.cc/jade-cong-kinga-tribute-to-mother-earth/>

artworks. However, in reality of value assessment, it is difficult to completely separate artworks from commodities, and in many cases, artworks are even sold as commodities with marketed prices. Contemporarily, the boundary between artworks and commodities is often blurred. Therefore, it is Acknowledging the commercial worthiness of art does not

Art is an ideology that uses images and abstract carriers to reflect the feelings of reality and

necessarily mean denying its aesthetic, cultural or social

summarize the reality (Xu, 2008). In Hegel's classical aesthetic theory, art is a spiritual activity in

values and functions. In a world where pragmatism is

which universal ideas and individual perceptual images are united by contradictory opposition (Zhu,

dominant, one of the most challenging questions in modern

1956). Therefore, artwork is the product and object of artistic activity, and the purposeful product

art theory is probably this: how to assess the value of

of the artist. American philosopher Gene Blocker (1980) called artists’ ideas and emotions as

aesthetic cultural products from the perspective of art? From

"intentions", and believed that artworks, as a kind of man-made objects, were produced by people’s

ancient Greece to the present day, most philosophy of art

special desires to express. That is to say, an artwork is a valuable carrier of the artists’ ideal. In

is sufficient in discussing the attributes and concepts of art.

However, when assessing the value of jade, there is usually a lack of consent standards and leads to ambiguity. This essay proposes a framework to examine the internal and external values of jade.

this way, artwork naturally equips rarity and weak substitutability, which is in line with the public's realisation of artistic characteristics. Kandinsky (2007) believes that the definition of artwork includes both internal and external aspects, but with an emphasis on the internal value. The internal aspect of an artwork is its artistic value, which makes it inappropriate to measure solely by its price tag.

1

Cong is a form of ancient Chinese jade artifact. It was later also used in ceramics.

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

necessary to understand and define art in a broad sense.

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especially China, jade crafts often been auctioned at remarkable prices constantly refresh Although most artworks wouldhas have a certain price defined by the market at athat particular place and people’s perception of the value of important art pieces. But what do the numbers reflect? Is it time, the price tags often fail to reflect their internal artistic value truthfully. This dilemma implicates the true value of the artwork or the price of "commodity"? For a long time, under the influence of that the embodiment of the marketed artwork is indeed, a form of art. mainstream social culture and personal subjective preferences, the public often did not delve into these questions, which undoubtedly brought some obstacles to the valuation of artworks. Therefore, However, an artwork is not inherently art. In other words, people do not necessarily regard it as "art" before discussing the value assessment of artworks, it is necessary to sort out what the existence of at the point of its creation (manufacturing), but more likely as an instrument, a symbol, or pointing to artworks means. a certain purpose. This phenomenon especially occurred in early human civilization. In China, Jade 2 1

has a long history of existence as a kind of “artwork”. Yuejueshu , one of the earliest local history 3 2

note, described the evolution of ancient Chinese history as a transformation from Shennong to the 4 3

5 4

However, there is also a difference between the ancient and modern theories on the definition of artworks. For example, Aristotle’s "Technology Theory" defines art from the perspective of art production technology. Hegel’s "Perceptual Appearance of Ideas" defines art from the perspective of knowledge production. Tolstoy's "Emotion Theory" (Rhetoric) defines art from the perspective of artistic expression. The value of art is subject to the evaluators, communication networks, and knowledge. Under the influence of multiple differences, disputes are inevitable. However, there is no need to unify people's artistic concepts forcibly because people will subconsciously notice the most supported notions from the mainstream values. This is one of the principles of popular psychology (Le Bon, 1897). Differentiated attempts under a coherent set of artistic values are often the driving

Yellow Emperor , and to Xiayu , which corresponds to the evolution of tools, evolving from stone to

forces for art creation and exploration; widely accepted perceptions about art values can only be

jade, and to bronze. In fact, jade was merely used as a sacrificial vessel in ancient funerals, and it

established through reasonable communications that are guided by certain principles.

reflected more of a religious and theological value. Since then, jade in China has gone through the three stages of development, namely, theocracy, monarchy, and mass consumption (Zhu, 2008).

Not only does the functionality of jade changed over the years, the valuation prospects of jade has also changed, adding artistic, cultural, historical, economic and social themes into the value system.

2. The Discussion on Factors Influencing the Value Assessment of Artworks 2.1. The Commodity Value of Artworks Endowed by Market In Concerning the Spiritual in Art, Kandinsky (2007) defines three types of painting, namely

An artwork has distinct characteristics of times and social hierarchy (Chang, 2013). The process

impressions, improvisations and compositions, and argues that any authentic art is created from “an

by which an artwork acquires artistic attributes is a gradual process in which its functions are

internal necessity”, which, for him, is the principle of art that connects artists’ emotions and viewpoint

developed, which mainly depends on human behaviour, psychology and social environment.

of the ‘external reality’ to the viewers. That is to say, works of art includes both internal and external

During this process, artworks exhibit a certain “function”, which is less of the practicality of ordinary

aspects. As such, although value assessment of artworks as commodities is out of a financial rather

commodities, but more of the artistic aesthetic experience hidden behind the artwork. Through

than an aesthetic concern, subjective views of cultural, historical and social value play a significant

the lens of a viewer, the artwork is somehow capable of transforming substances into spirits

part as well.

accompanying the action of the human brain. When the value of this "function" is recognised “consensus” needs to be reached, that is, a certain group of people affirm a certain amount of value of the “artwork”. Only in this way can we establish a common base for the evaluation of artistic value.

Another premise of value assessment of artworks is the speculation of artistic concepts. Everyone has their own standards for the value of everything, and so does the assessment of artistic value.

