Problems Associated with Cardiovascular Fitness Testing So many variables can affect the pulse rate and blood pressure that obtaining an average or typical measurement on any given day is difficult. Emotions, for example, have a noticeable effect on cardio-respiratory functions. Physicians often allow for this when they are taking a patient's pulse rate and blood pressure during a medical examination. Besides nervousness, tension, and other emotional manifestations, it has been found that temperature, time of day, exercise, changes in body position, altitude, humidity, digestion, and current state of health also may influence cardio-respiratory measurements. Also, lack of sleep, or drinking a small coke or cup of coffee can significantly elevate your pulse rate. Consequently, things that are difficult to control can significantly affect reliability and objectivity coefficients. The main influencing factors mentioned dictate that great care must be taken in the measurement of pulse rate and blood pressure. If a resting or normal pulse rate is desired, the subject should be allowed to rest for several minutes until the count has stabilized. Stabilization can be determined by the taking consecutive readings until they are similar. It has been observed that a subject's pulse rate is sometimes lower after mild exercise than when he or she first entered the laboratory. One of the foremost problems associated with cardiovascular testing is that it requires a fair amount of effort and/or work, and motivation to complete. You may have noticed that not all students have an intrinsic desire to put forth maximum effort. In fact, there are some students who every time they feel like working lie down until the feeling goes away. Consequently, motivation can be a factor in testing for cardiovascular fitness depending upon the test being used. Also many of the tests designed to measure cardiovascular fitness are impractical for use by the general public or by high schools and colleges because they require expensive equipment, trained administrators, and considerable time.
Practical Test of Cardiovascular Fitness While tests of cardiovascular fitness are numerous, only a few will be presented here…for good reason too. Many tests are too involved for use in physical education classes, or they require sophisticated equipment and trained administrators to conduct them. The tests presented here are the ones that are used most frequently by researchers and physical education instructors. Note, however, that just because a test is included in this text does not mean it is a valid indicator of cardiovascular fitness, and, in fact, some of the test presented here are invalid tests of cardiovascular fitness. Now, I know exactly what you are thinking now too, “If the tests are not valid, why even address the test in a test and measurements textbook?” Simple, so you don’t make the same stupid, dim witted, brainless mistake that many physical education instructors make every day…that is using invalid tests to measure their students’ cardiovascular fitness. In short, I want you to know what works and what doesn’t work…what tests are valid and what tests are not valid.
Maximal Oxygen Consumption Test (VO2max) Maximum oxygen consumption is the most valid method used to determine your cardiovascular fitness. Maximum oxygen consumption is an exercise test that assesses the capacity of the circulatory
system to transport oxygen. In short, Maximum oxygen consumption measures your VO2max. That is, the greatest volume of oxygen that you can consume at once before you collapse. Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness. Sex: Satisfactory for both boys and girls. Age: Junior high school through college age. Reliability: Test-retest reliability coefficients of .94 to .96 have been reported. Validity: Face validity is accepted for this test. Maximal Oxygen Consumption (MOC) is the gold standard for all tests that are used to measure cardiovascular fitness. It is universal accepted as the most valid test of cardiovascular fitness. Facilities, Equipment, and Materials: equipment required: Oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers, ergometer on which workload may be modified, stopwatch. Expired air may be collected and volume measured via Douglas bags or a Tissot tank, or measured by a turbine ventilometer. Directions: Exercise is performed on an appropriate ergometer (treadmill, cycle, swim bench). The exercise workloads are selected to gradually progress in increments from moderate to maximal intensity. Oxygen uptake is calculated from measures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the expired air and minute ventilation, and the maximal level is determined at or near test completion. Scoring: Results are presented as either l/min (liters per minute) or ml/kg/min (mls of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute). The athlete is considered to have reached their VO2max if several of the following occurred: a plateau or 'peaking over' in oxygen uptake, maximal heart rate was reached, attainment of a respiratory exchange ratio of 1.15 or greater, and volitional exhaustion. Additional considerations: As mentioned maximum oxygen consumption is the most valid method used to determine your cardiovascular fitness. This test actually measures body oxygen consumption, which other tests try to estimate. You can also get a measurement of maximum heart rate by recording heart rate during the test. However, this method is impractical for use by the general public because it requires expensive equipment, trained administrators, and considerable time. Also, there is often variability between the performances of different analysis systems. Stringent calibration is necessary for both the expired gas and ventilation measurement systems. Because of these limitations, several efforts have been made to develop tests that would correlate highly with maximum oxygen consumption and thereby could be used interchangeable or as a substitute for MOC. The more popular of these tests will be discussed now.
