SCHOLARS,EXPLORERS,PRI ESTS Ho wt heRe na i s s a nc eGa veUst heMo de r nWo r l d February2-March 27,2010
Cur at edbyJamesM.Sasl ow Pr of essorofAr tHi st or y ,Renai ssanceAr tandTheat er , QueensCol l egeAr tDepar t mentand TheGr aduat eCent er ,Ci t yUni ver si t yofNewYor k
TheGodwi nTer nbachMuseum,QueensCol l ege,CUNY
Publ i shedi nconj unct i onwi t ht heexhi bi t i onSchol ar s,Expl or er s,Pr i est s:Howt heRenai ssanceGaveUst he Moder nWor l datt heGodwi nTer nbachMuseum,QueensCol l ege,CUNY,Febr uar y2—Mar ch27,2010 Theexhi bi t i onwasmadepossi bl ebyt heNewYor kCi t yDepar t mentofCul t ur al Af f ai r s;t heWannFami l y Foundat i on,t heQueensCol l egeOf f i ceoft hePr esi dent ,t heQueensCol l egeAr tDepar t mentandt heFr i endsof t heGodwi nTer nbachMuseum. Edi t or s:JamesM.Sasl ow,AmyH.Wi nt er Desi gner :Br i t aHel gesen Ter nbachMuseum,QueensCol l ege,CUNY Copyr i ght©Godwi nAl lr i ght sr eser ved Nopar toft hecont ent soft hi sbookmayber epr oduced,st or edi nar et r i evalsyst em,ort r ansmi t t edi nanyf or m or byanymeans,el ect r oni c,mechani cal ,phot ocopyi ng,r ecor di ng,orot her wi se,wi t houtt hewr i t t enper mi ssi onof t heGodwi nTer nbachMuseum. Godwi nTer nbachMuseum QueensCol l ege,CUNY 405Kl apperHal l 6530Ki ssenaBoul evar d Fl ushi ng,NewYor k1 1367 www. qc. cuny . edu/ godwi n_t er nbach I SBN9780979951 145
Phot oCr edi t :Br i t aHel gesen esaCl ar ksonFar r el l( TCF) ,Ant honyDel Aver sano( AJD) , Cont r i but i ngaut hor s:Ki mber l eyBabcock( KB) ,Ter Ar i anneFer nandez( AMF) ,Car ol i neGer ki sCG) ,Just i nneLakeJedzi nak( JLJ) ,El i zabet hLamour t( EL) ,Pet er Leeds( PL) ,Joel l ynMal oney( JM) ,Gal eMat t hews( GDM) ,Mar i aMur i l l o( MEM) ,Laur enNuzzol o( LN) ,Ant oni a Per ez( AP) ,Chr ysoul aPol i t ou( CP) ,Wi l l i am St ei nman( WS) ,Laur aSt evenson( LS) ,NavaSt r ei t er( NS) ,Laur en Wi l l i ams( L W) ,andFl or aZhenRonKuo( FK) .
FOREWORD Onceagai n,t hi sexhi bi t i on,cur at edbyPr of essorJamesSasl owandhi sst udent si nasemi naronRenai ssancear t ,al l owst hemuseum t of ul f i l li t s mi ssi ont oeducat eandenl i ght ent hr ought hei nt er pr et at i onofar tobj ect si nourr i chcol l ect i ons.I nconcept ual i zi ngt heexhi bi t i onar oundt hekey t hemesofschol ar s,expl or er s,andpr i est s,Dr .Sasl ow hasf or mul at edameanst ocl osel yexami neandappr eci at ehi st or i calobj ect si nt hei rown cont extaswel l asi nr el at i ont oourcont empor ar ywor l dvi ewandexper i ence. Ashepoi nt sout ,t heRenai ssancepr ovi dedt hef oundat i onsf ormoder n educat i on,communi cat i on,t echnol ogy ,andspi r i t ual i t yt hatst i l lexi stt oday .Atat i meofi nst ant aneouscommuni cat i on,whenhi st or yseemst ohave f adedf r om memor yandgl obalcont acthasshr unkt hewor l d,t hi si sacr i t i calexer ci sef orunder st andi ngcent r alpr i nci pl esofmoder nWest er n ci vi l i zat i ont hatst i l ldeepl yi nf or m andaf f ectourl i ves.Wi t ht hi smet hod,st udent sandaudi encesar eof f er edasenseoft hecont i nui t yofhuman cul t ur eandconsci ousness,anunder st andi ngofhowar ti savesselandmi r r orofhi st or y ,andt her el evanceofhi st or yf orourt i mes. Theni net eenst udent s,namedbel ow,wor kedasat eam t osel ectpai nt i ngs,pr i nt s,scul pt ur eanddecor at i veobj ect sf r om over300wor ksi nt he col l ect i on.Theyr esear chedandwr ot ecat al ogueent r i esandwal l t ext s,desi gnedt hel ayout ,andcr eat edt hesl i deshowsandaudi oandeducat i onal gui dest hataccompanyt heexhi bi t i on.I nt hecr eat i vespi r i tt hatchar act er i zedRenai ssancei nnovat i on,t heyexper i ment edwi t hnew i nt er act i ve t echnol ogi est hatar e,i nf act ,t hehi ght echout gr owt hofGut enber g’ si nvent i onoft hepr i nt i ngpr ess,whi chl edt ot her ei nvent i onofcul t ur eand i dent i t y .But ,asdemonst r at edi nt heexhi bi t i on,t hi smomental sosaw t heexpansi onofcont actandexchangewi t hnonWest er ncul t ur es,whi ch t odayf or mt hebasi sf oragl obalcul t ur et hatwi l l ,agai n,r ei nventwhowear e,howwet hi nkaboutour sel ves,andwhatwear eabl et oaccompl i sh. Wet hankPr of essorSasl ow f orhi si nspi r i ngandt hought f uli deasandf orgui di nghi sst udent si nt her eal i zat i onoft hi sexhi bi t i on.Wet hankt he st udent st hemsel ves—Ki mber l ey Babcock,Ter esa Cl ar ksonFar r el l ,Ant hony Del Aver sano,Ar i anne Fer nandez,Car ol i ne Ger ki s,Just i nne LakeJedzi nak,El i zabet hLamour t ,Pet erLeeds,Joel l ynMal oney ,Gal eMat t hews,Mar i aMur i l l o,Laur enNuzzol o, Ant oni aPer ez,Chr ysoul aPol i t ou, Wi l l i am St ei nman,Laur aSt evenson,NavaSt r ei t er ,Laur enWi l l i ams,andFl or aZhenRonKuo—f ort hei rexcel l entcont r i but i onsandhar dwor k.We t r ustt hatt heexper i encewasasgr at i f yi ngf ort hem asi twasf ort hemuseum,andknowi twi l lbef orouraudi ences. sot hankt hosewhosegener ousf undi ngmadet hi sexhi bi t i onandi t spr ogr amspossi bl e,i ncl udi ngt heNewYor kCi t yDepar t mentofCul t ur al Weal Af f ai r s,t heWannFami l yFoundat i on,t heQueensCol l egeOf f i ceoft hePr esi dent ,t heQueensCol l egeAr tDepar t mentandt heFr i endsoft he Godwi nTer nbachMuseum. Asal ways,wear egr at ef ult ot heGTM st af ff ort hei rdedi cat i onandunt i r i ngef f or ti npr oduci ngt hi sexhi bi t i on—Br i t aHel gesen,Al l ysonMel l one, Denni sCady ,Jessi caMar i ano, Ai shaHassan,andJohnThayer ,aswel l ast hemember soft heQueensCol l egecommuni t y ,f orf aci l i t at i ngt hemany aspect soft hi spr oj ect . AmyH.Wi nt er Di r ect orandCur at or
I ntroducti on Whatdoesi tmeant obe“ moder n, ”andhowdi dwear r i veatourcul t ur e,whi chi sdr amat i cal l ydi f f er entf r om howpeopl el i vedt hr oughoutourl ong humanpast ? Thef er t i l eper i odknownast heRenai ssance( ca.13001700)pr oducednumer ouscul t ur al i nnovat i onst hatsett hest agef ort oday’ sgl obal ,secul ar , andt echnol ogi cal wor l d.Hi st or i ansof t encal l i tt heEar l yModer nper i od:i twast hecr eat i vewombt hatconcei vedandnur t ur edembr yoni cf eat ur es ofmoder nsoci et y ,f i nal l ydel i ver edi nt he18t hcent ur ybyt hest eam engi neandt heAmer i canRevol ut i on.Thevi sualar t sbot hr ef l ect edt hese pr of oundchangesandhel pedcr eat et hem.Theypr ovi dedi magesoft hatexpandi ngwor l dt hathel pedpeopl et ounder st andnewi deasi nsci ence, r el i gi on,andgeogr aphy .Andt her evol ut i onar yt echnol ogyofpr i nt i ngspr eadaf l ur r yofconf l i ct i ngi deas,l eadi ngt oour“ i nf or mat i onage”ofmass medi aandcr osscul t ur alt ensi ons. Renai ssancemeans“ r ebi r t h, ”buti t scul t ur alt or r entf l owedf r om mor et hant heunear t hi ngofcl assi calGr eeceandRome. Thr eef ount ai nsof i nspi r at i onpour edoutcont r ast i ngst r eams:Sur vi valofi nst i t ut i onsf r om t hemedi evalpast ;Revi valofanci entknowl edgeandat t i t udes;and unpr ecedent edI nvent i oni nsci ence,t echnol ogy ,phi l osophy ,andt heol ogy .Theobj ect si nt hi sexhi bi t i on,f r om t heGodwi nTer nbachcol l ect i ons, ar egr oupedi nsi xcl ust er s,i l l ust r at i nghowt heser i ver sdeepenedandi nt er mi ngl ed.Thecl ust eronRel i gi ondepi ct ssur vi vi ngCat hol i ct r adi t i on,i t s oPr ot est antchal l enges,andt heJewi shmi nor i t y .Asecondhi ghl i ght sCl assi calRevi val ,whoseExpandi ngKnowl edgeAcr ossTi mei s r eact i ont cl osel yr el at edt ogr owi ngi nt er esti nTheI ndi vi dual ,vi si bl ei nbot hPor t r ai t ur eandNew Oppor t uni t i esf orWomen.Thr eecl ust er sspot l i ght aspect sofEmpi r i ci sm:t hei nnovat i vespi r i tofobser vat i onandexper i mentt hatpr oducedLandscapeandGenr easnew ar t i st i csubj ect s;t he Sci enceandTechnol ogyofPr i nt maki ngandPaper ;andt heabi l i t yt osai lar oundt hegl obe,t husExpandi ngKnowl edgeAcr ossSpace. Theexhi bi t i onwasdevel opedandr esear chedbygr aduat est udent si nar thi st or y ,st udi oar t ,andar teducat i on,i naFal l2009semi nar .Theywr ot e t hecat al ogueent r i est hatexpl ai neachobj ect ,aswel last hel ar gewal lpl aquesi nt r oduci ngeachcl ust er .St udentcont r i but i onsar ei dent i f i edby i ni t i al s( seet hei nt r oduct or ypagesoft hecat al oguef ornames) .Toconsul tonl i necat al ogueent r i est hatar enotpost ednextt ot heobj ect ,vi si tt he medi acent eri nt her eargal l er y .St udent sal socr eat edcont ext ual medi apr esent at i onsonkeyt hemes,vi ewabl eonmoni t or si nt hegal l er i es,anda r ecor dedaudi ot our ,whi chvi si t or swi t hpor t abl eaudi odevi cesmaydownl oad. Hi st or i ansar ef ondofsayi ng“ Thepasti spr ol ogue. ”Themoder ni t yt hatt hi sexhi bi t i onseekst oi l l umi nat ei sst i l l evol vi ng,andmanyagr eet hatwe ar enowatt hedawnofanot her ,“ post moder n”er a.Nooneknowswhatt hatwi l l br i ng,butr adi cal changet odaymakesi ti mpor t antt oappr eci at et he f or cest hatl edt oourwor l d.Onl ybyunder st andi nghowwegotwher ewear ecanwedi scer nwher ewear egoi ng. JamesM.Sasl ow,GuestCur at or Pr of essorofAr tHi st or yandRenai ssanceSt udi es
1 Af t erPi er r eGar ni er( Fr ench,17251800,Mast er1742) Bacchus Br onze
Ant i qui t y was an endl ess sour ce ofi nspi r at i on f orRenai ssance ar t i st s.I n 149697,Mi chel angel ocr eat edast andi ngmar bl ef i gur eofaBacchus,whi ch seemst obet hemodel f orourf i gur e.TheGr eekgodst andsi nanexagger at ed cl assi cal cont r appost oposi t i ononar ect angul arbase.I nhi sr i ghthandhehol ds at azza( wi necup)andi nhi sl ef tabunchofgr apes.Di onysusl eansagai nsta t r eest umpcover edbyanani malski nandgr apevi nes,whi chcur lupandcover hi s geni t al s.Wi ne was hi s gi f tt o hi sf ol l ower s,who dr ank i ti n abundant quant i t i esandi ndul gedt hemsel vesator gi est hataccompani edt her i t ual i st i c cer emoni esdedi cat edt ohi m( cat .no.45) . Thebasi cchar act er i st i coft hese r i t ual swasecst asy ,t hr oughwhi cht hegod’ si nt oxi cat edf ol l ower saccompl i shed t hei rspi r i t ualuni onwi t hhi m,ast hegi f toft hegodwaspassedt hr ought hei r bodi es. Anal mosti dent i calbr onzest at ueofBacchusatt heDr esdenMuseum,wor kof t he 18t hcent ur y Fr ench scul pt orPi er r e Gar ni er ,makes i tl i kel yt hatt hi s di spl ayedbr onzecamef r om t hesamewor kshop.Suchanobj ectwoul df i tt he aest het i csoft heBar oqueper i od,dur i ngwhi chFr enchscul pt ur eandpai nt i ng hadal r eadyat t ai nedt hei rdi st i nct i vecl assi cal char act erdur i ngt her ei gnofLoui s XI V.However ,t hesever alver si onsi nwhi cht hesamest at uet t eappear si nt he 18t hand19t hcent ur i espr eventusf r om accur at el ydat i ngourowncast i ng. Never t hel ess,al lt hese r epl i cas demonst r at et he l ongl ast i ng i nt er esti n anci entGr ecoRomanci vi l i zat i on,whi cht heRenai ssancemast er sandschol ar s i ni t i at edandt heNeocl assi ci st spr ol onged.Bacchust husat t est st ot hei nf l uence ofRenai ssancear tonEur opeancr eat i vi t yoft hef ol l owi ngcent ur i es. CP
2 Unknownar t i st ,Fl emi sh Vi r gi nAnnunci at e,Lat eMedi eval ,ca.1400s St onewi t ht r acesofpai nt