Arguably, everyone establishes his or her own measurement standards with a variation, and such standards is often based on group social consciousness, which is influenced by the general environment. Most work that is not clearly regulated by laws and standards is completed upon general ethical standards that would benefit almost everyone. This is similar to the public process of assessing value in art.

2 Yuejueshu, "End of the kingdom of Yue" is a history of the regional state of Yue during the Eastern Zhou period (770-221 BCE).

3 Shennong is a mythological Chinese and Vietnamese deity in Chinese and Vietnamese folk religion and venerated as a mythical sage ruler of prehistoric China and Vietnam.

4 Yellow Emperor(Huangdi) was prominent in the late Warring States and early Han dynasty, when he was portrayed as the originator of the centralized state, as a cosmic ruler, and as a patron of esoteric arts.

5 Xia Yu is the leader of Xia people, xia dynasty founding king. Historical water celebrity. Yu was the great-great-grandson of the Yellow Emperor.

Before discussing the internal artistic value, what cannot be ignored is the external materiality of the artwork, and the material value is endowed by the consumer market and embodied by the use value and economic value (Hu, 2008). This theory implies largely that artworks and commodities have some similar attributes.

In the article Wage Labor and Capital (1902), Marx suggests that products that can be exchanged with others are all commodities. From this point of view, to determine whether a work of art is a commodity is to see if it is exchangeable, and if its production purpose is to exchange with other goods or currency. At present, most works of art participate in the circulation and exchange of social commodities. In other words, people would like to exchange their labour outcomes with others or pay for "beauty" in the market. Of course, some precious artworks are preserved or displayed in museums and other institutions, and cannot participate in market exchange activities. However, it is obvious that art valuation also serves its purpose for collateral estate valuations, charitable contributions, tax planning, insurance, preservation, etc. Being traded or not, the economic value of these artworks is highly appraised by the market. They have a value storage feature similar to currency, gold, and stocks. Once they appear in the market, they would still be used for exchange.

Therefore, one could argue that all artworks have a certain commodity attribute.

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

by certain groups, artworks can obtain artistic attributes (Nie, 1988). In this process, a certain

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What Shapes Value

The premise of the existence of a commodity is that it is useful to people, that is, it has a certain use

speculation (Chang, 2013; Goldhaber, 1997). Like all tradable commodities, the financial value of

value (Max, 1902). On the one hand, the use value of art commodities is embodied in its practical

artworks is also affected by supply and demand, and it almost always fluctuates around the market

function, serving decorative demands and daily usage. On the other hand, they can satisfy people's

reality and economic environment (Ashenfelter and Graddy, 2003). However, what is special about

spiritual needs. For example, a high-foot jade cup on a copper tray unearthed from the Tomb of

artworks is that there is often a mismatch between the buying price and its true value as an item,

6

the King Nanyue1 is composed of a copper tray, a bracket, and a high-foot jade cup. This jade cup 7 2

whereas the price of a commodity is often similar to its worthiness (Mankiw, 2014). This may be

would have been used as a container for liquid during the Warring States Period , like holding wine

explained by Kandinsky’s artistic theory (Kandinsky, 2012), which reads art as something that is

or drinking water. At present, it plays a more important role in recording history and culture, and

created based on unlimited imagination in an artistically visual manner. By contrast, commodities

can satisfy people's aesthetic needs for jade. Nowadays people use jade cups ofneeds wine, for andjade. this can few satisfy people's aesthetic

like products and crafts are made to serve a particular need at a particular time (Campbell, 2005).

Nowadays few people use jade of wine, jade cup of the Warring States Period no longer performs its practical functions, but itcups still has both

As such, artists would create a progressing value in which what was odd or inconceivable yesterday

practical functions and spiritual satisfaction functions.and this jade cup of the Warring States Period

might be commonplace today (Kandinsky, 2012). When creating art, whether an artist adheres

no longer performs its practical functions, but

to or deviates from the contemporary ideas, culture, and aesthetics, the ultimate drive is to offer

it still has both practical functions and spiritual

a reflection of the reality (of yesterday, today or tomorrow) and a way of seeing and experiencing

satisfaction functions.

the world (Ghiselin, 1985). As circumstances change and society penetrates and proceed into the

Figure 3:

·Copper Bearing Plate With High Foot Jade Cup ·High: 17 cm, Wide: 23.6 cm ·Dated to: The Warring States Period. ·Unearthed: Tomb of King Nanyue, Guangzhou city, Guangdong Province ·Current Location: The Western Han Dynasty Nanyue Museum in Guangzhou, China ·Source: <https://www.sohu.com/a/301474988_99907217>

future, a price-value misplacement would inevitably happen to artworks, especially the ones that are bold enough to challenge contemporary aesthetics (Heinich, 1991). Also, while the processed resources (e.g., raw material, energy) and the processing resources (e.g., labour inputs) are obviously calculated into the selling price of ordinary commodities, the tangibles (e.g., paint, canvas) and intangibles (e.g., talent, time) of artworks are often neglected on pricing (Higgins and Scholer, 2009).

However, the expression of the use value of artworks is different from general commodities.

The usage of general commodities is relatively stable according to their lifecycles, branding and

Another difference between artworks and commodity is the concern over the social macroeconomic

marketing attributes. In contrast, the use of an artwork is subjective to the its possessor as it calls

environment, art investment only appear when GDP per capita reaches $5,000, and when GDP per

for an emotional or spiritual feedback. In this sense, the usage of works of art needs a reproductive

capita reaches $9,000, art investment and trading becomes popular (Wang, Chen; 2017). As socio-

process from its recipients. Once created, generations of possessors would contribute their time

economic status progress, society would gradually shift from purely pursuing material foundations to

for collection, preservation, even modification, which would install certain tangible (physical) and

superstructures, and is willing to pay more capital and energy to invest in culture and art (McLeod,

intangible (emotional) assets to the original artwork.