Balke Treadmill Test The Balke Treadmill Test is a cardiovascular fitness test that is mainly used by athletes. This fitness test was initially developed by Bruno Balke for clinical purposes. The test involves walking at a constant speed on a treadmill, the slope of which is periodically increased, while heart rate is measured accurately each minute. Balke had noted that physiologic alterations indicative of impending exhaustion occurred at or near the time the heart rate reached 180/min.; he used the time at which the rate was attained as an end point. Needless to say people with higher VO2 max scores can exercise at higher intensity levels without becoming tired. In recent years the Balke Treadmill Test has been used as a cardiovascular endurance test by many universities to ascertain their student’s fitness level and for research purposes. Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness. Sex: Satisfactory for both boys and girls. Age: Junior high school through college age. Reliability: A test-retest reliability of .97 was reported by Balke. It should be noted however, that reliability would depend upon how strict the test is conducted and the individual's level of motivation to perform the test. Validity: Validity coefficients of .94 to .96 have been obtained when maximum oxygen intake was used as the criterion. Note also that there are published VO2 max tables and the correlation to actual VO2 max is very high. Facilities, Equipment, and Materials: Treadmill, physiograph, Directions: The individual walks on a treadmill to exhaustion…a not so fun thing. At timed stages during the test the grade of slope (%) of the treadmill is increased as follows: Active and sedentary men o o o o
Treadmill speed set at 3.3 mph Start - Grade is 0% After 1 minute - Grade set at 2% After 2 minutes and each minute thereafter the grade is increased by 1%
Active and sedentary women o o o
Treadmill speed set at 3.0 mph Start - Grade is 0% After 3 minutes and every 3 minutes thereafter the grade is increased by 2.5%
The assistant starts the stop watch at the start of the test and stops it when the subject is unable to continue…this ideally should be between 9 and 15 minutes.
Scoring: Active and sedentary men (Pollock et al. 1976) From the total time an estimate of the athlete's VO2 max can be calculated as follows: VO2 max = 1.444 × T +14.99 "T" is the total time of the test expressed in minutes and fractions of a minute e.g. 13 minutes 15 seconds = 13.25 minutes Active and sedentary women - Pollock et al. 1982 From the total time an estimate of the athlete's VO2 max can be calculated as follows: VO2 max = 1.38 × T + 5.22 "T" is the total time of the test expressed in minutes and fractions of a minute. Additional Considerations: Although the Balke Treadmill Test is one of the best test available to measure cardiovascular fitness the method is impractical for use by the general public because it requires expensive equipment, trained administrators, and considerable time. Like MOC though it can be used as a criterion measure for cardiovascular fitness.
Field Tests Used to Measure Cardiovascular Fitness The 12-minute run walk test The 12 minute run walk test was devised in 1968 by Kenneth Cooper the “father of aerobics,” as an easy method to measure aerobic fitness and to provide an estimate of VO2 max for military personnel. This simple test is still used today extensively as a field test for determining aerobic fitness. Dr. Cooper found that there is a very high correlation between the distance someone can run (or walk) in 12 minutes and their VO2 max value, which measures the efficiency with which someone can utilize oxygen while exercising. As indicated this test is still one of the basic fitness tests used by the military, as well as many coaches and physical education instructors to determine cardiovascular fitness. The test also allows you to compare your cardiovascular endurance with others of your age and gender. Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness. Sex: Satisfactory for both boys and girls. Age: Junior high school through college age. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .90 to .94 have been reported.
Validity: Validity coefficients of .64 to .90 have been obtained when maximum oxygen intake was used as the criterion. Facilities, Equipment, and Materials: If possible, a specific course measured in distance so that the number of laps completed can be counted and multiplied by the course distance; it is also helpful to have markers divide the course into quarters or eighths, which enables the tester to determine quickly the exact distance covered in 12 minutes; a stopwatch; a whistle; and distance markers. At high schools, and colleges the test is usually administered on a 440-yard track; however, as mentioned it can be administered on any level field that has been measured for distance or on a treadmill. Directions: The twelve-minute run-walk test consists of running and/or walking as great a distance as you can in a twelve minute period. Usually, the most efficient procedure is to assign a spotter to each runner. The runners start behind a line and on the starting signal run or walk or both as many laps as possible around the course within 12 min. The spotters maintain a count of each lap; when the signal to stop is given, they run to the spot at which their runner was at the instant the whistle or command to stop was given. Scoring: The score in yards is determined by multiplying the number of completed laps times the distance of each lap (e.g., 440 yd), plus the number of segments (e.g., quarters, eighths, 10-yd intervals) of an incomplete lap, plus the number of yards stepped off between a particular segment. For example, the 12-minute run is given on a 440-yd track sectioned off into eighths. A student completes 5 laps plus three one-eighth segments plus 11 yd. The student's score is 5 x 440 = 2200; plus 3 x 55 (each one-eighth segment is 55 yd) = 165; plus 11 yd (i.e., 2200 + 165 + 11 = 2376 yd covered in 12 min). Don’t you just love all this math? Researchers who developed this test develop norms for various levels of fitness. So, depending on what your heart rate or performance time is for the test, you can compare your fitness level with thousands of others who have also taken the test. Norms published by Cooper (1988) for the test are presented below.