One oft he mor e popul arscenes oft he New Test amentt o be vi sual l y r epr esent edi st hemomentofChr i st ’ sconcept i on.Knownast heAnnunci at i on, t hest or yi nvol vest hear changelGabr i eli nf or mi ngt heVi r gi nMar yt hatshei s pr egnantwi t ht heSonofGod.Thi sl ar gest onescul pt ur edepi ct st heVi r gi nat t hemomentt heangel appear s.Hehasst ar t l edher ,asi sevi dentf r om herr i ght handpl acedonherbr eastasi fgaspi ngwhi l eherl ef thandr est sont hepageof t he bookshe hasj ustbeen r eadi ng.The wor kwoul d or i gi nal l yhave been compl et el ypai nt ed.Tr acesofyel l owr emai ni nherhai randr edandgr eenbl ue onherdr essandmant l e,r espect i vel y . Theunf i ni shedcondi t i onoft heback i ndi cat est hatt hef i gur ewoul dhavest oodi nani cheoragai nstawal l . TheRenai ssancehasl ongbeenseenast her evi valofcl assi cali deol ogyand r ej ect i onoft heMi ddl eAges. However ,asi nt hi sscene,notonl ydi dcer t ai n medi evalaspect ssur vi vei nt ot heRenai ssance,t heycont i nuedt ot hr i ve.One suchsur vi val i st heuseofvi sual r epr esent at i ont ohel pbot hl i t er at eandi l l i t er at e al i ket obet t erunder st andt hel i t ur gyspokendur i ngmass. Somemedi eval cat hedr al s,l i keAmi ens,pl acedAnnunci at i oni mager yont heext er i orj ambsof t hei rpor t al .Thus,evenbef or et hepar i shi onerent er edt hespace,heorshe woul dbeawar eoft hi si nt egr alpar toft hel i f eofChr i st .Evi denceofNor t her n Eur ope’ s cont i nued i nt er esti nt he Got hi c st yl e can al so be f ound i nt he decor at i onseeni nt het r ef oi lr el i efwor kont hebaseoft het abl e,r emi ni scentof cat hedr alwi ndows. Whi l et he count r yofor i gi ni sunknown,i ti snor t her n Eur opean,asonecanf i ndot herexampl esofast oneVi r gi ni nnear l yt hesame posei nar easofGer many . AJD
3 Wor kshopofGi anLor enzoBer ni ni( I t al i an,15981680) BustofaYoungWomanwi t haMant l e Mar bl e
Ther evi valoft hecl assi calt r adi t i onoft hei ndependentpor t r ai tbustwasoneof t hemor enot ewor t hyaccompl i shment sofI t al i anRenai ssancear t .Unl i ket he t ypi calanci entRomanbust ,ani deal i zed,abst r actf or mt hati senvi si onedonl y f r om t hef r ontandsetapar tbyasuppor t i ngbase,Renai ssancebust sar emer el y af r agment ,whi chcanevokebot hphysi cal andment al char act er i st i csofawhol e per sonf ort hevi ewer .I naddi t i on,t hi sbust ,wi t ht heheadt ur nedsl i ght l yt ot he r i ghtandt i l t edt ot hel ef t ,andt hel ef tshoul derhi ghert hant her i ght ,di f f er sf r om t hest i f f erf or msseeni ncl assi calbust s.Renai ssancear t i st sal l owedf ort he i l l usi onofmobi l i t yandmovementi npor t r ai tbust s. Thi swor ki st houghtt obef r om t hewor kshopofGi anLor enzoBer ni ni ,whoi s consi der ed t he cr eat orofBar oque Rome,wi t h achi evement s beyond t he t r adi t i onalr eal ms ofscul pt ur e,i ncl udi ng ar chi t ect ur e,ur ban pl anni ng,and i nt er i orandt heat r i caldesi gn.Hewasal soadmi r edf orhi sabi l i t yt opr oducean al most“ speaki ng�l i kenessi nhi spor t r ai t ur e.Thought hi sbustconsi st sofl i t t l e mor et han a head and t he begi nni ngs ofshoul der s,t he per i od oft he Count er Ref or mat i oni nRomesawast r ongi ncl i nat i ont owar dbust sconsi st i ng ofl i t t l emor et hant hehead,usual l yt oi ncl udeonmur alepi t aphsi nchur ches. Det ai l sofapor t r ayal ofaRenai ssancewomancanal sobever yr eveal i ngofher soci alst at us. Womenoft henobi l i t ywer epor t r ayedwear i ngext r emel yhi gh headdr essesconsi st i ngoft hi nner ,mor et r anspar entmat er i al s,wi t hl ower cut , embel l i sheddr esses;andt heywer egi venmor eel ongat edf aces,wi t hshaved f or eheads,pout i ngl i ps,andl ower ed,heavyl ooki ngeyes,t ogi vet hei mpr essi on ofal oof ness.Awomanoft hemi ddl ecl ass,bycont r ast ,woul dbedr apedwi t h heavi er ,dul l ermat er i al sandbemor ecover edup.Foral l cl asses,t her ewasan expect at i on and r esponsi bi l i t yf orpor t r ai t st o communi cat e mor et han j ust out war dappear ances. GDM
RELI GI ON AND THEARTS: FROM UNI TYAND FAI TH TO PLURALI SM AND REASON Af t ert heGr eatWest er nSchi sm oft he14t hcent ur y ,t heexi l edpapacywasr est or edt oRome,butt heCat hol i cChur chwasl ef twi t hdecr easedsoci al andpol i t i calaut hor i t yandadi r eneedf orr ef or m.Meanwhi l e,t hegr owi ngi nt er esti ncl assi calLat i nandGr eekt ext samongRenai ssanceschol ar s wasbegi nni ngt oi nf l uencet heol ogi calt houghtandpr act i ce,chal l engi ngt hecent ur i esol dt r adi t i onsoft heChur ch. I nt heMi ddl eAges,t hel ai t yunquest i oni ngl yobeyedeccl esi ast i cal l aws,i nor dert osaf eguar daf ut ur ei nPar adi se.Now,i nspi r edbyt hephi l osophi es ofant i qui t y ,peopl ewer ebegi nni ngt ocel ebr at et hei rmor t alexi st enceandemphasi zei ndi vi duall i f eandf r eewi l l .Toavoi df ur t herchal l engest oi t s aut hor i t y ,t heChur chembr acedt hephi l osophi esofChr i st i anhumani sm,at t empt i ngt ohouset henew conceptoft hei ndi vi dualwi t hi ni t sr el i gi ous f r amewor k.Renai ssancepopesdr ewhumani stschol ar st ot heVat i canandcommi ssi onedr el i gi ousar tandar chi t ect ur et hatempl oyedt hest yl esof ant i qui t yt or ei nf or cei t spr est i ge. However ,t heseexpensi vecommi ssi onsof t enwor kedagai nstt heChur ch,bei ngseenasgr ossabusesof eccl esi ast i calweal t handpr i vi l ege. Chr i st i anhumani sm l edt heol ogi anst or et hi nkandt r ansf or mt her el at i onshi pbet weent hei ndi vi dual humanbei ngandt hedi vi ne.Dur i ngt heMi ddl e Ages,communi cat i onwi t hGodandt her eadi ngofhol yt ext swer er est r i ct edt opr i est s,andt hepr ayer soft hel ai t ycoul donl ysucceedt hr ought he i nt er cessi onoft heVi r gi nMar yandt heSai nt s.However ,i nt he14t hand15t hcent ur i es,amovementar osei nt heLowCount r i escal l edt hedevot i o moder na,whi chencour ageddi r ectcont actwi t hGodt hr oughpr i vat epr ayerandst udyoft hescr i pt ur esf i r st hand.Theadventoft hepr i nt i ngpr ess al l owedpeopl et oacqui r et hesehol yt ext s,whi chwer ei ncr easi ngl yt r ansl at edi nt ot hever nacul ar ,andt hust or el yl essandl essont hecl er gyt o del i vert hewor dofGod. Wi t ht hespr eadofPr ot est antr ef or m movement si nt heNor t hi nt he16t hcent ur yandt hei rchal l engest oChur chdoct r i ne,t heCounci lofTr ent ( 154563)washel dt or ei t er at e Cat hol i cl awsand t ol ayt or estdi sput esofi t spower . To answert he obj ect i onst or el i gi ousi mager y ,t he Count er Ref or mat i onpl acedagr eat eri mpor t anceonhi ghl yemot i onalr epr esent at i onsofBi bl i calnar r at i vesandencour agedi magesr epr esent i ng Chr i st ’ spassi on.Ani ncr easedemphasi swasal sopl acedont hel i vesoft hesai nt sandear l yChr i st i anmar t yr s,asar eact i onagai nstt hePr ot est ant denunci at i onofmedi evalhagi ogr aphyandpapalaut hor i t y .TheJesui t s,adevoutCat hol i cmovementl edbyI gnat i usLoyol a,pr omot edt heear l y mar t yr sasmor alexempl ar sonmi ssi onar ycampai gnst ot heNor t h,di st r i but i ngpr i nt edhandbooksandseeki ngt oconver ther et i cs. Ther el i gi ousandi nt el l ect ual i nnovat i onst hatdevel opedi nEur opei nt heear l ymoder nper i odundoubt edl yl ef tt hei rmar kont hest at usandpr act i ces oft heChur chi nRome.Event hemostt r adi t i onal wor ksofr el i gi ousar tcoul dnotr emai nunaf f ect edbyt hest r ongcur r entofhumani sti deol ogi esand t her ei nt r oduct i onoft hei ndi vi dual . LS
4 Unknownar t i st ,Spani sh PapalSai nt ,Lat eMedi eval ,ca.1500s Woodandpai nt
Thi sel abor at el ydr essedmal ef i gur ehasbeeni dent i f i edasapapal sai nt .Hei s i nt hemi dstofof f er i ngabl essi ngt ohi svi ewer s,asi sevi denti nt hegest ur eof hi sr i ghthand;hi sl ef twoul dhavemostl i kel yhel dacr osi erorst af f .Thepapal t i ar ahewear sevol vedf r om apoi nt edr oundcapi nt he1 1t hcent ur yt ot heor nat e t r i pl ecr ownedheadpi ecei nt he16t hcent ur y ,wi t hvar i at i onsst i l lbei ngusedby t hepapacyt oday . Spai nhadgr eati nt er esti nt hear t i st i cst yl esofNor t her n Eur ope, i ncl udi ng t he cont i nuat i on of some medi eval t hemes. Vi sual r epr esent at i onsofsai nt sbot hi npai nt i ngandscul pt ur econt i nuedt obepopul ar t hr ought heear l ymoder nper i od. Thecont i nui t yofmedi eval i nf l uencei sevi denti nt hepopul armedi um ofpai nt ed woodscul pt ur e. Thepapalsai ntbear sst r i ki ngr esembl ancet oaCat al oni an scul pt ur eofSai ntPet erasf i r stpopef r om 13001450i nwhi cht hef i gur ei si na si mi l arpose.I nbot hi nst ancest hef unct i onr emai nst hesame:af ol l owerwoul d pr ayt ot her epr esent edsai nt si nt hehopet hatt heywoul dser veasi nt er cessor s bet weent hepar i shi onerandt hehol yf i gur esofGod,t heVi r gi n,orChr i st .We, ashumans,ar enotseenaswor t hyt ospeak di r ect l yt ot hem,butduet ot hei r hol y st at us t he oncemor t alsai nt s have t he abi l i t yt o speak f orus. Thi s scul pt ur ef unct i ons i nt he same way as t he t wo r el i quar i es near by i nt hi s exhi bi t i on( cat .nos.5and6) .Thepapalsai ntmi ghtnothol dt hesameaweor myst i ci sm,duet oi t sl ackofanybonef r agmentorcl ot ht hatwoul dhavebeen housedi nt her el i quar y .Buti tst i l l woul dhavebeensuf f i ci entt oal l owt hef ai t hf ul t ohaveavi sualpoi ntofr ef er encet ot hei nt endedsai nt .Unf or t unat el y ,i ti snot knownspeci f i cal l ywhom t hef i gur ei smeantt or epr esent . AJD
5 Unknownar t i st ,Br abant ,Dut ch Rel i quar ybustofyoungwoman,ca.1400s Woodandpai nt
Rel i quar i eswer econt ai ner st ohouset her el i csofsai nt sandot herhol yper sons. Dur i ngt heMi ddl eAgesandt heRenai ssance,t hei rpr oduct i onwasconnect edwi t h si l ver smi t handgol dsmi t hwor kshops,ofwhi cht hi sexampl ef ol l owst het r adi t i on. Theyof t ent ookt heshapeoft hebodypar tf r om whi cht her el i cwaspr oduced.Such cont ai ner swer ecal l ed“ speaki ngr el i quar i es. � Bustr el i quar i eswer epr oducedt o houseskul l sorskul l f r agment soft hehol yper son.Suchcont ai ner swer epl acedon ornearal t ar sand,byt hel at eMi ddl eAges,t her emi ghthavebeenmanyoft hem wi t hi n a chur ch sanct uar y . Of t ent i mes,t he bustwoul d cont ai n a smal lgl azed medal l i ont hatl ookedl i kej ewel r y .I nsi det hemedal l i onwoul dbemor er el i cs. Thi sexampl eofaf emal er el i quar ybusti smadeofpai nt edwood,whi chr et ai ns t r acesoft heor i gi nal col or i ng.Herheadi scar vedi namannert hati mpl i est hatshe i swear i ngar ol lofcl ot hwi t hj ewel s. Ther ol lmayhavepossi bl ybeenpar tofa t ur banwhi chwasf ashi onedoutofact ual cl ot h,f ort hehai rabovet her ol l i ssket chi l y r ender ed.Ther el i quar yi sNet her l andi shanddat esf r om t he15t hcent ur y .I ti sl i kel y t hecont ai nerwaspr oducedi nt hehi st or i cal r egi onofBr abant ,awi der angi ngar ea oft he Low Count r i esknown dur i ng t he Renai ssance f ori t swor kshops,whi ch pr oducedr el i quar i esandl i t ur gi cal equi pment .Compar abl et oot herext antr el i quar y bust sf r om Br abant ,ofpar t i cul ari nt er esti sanexampl ehel dbyt heLosAngel es Count yMuseum ofAr ti nt heWi l l i am Randol phHear stCol l ect i on.Li keouryoung woman,shewear sat ur banpar t i al l ymadeofahi nged,f abr i cl i nedl i d.Sheal sohas t hepl ast i cf eat ur esandar chai csmi l eofourr el i quar y ,maki ngi tl i kel yt hatour smay beat t r i but edt oBr abant . Ther e have been sever ali deas aboutwhathol y per son t hi sr el i quar y bust r epr esent s.Onepossi bi l i t yi st hati thel dar el i cofMar yMagdal ene,whowasof t en depi ct edwi t hasi mi l arheadcover i ngi nNet her l andi shar tdur i ngt heRenai ssance, mostnot abl yi nt hewor ksofRogi ervanderWeyden. JLJ