2007). According to Maslow's (1987) hierarchy of needs theory81, the aesthetic needs of artworks belong to the category of self-realization needs, so the pursuit of artworks must be based on

In this essay, jade is read as an artwork that is different from whatever is shown as an intuitive visual

people's economic conditions.

(fiction, poetry, music, etc.).

Another factor affecting the unique feature of economic value of artworks can be found in the conspicuous consumption. American sociologist Veblen (1973) pointed out in The Theory of

The material properties of artworks are mainly reflected by their economic value, which is

The Leisure Class that in any highly organized industrial society, the final evaluation criterion of

determined by the market. The market’s judgment on the value of artworks is probably affected by

honour is always money power and the performance of money power, so that the methods to

five factors: economic development, social culture, supply and demand, social hot spots, and capital

obtain or maintain honour is to spend on leisure or waste money. This “Veblen Effect29” triggers the

6 Nanyue, also called Southern Yue or Nam Viet, was an ancient kingdom that covered the modern Chinese subdivisions of Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Hong Kong, and Macau, as well as parts of southern Fujian and northern Vietnam.

7 The Warring States period was an era in ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the Qin wars of conquest that saw the annexation of all other contender states, which ultimately led to the Qin state's victory in 221 BC as the first unified Chinese empire, known as the Qin dynasty.

8 Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.

9 Abnormal market behavior where consumers purchase the higher-priced goods whereas similar low-priced (but not identical) substitutes are available. It is caused either by the belief that higher price means higher quality, or by the desire for conspicuous consumption (to be seen as buying an expensive, prestige item). Named after its discoverer, the US social-critic Thorstein Bunde Veblen (1857-1929).

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

image (painting, plastic art, stage art, film and television, etc.), a literary image or an auditory image

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What Shapes Value

conspicuous consumption of artworks, especially when it comes to jade. Even when jade was used

activities, such as performance arts (Cartelier, 1991). The reason why Marx classified art products

as a pure functional object as wine holders, it was more precious than other materials like metal

into the field of non-material production is not to deny the materiality of such products, but to

or stone because its rareness, frailness and beauty (Barnes, 2018). Throughout Asia’s long and

emphasize that it is not just a product that meets people's physical needs.

monarchical history, the pursue of jade has always been exclusively a high-class activity, a high-risk and high-return investment, and a way of showing off the possessors’ wealth (Laufer, 1912). While the market and social capital highly praised jade, few purchases were made purely based on the sheer appreciation of the stone or the craftsmanship (Rawson, 1995). This behaviour can be read 1 as a herd pursuit of market hype. Various historical notes cited jade gambling10 as an so-called “art

investment”, which implicitly say that people who purchase them are more obsessed with vanity meanings of jade.

As mentioned before, apart from the external materiality of the artwork, it also has internal mental value in itself, which mainly comes from the expression medium (material) and expression method (the artist's artistic attainments and expression techniques) of the artwork. The internal value of an artwork is a combination of acts including creativity, material selection, conception, artistic refinement, image shaping, conveying emotions, structural works, working skills and so on. All art, no matter the labour is simple or complex, is the result of artistic labour and reflects the artistic creation process of the artist (brain and physical works). Even the most simplistic works of art works that are purely natural-based, such as picked up stones or tree roots, still require the labour process of art; that is, a unique artistic discovery.

In terms of production creation, the artwork is not industrialized and standardized like massproduced product. It is an individualized and staged product from artists, an explosion of instant inspiration, and also a concentrated expression of personal aesthetics and artistic expression skills.

The creation of an artwork can be influenced by geographies, nationalities, timing in art history as well as in artists’ career, and even different emotions of the same artist at the same moment in artists’ career, resulting in the uniqueness and irreplaceability of the artwork. Therefore, the internal value of an artwork is often unique and only subject to the viewer himself to decide. In a sense, the internal value of the artwork itself is not only its artistic value but also the attention that the artwork can attract, and the uniqueness is one of the most important factors that makes the artwork different and attractive. This helps explain why some artists’ works are currently overpriced in the art market.

Therefore, the uniqueness and attractiveness of an artwork itself also reflects its internal value.

Figure 4:

·Jade Gambling ·Source: https://image.baidu.com/ ·Reference: <http://english.cctv.com/program/e_documentary/series/06/index.shtml>

In comparisons with other art pieces, jade is special because of its complex nature. On the one hand, the physicality of jade as a natural material and the hardness of collection process jointly made it a unique gemstone (Gump, 1962). Jade is made from the mining of raw jade stones. This is an inherently difficult process, and is often environmentally unfriendly and hazardous to the miners.

2.2. The Internal Value of Artworks

70% of world’s supplies (Brett, 2020). Hpakant is the largest region of jade mining in Myanmar because of the high quality of raw jade stones, in regards to its beautiful colour, flawless, and hard

In Marx's Theory of Surplus Value, art products are divided into two categories: One type has a

texture. Also, the exploiters especially enjoys the relatively cheap labour and convenient location

form that is independent of producers and consumers, so it can exist for a period of time between

near the largest market of Yunnan in China. However, due to restrictions in technology, terrain,

production and consumption, and can be circulated as a saleable commodity in the market during

environment, mining machines and other reasons, the mining of jade in Myanmar is extremely

this period, such as books, paintings, and everything else that can exist separately from the artist's

dangerous. In Hpakant alone, a couple hundred of miners would lose their lives because of mine

artistic activities. The other is artistic works whose products cannot be separated from production

collapse and other accidents (Reuters, 2020). These accidents are largely related to landslides and

10 Jade Gambling (Stone Gambling; Gambling Rocks) is a term used in the jewelry industry to refer to the fact that when the jadeite is mined, there is a layer of weathered skin wrapped around it, and it is impossible to know whether it is good or bad inside, and it must be cut to know the quality of the jadeite.

mudslides caused by jade mining. In addition, jade mining has also resulted in problems such as soil erosion, vegetation destruction, forest decline, and land desertification.