Normative data for the Cooper Test Age
Excellent Above Average Average
Male 13-14
>2700m 2400-2700m
2200-2399m 2100-2199m
<2100m
Females 13-14 >2000m 1900-2000m
1600-1899m 1500-1599m
<1500m
Males 15-16
>2800m 2500-2800m
2300-2499m 2200-2299m
<2200m
Females 15-16 >2100m 2000-2100m
1700-1999m 1600-1699m
<1600m
Males 17-19
2500-2699m 2300-2499m
<2300m
>3000m 2700-3000m
Below Average Poor
Females 17-20 >2300m 2100-2300m
1800-2099m 1700-1799m
<1700m
The following table rates performance for athletes: Age
Excellent Above Average Average
Below Average Poor
Male 20-29
>2800m 2400-2800m
2200-2399m 1600-2199m
<1600m
Females 20-29 >2700m 2200-2700m
1800-2199m 1500-1799m
<1500m
Males 30-39
>2700m 2300-2700m
1900-2299m 1500-1999m
<1500m
Females 30-39 >2500m 2000-2500m
1700-1999m 1400-1699m
<1400m
Males 40-49
>2500m 2100-2500m
1700-2099m 1400-1699m
<1400m
Females 40-49 >2300m 1900-2300m
1500-1899m 1200-1499m
<1200m
Males >50
>2400m 2000-2400m
1600-1999m 1300-1599m
<1300m
Females >50
>2200m 1700-2200m
1400-1699m 1100-1399m
<1100m
The following table can be used with experienced athletes: Gender Excellent Above Average Average Male
>3700m 3400-3700m
Below Average Poor
3100-3399m 2800-3099m
<2800m
Females
Additional considerations: As previously mentioned, this test is not only highly reliable (individual's scores are consistent when retested), more importantly it is a valid indicator of cardiovascular fitness when the subjects are highly motivated to perform the test. The key words here are “highly motivated”. Some individuals do not have sufficient motivation to put forth the strenuous effort required to complete the test. When the subjects are not motivated the validity of the test is obviously questionable. In fact, if the subjects are not motivated to put forth maximum effort the test is basically worthless as an indicator of cardiovascular fitness. Of course, that can be said of most any test. The problem with this test is that it is so taxing that many subjects don’t want to take it. Another drawback to this test is the danger of cardio-respiratory complications especially in individuals who are not accustomed to intense exercise. Although the test can be administered in a variety of settings, such as a 440-yd track, football fields, or streets, one should not expect comparable performance on each. It
has been demonstrated that the more turns a runner has to make, the more time he or she needs.
1 Mile Run/Walk Test Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness. Sex and Age: Satisfactory for both sexes, ages 13 through adult. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .89 to .94 have been reported. Validity: Validity coefficients ranging from .82 to .91 with the Balke treadmill test have been reported. Equipment: A stopwatch and a track or some type of open area of known dimensions. Directions: The 1.0 mile run/walk test requires a 440 yard track or a pre-measured one mile distance. Prior to taking the test you must determine your body weight in pounds. A stop watch is necessary to determine your running/walking time and heart rate. The object is to run/walk the one mile distance at a brisk pace so that your heart rate at the end of the test exceeds 120 beats per minute. At the end of the one mile test immediately check your heart rate by counting your pulse for ten seconds. Also record your time. Next multiple the 10 second pulse count by 6 to ascertain your exercise heart rate in beats per minute. You will then have to convert your time from minutes and seconds to minute units. Each minute has 60 seconds, so the seconds are divided by 60 to obtain the fraction of a minute. For instance, a walking time of 12 minutes and 15 seconds would equal 12+ (15 – 60) or 12.25 minutes. To obtain the estimated VO2 max in ml/kg/min. for the 1.0 mile walk test plug your values into the equation in below The regression equation for predicting VO2 max. for the 1-mile run time is as follows: VO2max = 132.853 – (.0769 x W) – (.3877 x A) + (6.315 x G) – (3.2649 x T) – (.1565 x HR) Where: W = Weight in pounds A = Age in years G = Gender; use 0 for women and 1 for men T = Total time for the one-mile walk in minutes
HR = Exercise heart rate in beats per minute at the end of the one-mile walk For example, a 19-year-old female subject who weighs 140 pounds completed the one-mile walk in 14 minutes and 39 seconds and with an exercise heart rate of 148 beats per minute. The estimated VO2max would be: W A G T HR
= 140 lbs = 19 = 0 (female gender) = 14:39 = 14 + (39 ÷ 60) = 14.65 min = 148 bpm
VO2max = 132.853 – (.0769 x 140) – (.3877 x 19) + (6.315 x 0) – (3.2649 x 14.65) – (.1565 x 148) VO2max = 43.7 ml/kg/min. Scoring: The score is the time in minutes and seconds needed to complete the run. Additional Considerations: As mentioned, this test is not only highly reliable it is also a valid indicator of cardiovascular fitness when the subjects are highly motivated to perform the test. As with the 12-minute run walk test some individuals do not have sufficient motivation to put forth the strenuous effort required to complete the test. When the subjects are not motivated the validity of the test is obviously questionable. In fact, if the subjects are not motivated to put forth maximum effort the test is basically worthless as an indicator of cardiovascular fitness. Another drawback to this test is the danger of cardio respiratory complications…especially in individuals who are not accustomed to intense exercise.