6 Unknownar t i st ,I t al i an Rel i quar yi nt hef or m ofanar m wi t habl essi nghand,Lat eGot hi c,ca.1400s Woodandcopper
Rel i cswer ehousedi ncont ai ner sknownasr el i quar i es,whi chof t ent ookt he shapeoft hebodypar toft her el i c.Abonef r om af i ngermi ghtbehousedi na handshapedr el i quar y ,whi l easkul lmi ghtbeencasedi noner esembl i ngt he headorbustoft hedeceasedper son. Thesewer ecal l ed“ speaki ngi mage” r el i quar i es,because t hey st ood i nf oror“ spoke”f ort he body par tt hey r esembl ed.Thi sexampl ei si nt heshapeofanar m,ar at herwi despr eadf or mi n l at e medi evaland ear l yRenai ssance t i mes,exampl esofwhi ch have been r ecover edi npl acesasdi st antasmoder ndayAr meni aandI r el and.Becausea r el i quar ywast houghtt or et ai nt hepowerandhol i nessoft hesai nt l yper son, cl er gyused ar mr el i quar i est o bl esspeopl e orhealt he si ck. The hand i s posi t i onedi namannerspeci f i cal l yassoci at edwi t ht hebenedi ct i on,orl i t ur gi cal bl essi ng.Oddl y ,al t houghmanyext antr el i quar i esar ei nt heshapeofanar m, t her ear enonesur vi vi ngt hatdepi ctal ef tar m,possi bl yduet ot henegat i ve associ at i ons wi t ht hatdi r ect i on and speci f i cal l y ,t he st i gma at t ached t o l ef t handedness. Thi sar mr el i quar yi smadeofpai nt edandgi l dedwood.I thasbeenbadl ywor n overt i me,havi ngl ostmostofi t sext er i ordecor at i on,whi chmostl i kel yconsi st ed ofagi l dedsur f aceembel l i shedwi t hpr eci ousst ones.Thebaseoft her el i quar y r et ai nst hegi l dedl ookt hatwoul dhaveappl i edt ot heent i r econt ai ner .Thear m cont ai nsar ecessi nwhi cht hebodyf r agmentwaspl aced.Aswascommon dur i ngt heMi ddl eAgesandRenai ssance,t her ei sat r anspar entcr yst al t hr ough whi cht hepi eceoff l eshorbonewasvi si bl et ot hedevout . Thepr act i ceof showi ng t he f l eshyr emai nsoft he deceased hol yper son wasa pr omi nent aspectofpubl i cr i t uali nI t al i an chur chesdur i ng t hi sper i od,and wasl at er denouncedbyt hePr ot est ant s. JLJ
7
JusepedeRi ber a,LoSpagnol et t o( Spani sh,15911652) St .Jer omeReadi ng,ca.1624 Et chi ngwi t hengr avi nganddr ypoi nt
Thi spr i ntpor t r aysSt .Jer ome,apopul arRenai ssancesubj ect ,her eseat edbyawal l r eadi ngascr ol l wi t hHebr ewwr i t i ng;al ongsi dear easkul l ( r ef er r i ngt ohi s medi t at i ononmor t al i t yanddeat h) ,books,al i on( f r om t hel egendi nwhi chhet amedal i onaf t err emovi ngat hor nf r om i t spaw) ,andast one( wi t hwhi chhebeat hi schesti nr epent ance) .StJer omewasvener at eddur i ngt heCount er Ref or mat i onf orhi ssuppor toft hepapacyandi sbestknownt odayf orhi st r ansl at i onof t heBi bl ei nt oLat i nf r om t heor i gi nalHebr ew.St .Jer ome,whoact edasapr i est l ygui deandt eacherf orf r i ends,wascl assi cal l yeducat edandst udi edHebr ew wi t haconver t edJew.Ther evi si t i ngofHebr ewst udi eswi t hi nChr i st i ani t yowesmucht oSt .Jer ome,andhi sver si onoft heBi bl ei sst i l l r ecogni zedbyt heRoman Cat hol i cChur ch. AsaSpani ar dwor ki ngi nNapl es,Ri ber awaspor t r ayi ngSt .Jer omei nacent erofi nnovat i onatt het i me.Whi l eNapl eswasf acedwi t hsoci al andpol i t i cal decl i ne, si mul t aneousl yt her ewer er ef or ms,newl i t er ar yandar t i st i ci deas,andnewsci ent i f i ci nqui r y;i nt el l ect ual l i f ei nt ensi f i edpol i t i cal quest i oni ngandst r uggl e.These schol ar l yexpl or at i onsofnew i deashel pexpl ai nRi ber a’ suni quedepi ct i onofSt .Jer ome.Ar t i st sl ear nedt or ever eJer omef orhi sschol ar shi pandf orhi s accept anceofot hermeansofi l l umi nat i onbyseeki ngnewper spect i vesandsour cesofi nf or mat i on. Ri ber ai sr ecogni zedf orhi snat ur al i sm andexpr essi venessi nt het r eat mentofChr i st i ansubj ect s,whi chi ncl udedher oesandmar t yr s.Hechoset odepi ctt he devot i onali mageofSt .Jer omewi t har eal i sm si mi l art ot hati nhi spor t r ai t sf r om l i f e.Ther ei sal soadegr eeofcl assi calant i qui t yi nhi st hen“ moder n”wor k: unl i ket heusual depi ct i onsofSt .Jer omedur i ngt heCount er Ref or mat i on,t hi si mageshowshi shumani t yr at hert hanhi scl osenesst oGod.I r oni cal l y ,Ri ber a’ s t r i but et oapi l l arofCat hol i cor t hodoxyandhi si deal sofwi der angi ngi nqui r yhi ghl i ghtt hei ncr easi ngacknowl edgmentofapl ur al i st i csoci et y . EL
8
Rembr andtHar menzvanRi j n( Dut ch,16061669) Jewsi nt heSynagogue,1648 Et chi ngwi t hengr avi nganddr ypoi nt
Rembr andt ’ sJewsi nt heSynagoguedepi ct sJewi shl i f ei nmi d17t hcent ur yAmst er dam.I ti si ndi cat i veoft hei nt er connect i onandmut ualr espectofdi f f er ent cul t ur esatt hebegi nni ngsoft hepl ur al i st i csoci et ypi oneer edbyt heDut chatt hatt i me. MuchofHol l and’ sdevel opmentoccur r eddur i ngRembr andt ’ sl i f e,i ncl udi ngt heset t l ementofvar i ousJewi shgr oupsat t r act edt ot heNet her l andsi nt heear l y17t h cent ur ybyt hepr omi seofr el i gi oust ol er anceandat hr i vi ngeconomy .Thet wol ar gestgr oupswer et heAshkenazi candSephar di cJews,whonol ongerhadt o f ei gnt hebel i efi nChr i st i ani t yt hathadbeenf or cedupont hem i nt hei radopt edhomel ands.By1796,Jewswer egr ant edf ul l ci t i zenr i ght si nt heNet her l andsand cont r i but edt ot henat i onall i f ei nsoci al ,pol i t i calandeconomi car eas. I npar tbecauseoft hei rpr esence, Amst er dam becamemor eopent ot hewor l d,mor emoder nandf or war dl ooki ng.Rembr andti st houghtt ohavei nt er act edwi t h Jewswhenhemovedt ot heBr eest r aatsect i onoft heci t y ,al soknownast he“ Jewi shQuar t er , ”whi chwasheavi l ypopul at edbyPor t ugueseJewswhoser eason andi nt el l ectadvancedt hebr oaderspi r i tofi nqui r ymor et hant hei nsul arCal vi ni stt heol ogi ansoft het i me. Al t houghhewasmostl i kel yr ai sedundert heCal vi ni st bel i efsyst em,Rembr andt ’ swor ki mpl i est hathei dent i f i edwi t hanci entHebr ewhi st or yandwasi nf or medbyanci entJewi shsour ces( l i keSt .Jer ome,cat .no.7) . Fur t her mor e,whi l el i vi ngi nt hi scommuni t y ,Rembr andtpr obabl ycamei nt ocont actwi t ht hef amousMenassehbenI sr ael ,aPor t ugueser abbi ,kabbal i st ,schol ar , di pl omat ,andf ounderoft hef i r stHebr ewpr i nt i ngpr ess.Thi si spossi bl ywhyhewassowel l i nf or medaboutanci entJewi shsour cesbeyondt heBi bl e,i ncl udi ng r abbi ni ct extandHebr ewl egend. Al t hought her ehasbeensomedebat eamongschol ar s,t hesubj ect sar emostl i kel yAshkenazi m,r ecogni zabl ebyt hei rsi decur l sandt al lf urhat s.Thi swor ki s especi al l ysi gni f i canti nt hatRembr andtgi vesamor eaccur at e,enl i ght enedandunbi asedpor t r ayalofJewst hanmanyot herRenai ssancear t i st s,whoof t en car i cat ur i zedJewsi nanunf l at t er i ngl i ght . EL
9
Fr ansFr anckenI I( Fl emi sh,15811642) Wor shi poft heGol denCal f ,ca.16301635 Oi loncanvas,t r ansf er r edt owoodi n1812
Thi spai nt i ngdepi ct st heOl dTest amentst or yoft hewor shi poft heGol denCal f .I nt hef or egr ound,peopl ebr i ngAar ont hei rgol df ort hei dol ;i nt hedi st ance, t hecal fi sseenr ai sedonapedest al wi t hmai densdanci ngar oundi t .Thi spi ece,l i keot herscr i pt ur al wor ksbyFr ancken,i sr ecogni zedf ori t sal l egor i cal cont ent andmor al i zi ngmessage. Fr ancken’ si ncl usi onofst or i esf r om t heJewi shf ai t hbr oughtpr omi nencet ot hei rpr esencei nsoci et y . Thesepor t r ayal sal so connect edt hemessagesshar edbybot hJudai sm andChr i st i ani t y . Ast ol di nExodus32,t hesecondbookoft heOl dTest ament ,andl at err abbi ni ccomment ar y ,t hest or yt el l sofMosesgoi ngt ot het opofMountSi nai t or ecei ve t heTenCommandment sf r om God.Whenhedi dnotcomebackasexpect ed,t heEgypt i answhoaccompani edt heI sr ael i t esconvi ncedt hem t hatMoseswoul d neverr et ur n.Thepeopl ewentt oAar onandHur ,whower el eadi ngt heJewi shcampi nMoses’ absence,anddemandedt hatt heymakeani dolt or epl acet he godofMoses.Hurr ef usedand,i nt hei ranger ,t heI sr ael i t eski l l edhi m. Aar onf ear edt heywoul ddot hesamet ohi m,soheaskedt hepeopl et opar twi t ht hei rgol di nor dert omaket hei dol .Aar ont houghtt hi swoul dt empert hei r demandsunt i l Mosesr et ur ned.However ,upont hei ragr eement ,hewasobl i gat edt omaket hei dol .TheEgypt i ans,wi t ht hei ruseofmagi c,madet hegol di nt o t hef or m ofacal f .TheI sr ael i t eswant edt opayhomaget oi t ,soAar ont ol dt hem hewoul dcr eat eanal t arandt hatt henextdaywoul dbeoneofwor shi p. TheBi bl i calst or yoft heGol denCal fi ssi gni f i cantt obot hJewsandChr i st i ans.Thest or yhol dsgr eati mpor t ancef orJewsbecausei nr abbi ni ct heol ogyi ti s bel i evedt obet hesi nt hathel dt hewor stconsequencesf ort hepeopl eofI sr ael ,ast hosewhowor shi ppedi twer epuni shedbydeat h.I twasi mpor t antal sot o t hepeopl eoft heRef or mat i onbecausei tdi spl ayst heconsequencesofi dol at r y . EL
10 Fol l owerofAl essandr oAl gar di( I t al i an,15981654) Chr i statt heCol umn,ca.1630 Br onzef i gur ei npol ychr omewoodt aber nacl e
Cr eat edbyaf ol l oweroft hehi ghBar oquescul pt orAl gar di ,t hescul pt ur edepi ct s t heFl agel l at i onscenei nwhi chChr i sti st i edt oacol umnandwhi ppedbef or ehi s Cr uci f i xi on.Wi t ht he ever gr owi ng pr esence oft he Pr ot est antmovement , Cat hol i cChur chof f i ci al st r i edt of i ghtwhatt heysaw asher esybyusi ngvi sual r epr esent at i on as a f or m ofeducat i on f ort he masses.I n or dert o ensur e uni ver salcompr ehensi on,ar twast obedevoi dofanyext r aneousdet ai lt hat mi ghtl eadt hevi ewerast r ayf r om t hei nt endedr el i gi oust eachi ng,andt hus becomeaher et i chi msel f . Twent yyear saf t erhi smovet oRomef r om Mant ua,Al gar dibecameaf avor i t e ar t i stofPopeI nnocentX,whor ul edf r om 16441655.Bei ngsocl oset ot he papacy ,t hel ar gestpat r onoft hear t sdur i ngt hi sper i od,woul dhaveensur edt hat hi sar t i st i cst yl ef ol l owed t he r ul esoft he Count er Ref or mat i on.Hi smet hod woul dal sohavebeenr epl i cat edbyhi sunknownf ol l ower ,whomostl i kel yhad f ound i nspi r at i on i n anot her Fl agel l at i on scene by Al gar di , now i nt he Kunst hi st or i chesMuseum i nVi enna,i nwhi chChr i sti swhi ppedbyt wof i gur es. Ourscul pt ur eofChr i st ,nowpl acedal onei nt hef acsi mi l eofawoodeni nt er i orof achur ch,st i l lr et ai nst heCount er Ref or mat i oni deal s.Chr i st ’ spr oj ect i onf r om t hebackgr ound,sl umpi ngpost ur e,cont r ast i ngmedi um ofbr onze,andhi gh l evelofdet ai li nsur et hevi ewer ’ sunder st andi ngoft hewor k’ smessage:t hat Chr i stsuf f er edgr eat l yf ort hesal vat i onofhi st r uebel i ever s,t hef ol l ower soft he Cat hol i cChur ch.Nei t hert hel ackoff i gur esact ual l yt or ment i ngChr i stnort he or nat el y car ved set t i ng t ake away f r om t he emot i on bei ng expr essed.I n conj unct i onwi t ht hi swor k,compar et hepor t r ai tofEr asmusofRot t er dam by Al br echtDür er( cat .no.12) ,apr omi nentPr ot est antsympat hi zeragai nstwhom t heCount erRef or mat i onwoul dhavebeenai med. AJD