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

The most typical example is the industry of jadeite in Myanmar, which accordingly contributes to

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What Shapes Value

Because of high incentives of financial rewards, villagers from low socio-economic background

Figure 6: ·Jade Trade in Hpakant, Myanmar

would still join as freelance “jade pickers” who scour the residue from mining for gemstones that are

·Mediation: Collage

ignored by large operators. After all, one good piece of jade could worth tens of thousands of dollars

·Source: <https://www.google.com/maps>

on the black market, which could transform their lives. However, this is by no means to say that

·Nov 2019 <https://www.pinterest.co.uk/>

all the jade that was collected in such a way is artistically satisfactory in the eyes of jade crafters

The terrain of the jade mining area in Hpakant is steep.

and artists. Quite the contrary, a very few percentages of these raw stones would be passed as

serious and the soil is loose. Most of the jade mined

gemstones (Walker, 1991).

Province, Chinese. However, because of the high profit

Due to the jade mining, the local soil erosion is very there will be exported to the neighbouring Yunnan of jade, there is also smuggling phenomenon.

On the other hand, the technics involved in re-creating jade as an art form is severely challenging, which would add its internal values. Similar to other gemstones, the process involves a complicated mix of cutting, polishing, design and carving the raw stones, and there may be high risks of failure during these processes. Because gemmologists struggle to give a universal definition to jade traits, there is perhaps no such a thing as a worldly accepted system of valuation to jade (Jacobs, 2012).

However, it was generally agreed that the final product must reflect the contingency and uniqueness of the raw stone in terms of its colour, shape, texture and feature (Martin et al., 2006). Therefore, the

Figure 5: ·Jade Processing ·Taken in London, United Kingdom, 21.03.2020 There are an original jade, a polished jade and a jade necklace on the photo. I collected them from a jade mining place (Tai’an City, shandong province, China) in early 2020. These three pieces record the processing of the jade. The color, pattern and shape of every jade are unique, which requires craftsmen to have high processing technology and to creat according to the conditions of the jade stone.

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

process of jade recreation is a highly selective and time-consuming process.

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What Shapes Value

Figure 7: · J a d e C o m m o d i t y Ch a in o f Myanmar ·Mediation: Collage ·Nov 2019 ·Source: <https://theaseanpost. com/article/myanmars-deadlyjade-mining>

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

The background photo is a mining site in Hpakant, Myanmar. Testimonies heard by the Guardian reveal a deadly environment where lethal landslides and equipment failures strike regularly, in an industry with a history of human rights abuses, corruption and environmental destruction. Conditions in the country’s jade trade – estimated to be worth more than $30bn (£23bn) a year – are notoriously treacherous for the estimated 300,000 migrant labourers at the Hpakant mines, claiming scores of lives every year.

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What Shapes Value Putting Gender and Migration in the Frame

Figure 8: · Land Change / Deforestation of Hpakant, Myanmar (2004-2020) ·Source: <https://www.gscloud.cn/>

Figure 5: ·Three Migrant Women in My Fieldwork · Ta k e n i n t h e u r b a n villages in Tianhe District, Guangzhou, China ·05.06.2020-13.06.2020. * Please check this link to get more details:

Figure 9: · The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) of Hpakant, Myanmar (2000-2020) ·Calculated via QGIS3.10 (Jan 2020) ·Source: <https://www.gscloud.cn/> NDVI is a simple graphical indicator that can be used to analyze remote sensing measurements, often from a space platform, assessing whether or not the target being observed contains live green vegetation.Hpakant is the largest jade mining area in the world, where has prominent social and environmental problems caused by jade mining. In the figure, different colors reflect different vegetation growth conditions. The greener the color, the higher the vegetation density and the white areas reflect lower vegetation density, which also shows the health situation of Hpakant.

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

https://glxzhng.wixsite. com/sheisinurbanvillage/ occupants

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What Shapes Value

2.3. The Spiritual Value Endowed by Non-material Factors The philosophical and cultural values of jade across different civilisations have made it a unique gemstone, which was regarded as the “imperial gem” that was used to create utilitarian and ceremonial objects from Chinese dynasties to the present (Martin, 2007). As an object that has been designed specifically for its aesthetic appeal and decorative meanings, artworks in general would stimulate a spiritual resonance to its viewers. The spiritual stimulations mainly involve history, culture, belief, and aesthetics factors, which are only subjective to the viewers, and they can rarely be affected by the market. However, spiritual values might evolve as a result of society progression and overall value system changes.

The research of the spiritual value of artworks is worth referring to the word "Aura", which is the core concept in Benjamin's the work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction (2008). "Aura" can be interpreted as authenticity, sense of distance and worship value.

Here, authenticity simply refers to the uniqueness and originality of the artwork, and is a prerequisite for deciding the other two. The existence of authenticity creates a sense of distance, which includes spatial distance and psychological distance. For example, the difficulty of mining and processing of jade resulted in a strong sense of spatial distance; in ancient times, jade’s noble status (in the early days, as the carrier of theocracy and imperial power, jade was inaccessible to the general public) resulted in its strong psychological distance. Under the combined effect of spatial distancing and psychological distancing, the public's sense of worship for artworks is enhanced.