The 1.5 Mile Walk/Run Test Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .89 to .94 have been reported. Validity: Validity coefficients ranging from .82 to .91 with the Balke treadmill test have been reported. Sex and Age: 1.5 Mile run: satisfactory for both sexes, ages 13 through adult. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .87 to .94 have been reported.
Validity: Validity coefficients ranging from .86 to .91 with the Balke treadmill test have been reported. Equipment: A stopwatch and a track or some type of open area of known dimensions. Directions: The fitness category is determined by how fast an individual can run or walk a 1.5 mile course. The subject should try to run the whole course at a pace you can comfortably maintain without excessive strain. Additional Considerations: As mentioned, this test is not only highly reliable it is also a valid indicator of cardiovascular fitness when the subjects are highly motivated to perform the test. As with the 12-minute run walk test some individuals do not have sufficient motivation to put forth the strenuous effort required to complete the test. When the subjects are not motivated the validity of the test is obviously questionable. In fact, if the subjects are not motivated to put forth maximum effort the test is basically worthless as an indicator of cardiovascular fitness. An additional drawback to this test is the danger of cardio respiratory complications…especially in individuals who are not accustomed to intense exercise. Table 1.1 Estimated Maximal Oxygen Uptake in ml/kg/min for the 1.5-mile Run Test Time 6:10 6:20 6:30 6:40 6:50 7:00 7:10 7:20 7:30 7:40 7:50 8:00 8:10 8:20 8:30 8:40 8:50 9:00 9:10 9:20
Max VO2 80.0 79.0 77.9 76.7 75.5 74.0 72.6 71.3 69.9 68.3 66.8 65.2 63.9 62.5 61.2 60.2 59.1 58.1 56.9 55.9
Time 9:30 9:40 9:50 10:00 10:10 10:20 10:30 10:40 10:50 11:00 11:10 11:20 11:30 11:40 11:50 12:00 12:10 12:20 12:30 12:40
Max VO2 54.7 53.5 52.3 51.1 50.4 49.5 48.6 48.0 47.4 46.6 45.8 45.1 44.4 43.7 43.2 42.3 41.7 41.0 40.4 39.8
Time 12:50 13:00 13:10 13:20 13:30 13:40 13:50 14:00 14:10 14:20 14:30 14:40 14:50 15:00 15:10 15:20 15:30 15:40 15.50 16:00
Max VO2 39.2 38.6 38.1 37.8 37.2 36.8 36.3 35.9 35.5 35.1 34.7 34.3 34.0 33.6 33.1 32.7 32.2 31.8 31.4 30.9
Time 16:10 16:20 16:30 16:40 16:50 17:00 17:10 17:20 17:30 17:40 17:50 18:00 18:10 18:20 18:30 18:40 18:50 19:00
Max VO2 30.5 30.2 29.8 29.5 29.1 28.9 28.5 28.3 28.0 27.7 27.4 27.1 26.8 26.6 26.3 26.0 25.7 25.4
Adapted from Cooper, K. H. “A Means of Assessing Maximal Oxygen Intake.” JAMA 203:201-204, 1968; Pollock, M. L. et. Al. Health and Fitness Through Physical Activity. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978: Wilmore, J. H. Training for Sport and Activity. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999
Table 1.2 Cardiovascular fitness classification according to maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) in millimeters per kilogram per minute (ml/kg/min.)
Fitness Classification Gender Age ≤ 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 MEN ≤ 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 - 69 WOMEN High physical fitness standard Health fitness standard
Poor ≤ 24 ≤ 22 ≤ 19 ≤ 17 ≤ 15 ≤ 23 ≤ 19 ≤ 16 ≤ 14 ≤ 12
Fair 25 – 33 23 – 30 20 – 26 18 – 24 16 – 22 24 – 30 20 – 27 17 – 24 15 – 21 13 – 20
Average 34 – 43 31 – 41 27 – 38 25 – 37 23 – 35 31 – 38 28 – 36 25 – 34 22 – 33 21 – 32
Good 44 – 52 42 – 49 39 – 44 38 – 42 36 – 40 39 – 48 37 – 44 35 – 41 34 – 39 33 – 36
Excellent ≥ 53 ≥ 50 ≥ 45 ≥ 43 ≥ 41 ≥ 49 ≥ 45 ≥ 42 ≥ 40 ≥ 37
Adapted from Cooper, K. H. “A Means of Assessing Maximal Oxygen Intake.” JAMA 203:201-204, 1968; Pollock, M. L. et. Al. Health and Fitness Through Physical Activity. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978: Wilmore, J. H. Training for Sport and Activity. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1982.