RELI GI ON AND THEARTS: THEPROTESTANTREFORMATI ON Chr i st i ani t ydur i ngt heRenai ssancewasmar kedbycor r upt i on,upheaval ,andi nt er nalandext er nalr ef or m.Byt hebegi nni ngoft he 16t hcent ur y ,cl er i calabusesl edt odi ssensi onamongdi st i ngui shedChur chmember s;t hemostgl ar i ngexampl ewast hesal eof i ndul gences,whi chpr omi sedt her emi ssi onofpuni shmentduef orsi ns.I npar t i cul ar ,JohannTet zel ’ saggr essi vesal est or ai sef unds t or ebui l dSt .Pet er ’ sBasi l i cai nRomepr ovokedt heGer manpr i estMar t i nLut hert ocomposehi sNi net yFi veThesesont hePower andEf f i cacyofI ndul gences.Thet heseswer ef amousl ypost edont hedoor soft hecast l echur chatWi t t enber gi n1517,mar ki ngt he begi nni ngoft hePr ot est antRef or mat i on.TheNi net yFi veThesesal soquest i onedot herChur chpol i ci es,i ncl udi ngi deasabout pur gat or yandj udgment ,devot i ont oMar y ,t hei nt er cessi onofanddevot i ont ot hesai nt s,cl er i calcel i bacy ,andcr i t i ci sm oft hepope. Thet hesesout l i nedmanyoft hei ssuest hatwoul dpr omptot herr ef or mer ssuchasUl r i chZwi ngl i ,JohnHus,andJohnCal vi nt oat t ack t heest abl i shedChur ch. Onepr act i ceespeci al l ydi st ur bi ngt or ef or mer swast hevener at i onofr el i cs,obj ect sorbodypar t sassoci at edwi t hsacr edevent sor sai nt s.Thebel i eft hatr el i cswer ei mbuedwi t hdi vi nepower sseemedal ar mi ngl ycl oset oi dol at r y ,apr act i cef r om whi cht heChur ch hadl ongsoughtt odi st ancei t sel f .Per hapsevenmor edi st r essi ngwer et henumer ousr el i csofquest i onabl eor i gi n,i ncl udi ngf eat her s f r om t hewi ngsofSt .Mi chaelandf r agment sf r om pot susedatt hebi bl i calweddi ngi nCana.I nt hever ycast l echur chatWi t t enber g wher et heNi net yf i veThesesappear ed,Fr eder i ckI I IofSaxonyhel doneofEur ope’ sl ar gestcol l ect i ons,over5, 000r el i csi ncl udi ng, ost ensi bl y ,st r aw f r om t hemangerofJesus,t hebodyofoneoft hei nnocent smassacr edbyKi ngHer od,andvi al sofmi l kf r om t he Vi r gi nMar y .Theseamassedr el i cssupposedl ypr ovi dedFr eder i ckwi t hover120, 000year sofr emi ssi onf r om pur gat or y .Lut herand ot herr ef or mer scausedFr eder i ckgr eatembar r assmentbypoi nt i ngoutt heabsur di t yofhi sdevot i ont ot heser el i c“ t r easur es. ” However ,t her ef or mer ssoondi sagr eedamongt hemsel vesanddi vi dedt hei rmovement ,r esul t i ngi nt heest abl i shmentofr i val Pr ot est antchur chesi nWest er nEur ope,suchast heLut her an,Dut chRef or med,Cal vi ni st ,andPr esbyt er i ansect s. I naddi t i ont o l eader swhobr okeaway ,t her ewer eCat hol i cswhocr i t i ci zedsomebel i ef sandpr act i cesoft heChur chyetr emai nedcommi t t edt o r ef or mi ngi tf r om wi t hi n.Themosti mpor t antpr oponentoft hi smoder at evi ew wasEr asmusofRot t er dam,amanwhoear nedbot h suppor tandcr i t i ci sm f r om Chur chf ol l ower sanddet r act or sal i ke( cat .no.12) .Hi si deas,asmuchast hoseofdi ssent er swhof i r ml y r ej ect ed t he est abl i shed chur ch,accel er at ed t he devel opmentoft he Count er Ref or mat i on ( somet i mes cal l ed t he Cat hol i c Ref or mat i on) ,whi chwast heChur ch’ sr esponset ot hePr ot est antupr i si ng:amovementf ori nt er nal r ef or mi nwhi chi ssuesbr oughtt o t hef or ef r ontbyPr ot est antr ef or mer swer eopenl yaddr essed. JLJ
11
Pet erFl öt ner( Ger man,ca.1475/ 851546) Pr i nt edbyHansGul denmund( Ger man,14901560) ThePoorCommonAss,1525or1526 Woodcut
ThePoorCommonAsswascr eat edi nNur ember g,Ger manyasani l l ust r at edbr oadsi de,orl ar gesheetofpapert hatwasnotf ol dedandof t enf unct i onedasa post er .I nt hedecadef ol l owi ngt hepubl i cat i onoft hepr i nt ,Nur ember gbecameknownf ori t spr oduct i onofi l l ust r at edbr oadsi des.Oft hepubl i sher sact i vei n Nur ember gdur i ngt heRenai ssance,f ew wer easwel l knownorpr ol i f i casHansGul denmund.A woodcut t erandi l l umi nat orofmanuscr i pt s,hewasl at er r ecogni zedf orhi sengr avi ngsofRef or mat i onl eader s.Asapubl i sher ,hei scr edi t edwi t ht her el easeofwoodcut sdesi gnedbyHansBr osamer ,Al br echtDür er andEdwar dSchoen.I ndeed,hi sf amest emsf r om hi sr ol ei nt hepr ol i f er at i onofRef or mat i oner ai mages,wi t hal lt her el i gi ousandpol i t i cali mpl i cat i onsoft he wor khepr i nt ed,asmuchasi tdoesf r om hi sor i gi nalcr eat i ons.ThePoorCommonAssbr oughthi mf ameandr ecogni t i onwheni twasf i r stpubl i shedi n1525. ThePoorCommonAssi sasymbol i cwor kshowi ngmal i ci ousandi mmor al compani onsf i ght i ngagai nstr i ght eousandj ustf i gur es( i thassever al al t er nat i vet i t l es: TheCour seoft heWor l d:Tyr anny ,Gr eed,andDi ssi mul at i onFi ght i ngAgai nstt heWor dofGod;andTyr anny ,Usur y ,andHypocr i sy) .Let t er pr esst i t l esi dent i f y t hevar i ousal l egor i cal f i gur esi nt hepr i nt .Thei mage’ sact i oncanber eadf r om l ef tt or i ghtasf ol l ows:t hepeasant r y ,r epr esent edbyt hedonkey ,hasj ustki cked Rel i gi ousHypocr i sy( t heRomanCat hol i cChur ch) .However ,Tyr anny ,i nmal ef or m andwear i ngar mor ,r i dest hedonkeywhi l eUsur y( i dent i f i edasaJew)f l ays i tal i ve.HumanReason,per soni f i edasawomanwear i nganel abor at eheaddr ess,of f er sabl i ndf ol dt ot hedonkey ,showi nghert obeunt r ust wor t hy .Just i cei s shownasahel pl esswomanl ockedi nt hest ocks,whi l eCommonSenser emai nsbat t l er eadyatt hef arr i ghtoft hepr i nt . Thepr i ntaccompani edapoem byHansSachs,apl aywr i ghtandar dentf ol l owerofMar t i nLut her .Thepoem,t i t l ed“ ThePoorCommonAss, ”scol dedt he peasant saf t ert hei rr evol t :“ Ass!Youhavebeenbl i ndedbyr eason,whenyout hi nkt oopposet heaut hor i t i es:f orGodhasest abl i shedt hem t opuni shyoursi ns. Sodonotbeobst i nat eandbearyourcr ossi nyourdi st r ess.Bepat i entunt i lt heEnd… l eavevengeancei nGod’ shands. ” JLJ
12 Al br echtDür er( Ger man,14711528) Er asmusofRot t er dam,1526 Engr avi ng Desi der i us Er asmus, Chr i st i an t heol ogi an and humani st , wi t nessed t he bur geoni ng movementt hatwoul d come t o be known as t he Pr ot est ant Ref or mat i on,yetr emai ned commi t t ed t or ef or mi ng t he Chur ch f r om wi t hi n. Her e,hei sdepi ct edbypr i nt erandf el l ow t heor i stAl br echtDür er .Er asmus r epr esent edamor emoder at eposi t i ont hanhi scont empor ar y ,Mar t i nLut her ,a manf orwhom Dür ercl ear l yhadsympat hy ,t houghunl i keLut hert hear t i stnever openl y br oke wi t ht he Roman Cat hol i c Chur ch. Hi sr el i gi ous l oyal t i es not wi t hst andi ng,Er asmusgai nedt her espectofbot hLut herandDür erf orhi s super i orl ear ni ng and commi t mentt or ef or m.The r espectwas mut ual ,f or Er asmuswasagr eatadmi r erofDür er ’ swor k,i nqui r i ngonce:“ Whatcannot Dür erexpr essi nmonochr omes,t hati s,bybl ackl i nesonl y?” I n1520,Dür er gaveEr asmusanengr avi ngoft hePassi on( seet hePassi onpr i nt sont heupper l evel ) ,andi n1526execut edanengr avi ngoft het heol ogi an,t hemostf amous symboloft heconnect i onbet weent het woi nf l uent i almen. Er asmusi sshowni nast andi ngposi t i on,wor ki ngathi sdesk,sur r oundedbyt he bookst hatr epr esenthi sschol ar shi pandsuper i ori nt el l ect . ALat i ni nscr i pt i onon t hewal l pr ocl ai ms:“ Thi si mageofEr asmusofRot t er dam wasdr awnf r om l i f eby Al br echtDür er . ”Accompanyi ngt heLat i ni saGr eeki nscr i pt i on:“ Abet t erpor t r ai t hi swr i t i ngsshow. ”TheGr eekwascopi edf r om amedali nt hepossessi onof t hei rmut ual f r i endWi l l i bal dPi r ckhei mer . Thequot ei t sel fi ndi cat est hatonemay bet t erunder st and Er asmus’ s nat ur et hr ough hi s wr i t t en wor ks,r at hert han t hr oughagr aphi cl i keness. Thei nscr i pt i onsal soshowt hecommandofcl assi cal l anguageandl ear ni nghel dbyt hesubj ectwhi l eal sospeaki ngt ot hear t i st ’ s knowl edge.I mmedi at el ybel owt hei nscr i pt i oni st hedat eofexecut i on( 1526)as wel lasDür er ’ smonogr am. Theengr avi nghast heuni quedi st i nct i onofbei ngDür er ’ sl ast ,f orhedi edl ess t hant woyear saf t eri t scompl et i on.Unf or t unat el y ,Er asmusf oundt hepor t r ai t r at herl acki ng,asheat t est edonsever al occasi ons.However ,hedi dappr eci at e t hepoweroft hepr i nt edi mage,andi nl i ghtoft hef actt hatt hi si mager emai ns oneofDür er ’ smostf amous( andt hemostr ecogni zabl el i kenessofEr asmus) , one woul dl i ke t ot hi nkt hatEr asmuswoul d have appr eci at ed i t scont i nued i mpact ,near l yf i vecent ur i esaf t eri t sexecut i on. JLJ
13
Wor kshopofAndr eadel l aRobbi a( I t al i an,14351525) Lunet t eofMadonnabet weenSai nt sFr anci sandJohn, ca.14601520 Gl azedt er r acot t a
Thi sl ar gegl azedt er r acot t ar el i efpr esent sbust l engt hpor t r ai t soft hr eehol yf i gur es:t heVi r gi nMar y ,Sai ntFr anci s,andJohnt heBapt i st .Thet womal ef i gur es ar er ecogni zabl ebyFr anci s’ st onsur edhai r ,i nwhi cht hecent eri sshaved,andJohnt heBapt i st ’ shai rshi r tandcr osst oppedst af f . Renai ssancei nnovat i onswer ecausednotonl ybynewi deol ogi esl i kePr ot est ant i sm.Devel opment si nar t i st i cmedi aal sooccur r ed,asseenher ei nt heuseof gl azedt er r acot t aorbakedcl ay .Ast ol dbyt he16t hcent ur ywr i t erGi or gi oVasar i ,Lucadel l aRobbi a, Andr ea’ suncl e,i nvent edanewt i nbasedgl azi ngt echni que t hatwoul dal l ow t het er r acot t at obeext r emel ydur abl e,evenwhenf aci ngnat ur alel ement sont heext er i orofabui l di ng.Thecl aywor kwasf i r edi nanoven, t hencover edwi t haf r i t ,apowder edsubst ancecont ai ni ngsi l i caandt i noxi de,bef or ebei ngf i r edagai n.Whenheat ed,t hesi l i ca-andt i nbasedf r i tpr oducesan opaquegl assf i xedt ot hecl ay’ ssur f ace.I thasbeenar guedt hatLucawasnoti nnovat i vei nt hecr eat i onoft hegl aze,buthewast hef i r stt oappl yi tt oscul pt ur al wor ks. Fr om t hatmoment ,t hedel l aRobbi awor kshop,cont i nuedbyAndr ea,excl usi vel ywor kedi nt hegl azedt er r acot t amedi um.Yetevenwi t ht hi snewar tf or m,t he ar t i st scont i nuedt ocr eat eobj ect swhosef unct i onscanbet r acedbackt ot heMi ddl eAges.Thei rwor ksr angedf r om l ar geal t ar pi ecesandsmal l wal l pl aquest o wor ksl i ket hi s,whi chwaspl acedovert hei nt er i ororext er i orofachur chdoor way .Justl i ket heor nat el ycar vedst oner el i efwor kf oundont hepor t al sofGot hi c cat hedr al s,t hel unet t ewoul dhaveser vedt hepur poseofpr ovi di ngavi sualsuppor tf ort hepar i shi oner sl i st eni ngt ot hel i t ur gyspokendur i ngt hemass. AJD