In recent studies of art philosophy, it has become a trend to distinguish artistic and aesthetic value of works of art (Stecker, 2012). As noted earlier, art pieces are assumed to be able to naturally produce aesthetically valuable experience for people who look at them (see Beardsley). Indeed, in the early art forms, a drive for beauty seems to be the common theme in any artistic creations across various cultures. Often religiously related, such art pieces were created to represent a sacred ideal to the public, so that they could have an object for adoration or veneration. However, as art forms diversified, especially in the modern era where different approaches and philosophies performance art, and other post-modern movements (Stecker, 2012). It would be overly simplistic to call these art forms as un-aesthetic, as they would attract certain aesthetic interest as valuable appreciations. In fact, it seems that artistic movements towards a certain possibility would attract Figure 10: · Overlaying of NDVI

worshipers just as what previous art forms did.

·Calculated via QGIS3.10 ·Taken in London, United Kingdom, 19.02.2020 ·Source: <https://www.gscloud.cn/> I printed the NDVI of Hpakant from 2000-2020 on clear acrylic panels and then overlaid them. I set green as the color to express NDVI, which is very similar to the texture of jade. By overlaying the 20 transparent panels, how the vegetation has changed over the last 20 years is shown. And coincidentally it's even more similar to jade. It's an interesting medium to express the correlation.

The changes in social cultural trends and the different preferences of consumers' artistic appreciation would create an instrumental value that is recognised by the market. The reason for this is that art is sometimes created out of a sudden impulse or intention, and sometimes out of

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

become a trend, anti-aesthetic art started emerge, beginning with Dada, furthering in conceptual art,

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What Shapes Value

sheer emotions without an apparent reason. The influence from society and culture would give art

concept that people long for and pursue. If the context is changed to a western country, the jade

many new connotations or interpretations, which may well be different from the original ideal of the

is generally not associated with the words "perfect", "precious", and "flawless", and may only

artist. Especially in a society with a free and open cultural atmosphere, this uncontrollable non-

be regarded as a cultural product of the orient. In fact, China is not the only country with a jade

material environment will affect the public to generate new spiritual cognition and consumer demand

culture. Recent evidences show that Jade was found and physically used in three parts of the

for an artwork.

world: the Chinese in East Asia, Indians in Central America, and Maori in New Zealand. It can be seen that jade has a certain developing potential in the East and West. However, in the subsequent

In religion and theology, worship is the act out of respect or fear of mysterious things. When a type

development process, only Chinese still keep a passion for appreciating jade continued to the

of art or a certain artwork artificially links to spiritual beliefs (religion, spirit, culture, concept, group),

present, and even create a profound research system. Therefore, jade still occupies an important

it seems to obtain a "halo," a worship (spiritual) value that transcends the inherent aesthetic value

position in China's art capital market nowadays. The main reason for this difference in artistic values

of art. Especially for regions that value religious beliefs or spiritual civilization, it is more likely that

between China and the West is not only that the Chinese highly recognize the economic value of

external factors endow artworks with higher worship (spiritual) value.

jade, but also the Chinese attach its great importance to the cultural value of jade. As mentioned before, the main components of a value system of artworks (art, culture, history, economics, social

For jade, it has three levels of worship (spiritual) value: theocracy and imperial power as a historical

value, etc.), in a sense, is more determined by its cultural differences.

factor, the craftsman spirit contained in making, and the worship value that jade is regarded as the carrier of culture. Translucent yet tough, ancient Chinese have given jade a set of metaphoric

The West and the East showed different recognition towards jade, both as a material and as works

meaning of “Buddhistic”, “pure”, “integrity” and “royal”. They were worked into everyday objects,

of art. For over seven thousand years, jade has been prized by the Asians (mainly the Chinese) as

including ornaments, ceremonial weapons and ritual objects, by generations of Chinese craftsmen,

the single most precious of all materials, and has been awarded many layers of spiritual properties.

so that they can be gifted in the highest order. However, the worship value of jade as a manifestation of national spirit has gradually changed along with time, and this issue will be discussed in detail later in 3.2.

Its enduring and timeless surface was linked with immortality, while the making of it into art pieces represented objects that contains a pinnacle of simplicity and elegance. As noted by Rawson (1995), since the Neolithic to the Qing, jade has been exclusively possessed by the royal and nobles and hence it was among the most worship-able materials for crafts and art in China. Similarly, jade took

Since China started the mining and utilization of jade back in 5000 BC, jade culture has taken root firmly in China, and the pursuit of jade in China has continued to this day. Jade as a work of art with strong regional, national and historical characteristics has been celebrated throughout time and space. On the one hand, due to the differences in local geography, culture, market, aesthetics and other factors in different regions, there are distinct differences in the value assessment of jade.

On the other hand, even in the same region, the factors that affect the value assessment of jade would evolve from time to time. This has resulted in a sharp difference in the value assessment of jade in different historical periods even in the same region. Therefore, comparing the differences between Chinese and Western artistic value orientations and the changes in Chinese artistic value orientations in different periods have become very interesting and attractive when taking jade as an example to discuss the value judgment of artworks.

great importance across Korea and Japan, where the influence of ancient China was prominent, and in India, where jade was recreated as items to serve religious purposes (Gump, 1962).

However, the presence and appreciation for jade is much less significant in the West. The English word jade is derived from Spanish term Piedra de ijada, which means “lion stone”, capturing its renown efficacy in treating diseases of the lions and kidneys (Easby, 1968). In other words, the meaning of jade seems to be completely unitarian as seen in its name. Indeed, Nephrite jade has been used in New Zealand and pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, but merely as a material for utilitarian tools, weapons, or symbolic figurines. In other western culture, jade has been absent unless it was introduced by the Chinese settlers (as in Canada).

This difference might be linked with different notions of heaven. In Asia, where the king was deified with God-given power, people seemed to believe jade as a gift or a symbol from heaven to the king.

For example, in the Shang Dynasty, jade began to be celebrated as a symbol of royalty (In ancient

3.1. Differences in the Assessment of Artistic Value Between the East and the West In Asia, when referring to jade, it is generally described as a symbol of perfection. This is often a

Chinese, jade and king shared the same spelling), and most of jade was made as Li vessels ("Li" stands for rank) for sacrificial ceremonies.