The Rockport Walking Test Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness. Sex and Age: Satisfactory for both sexes, ages 13 through adult. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .91 to .94 have been reported. Validity: Validity coefficients ranging from .86 to .91 with the Balke treadmill test have been reported. Equipment: A stopwatch and a track or some type of open area of known dimensions. Directions: The Rockport Walking Test is a self paced test that is easy to implement. Actually the only real requirement is that you are able to walk and are motivated to do so. In brief, the test protocol requires that you walk as fast as you can for a mile and then measure your heart rate and walking time. Walking requires that you put one foot in front of the other and propel yourself forward. Oh! There is one catch. (There is always a catch.) When you walk, one foot must remain partially on the ground at all times just like race walkers. The key here is to complete the mile as fast as possible. I said it was easy to implement, I didn’t say it was painless. A regression equation has been developed so that you can compute your relative cardiovascular fitness level. A VO2max score can be calculated by the following equation: Females: VO2max = 139.168 - (0.388 x age) - (0.077 x weight in lb.) - (3.265 x walk time in minutes) (0.156 x heart rate). Males: add 6.318 to the equation for females above Additional Considerations: As with most field tests some individuals do not have sufficient motivation to put forth the strenuous effort required to complete the test; when the subjects
are not motivated the validity of the test is obviously questionable. In fact, if the subjects are not motivated to put forth maximum effort the test is basically worthless as an indicator of cardiovascular fitness. The good part about this test is that it is not as strenuous as the other field test just mentioned. Consequently, student motivation is usually higher for this test than the others mentioned such as the 1.5 mile run or the 12 minute run walk test.
600-Yard Run/Walk Test Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness efficiency. Sex: Satisfactory for both boys and girls. Age: 6 through 12. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .89 to .94 have been reported. Validity: Validity coefficients of .96, .88, and .76 were found by Biasiotto and Cotton (1974) for third, fifth, and seventh grade boys, respectively. Validity coefficients of .61 were found for adults by Biasiotto, and Cotton (1974). Equipment: A stopwatch and a track, football field, or similar open area. The AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test Manual shows diagrams of three suggested areas: (1) A football field on which four flags are placed at the end line of the end zone 30 yards apart. These markers make a rectangular course 120 x 30 yd; twice around equals 600 yards. (2) Any open area in the form of a square measuring 50 yd on each side. Three times around measures 600 yd. (3) The inside circumference of a 440-yd track. In this case the tester might start the runners and then walk 160 yd down the track to the finish line. Directions: Basically the directions are the same as for the 1 and 1.5 mile runs. Each runner is assigned a spotter. A tester gives the command, "Ready? Go!" The subject uses a standing start. The spotter is positioned near the finish line in order to clearly hear the timer, who calls aloud the time in seconds as the runners cross the finish line. The spotter must watch his or her runner and remember the announced time. Scoring: The time to complete the run in minutes and seconds is recorded. Additional Considerations: The 600-yard run/walk test is a field test devised in 1956 by the American Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance Council on Fitness (AAHPERD). Currently, the test is being used in many schools in the United States as a measure of cardiovascular fitness. Research has indicated that the 600-yard run/walk test is a valid measure for very young children. For older children and adults, unfortunately, research has yielded low correlations between this test and tests of maximum oxygen consumption. The 600-yard run-walk test, in contrast to the more valid 12-minute run/walk
test, does not require enough activity to sufficiently tax the cardiovascular system of older individuals. Consequently, the test is not a valid indicator of fitness for adults.