14
Unknownar t i st ,Li moges,Fr ench,ca.1500s Si xpanel sf r om adevot i onalshr i ne Gr i sai l l eenamel
Judgi ngbyi t ssmal lsi zeandf i nequal i t y ,t hi senamelt r i pt ychal t ar pi ecewoul dhavebeenusedi nt hehomeofaweal t hyRenai ssance pat r onasavi sualai di npr i vat epr ayer .I twascr eat edi nLi moges,anar eaknownf ori t ssuper i orenamelwor kshops,atat i mewhen Pr ot est antat t ackswer echal l engi ngt hepr oduct i onoft hi st ypeofr el i gi ousi mager y . ert hesechal l enges,t hepapacyal ongwi t hI gnat i usLoyol aandt heJesui t s,f ol l owi nghumani st i nspi r edmovement ssuchast he Tocount devot i omoder na,beganpl aci nggr eat eri mpor t anceonhi ghl yemot i onal r epr esent at i onsofbi bl i cal nar r at i ves,especi al l yscenesofChr i st ’ s Passi on( cat .no.10, 15,67and68) .Thescour ge,t hecol umn,andi nst r ument soft hePassi onar eemphasi zedi nt heout erhemi l unet t es oft hi sal t ar pi ece,aswel last hecr ownoft hor ns,whi chi spr omi nent l ypl acedi nt hef or egr oundoft hecent r alpaneldepi ct i ngt he Lament at i on.Thehi ghemot i onalcont entofChr i st ’ sPassi onwasi dealf orobj ect sofpr i vat edevot i onbecausei ti nspi r edt hevi ewert o exper i encet hedepi ct edevent sasi fheorshewer epr esentatt hescene,pr ompt i ngadeeperst at eofspi r i t ualmedi t at i onandamor e per sonalr el at i onshi pt ot hedi vi net hr oughpr ayer . Thesceneoft heLament at i onofChr i stwasal soi mpor t anti ndomest i cdevot i onal obj ect sbecauseoft hepr omi nentr ol eoft heVi r gi nand t heemphasi sonhermat er nalr el at i onshi pt oChr i st .Accor di ngt ohousehol di nvent or i es,t heset ypesofr el i gi ousobj ect swer eof t enpar t ofawoman’ sdowr y ,andi magesoft heVi r gi nwoul dr epr esentar ol emodel ofpi et y ,f i del i t y ,mor al i t y ,andmat er ni t y .Consi der i ngt hehi gh i nf ant mor t al i t yr at ei nt heRenai ssance,t hescene’ semphasi sont hegr i efoft heVi r gi nwoul dhavebeenespeci al l yi mpor t antf ort hese obj ect sofpr i vat edevot i on,hel pi ngwomendr awspi r i t ualst r engt hf r om t hei nt ensesor r owoft heVi r gi nMot her . LS
15 At t r i but edt oNi chol asFr oment ,( Fr ench,ca.14351484) Lament at i onovert heDeadChr i st ,ca.1450 Oi lonwoodpanel
Fr oment ,al ongwi t hEnguer r andQuar t on,wasr esponsi bl ef ori nt r oduci ng Fl emi shnat ur al i sm i nt oFr enchar t .Fr omenti sknownf orhi sof t ensubdued col or ,awkwar ddesi gns,andr oughst yl e.Hi sLament at i oncl ear l yuses Fl emi shmodel s,suchast hespar ser ur albackgr oundandt hedepi ct i onof cl ot hi ngwi t ht ypi cal l yFl emi sh,shar pdr aper yf ol ds. Fr omentpai nt sanemaci at edChr i stwhocont r ast swi t ht hest ockyf i gur es gat her edcl osel yt oget heri nt wosepar at egr oups.TheVi r gi nMar ykneel sover t ohol dt hebodyofherdeadsonwhi l eMar yMagdal enegr i evesatJesus’ f eet ; abear dedmal ef i gur e,ei t herJosephofAr i mat heaorNi codemus,st ands sol emnl yi nt hebackgr oundl ooki ngdownatt hel i f el essbody . Al lf i gur esar e r est r ai nedyetemot i onalaboutt hedeat hofChr i st .Fr omentt r i edt oshowt he dr amaofr ealsuf f er i ng:t hepai nt i ngwasmeantt omakei t sowneri magi ne whati twoul df eell i kei fheorshewer et her e.Hewant edt heownert o pr i vat el ycont empl at et hepai nofChr i st ’ sdeat handsacr i f i ceandr ecr eat et he r el i gi ouseventi nhi smi nd. Thi sf or m ofmedi t at i onalexper i encehadbeenpr omot edbyt her el i gi ous movementcal l eddevot i omoder na,whi char osedur i ngt hel at eMi ddl eAges andl ast edi nt ot heRenai ssance.Ger har dGr oot ef oundedt hi s“ moder n devot i on, ”whi chr api dl yspr eadt hr oughoutEur ope.Devot i omoder na combi nedhumani sm andChr i st i ani t yandpushedbel i ever st opur suea per sonalr el at i onshi pwi t hChr i stt hr oughpr i vat edevot i onandt her eadi ngof scr i pt ur e.Amovementl i ket hi shadnotbeenseenbef or e,si nceal lwor shi p t r adi t i onal l yhadbeenper f or medpubl i cl yandcol l ect i vel yi nachur ch.I twas popul arwi t ht hewor ki ngcl assessi ncet heywoul dr ar el yhaveeverseena Bi bl e:whent hepr i nt i ngpr esswasdevel opedar ound1440,t hosewho pr act i ceddevot i omoder nawer eabl et obr i ngsmal lpr i nt sorpi ecesofscr i pt ur e homef orpr i vat euse( seet heexhi bi t i onsect i ononPr i nt i ng,upperl evel ) .The movement ,whi cht aughtt hatout war dobser vancesofr el i gi onshoul dbe mi ni mi zedwhi l epr i vat et hought sandt hei nwar dl oveofGodampl i f i ed,woul d f ectmanyr el i gi ousl eader si ncl udi ngEr asmusandMar t i nLut her . goont oaf LMN
16 Har t mannSchedel( Ger man,14401514) St .Phi l i pBei ngSt onedont heCr oss,TheNur ember gChr oni cl e,f ol i oCV,1493 Woodcut
Thi swoodcuti sani l l ust r at edpagef r om TheNur embur gChr oni cl eshowi ngt he mar t yr dom ofSt .Phi l i p,oneofJesus’ apost l es.I twaspr i nt edt henpai nt edwi t h wat er col or sandsol dasasi ngl epr i nt ,pr obabl yt osomeonewhocoul dnotaf f or d t heent i r eenor mousbook.Thi spr i ntwast obeuseddur i ngat i meofpr i vat e devot i onf ol l owi ngt hepr act i ceofdevot i omoder na( cat .no.15) ,sot hatone coul df eelt hepai n,suf f er i ng,andsacr i f i ceoft hesai nt ’ sl astmi nut esonear t h. Onewoul dobser vet hesol di er swi t ht hel ar gest onesi nt hei rhandsr eadyt oki l l , henl ookatt hepeacef uldi sci pl eandmedi t at eonhow onecoul demul at e andt ( i mi t at i o)t hef ol l owerofChr i st Har t mannSchedelwasamedi caldoct orandhumani stbor ni nNur ember g, Ger manyi n1440.Hi sext ensi vepr i vat el i br ar ywasamongt hemosti mpor t ant ofhi st i me,notonl ybecauseoft hebookst hemsel ves,butal sobecauseofi t s numer ouspr i nt sand maps. Manyoft he wr i t i ngsand pr i nt si n Schedel ’ s col l ect i on wer et edi ousl ycopi ed f r om ot herbooksbyhi sown hand,bef or e pr i nt edbookswer emor er eadi l yi nci r cul at i on. I n1493hepubl i shedt heChr oni cl e,ani l l ust r at edwor l dhi st or yt hati sdi vi ded i nt osevenagesf r om t heCr eat i onoft heuni ver set ot heLastJudgment .I twas knownasoneoft hel ar gestpr i nt edbooksoft hatt i me,wi t hover1800woodcut s, mostofwhi chwer edonebyMi chaelWol gemut ,whowasNur ember g' sl eadi ng ar t i sti nt he15t hcent ur y .Hi swoodcut susedadvancedshadi ngt echni ques neverseenbef or e. ember gChr oni cl ei smor et hanapr i nt edbook:i ti sal soanexampl eof TheNur how t hewor l dofknowl edgeandar twaschangi ng.I ni t sdebtt oRenai ssance humani sm,i tshowsacul t ur emovi ngf r om medi evalt omoder n.TheChr oni cl e bot hr ef er st ocl assi calsour cesandbor r owsf r om ot hermedi evalchr oni cl es. Al so,dur i ngat i mewhenf ew coul dr ead,i tr eachedawi deraudi encewi t h det ai l edi l l ust r at i onsandasi mpl i f i ededi t i on. LMN
17 Unknownar t i st ,I t al i an MadonnaandChr i stChi l d,ca.15501600 Boxwood
I n1431t heCounci lofEphesussanct i onedt hecul toft heVi r gi nMar y ,and i magesoft heVi r gi nandChi l df orpr i vat edevot i onaluse,ordevot i omoder na ( cat .no.15) ,qui ckl yf ol l owed. Dur i ng medi evaland Renai ssance t i mes,Mar y was cent r alt o Cat hol i c spi r i t ual i t yast hemedi at orbet weenhumanki ndandChr i st .Mosti magesoft he Vi r gi nst r essherr ol easChr i st ' smot her ,showi ngherst andi ngandhol di ngher son.I nt hi sscul pt ur e,Mar yi sr epr esent edast heQueenofHeaven,ascanbe seenbyhercr own,or nat eneckl ace,l ongr obe,andt hescept ershehol dsi nher l ef thand. Thi sscul pt ur e,done on a modestscal e,hel ped one’ sspi r i t ual endeavor ssi ncei tmadet heobj ectofpr ayer smor et angi bl e. Thr ought hi s pi ece,t heownerwasencour agedt ocont empl at et hel i f eofChr i standt heVi r gi n asi ft heywer epr esent .I tencour agedt heownert of or m aper sonal ,emot i onal r el at i onshi pwi t ht hehol yf i gur es. I nhi sext r emel yi nf l uent i alMedi t at i onsont heLi f eofChr i st ,t he14t hcent ur y Fr anci scanaut horPseudoBonavent ur ewr i t est hatt her eadershoul d“ ki sst he beaut i f ul l i t t l ef eetoft hei nf antJesuswhol i esi nt hemangerandbeghi smot her t oof f ert ol etyouhol dhi m awhi l e.Pi ckhi m upandhol dhi mi nyourar ms.Gaze onhi sf acewi t hdevot i onandr ever ent l yki ssanddel i ghti nhi m. ”I nt hi swor k, t hef ol dsont heVi r gi n’ sr obeandt hef eetofJesusar esomewhatwor ndown andsmoot h,pr obabl yf r om t heownerr ubbi ngorki ssi ngi tdur i ngpr ayer .The handsoft hechi l d,andt heMadonna’ sl ef thand,par t sofherl ef tar m andf eet , andpossi bl yhercr own,havebeenr est or edi nadi f f er entwood. LMN
18 Gui doReni( I t al i an,15751642) St .Chr i st opherCar r yi ngt heChr i stChi l d,ear l y1600s Et chi ng
Thi spr i nt ,at t r i but ed t ot he Bol ognese pai nt erand pr i nt makerGui do Reni , depi ct sani maget hathasi t sr oot si nmedi evalmanuscr i pti l l umi nat i on. The ear l ymar t yrSt .Chr i st opheri spi ct ur edher ewi t hhi susualat t r i but eofast af f , car r yi ngt heChr i stchi l dacr ossar i ver ,andst r uggl i ngundert hechi l d’ swei ght , whi ch was sai dt o have equal ed t he wei ghtoft he wor l d.However ,i ni t s exagger at ed muscul at ur e and ant i que f or m,t hi sf i gur er esembl es many depi ct i onsoft heTi t anAt l asorAeneasf r om Homer ’ sI l i ad. Such a hi ghl y cl assi ci zedr epr esent at i onofar el i gi ousf i gur er ef l ect st hei nf l uenceofGr eek andLat i nt ext s,t henewsci enceofanat omy ,andt hear tofant i qui t yonschol ar s, t heol ogi ans,and ar t i st s ofhumani stcent er sl i ke Bol ogna,as wel las t he Chr i st i an humani stt eachi ngs ofDesi der i us Er asmus t hatemphasi zed t he consi st encyofChr i st i anscr i pt ur eswi t hanci entphi l osophi es( cat .no.12) . Theval uedl i t er ar yt r adi t i onofTheGol denLegend,amedi eval t extdet ai l i ngt he l i vesoft hesai nt s,wi t hst r ongmor al over t ones,cont i nuedwi t ht headventoft he pr i nt i ng pr ess and i ncr eased as a r esul toft he Pr ot est antRef or mat i on’ s di scr edi t i ng ofnew canoni zat i ons,r ej ect i on oft he vener at i on ofr el i cs,and denunci at i onofmedi evalhagi ogr aphy .Tor easser tt heaut hor i t yoft heChur ch andt hepowerofChr i st i anmar t yr s,Jesui tmi ssi onar ycampai gnsover saw t he massdi st r i but i onoft heEccl esi aemi l i t ant i st r i umphi ,apr i ntser i est hatbol st er ed t hest r engt handi nf l uenceofear l ymar t yr sandchampi onedt hei mpor t anceof t hesai nt sasmor alr ol emodel sandi nt er cessor si npr i vat edevot i on.Thepr i nt s wer echeapl ymadeandwoul dhavebeenaccessi bl et omember sofdi f f er ent soci alcl asses,appeal i ngt obot ht hei l l i t er at eandt ot hegr owi ngpopul at i onof l et t er edChr i st i ans. LS