P. 19

A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

3. Discussion on the Difference of the Value Assessment of Artworks

P. 22

What Shapes Value

In the West, however, the worship of the sun has long existed. In the ancient values of the West,

In contrast, the West also has an appetite for

only solar energy could bring light to people, and gold, like the sun, emits mysterious light and

precious gems such as diamonds, rubies,

colours. They tend to believe that the shining gold is the incarnation of the sun. Therefore, the West

emeralds, etc, but this kind of gem culture is more

decorated the palace with precious gold, wore yellow robes and held gold sceptres (the golden rods

rational, focusing on its formative mechanism

1 are rarely used in China apart from Sanxingdui Ruins11 ).

and structural beauty, which is a more logical and materialistic thinking, a less image imaginary and more scientific exploration, and a less humanly intervened understanding. In other words, the

Figure 11:

west would pay more attention to discover the

·Jade Gui Tablet ·Length: 24.6cm, Width: 7cm, Thickness: 1.2cm ·Dated to: BC2200-1900 ·Culture: Late Longshan Culture ·Current Location: Taipei's National Palace Museum ·Source: <https://theme.npm.edu.tw/selection/Article.aspx?sNo=04009159&lang=2>

crystal structure, internal structure, and material composition of these gems to understand nature and explore scientific knowledge from a natural and scientific perspective.

The jade Gui is the Li vessel used by the ancient emperors and vassals to engage in sacrificial rites and be buried. For Credit Suisse, elongated, top tip and bottom. Its Shape and size vary according to the owner's title and purpose.

Based on science and standards, the value of almost all kinds of gems and gold can be rationally tagged with a price, which is subjective Figure 12:

to the market. However, there is neither a fixed

·St Edward's Crown ·Length: 30 cm, Weighs 2.23 kg ·Dated to: 1661 ·Material: 22-carat gold ·Owner: Queen Elizabeth II in right of the Crown ·Source: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Edward%27s_Crown>

standard to assess the value of jade, nor a market mechanism that fluctuates accordingly. In Chinese culture, implicitness and humility (sometimes called a culture of moderation) are admired. Therefore,

St Edward's Crown is the centrepiece of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom.Named after Saint Edward the Confessor, it has been traditionally used to crown English and British monarchs at their coronations since the 13th century.

something that is precious are usually not defined by a specific price or standard to express the respect for it.

The Chinese and Western aesthetic concepts are also very different. In Chinese culture, aesthetic personality. The prerequisite for judging whether a thing is beautiful is to check whether it is kind, which means that Chinese aesthetic culture value morality, while Western aesthetics values authenticity (Lu, 1997). In this way, Chinese ancestors were accustomed to the way of thinking in giving virtue to objects.

In their language, Chinese people would think of the sign behind an object when they see it. For example, the word “ 美 ” (“beauty” in Chinese) written on oracle bone script is composed of “ 大 ” ("big") and “ 羊 ” ("sheep"), probably because Chinese ancestors believed that large sheep fitted their aesthetics as it is a good source for food.

11 Sanxingdui (Chinese: 三星堆 ; pinyin: Sānxīngduī; literally: 'three stars mound') is the name of an archaeological site and a major Bronze Age culture in modern Guanghan, Sichuan, China.

Figure 13: · Oracle Bone Script: “ 大 ” ("big" in Chinese), “ 羊 ” ("sheep" in Chinese) and two forms of “ 美 ” ("beauty" in Chinese) · Dated to: the late 2nd millennium BC · Reference: <http://m.kdnet.net/share-12481624. html> In ancient China, the word “ 美 ” (“beauty” in Chinese) written in oracle bone script is composed of “ 大 ” ("big / powerful") and “ 羊 ” ("sheep"), which Indicates that this word had two meanings originally: One referred to the fat sheep because sheep is important for human survival, and the fatter the sheep, the more they can meet people's needs; The other is specifically refers to the powerful chiefs or wizards which were called “ 大人 ” in Chinese. Therefore, in ancient China, the original meaning of “beauty” is formed by the combination of “sheep” and “big”, which indicates that the ancient Chinese people regarded something as beauty once it could satisfy some specific needs such as worship or appetite .

Today, the difference in the value assessment of jade between the East and the West can also be explained by the fact that society is composed of various social relationships. Marx (2009) claimed in Theses on Feuerbach that the nature of human beings is the sum of all social relations in reality. If there is no human or human knowledge, there is no concept of value. Divorced from the elements of society and people, all discussions on value would have been meaningless. Therefore, value only exists in human social relations. The analysis of value assessors must be carried out based on their social and cultural background.

P. 21

A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

art is not only to achieve the purpose of spiritual pleasure, but more like a way to cultivate a perfect

by individual positions in identity, politics, education, aesthetic ability, and beliefs, mainstream aesthetic values of society would still guide various social groups to reach a general consensus on the valuation of a certain artwork. Thus, the valuation of art works must take geography into consideration, as the consensus is socially and geographically shaped. This probably explains why jade is celebrated in one part of the world but almost neglected in another.

P. 24

What Shapes Value

Although the assessment of the same artwork by different groups will inevitably be influenced

jade. This contradictory process on the one hand reduces the uniqueness of mid-lower level of jade and reduces its value. On the other hand, it increases the cost of obtaining high-end jade, driving up the value of unique jade artworks and making it look even more “precious" and "perfect" than the past.