Step Tests Used to Measure Cardiovascular Fitness Ohio State University Step Test (OSUST) The Ohio State University Step Test was developed by Harold Kurucz as a sub-maximal cardiovascular fitness test. The rationale for this test is that the exercise time required to reach a pulse rate of 150 beats per minute is a valid indicator of the subject's capacity for more strenuous work. Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness efficiency. Sex: Recommended for boys only. Age: Grades 9 to 12 and adult. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .91 to .94 have been reported. Validity: Validity coefficients ranging from .91 to .94 with the Balke treadmill test have been reported. Equipment and Materials: Bleacher steps, (It employs a split-level bench with an adjustable hand bar. One level of the bench is 15 inches high; the other is 20 inches high) a tape recorder, a stopwatch, a metronome; and score sheets. Directions: The commands and cadences for the 18 innings should be prerecorded to ensure accuracy. The class is divided into pairs of partners. The exercising subjects are instructed to sit on the bottom bleacher step and the partner sits behind them on the second row. The workloads for the three phases of the test are: Phase I: Six innings—24 steps/min Phase II: Six innings—30 steps/min Phase III: Six innings—36 steps/min At the command to begin, the subject steps up and down for 30 sec in cadence with the metronome. The stepping is performed as a four count exercise of "up, up, down, down" in which the subject places one foot and then both feet on the platform and then immediately steps down again, one foot at a time. It is normally easier for the subject to lead off with the same foot each time; however, alternating feet is permitted if one leg gets tired. No coaching is allowed. At the command "stop," the subject immediately sits down and finds his pulse. After exactly 5 seconds, the command "count" is given, and after another 15 seconds, the commands
"stop" and "prepare to exercise" are given. The subject records the number of beats counted in the 10-second period. After 5 more seconds, the subject is commanded to start stepping again for another 30-second exercise bout. This procedure is continued for six innings in phase I, or until a pulse count of 25 (which corresponds to a heart rate of 150 beats/min) is reached. Each inning consists of 30 seconds of stepping and a 20 second rest period, during which a 10 second pulse count is taken from the 5th to 15th second. Prior to the seventh inning, the subject is informed that the cadence will be increased, and to continue the same procedure. Prior to the 13th inning, the subject is again told that the cadence will be increased. The three phases are continuous. Scoring: The score is the inning in which the pulse count is 25 for the 10 second period (150 beats/ min). If the subject completes the 18 innings, he is given a score of 19. Additional Considerations: Half of the class can be tested simultaneously using the buddy system. Vigorous exercise should not precede the test. A 15 minute rest period should be allowed prior to the test. During this time, instructions should be given and a complete inning demonstrated. Also during this time, students should practice finding and counting the pulse rate at the carotid artery. Having the non-exercising partner sit in the row above the exercising subject makes it convenient for them to immediately find the pulse at the carotid artery when their partner sits down each time after exercising. To facilitate the cadence, the number of steps should be multiplied by 4 so that the metronome is set at 96 for the 24-steps/minute, 120 for the 30-steps/minute, and 144 for the 36-steps/ minute cadence. Thus, each click of the metronome signifies a foot placement. Also, because the step heights are not standard bleacher heights found in a gymnasium they have to be manufacture. This is a major disadvantage of utilizing this test because it can be cost prohibitive if the steps have to be constructed.
Modified Ohio State University Step Test This test was devised by Doyce Cotton. Cotton theorized that the test would still be valid for bleacher heights that varied an inch or two from this height; consequently, he modified the steps dropping them down to 17 inchesâ&#x20AC;Śthe exact height of gym bleachers. Cotton reported a modification of the Ohio State University Step Test that he believed would be applicable for high school physical education classes. He sought to develop a procedure that would be suitable for mass testing. He wanted the test to be reasonable in terms of time, equipment, and student motivation (motivation is necessary in cardio-respiratory measures that require strenuous effort to complete the test). Besides the modification of the bleachers everything else stayed basically the same as on the Ohio State University Step Test. Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness efficiency. Sex: Recommended for boys only. Age: Grades 9 to 12 and adult. Validity: The modified Ohio State University Step Test has a correlation as high .92 with The Ohio State Test and a .84 correlation with Balke Treadmill test.
Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .91 to .94 have been reported. Equipment and Materials: Bleacher steps (it employed a 17 inch step), a tape recorder; a stopwatch, a metronome; and score sheets. Directions: The directions were exactly the same for those of the Ohio State University Step Test. The commands and cadences for the 18 innings should be prerecorded to ensure accuracy. The class is divided into pairs of partners. The exercising subjects are instructed to sit on the bottom bleacher step and the partner sits behind them on the second row. The workloads for the three phases of the test are: Phase I: Six inningsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;24 steps/min Phase II: Six inningsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;30 steps/min Phase III: Six inningsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;36 steps/min At the command to begin, the subject steps up and down for 30 sec in cadence with the metronome. The stepping is performed as a four-count exercise of "up, up, down, down" in which the subject places one foot and then both feet on the platform straightens the legs and back, and immediately steps down again, one foot at a time. It is normally easier for the subject to lead off with the same foot each time; however, alternating feet is permitted if one leg gets tired. No crouching is allowed. At the command "stop," the subject immediately sits down and finds his pulse. After exactly 5 seconds, the command "count" is given, and after another 15 seconds, the commands "stop" and "prepare to exercise" are given. The subject records the number of beats counted in the 10-second period. After 5 more seconds, the subject is commanded to start stepping again for another 30-seconds exercise bout. This procedure is continued for six innings in phase I, or until a pulse count of 25 (which corresponds to a heart rate of 150 beats/minute) is reached. Each inning consists of 30 seconds of stepping and a 20-second rest period, during which a 10-sec pulse count is taken from the 5th to 15th sec. Prior to the seventh inning, the subject is informed that the cadence will be increased, and to continue the same procedure. Prior to the 13th inning, the subject is again told that the cadence will be increased. The three phases are continuous. Scoring: The score is the inning in which the pulse count is 25 for the 10-second period (150 beats/ min). If the subject completes the 18 innings, he is given a score of 19. Additional Considerations: Instead of having to use the 20 inch steps as with the Ohio State Test the modified version used as standard gym bleacher step of 17 inch. This shaved off consider time, effort, and cost in testing. As with the Ohio State University Step Test the same protocol should be followed. Half of the class could be tested simultaneously using the buddy system. Vigorous exercise should not precede the test. A 15-minute rest period should be allowed prior to the test. During this time, instructions should be given and a complete inning demonstrated. Also during this time, students should practice finding and counting the pulse rate at the carotid artery. Having the non-exercising partner sit in the row above the
exercising subject makes it convenient for them to immediately find the pulse at the carotid artery when their partner sits down each time after exercising. To facilitate the cadence, the number of steps should be multiplied by 4 so that the metronome is set at 96 for the 24steps/minute, 120 for the 30-steps/minute, and 144 for the 36-steps/ minute cadence. Thus, each click of the metronome signifies a foot placement. Of course, the major drawback was the low validity coefficient that was found between the Modified Version of the Ohio State University Step Test and the Balke treadmill test. Consequently the validity of the test should be questioned.