EMPI RI CI SM:AWAKENI NG I NTERESTI N EARTHLYLI FE TheSi gni fic a nc eo ft heI ns i gni fic a nt : Ge nr ea ndLa nds c a pePa i nt i ngi nt he17t hc e nt ur yNe t he r l a nds Genr epai nt i ngsar ei magesofor di nar ydai l yl i f e,of t enshowi ngsuchel ement alpl easur esasf east i nganddr i nki ngwi t hcompani ons;andDut ch genr epai nt i ngswer et hef i r stt oshowhumansubj ect swi t houtr ef er encet oanymyt hol ogi cal ,soci al ,orhi st or i cal si gni f i cance.Todayweval uet hem f orr ecor di ngwhatpeopl e’ sl i veswer el i kei not hert i mes.Thei rf ocuswasnotont hecompl exi t yofi ndi vi dual s,butr at herongener i ct ypes:peasant s, sol di er s,andmember soft hebour geoi si eoroft heupper mi ddl ecl asses.Thef i gur esmostt ypi calofgenr epai nt i ngar epeasant s,whocannotbe under st oodapar tf r om t hei roccupat i onandenvi r onment . Landscapepai nt i ngbecamepopul aratt hesamet i measgenr e.Soonaf t ert hef oundi ngoft hei ndependentDut chRepubl i c,anal t oget hernewway ofseei ngaswel lasdepi ct i ngt het r anqui l ,f l at ,wat er y ,andal mostf eat ur el essl ocalt opogr aphybecameevi denti nnumer ouspi ct ur es. Those pai nt i ngsar eappar ent l ynat ur al i st i candi nsi st ent l y ,r ecogni zabl yDut ch.Theyf or m par tofani conogr aphyofnat i onhood,ashar edsetofi deas, memor i es,andf eel i ngs,t hatt i edt henewci t i zenst oget her . Thet womai nr easonswhygenr epai nt i ngbecamesopopul ardur i ngt hi sper i odwer et henear di sappear anceoft r adi t i onal pat r ons—t hechur chand t henobi l i t y—andt hei ncr easi ngpur chasi ngpoweroft hemi ddl ecl ass. TheCat hol i cchur cheshadbeent ur nedovert ot heDut chRef or med denomi nat i on,whi chwasst r ongl yopposedt oi magesandi dol si nt hehouseofGod;andmanyCat hol i cnobl eshademi gr at edf r om t hePr ot est ant Nor t ht ot henowsepar at eSout her nNet her l ands( Fl ander s,t odayBel gi um) . Ar t i st swer ef or cedt of i ndorcr eat eot hermar ket s,andt heyf ound t hem i nt hegr owi ngci t i esoft henor t her npr ovi nceofHol l and.Becauseofaneconomi cboom,t hegr owi ngmi ddl ecl asssuddenl yhadmoneyt obuy l uxur ypr oduct st odecor at et hei rhouses.However ,whi l et het owndwel l er shadmoneyt ospar e,t heywer est i l lf arf r om weal t hy .Fort hesenew cl i ent s,t r adi t i onal ,l ar gescal ehi st or ypai nt i ngswer eoutofr each.Soar t i st spr oducedmor eaf f or dabl epai nt i ngs,andonest hatcat er edt ot he di f f er entt ast esoft hei rnew cust omer s.Ur bani t eshadagr eat eraf f i ni t yf ordepi ct i onswi t hwhi cht heycoul deasi l yi dent i f y ,suchasr ecogni zabl e scenesf r om ever ydayl i f eseti nt hei rownenvi r onment s.Asar esul t ,hugenumber sofpai nt i ngst hatf i tt hei rr equest sappear ed:ki t cheni nt er i or s, bui l di ngs,aqui etst r eet ,orevenabr ot hel .Thesepai nt i ngsar eshar pl ydet ai l ed,r epr esent i ngaf ami l i arwor l dt hatwasper f ect l yadapt edt ot hel i vi ng r oomsofmi ddl ecl asshouses,andaccur at el ymi r r or i ngt heout l ookoft hei rowner s. Dur i ngt hi sper i od,bot ht hegr eatDut chmast er saswel lasl essout st andi ngpai nt er sexcel l edatgenr epai nt i ng.Themosti mpor t antpai nt er swer e t hesocal l edLi t t l eMast er s,i ncl udi ngAdr i aenvanOst ade( cat .nos.22and23)andsuchot her sasJanSt een,Gabr i el Met su,andPi et erdeHooch. I naddi t i on,t het hr eel eadi ng17t hcent ur yDut char t i st s—Rembr andt( cat .no.8) ,Fr ansHal s,andJanVer meer —al socr eat edgenr epai nt i ngsof unr i val edbeaut y . FK
19
Dani elNi kol ausChodowi ecki( Ger man,17261801) Cabi netd’ unpei nt r e( TheAr t i standhi sFami l y) ,1771 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng
Dani elNi kol ausChodowi ecki ,aGer manpai nt er ,dr aught smanandengr aver ,f i r stl ear nedpai nt i ngf r om hi sf at her ,Got t f r i edwhowasanamat eurpai nt er ,and aDanzi g( nowGdanski nPol and)gr ai nmer chantofPol i shnobl el i neage.WhenDani elwassevent een,hel ef tDanzi gt owor ki nBer l i n;i n1797,hebecame t hedi r ect oroft heAcademyofAr t si nt hatci t y .Whenhedi ed,hewast hemostf amousGer mani l l ust r at orofhi scent ur y .Chodowi eckicombi nedadel i cat e et chi ngt echni quewi t hanuner r i ngsenseofbour geoi sr eal i t y .Heal sopr oducedcount l esset chi ngsofscenesf r om cont empor ar ypl ays,whi chhasenabl ed moder nschol ar st or econst r uct18t hcent ur yt heat r i calmet hodswi t hgr eataccur acy . Beneat ht hei mageoft hi spr i nti saFr enchsent encet hatr eads:“ Dedi cat edt oMr s.Mar i eHenr i et t eAyr er ,wi dow oft hel at eMr .G.Chodowi eckibyherver y humbl eandver yobedi entser vantandson,Davi dChodowi ecki ” .I n1771,hededi cat edt hi smostf amouspr i ntofhi sf ami l yt ohi smot her ,Henr i et t e,whohad neverseenhergr andchi l dr en. Chodowi eckisi t sbyt hewi ndowonourr i ght ,peer i ngoverhi sspect acl esatt hechi l dhei sdr awi ng.Seat edatt het abl e,hi sel destsonWi l hel mi ssket chi nga hor se,whi l eayoungerbr ot herl ooksonadmi r i ngl y .Theel destdaught er ,Jeanne,st udi esani l l ust r at edal bum,whi l eChodowi ecki ’ swi f est andsatt hel ef t , t al ki ngwi t ht hei rdaught er .Thecapt i ont ot hepr i ntmakesapubl i cst at ementaboutbour geoi sl i f eandr ef i nedcul t ur e. I nt heper i od,t hi sf undament al l ybour geoi sat t i t udewasf ai t hf ul l yr ef l ect edbynor t hGer manar t i st s,whot r ansf or medt heFr enchRococoi nt oapedant i cf or m of r eal i sm.Thi st r ansi t i onf r om t r adi t i onal Rococoor nament at i ont oahi ghl yobj ect i vear tf or ml edt oar eappr ai sal ofet chi ng,whi chwaspar t i cul ar l ywel l sui t edt o t her epr esent at i onofscenesf r om mi ddl ecl assl i f e.Dani elChodowi eckii sat ypi calr epr esent at i veoft hi sst yl e. FK
20
Phi l i psWouwer man( Dut ch,16191668) ADut chHor seman’ sGame,ca.16501668 Oi loncanvas
I nPhi l i psWouwer man’ sgenr escene( depi ct i onofever ydayl i f e) ,t hecl oudsandt heskyoccupyt hemaj or i t yoft hepai nt i ng,cr eat i ngasi l ver y ,l i ghtt onei n t hebackgr ound.Thepeopl eandhor seshavebeenr educedt ot hel esspr omi nentf or egr oundi nahar moni ouscombi nat i onofgenr eandl andscapeel ement s. Scenesoff ami l i arever ydayl i f ecamei nt ogr eatdemandi nt hear tmar ketatt hi st i me.I nt hem,wecanseet heent er t ai nment soft hemi ddl ecl assi n17t h cent ur yHol l andandt hei rcl ot hesandf ashi on. manwasundoubt edl yt hemostsuccessf ul 17t hcent ur yDut chpai nt erofhor ses,whi chwer ei ncl udedi nhi smanysmal l pi ct ur es.Hever ycommonl y Wouwer i ncl udesawhi t ehor seasahi ghl i ghti nt hef or egr ound. I naddi t i on,hi swor ksr angewi del yi nsubj ect ,f r om equest r i anscenesandhunt i ngpar t i est o l andscapeswi t ht r avel er s,caval r ybat t l es,andmi l i t ar yencampment s.Hei samast erofvi vaci oust r eat mentoff i gur es,ski l l f ul ani mal pai nt i ng,andappr opr i at e l andscape backgr ounds. I n 17t hcent ur y Hol l and,cust omer sr equest ed a near per f ectr ef l ect i on ofr eal i t y ,l i ke t oday’ s vi ewer s oft el evi si on soap oper as—di st or t edj ustenought omakei tmor eexci t i ngt hant hei rownhumdr um exi st ences—andDut chpai nt er scat er edt ot hewi der angi ngt ast esoft he ar t buyi ngpubl i c.For ei gner swer eamazednotonl yatt hegr eatnumber sofpai nt i ngsi nDut chhousesbutal soatt hewi dedi f f usi onofar t :evenor di nar y peopl eownedoneort wopai nt i ngs.TheDut chpai nt er swer eext r emel ypr oduct i ve.I ti sest i mat edt hatatl eastf i vemi l l i onpai nt i ngswer epr oducedi nt he Dut chRepubl i ci nt he17t hcent ur y .Thesear t i st s,br eaki ngawayf r om t hest at usofgui l dcr af t wor ker s,compet edi nt hef i r stdevel opedar tmar ket . FK
21 Wi l l i am Hogar t h( Br i t i sh,16971764) Wi l l i am Hogar t hPai nt i ngt heComi cMuse,1764 Engr avi ng,6t hst at e
22
Adr i aenJanszvanOst ade( Dut ch,16101685) Cot t ageI nt er i orwi t hPeasantFeast ,ca.1650s Et chi ng
Thi set chi ngofagenr esceneshowshowanar t i stcoul dcr eat er el at edwor ksi ndi f f er entmedi a( f orasi mi l arpai nt i ngbyOst adeseecat al ogue.no.23) .What i si mmedi at el yst r i ki ngi nt hi swor ki st hebr awl yscenei nsi deoft hecot t ageandt hemagi cl i ghtwhi chemphasi zest hemai nf i gur es.Thear t i stshowsushi s t al ent sofobser vat i on.Not hi ngdecor at est hepat chwor koft hei nt er i or ,t het umbl edownchi mneysort hel adderst ai r cases,char act er i st i coft her ust i cDut ch housei nt hosedays.I nt hi spr i nt ,weseecr osshat chi ngi nmanypl aces:ont hecei l i ng,chi mneypi ece,r earwal landt hedoor ,andbel ow t hesuspended chai r .Sever alpl acesar el i ght er :t hel owerpar toft hechi mney ,t heupperhal foft heopendoor ,t heboar dsabovet hesuspendedchai r ,andt hel i ghtsi deof t heseati nt hel owerl ef t .Dar kerar easappeari nt heapr onoft hewomanandt hehatoft hemanont hest ai r s,t hewai st coatoft hesmokersi t t i ngi nf r ontof t hebed,andt hebonnetoft hewomansi t t i ngt ot hef arr i ght .Avi vi ddepi ct i on,i tshowsamanwi t hahatcomi ngdownt hest ai r sandt womensi t t i ngona bencht al ki ng.Theent i r ebackofonemansi t t i ngi nt hef or egr oundi sshaded,whi l et hedogundert het abl e( i nt hecent er )i smor edi st i nct . Hangi ngont hewal lar et hepeasant s’meagerpossessi ons:pi ecesofmeat ,apot ,sever albasket s,t wopi ecesofcl ot handacei l i ngl amp.Thepeasant s mi ngl et oget heri nt hesamer oom.Thel ackofpr i vacymayseem unbear abl et ous,butwascommonpl acet oa17t hcent ur yper son.Anawar enessofl i f ei n i sol at i onhadnotyetbeenaccept edatt hi st i me. FK
23
Adr i aenJanszvanOst ade( Dut ch,16101685) PeasantScene,ca.1642 Oi lonpanel
Thi sgenr epai nt i ngshowsal i vel y“ l owl i f e�peasantscene.Thepai nt i ngcapt ur esadr amat i cmomenti nsi dear ur al hut .Amanst andi ngont hest ai r st hr ows t hi ngsdownf r om t hecabi net ,whi l eot her sundert hest ai rpi ckt hem upf r om t hef l oor .Thear t i sti sdi st i ngui shedf r om hi scont empor ar i esbyhi smor edr amat i c useofl i ghtandshade,especi al l yt hegr eat erconcent r at i onofl i ghtonasmal lsur f acecont r ast edwi t habr oadexpanseofgl oom. Adr i aenJanszvanOst ade,aDut chpai nt erandpr i nt makerwhowor kedal lhi sl i f ei nHaar l em,i schi ef l yr emember edf orhi sr eal i st i cgenr escenest hat concent r at eonpeasantmer r ymaki ngorbr awl si nhouses,t aver ns,orbar ns.I naddi t i on,heshowsust hei nsi deandout si deofcot t ages:t umbl edown chi mneys,l adderst ai r cases,andover hangi ngt r ees. Ost adecoul dcapt ur et hei dyl l i cpar tofpeasantl i f eandshow i t sel ement alpl easur esoff east i ng, dr i nki ng,smoki ng,andmer r ymaki ngwi t hcompani ons.Hel ef tusar i chr ecor dofpeasantl i f ei nhi st i me. I tseemst hathumansubj ect sf i r stappear edi nDut chgenr epai nt i ngswi t houtr ef er encet ohi st or i calsi gni f i canceandmyt h. Onecansayi ti sasubj ect cat egor yofhumbl eor i gi ns.I nt heear l i estexampl esofgenr epai nt i ng,t hear t i st st ookt hei rt hemesf r om t hef ai r gr ound,mar ketpl ace,andki t chen.Thi swas aper i odwhenal l subj ect scamet obeconsi der edequal l ysui t abl ef orr epr esent at i on,f r om humanf i gur esandt hei renvi r onmentt ot heani mal andpl antwor l d. Peopl eonl yoccupi edonepar toft hewor l dper cei vedbyt hear t i st ,andamonghumans,t ypeswer est i l lmor ei mpor t antt hani ndi vi dual s,whet herpeasant s, sol di er s,member soft hepet i tbour geoi si eort heupper mi ddl ecl asses. FK
24
Wencesl ausHol l ar( Bohemi an,16071677) Muf f s,16441652 Facsi mi l eet chi ng,19t hc.