1 Next is about the worship value. According to the description of Zhou Li13 , jade played a key role

during the processes of the formation, evolution, interaction and unification of ancient Chinese ritual 3.2. The Differences in Chinese Value Assessment of Artworks in Different Historical Periods

system. As Ye (2014) pointed out, the unification of jade as ancient ritual tools laid the foundation for the unification of the Chinese nation. Jade was applied in the ancient rituals and formed a unity of

When analysing the development of Chinese jade culture and the value assessment of Chinese

witchcraft-jade-divinity-spirituality. Therefore, jade became the core of ancient Chinese culture and

people on jade from a perspective of time, the three elements of "Aura" have to be mentioned again:

became the triad of divinity, virtue, and beauty. Although divinity and virtue are internal, they must

authenticity, sense of distance and worship value. These three elements deeply reflect the changes

be reflected externally—that is, through the external beauty of jade. As a carrier of theocracy and

in the value assessment of jade in different historical periods in China.

imperial power in the early days, jade had the meaning of "concept" and "material" (Jiang, 2017), and these meanings would not be obliterated by the passage of time and the change of dynasties.

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty112, jade in China was no longer exclusive to theocratic power and imperial power but has gradually become a consumer product for the public. Rapid modernisation

The second layer of worship comes from the respect to artists who create and process jade. Apart

and technology advancements, accompanied by deregulations in the mining and trading process

from the artist’s creativity and techniques reflected in jade, society has also extended the craftsman

of the natural ore of jade, lead to mushroomed small and large producers as well as consumers

spirit contained in the jade creation process: dedication, precision and creativity. And the artist's

who see jade as an everyday decoration. Especially since the 1978 socio-economic reformation,

reputation and personal storytelling are also the factors that can increase the worship value of jade,

China has opened itself up for an industrial-led and manufacturing-based economy. As such, jade

which could sometimes be more important than the internal values of the jade itself. In addition,

However, differ to the crafts that are made of artificial glass, the production and processing of natural jade ore has always adhered to the principle of "creation based on the shape and colour of the material". The uniqueness and contingency in natural gems made jade, whether it was manufactured by hand or by machine, as a cherished object of high aesthetic and artistic values in China.

However, with the incentives of market demand and mainstream value shifts, the adaptation and development of modern technology and tools in jade prodution has been continuously strengthened.

Duplications of shapes and alternations of original colour are now more acceptable in the market.

Authenticity, as in the object’s originality and uniqueness, has now been translated into an imagined reality, or what I call a “staged authenticity” for the mass audience to enjoy. Jade has now been “performed”, caring its metaphorical meanings onto the stage so that customers could come and pay a premium price for the “show”.

Despite this, it is worth noting that high-quality natural ore of jade is still limited. Intensive mining and

jade is endowed with "moral" value by ancient Chinese culture such as Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Jade is always used as a symbol of "purity" and "morality" and is quoted in ancient 2 Chinese poetry and literary works. As Herbart14 , the father of modern education, said: "Moral is

generally regarded as the highest goal of human, and therefore the highest goal of education." The Chinese nation has a high level of recognition and respect for "morality" for thousands of years, and the recognition and respect for the craftsman spirit and cultural connotations of art is throughout the history of the nation. As a carrier of "morality", the educational function of jade has also achieved its second level of worship value, thus achieving a higher value assessment of jade in China.

On a separate note, since China’s 1978-reformation, a group of “new rich” has emerged in China as a result of consumerism and materialism. Being allured by its skyrocketing market value, jade could sometimes be understood as a “good investment” for urbanites who have accumulated significant wealth. The internal and external values of jade, in a way, have become a core part of neostorytelling of a particular piece of jade artworks. As such, the value assessment of jade artworks has now been translated into the rules of auction houses and the power of public relationship campaigns. However, these points are beyond the scope of this essay.

production has invisibly resulted in the waste of some excellent jade. While the public has a lower cost of obtaining jade, it is also more enthusiastic about the pursuit of so-called high-quality "perfect" 12 The Qing dynasty, officially the Great Qing, was the last imperial dynasty of China. It was established in 1636, and ruled China proper from 1644 to 1912. It was the fifth largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size.

13 The Rites of Zhou (Chinese: 周禮 ; pinyin: Zhōu lǐ), originally known as "Officers of Zhou" ( 周官 ; Zhouguan) is a work on bureaucracy and organizational theory.

14 Johann Friedrich Herbart (4 May 1776 – 14 August 1841) was a German philosopher, psychologist and founder of pedagogy as an academic discipline.

P. 23

A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

was rapidly transformed from a hand-made craft of art into a machine-made craft of commodity.

P. 26

What Shapes Value

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS The influence of the sense of distance on the value assessment of artwork is mainly reflected in the psychological distance and spatial distance between the assessors and artworks (Benjamin,2008).

For jade, psychological distance mainly comes from its sense of worship. In ancient times, it mainly originated from theocratic and imperial power, but now it mainly comes from the worship of the culture it carries. The sense of distance in space is mainly reflected in the scarcity of the artwork and the difficulty of spreading (that is, the value of arrival), which would be reflected on the time and energy spent on the pursuit of artworks. In ancient times, it was mainly due to the restrictions of authoritative rules and the low productivity. Nowadays, it is mainly due to the interference of the uneven quality of artworks in the market and the gradual disappearance of excellent craftsman and skills. These two kinds of distancing are embodied as the "sense of ritual" of artworks in the process of artistic value assessment.

COVER & BACK PAGE 'Jade Healing Properties', <https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/355714070569206960/> [accessed 21 July 2020].

FIGURE 1 - The Jade Mined in Hpakant………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3 'Lethal Landslips and Drug Addiction: Myanmar's Toxic Jade Trade',<https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2019/feb/25/deadly-landslidesdrug-addiction-myanmar-toxic-jade-trade> [accessed 21 Nov 2019].

FIGURE 2 - Jade Cong King……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4 'Jade Cong King', <https://chinablog.cc/jade-cong-king-a-tribute-to-mother-earth/> [accessed 15 July 2020].