Queens College Step Test Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness efficiency. Sex: Women and men. Age: College age. Reliability: A reliability coefficient of .92 was reported. Validity: With use of maximal oxygen consumption as the criterion a correlations ranging from .69 to .75 were obtained between the first heart rate recovery score (5-20 sec after exercise) and VO2 max expressed in milliliters per kilogram per minute (ml/kg/min). Equipment and Materials: Bleachers to serve as the stepping bench (16-17 in.); a metronome (amplification of the sound via loudspeakers is desirable); and a stopwatch. Directions: Half of the class may be tested at one time, the other half serving as partners to count the pulse rate. Following the explanation of the testing and pulse-counting procedures, the counters are allowed several practices in counting their partner's pulse rate for 15 seconds intervals. The cadence of 22 steps/minute for women is established by setting the metronome at 88 beats/min. For men the cadence is 24 steps/minute (metronome setting 96). A demonstration is given and then subjects practice at the required cadence for 15 sec. The test consists of stepping up and down on the bleacher step for 3 minutes. At the end of this period the subjects remain standing while the partners count their pulse rate for a 15 second interval beginning 5 seconds after the cessation of exercise. The counters and steppers then exchange places and the test is repeated. Scoring: The 15s second pulse count is multiplied by 4 to express the score in beats per minute. Equations for predicting maximal oxygen consumption have been developed for both women and men as follows: VO2 max (ml/kg/min) (women) = 65.81 - .185 (pulse rate beats/min) VO2 max (ml/kg/min) (men) = 111.33 - .42 (pulse rate beats/min)
Additional Considerations: Although this test is easy to administer to large groups in a short period of time, its low correlation with maximum oxygen consumption makes the validity of the test questionable. If the test is not validity it is not worth the time it takes to administer itâ&#x20AC;Śit is basically worthless as an indicator of cardiovascular fitness.
LSU Step Test Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness efficiency. Sex: Both males and females. Age: Grades 9 to 12 and adults. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .90 to .96 have been reported. Validity: Validity coefficients ranging from .87 to .91 with the Balke treadmill test have been reported. Equipment and Materials: Benches, chairs, or bleachers (the height may vary but most chairs and bleachers are approximately 17 or 18 inches in high); a stopwatch; and a metronome (helpful in establishing cadence). Directions: It is recommended that half of a class or group of subjects be tested at a time so the other half can serve as counters. Subjects should pair up, and practice should be allowed for finding the pulse and counting pulse rate. When bleachers or chairs are used, it is advisable that the counters sit or stand behind the steppers and that they use the carotid artery for the pulse counting. The steppers are also encouraged to count their own pulse using the radial artery. The steppers stand in front of the bench and then on the command begin stepping at the cadence of 24 steps/minute for females and 30 steps/ minute for males. The cadence should be established with a metronome by multiplying the desired steps per minute by 4 (i.e., the metronome is set at 96 for 24 steps/minute and at 120 for 30 steps/minute). After the 2 minutes of stepping the commands "stop, sit down, find your pulse" are given and after 5 seconds has elapsed, a 10-second pulse count is taken. Three recovery pulse counts are then taken (each for 10 seconds) at 1 minute, 2 minutes, and 3 minutes after exercise. Following the third recovery pulse count the steppers and counters change places and the test is given again to the new steppers. Scoring: The five 10-second pulse counts are recorded on the score sheet. The 10-second counts are then multiplied by 6 to express the scores in beats per minute. The beats per minute scores are plotted on each student's graph to provide a picture of the pulse rate adjustments to exercise. Conditioning effects can be dramatically demonstrated by plotting subsequent test results on the same graph following a conditioning program. Additional Considerations: As with most step tests it is advisable to record the entire test on tape. This frees the tester to concentrate on supervisory functions rather than being enslaved by the stopwatch. A 3 minute test can be given if a longer test is deemed more appropriate. However, the correlations between the 2 minute version and 3 minute version
have been found to be quite high and no significant differences have been evidenced between the two versions on the construct validity parameters. It is a good idea to stress to the subjects the critical importance of finding the pulse rate immediately after the exercise. Also, stress the importance of keeping quiet and not talking, laughing, or getting up from their seat after the exercise. Explain that these will greatly affect the pulse rate and will result in their having to take the test again. The LSU Step Test and the Modified Ohio State Step Test are probably the two best step test to use in a high school and college setting. They have good validity coefficients and they are rather easy to administer to large groups.