Thi set chi ng( al ongwi t hcat .nos.25and26)i saf acsi mi l eoft heor i gi nal byWencesl ausHol l ar ,whowasbor ni nPr agueandwor kedmai nl yi nEngl and.Hol l ar wasbestknownf orhi st opol ogi call andscapesofpl acesl i keSt r asbour gandLondon.Thi set chi ngexhi bi t st hehi ghl evelofdet ai landnat ur al i sm f orwhi ch hewasnot ed,appl i edt oani t em ofcl ot hi ng. rofmuf f s,whi char ewor nonbot hhandsf orwar mt h,l i esonat abl ei nashal l owspace.Adel i cat eshawl andeyemaskar el ai dovert hem.Theat t ent i on Apai t odet ai lgi vent oeachst r andoff uront hemuf f spar al l el st hecar ef ul ,sci ent i f i cobser vat i onofnat ur alobj ect st hatemer gedatt hi st i meofr i si ngsecul ar empi r i ci sm.Yett hi si smuchmor et hanast i l ll i f e:t hi st ypeofpr i ntbecameknownast hepr over bi al“ f ashi onpl at e. ”Hol l arwasoneoft hef i r star t i st swhose et chi ngswer epubl i shedi ncost umebookst hatbecamepopul ari nt he17t hcent ur y .Cost umebookswer esour cesofi nf or mat i onf orwomen:t hef ashi on pl at esi nt hem i l l ust r at edhowt owearcer t ai ncl ot hesanddesi gnat edspeci f i ccl ot hi ngas“ i nst yl e. ”I naddi t i on,Hol l arcr eat edaser i esofet chi ngsdepi ct i ng womenwear i ngappr opr i at egar ment sf oreachseason.Fashi onpl at esandcost umebooksl ast edt hr oughoutt he19t hcent ur y ,whent heywer ephasedout duet ot hei nvent i onofphot ogr aphy . Thi si mageal sor el at est ot hemoder ni nt er esti nt hei ndi vi dualt hatar osei nt heRenai ssance,andt ot hedevel opmentoft hepr i nt i ngpr ess,bywhi ch knowl edgebecameavai l abl et oawi derr angeofpeopl e.Womenwer eper mi t t edonl yl i mi t edr ol esi nsoci et ydur i ngt heRenai ssance–t hei rmai nt askwas t ot akecar eoft hehome–soexpr essi ngt hei ri ndi vi dual i t yt hr oughf ashi onbecameani mpor t antpar tofci vi l i zedl i f e. KB
25
Wencesl ausHol l ar( Bohemi an,16071677) HawksandOwl s,1663 Possi bl yf r om Ani mal i um f er ar um f l or i um ver i umquei cons, Fr anci sBar l owaf t erHol l ar ,1671or1674 Facsi mi l eet chi ng,19t hc.
Li kecat al oguenos.24and26,t hi set chi ngi sal at erf acsi mi l er epr i ntofawor kbyWencesl ausHol l ar ,eachofwhi chappl i esHol l ar ’ sdet ai l edobser vat i ont o avar i et yofhumanornat ur alsubj ect s. Hol l armadesever al ser i esofst udi esofani mal s,suchasbut t er f l i es,dogs,andevenshel l s.Ar t wor ksdepi ct i ngani mal sdat ebackt ocavepai nt i ngs,butt he nat ur al i sm ofhi set chi ngssetanew st andar d.I nt henextgener at i on,ar t i stMar i aSybi l l aMer i an( 16471717)publ i shedsever alf ol i osofmet i cul ous engr avi ngsofpl ant sandi nsect si nSout hAmer i ca( Met amor phosi sI nsect or i um Sur i namensi um,1705) . Thescr upul ousvi sual r ecor di ngseeni nMer i an’ sand Hol l ar ’ spr i nt sst emsf r om t he17t hcent ur yconceptt hatal lnat ur alt hi ngs—evenhumbl eani mal sl i kebi r dsandi nsect s—ar edi vi necr eat i onsofGod. ’ set chi ngdepi ct ssi xbi r dsi nani nt er i orset t i ngsuggest i ngast udyr oom.Unl i keMer i an,Hol l art akest hebi r dsoutoft hei rnat ur al cont ext .Thi sdeci si on Hol l ar t oi sol at et heobj ectofst udyi ssi mi l art ot he“ t heat r e”ofsur ger i esont hehumanbodypopul ar i zedt hr oughAndr easVesal i us’ medi calt r eat i se( 1543) .The at t ent i ont odet ai loft hesubj ectmat t eri scompl et el yobj ect i ve,wi t hanabsenceofar t i st i cper sonal i t y .Thi sdesi r et ost udyani mal s,andnat ur ei ngener al ,i n avi sualf or m wasaRenai ssancedevel opment . Ni col ausCoper ni cus’ast r onomi calt r eat i se( 1543) ,whi chconcl udedt hatt hesunwast hecent eroft he uni ver se,l i keVesal i us’ anat omi cal t r eat i set hatdi ssect edt hehumanbodyf orst udy ,wer eachi evement soft henewspi r i tofempi r i ci sm.Ani ndi vi dual ’ sabi l i t y t oexper i enceandobser vet hei nnersoul ,body ,andwor l dar oundt hem wasoner esul tofal lt heseef f or t s.Hol l ar ’ swor ki sast r ongexampl eoft hemer gi ng ofsci enceandar tandt hebegi nni ngsofnat ur alhi st or y . KB
26
Wencesl ausHol l ar( Bohemi an,16071677) ABol ogneseDog,1649 Facsi mi l eet chi ng,19t hc.
Li kecat al ogueno.25,t hi si spar tofanot herser i esofani malst udi esbyHol l ar ,aBohemi anar t i stknownf orhi scar ef ulnat ur al i st i cobser vat i on.Thedogi s seti nashal l ownondescr i ptspace,wi t honl yt hef ai nt estsuggest i onoft hel i neoft het abl ewher et hedogi sposi t i oned.Thedet ai l edat t ent i ont ot hedog’ s f urandanat omyi sanot herexampl eofHol l ar ’ smer gi ngofsci enceandar t –whennat ur alhi st or yi ni t i al l yi nvol vedempi r i calst udyofnat ur e’ scr eat ur es. Medi evaldepi ct i onsofani mal si nmosai cs,t apest r i es,andpai nt i ngsar equi t edi f f er entf r om Hol l ar ’ sBol ogneseDog.Medi evalpeopl ewer ehumbl edand const r ai nedbynat ur e,havi ngonl yl i mi t edt echnol ogyt ocont r olandst udyi t .Thust heyhadl i t t l eaccur at eknowl edgeandof t enpor t r ayedani mal s f ant ast i cal l yand/ orschemat i cal l y .Dogs,however ,wer edomest i cat ed,andmor ef ami l i esowneddogst hanbef or e.Theywer eusedf orwar mt hi nt he wi nt er s,t oper f or m ut i l i t ar i ant asksi nt hehome,andascompani ons. KB
27
Fr anzDot t e( Ger man,act i veca.15951600) Rosewat erBasi nwi t hTheFourSeasons Gi l dedsi l ver
Thi s obj ecti s a ver y el abor at e and decor at i ve exampl e of Renai ssancemet al wor kusedbyweal t hypat r ons.I nt hecent r al ci r cl e,ovalpat t er nscont ai n al l egor i calf i gur esofwomen i na backgr oundspeci f i ct ooneoft hef ourseasons. Ar oundt heout er r i m ani mal sr unt hr oughsi mpl ydepi ct edl andscapes. Bef or et hei nvent i onoft hef or k,t hepur poseofsuchobj ect swas t ocl eanone’ shandsaf t ereat i ng.Whent hef or kwasi nvent edi n t heRenai ssance,i tchangedt hecul t ur eofeat i ngi nt oamor e soci alact i vi t y . Ar i st ocr at i cf est i vi t i esi ncl udi ngf ood,dr i nk,and ent er t ai nmenti ncr eased:att hesef east s,guest scoul dexchange t hei rknowl edgeoft henewhumani stl ear ni ngt hatemer gedi nt he wor ks oft he 14t hcent ur yI t al i an wr i t erFr ancesco Pet r ar ch. Accor di ngt oPet r ar ch,t her i seoft hei ndi vi dualr esul t edi nt he questf ori nnert r ut handt hest udyofgr ammar ,r het or i c,poet r y , andhi st or y .Thi sobj ecti sagoodexampl eoft hegr adualendof t hemedi eval er a,whensi mpl esur vi val wast hemostcr uci al par t ofpeopl e’ sdai l yl i ves.I tshowshowRenai ssancedevel opment s i nbot ht echnol ogyandphi l osophygavebi r t ht oawor l dcent er ed ont hei ndi vi dual ’ snewcont r oloft hewor l dar oundhi m. KB
28
Al br echtAl t dor f er( Ger man,ca.1482/ 851538) Fi rTr eei naMount ai nousLandscape,ca.152023 Col or edf acsi mi l eet chi ng
Thi shandcol or edl andscapeet chi ngi saf acsi mi l eofapr i ntbyt heGer manar t i st Al br echt Al t dor f er .Thel andscapehasnotbeeni dent i f i edwi t hanyspeci f i c l ocat i on,buti tdoesachi evei l l usi oni st i cspace.Ther ear ecl earandsubt l edi st i nct i onsbet weennat ur alel ement si nt hef or egr ound,mi ddl egr ound,and backgr ound.Suggest i onsofpeopl ear ef oundont heembankment ,butar enotcent r alt ot hewor k.At t ent i ont oweat heri snot edi nt hespeci f i cshapesand i mpl i edmovementoft hecl ouds. Thei deaofdepi ct i ngact uall andscapesemer gedi nt he15t hand16t hcent ur i es:Al t dor f er ’ spr i nt sar eear l yexampl esofl andscapeassubj ectmat t erf ori t s ownsake.Medi evalr epr esent at i onsofl andscapeshowl i t t l ei l l usi oni st i cspaceorr eal i st i cdepi ct i onofnat ur alel ement s,andscal ei sbasedoni mpor t ance ofsubj ectr at hert hanspat i all ocat i onorper spect i ve.Peopl ewer el i mi t edi nt hei rdai l yl i vesbyt hef or cesofnat ur e,suchascol dwi nt er s,duet ot hel ackof t echnol ogy . Thedevel opmentofl andscapei nt heRenai ssancer esul t edf r om avar i et yofcont empor aneousi nvent i ons.Onesuchexampl ei sLeonBat t i st aAl ber t i ’ s Tr eat i seDepi ct ur a( 143536) ,whi chdemonst r at edhow t ocr eat et hei l l usi onofr ealspaceonat wodi mensi onalsur f acet hr oughasyst em ofl i near per spect i vei nspi r edbyMasacci oandBr unel l eschi .Theabi l i t yt ocont r ol nat ur et hr oughamat hemat i cal f or mul agavet heRenai ssancear t i stapower f ul t ool . Thewor l dcoul dbeseent hr ought heeyeoft hei ndi vi dualar t i str at hert hanasGod’ scr eat i on.Humani st sl i kePet r ar ch,whochampi onedt hei ndi vi dual ’ s cur i osi t yandi nt el l ect ual expl or at i on,pr opel l edact ual expl or at i onsofunchar t edl and.Thi snewur get ost udyandmapt hewor l dcor r el at est ot henat ur al i st i c devel opment sofl andscapeseeni nAl t dor f er ’ set chi ng. KB
THERI SEOFTHEI NDI VI DUAL: PORTRAI TUREAND NEW OPPORTUNI TI ESFOR WOMEN Wecannott al kaboutt heRenai ssancewi t houtment i oni ngwomenandt her ol est heypl ayeddur i ngt hi st i meofexpl or at i on,enl i ght enment ,and anxi et y .Asmenbegant of ost erahei ght enedsenseofi ndi vi dual i t yandsel f wor t h,women,t hr ought hei reducat i onandper sonalef f or t s,begant o changet hei rsubor di nat eposi t i oni nt hesameway:f r om ani mar es( obj ect swi t houtsoul s)t of ul lhumanbei ngswi t hi ndi vi duali dent i t i es.Por t r ai t s ofspeci f i ci ndi vi dual s,anewt ypeofsubj ectpi oneer edatt hi st i me,cel ebr at edwomenaswel lasmenofweal t handpower ,andsett hest andar ds f orf ut ur ecommi ssi ons,event ual l yevenbypat r onsofl owerst at us. hepr i nt i ngpr essgavewomenunpr ecedent edoppor t uni t i esf oraper sonal andpubl i cvoi ce.Humani sm,t hebel i eft hatst udyoft he Humani sm andt cl assi cswoul dpr oducear i ght eousper son,changedt het hought sofbot hsexesaboutt hemsel vesandt hei rpl acei nt hewor l d.Manyel i t ewomen r ecei vedaneducat i onsi mi l art omeni nLat i n,Gr eek,mat hemat i cs,sci ence,andpol i t i cs.Someshapedt hei rownl i vesandt hel i vesoft hepeopl e t heygover nedasr egent sandqueens,suchasEl i zabet hIofEngl and. Nobl ewomenwer eof t enal soknowl edgeabl eaboutt hear t s:f orexampl e,I sabel l ad’ Est eGonzagasetar t i st i cf ashi onst hr oughherext ensi ve pat r onage.Theel i t e’ ssuppor tal soal l owedt her i seoft hecour tpai nt er ,l i keI sabel l a’ sr esi dentar t i stMant egna( cat .no.33) .Aper manentcour t posi t i on enabl ed some i ndi vi dualar t i st st o br eakawayf r om t he t r adi t i onalgui l d syst em,becomi ng “ f r ee agent s”who coul d pr of i tf r om t he connect i onsandpr i vi l egest hatf l owedf r om associ at i onwi t ht hear i st ocr acy . Thewi deni ngci r cul at i onofbooksal sohel pedt hegr owt hi nl i t er acyamongwomenofl owersoci alcl asses. Manyoft hem r ecei vedmodest educat i onsf r om mal er el at i veswhower ei nf l uencedbyhumani st i ct hought ,whi char guedt hateducat i onwasbenef i ci al f orwomenbecausei tcoul d keept hei rmi ndsoccupi edandpr eventi dl eness,bor edom,andmi schi ef . Somewomenbecamewr i t er s,poet s,andar t i st si nt hei rownr i ght . Educat i oni mpr ovedt hei rsoci al andeconomi cst at ust ot hepoi ntt hatar t i st ssuchasEl i sabet t aSi r ani ( cat .no.32)wer eabl et osuppor tt hemsel ves andt hei rent i r ef ami l i es. Thel i vesofwomenf r om t hel owestsoci al cl asses—ser vant s,peasant s,sl aves,orpr ost i t ut es—wer eshapedbyt hei rl ackofeducat i onandbyhow wel l orbadl yment r eat edt hem.Woment ookcar eoft hei rf ami l i es,cl eaned,cooked,washed,andwor kedt hef i el ds;manybecamevi ct i msofvi ci ous menwhoaccusedt hem ofwi t chcr af t . Thr oughouthi st or y ,womenl i vedundert her egul at i onofl awsdi ct at edbymen. TheRenai ssancegavemanywoment heoppor t uni t yf oran educat i ont hatempower edt hem wi t hsel f wor t handcour ageandt huscount er edsomeoft hel i mi t at i onspl acedont hem byapat r i ar chalsoci et y . Thei rhar dwor k,exempl ar yl i ves,andper sever ancepavedt hewayt owar di mpr ovedl i vesf orf ut ur egener at i onsofwomen. GDM/ MEM