FIGURE 3 - Copper Bearing Plate With High Foot Jade Cup………………………………………………………………………………………7 'Magical Jade Tools Specially Made by Ancient Emperors in Pursuit of Immortality', <https://www.sohu.com/a/301474988_99907217> [accessed 12 May 2020].

FIGURE 4 - Jade Gambling…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9 'Jade Gambling' <https://image.baidu.com/> [accessed 21 July 2020].

Thanks to technological development, global exchange of knowledge, resources and capital, and ongoing art discovery and renovation, the original pursuit and appreciation of art might have been diluted by abundant information, which then results in a decrease in the sense of worship. For example, when the world’s most exquisite art becomes available at everyone’s fingertips on their mobile devices, the psychological sense of distancing and worship would inevitably decrease.

However, it is also true that explosive information might awake people’s desire to see the authentic piece. As in China, the appreciation of excellent works of jade art has been expanding, reflecting the uplifting market value of the ore as well as the art pieces made from the ore. Despite this, we shall continue asking questions in terms of whether "Aura" still exists in jade, whether jade is a work of art, and whether its actual artistic value has been reduced to that of a currency.

FIGURE 5 - Jade Processing………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11 Lu Zhang, Photograph of Three Jade Pieces, London, United Kingdom, (21.03.2020).

FIGURE 6 - Jade Trade in Hpakant, Myanmar…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12 Lu Zhang, Collage of Jade Trade in Hpakant, Myanmar, London, United Kingdom, (Nov 2019).

FIGURE 7 - Jade Commodity Chain of Myanmar………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13 Lu Zhang, Collage of Jade Commodity Chain of Myanmar, London, United Kingdom, (Nov 2019).

FIGURE 8 - Land Change / Deforestation of Hpakant, Myanmar (2004-2020)………………………………………………………………… 15 'Satellite Images of Hpakant, Myanmar (2004-2020)', <https://www.gscloud.cn/> [accessed 05 Dec 2019].

FIGURE 9 - The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) of Hpakant, Myanmar (2000-2020)………………………………………15 Lu Zhang, NDVI of Hpakant, Myanmar (2000-2020), Calculated via QGIS 3.10, (Jan 2020).

FIGURE 10 - Overlaying of NDVI…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17 Lu Zhang, Photograph of Overlaying of NDVI, Calculated via QGIS 3.10, London, United Kingdom, (19.02.2020).

The value assessment of artwork should consider market reality, the quality of artwork itself, and social culture. This process is a comprehensive thinking process involving multiple disciplines, including economics, political science, sociology, art, history, and psychology. Therefore, financial assessment of artworks often mis-represent the actual artistic value of artworks, which is different from ordinary commodities. As a product of artistic activities, the value assessment of artworks is

21 FIGURE 11 - Jade Gui Tablet…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

'Jade Gui Tablet', <https://theme.npm.edu.tw/selection/Article.aspx?sNo=04009159&lang=2> [accessed 17 June 2020].

21 FIGURE 12 - St Edward's Crown……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………20 'St Edward's Crown', <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Edward%27s_Crown> [accessed 17 June 2020].

22 FIGURE 13 - Oracle Bone Script: “ 大 ” ("big" in Chinese), “ 羊 ” ("sheep" in Chinese) and two forms of “ 美 ” ("beauty" in Chinese)……………………21 'Big Sheep is Beauty, Talk about Beauty Based on Sheep' <http://m.kdnet.net/share-12481624.html> [accessed 11 Jan 2020].

also affected by the three factors of authenticity, distance, and worship value. Furthermore, other factors are also applied in the whole assessment system, including value assessor, spreading

OTHER SUPPORTING IMAGES

networks, and knowledge disciplines. The first step in appropriate artwork valuation is to determine

Page 1: 1) (Background) Lu Zhang, Photography of the of NDVI, London, United Kingdom, (19.02.2020).

the existence of artworks as art, and to clarify different attributes and multiple functions reflected

Page 4: (Right) 'Jade Cong' <https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/cong/4wHNpmZ2LdqZ6g>, [accessed 21 July 2020].

by artworks different from general commodities. Next, the research on the value of artworks should

Page 7-8: (Bottom) 'Jade Gambling' <https://image.baidu.com/> [accessed 21 July 2020].

not be uniform and static. On the premise of respecting multiple cultures and ideologies, we should notice the regional and historical differences in value assessment and accept differences.

2) (Bottom) 'Jade Healing Properties' <https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/355714070569206960/>, [accessed 21 July 2020].

Page 5: (Background) Lu Zhang, Photograph of Overlaying of NDVI, Calculated via QGIS 3.10, London, United Kingdom, (19.02.2020).

Page 20: (Background) Lu Zhang, Photography of the of NDVI, London, United Kingdom, (19.02.2020).

Page 22: (Right) 'Pounamu (New Zealand Jade) Maori Toki' <https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/540572761499141624/> [accessed 21 July 2020].

Page 23-24: (Top & Bottom) 'Background Texture - Jade Photoshop Tutorial' <https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/588634613783478774/> [accessed 21 July 2020].

Page 25: (Background) 'Jade Gemstone Wallpaper Mural | MuralsWallpaper' <https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/111393790770120943/> [accessed 21 July 2020].

Page 27-28: (Middle) Lu Zhang, The Extension of Mining Area in Hpakant, Myanmar, (15.03.2020).

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A Consideration of the Value of Artworks Based on Jade

Conclusion

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Figure 14: ·Changes of Expansion of Jade Mining in Hpakant, Myanmar (2000-2020) ·Source: <https://www.gscloud.cn/>

Putting Gender and Migration in the Frame

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LU ZHANG · C.H.S · DISSERTATION · 2020