Harvard Step Test Objective: To measure cardiovascular fitness efficiency. Sex and Age Level: Originally designed for young men of college age. Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .90 to .96 have been reported. Validity: When the Harvard Step Test was correlated with MOC the coefficients ranged from .64 to .74 indicating that the test is not a valid indicator of cardiovascular fitness. Additional Considerations: Neither the short form or the long form of the Harvard Step is a valid measure of cardiovascular fitness. As mentioned when the Harvard Step Test was correlated with MOC the coefficients ranged from .64 to .74 indicating that the test was not a valid indicator of cardiovascular fitness. Although this test is used extensively by physical educators to measure cardiovascular fitness it is a poor indicator of the aforementioned component of fitnessâ&#x20AC;Śin short it stinks.
Heart Rate as a Measure of Cardiovascular Fitness Objective: To measure cardio-respiratory fitness. Sex and Age: any age and any sex. Validity: Recent research has indicated that resting heart rate correlates .81 with the Balke Treadmill Test and .79 with MOC indicating that it is not a valid measure of cardiovascular fitness (Baumgartner, et al., 2002). Reliability: Reliability coefficients of .87 to .93 have been reported. Objectivity: Objectivity coefficients ranged from .84 to .94 when testers measured the same subjects and recorded the scores independently. Equipment: Stop watch
Directions: Heart rate is the number of times the heart beats per minute. Heart rate is calculated by counting your pulse for a minute. You can also calculate it for 10 seconds and multiplying that number by six. The best place to take your heart rate is at your carotid artery. Don’t use your thumb to do this because it has a pulse and that will interfere with getting a correct count. Scoring: The score is the number of times your pulse beats per-minute. Additional Considerations: We’ve already discussed heart rate when we talked about cardiac output in the introduction of this chapter. So, you should remember that average normal heart rate is between 60 to 80 beats per minute. Generally speaking, an athletic individual has a lower resting heart rate than an untrained individual. You would think that a person with a lower heart rate at rest would be in better shape than a person with a higher heart rate at rest. Although some researchers and physical education instructors have used resting heart rate as an indicator of cardiovascular fitness, recent research has indicated that resting heart rate is not a valid measure of cardiovascular fitness (Baumgartner, et al., 2002). The major reason for this is that resting heart rate can be effected by so many variables. For instance stress, lack of sleep, or drinking a small coke or cup of coffee can significantly elevate your heart rate. Consequently, an individual who is in great cardiovascular shape may register a high resting heart because of some other intervening variable.
Issues Concerning Cardiovascular Fitness Tests At present, the general use of tests to measure cardiovascular fitness in high schools and colleges is quite limited. Maximum oxygen consumption (MOC) is an exercise test that assesses the capacity of the circulatory system to transport oxygen; this provides a valid measure of cardiovascular fitness. In short, maximum oxygen consumption is a test that measures your VO2 max which is the greatest volume of oxygen that you can consume at once before you collapse? It is the most valid test of cardiovascular fitness available today…it is the “gold standard” of cardiovascular fitness tests. It is generally the test that most researchers use as the criterion test to validate other tests that are designed to measure cardiovascular fitness. However, the method is impractical for use by the general public because it requires expensive equipment, trained administrators, and considerable time. Because of these limitations, several efforts have been made to develop other test that would correlate highly with maximum oxygen consumption. To date, the 12-minute run-walk test developed by Kenneth Cooper is one of the best field tests because of its high correlation with the MOC test. Also, the validity of distance runs of 1 mile and over have fairly high validity ratings. The major drawback with most field tests is that some individuals do not have sufficient motivation to put forth the strenuous effort required to complete the test; when the subjects are not motivated the validity of the test is obviously questionable. In fact, if the subjects are not motivated to put forth maximum effort the test is basically worthless as an indicator of cardiovascular fitness. I know I said that a couple thousand times. But it is important to know and understand. There are other clinical tests, such as the Ohio State University Step Test, and the Modified Ohio State University Step Test, which can be used to measure cardiovascular fitness. These tests have been found to correlate highly with either the Balke Treadmill or MOC indicating that they are
valid measures of cardiovascular fitness. Test researchers who have designed each of the aforementioned tests have also developed norms for various levels of fitness. So, depending on what your heart rate or performance time is for a particular test, you can be compared with thousands of others who have taken the test. Again, the Harvard Step Test which was used extensively during the late 1980â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and early 1990â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s to measure the cardiovascular fitness of college students, is considered by many experts to lack validity.