29 I nt hest yl eofAnt oni oMor o( Ant honi sMorvanDashor st ,Dut ch,1516/ 201576/ 78) Char l esVofSpai n,ca.15591561 Oi lonwood
Att heageofni net een,Char l esIofCast i l ebecameHol yRomanEmper orand mai nt ai nedvastt er r i t or i esi nEur opet hatspr eadt hr oughoutt heNet her l ands, Ger many , Aust r i a,Hungar y ,I t al y ,andt heMedi t er r aneani sl ands,al ongwi t ht he i nher i t edki ngdom ofAr agon. Wi t hi nt woyear sofhi saccessi on,Spai nhad annexedmuchofAmer i caandChar l eswoul dover seet heevol ut i onofanew empi r e known as New Spai n. Bor ni nt o gr eatf or t une,t he gr andson of Fer di nandandI sabel ofSpai nandoft heHabsbur gmonar chs,Char l esi nher i t ed anempi r et hatEur opehadnotseensi nceChar l emagne’ sr ul e( 768814) .The t i mei nwhi chChar l esl i vedi sof t enl ookeduponasat i meoft r ansi t i onbet ween t heMi ddl eAgesandt hemoder nwor l d.Ast hel astt r ul ypower f ulHol yRoman Emper orat t empt i ngt osust ai nt heCat hol i cChur ch’ si nvol vementi npol i t i cal af f ai r s,Char l eshadt of acei ncr easi ngmoder ni t yexpandi ngbeyondt her eal m of amedi evalwor l dvi ew. Thoughpor t r ai tpai nt i ngcant r acei t sr oot sbackt oant i qui t y ,Mor o’ spor t r ai tof Char l esshowst her oyalpat r onaget owhi char t i st snow at t achedt hemsel ves, r at hert hancont i nui ngt owor ki nt hegui l dsyst em.Mor o’ ssuccessasanar t i st wasanal ogoust ohi sr i sei nsoci et y ,andbei ngmor esoci al l ypr omi nentt hanhi s Net her l andi shcont empor ar i es,heenj oyedpat r onaget hatal l owedhi m access t ot hepol i t i calwor l d. Hi smast er ,JanvanScor el( 14951562) ,hadnur t ur ed much ofMor o’ ssuccess,i ncl udi ng hi sknowl edge ofcl assi calant i qui t yand associ at i onswi t hr oyal t yandhi ghcl er gy .Ri val edi nski l lbyTi t i anatt het i me ( ca.14881576) ,Mor owasconsi der edamast erpor t r ai t i st ,sai dt ohavet he abi l i t yt opr oduce“ anef f ectequal t ot heexpect at i onoft hehi st or i cal i mpor t ance ofhi ssi t t er s. ” GDM
30
Wor kshopofGi ovannidaBol ogna( I t al i an,15291608) orVal er i oCi ol iSet t i gnano( 15291599) Dwar fAst r i deaTor t oi se,af t er15601608 Br onze
Thi ssmal l br onzeofamal edwar fast r i deat or t oi seappear st obebasedont he mar bl e Fount ai n ofBacchus,a 1560 scul pt ur e att he Bobol iGar dens i n Fl or ence,I t al y ,byt hescul pt orVal er i oCi ol i daSet t i gnano.TheBobol i Gar dens wer eseenast heval i dat i onandcommemor at i onofMedi cir ul e.Thepr ot ot ype wasnott r ul yadepi ct i onofBacchus,butr at heracar i cat ur e,ni cknamedbyt he Fl or ent i nepeopl e.Theact ual i dent i f i cat i onoft hedwar fi sdi sput edbet weent wo hi st or i calf i gur es:onenamedPi et r oBar bi noandanot herMor gant e,af t ert he gi anti naf amousLui giPul cipoem dedi cat edt ot hemot herofLor enzot he Magni f i cent . Gi or gi o Vasar i( 151 11574)cl ai mst hatPi et r o Bar bi no wasa bel oveddwar fatt hecour tofCosi moIde’ Medi ci ,admi r edf orhi swi t ,schol ast i c t al ent s,andbenevol ence. Vasar ist at est hatCi ol imadet wol i f el i ke,l i f esi ze andnudescul pt ur es—oneoft hedwar fMor gant eandt heot herofBar bi no. Ther ei s skept i ci sm among some schol ar st hatBar bi no woul d have been i l l ust r at edast heabsur dl i t t l emanonat or t oi se.Theysuggestt hatt her emust besomeconf usi onbet weent hescul pt ur ei nquest i onandt heot herscul pt ur e, whi ch i nhabi t sa ni che on t he nor t h si de oft he near bypal ace’ scour t yar d. Thoughtt obet hemostcel ebr at edscul pt ori nt hel at t erhal foft he16t hcent ur y , Gi ovanni daBol ognaal sohadcommi ssi onsf r om t heMedi ci f ami l y .Muchofhi s wor ki sf ount ai nbased,andhesomet i mesmadenumer ouscl ayandbr onze model st oassi sti nt hepr ogr essofhi swor k. Dwar f sdepi ct edi nar tcanhavevar i ousmeani ngsandconnot at i ons. Some Chr i st i anssawdwar f sasnegat i vel ymar kedbyGodandavoi dedt hem.Dwar f s wer eal sogi vencomi cal l ypr omi nentnamesbyt hei rmast er s,asi nt hecaseof Mor gant e,whowasnamedaf t eragi ant .Theywer eof t encompani onst or oyal chi l dr en,ascanbeseeni nDi egoVel ázquez’ ( 15991660)f amouspai nt i ngLas Meni nas. GDM/ FK
31 At t r i but edt oWi l l em dePoor t er( Dut ch,16081648) Repent antMagdal ene Oi loncanvas
Mar yMagdal enei sapopul arsai nti nt heChr i st i ancal endar .Knownbot hasone ofChr i st ’ sf ol l ower sandar ef or medpr ost i t ut e,sheembodi esnotonl yt heevi l s associ at edwi t hf emal esexual i t ybutal sosal vat i ont hr oughr epent ance.I nt he Renai ssance,heri mager epr esent edt hedi chot omyofwomanasei t heri deal or want on,l ovi ngorl ust f ul ,chast eorseduct i ve,obedi entorheadst r ong,sai ntor si nner .Mar yMagdal ene’ si mageal sor ecal l edt hecl assi calgoddessVenusas t he gl or i f i cat i on oft he nude and vener at i on ofphysi calbeaut y( f ormor e i nf or mat i onaboutcl assi cal ar t ,seet hesect i onoft heexhi bi t i ononTheCl assi cal Revi val ) . Wi l l em dePoor t er ,aDut chf ol l owerofRembr andt ,depi ct sMar yMagdal eneas ani mageoff emi ni nebeaut y ,wi t hdel i cat ef aci al f eat ur esandasensuousbody . Shewear sasi l kyr edgownasasymbolofpassi on,si nf ul ness,andvani t y ,as wel lassuf f er i ng.I namomentofspi r i t ualst r uggl eandi nt ensedevot i on,she t ur nsherheadt owar dsHeavenshowi ngr emor sef orhersi nswi t hhercl asped hands,t her ednessofhereyes,andt hepear l l i ket ear st hatr ol ldownherf ace. Shehast hr ownont ot hef l oorherl uxur i ousaccessor i es,gol dcoi ns,andj ar sof unguent ,used bot ht o per f ume herf l esh f orf or bi dden act sand t o cl eanse Chr i st ’ sf eet . Wi t houtf ear ,shehasr ej ect edt hepl easur esofear t hl yl i f eand embr acedal i f eoft ear s,penance,andsacr i f i ce.Mar yMagdal enehasbecome anobl esoulwi t hi nabeaut i f ulbody ,whocl ai mst hesuper i or i t yofwomenwi t h r egar dt of ai t handbel i ef . Tot hi sday ,sher emi ndsusofChr i st ’ sl oveand f or gi venessandal i f eofpeni t ence. MEM
32
El i sabet t aSi r ani( I t al i an,16381665) Restont heFl i ghti nt oEgypt Et chi ng
Thi spr i nti l l ust r at est hest or yoft heHol yFami l y’ sFl i ghti nt oEgypt ,oneoft hemostpopul arl egendsaboutt hel i f eofChr i stt hatbegani nt heMi ddl eAges. Accor di ngt ot heGospelofMat t hew2: 1621,t heHol yFami l yf l edi nt oEgyptt oescapeKi ngHer od’ sor dert oexecut eal lf i r st bor nmal ei nf ant si nt hevi l l age ofBet hl ehem,t oaver tt hel ossofhi st hr onet oanewbor nKi ngoft heJewswhosebi r t hwasannouncedt ohi m byt heWi seMen. Si r anipor t r ayst heHol yFami l yasor di nar ypeopl e.Shedr essest hem i ncont empor ar ycl ot hi ngandseat st hem underapal mt r ee,emphasi zi ngt hehuman r at hert hant hedi vi nenat ur eoft hehol yf i gur es,andf ocusi ngont hemat er nali nt i macyandt ender nessoft heVi r gi nMar y .Thear t i st ’ sf emal esensi t i vi t yno doubtcont r i but edt ot her epr esent at i onofi nt i mat emoment sl i ket hi si nt hedai l yl i vesofcont empor ar ywomen( f ormor ei nf or mat i onaboutgenr escenes,r ef er t ot heexhi bi t i onsect i onAwakeni ngI nt er esti nEar t hl yLi f e) . Si r anir ecei vedhert r ai ni ngf r om herf at herGi ovanni Andr eaSi r ani( 16101670,af ol l owerofGui doReni ) ,anddespi t ehershor tl i f e( shedi edatt heageof 27) ,shecont r i but edt ot heevol ut i onofpai nt i ngi nBol ogna,hernat i veci t y .Si r ani openedherownschool ofpai nt i ngf orwomen;exper i ment edwi t hnewmedi a suchaset chi ngandpr i nt i ng( f ormor ei nf or mat i onaboutt hepr i nt i ngpr ocess,r ef ert ot hesect i onSci enceandTechnol ogy) ;anddevel opednewi nt er pr et at i ons ofmyt hol ogi calt hemesandf emal eher oi nesf r om ant i qui t y ,avoi di ng,i nmostoft hem,t heer ot i ci sm t ypi cal l yempl oyedbyhermal econt empor ar i es.She exal t ednobl evi r t uessuchascour age,st r engt h,andl oyal t y ,usual l yat t r i but edt omenr at hert hanwomen.Hermonument al mannerofpai nt i ng,dr amat i cuse ofl i ght ,andr api dbr ushwor kwer eadmi r edbycont empor ar yar t i st sandbyt hepubl i c,whomour nedherpr emat ur edeat h. MEM
33 Gi r ol amoMocet t o( I t al i an,ca.14701531) Judi t h,af t erAndr eaMant egna,150005 Engr avi ng
Thi spr i nti l l ust r at est hest or yf r om anOl dTest amentapocr yphalst or yabout Judi t h,aJewi shwi dow whosavedherpeopl ef r om sl aver yanddeat hbyt he Assyr i anar my .Gai ni ngaccesst ot het entoft heenemygener al Hol of er nesshe t ookadvant ageofhi sdr unkenst upor ,decapi t at edhi m andt ookhi sheadback t ohercount r ymen.Havi ngl ostt hei rl eader ,t heAssyr i anar myf l ed,andI sr ael wassaved. Gi r ol amoMocet t o,anI t al i anengr aver ,pai nt er ,anddesi gnerofst ai nedgl ass, por t r aysJudi t hasr emot e,i mpassi ve,andunawar eoft hecr i met hatshehas j ustcommi t t edasshepassest heheadofHol of er nest ohermai dser vantAbr a. Thear t i stemphasi zesJudi t h’ spassi vest r engt handdownpl ayst hedanger ous poweroff emal esexual i t ybypl aci ngherawayf r om t hesceneoft hecr i me,t he t ent ,andt hebedoft heAssyr i angener al . I nt heRenai ssance,Judi t hbecameanexampl eoft hest r engt hofl ocalpeopl e agai nstt yr anni calr ul ef r om af ar . Li keDavi d,whobecamet hesymboloft he Fl or ent i neRepubl i c,sheappeal edt ot heFl or ent i nes,whosaw t hemsel vesas t heunder dogf i ght i ngamor epower f ulenemy ,or i gi nal l yt heMi l anese. The young her oi ne al so at t r act ed el i t e women such as I sabel l a d’ Est e,Vi t t or i a Col onna,and Cat her i ne and Mar i a de’Medi ci . Theycommi ssi oned wor ks depi ct i ngJudi t handot herf emal eher oi nesofant i qui t yf r om f amousar t i st sof t hei rt i mesuchasTi t i an,Mant egna,andLeonar dodaVi nci . Thr ought hei r commi ssi ons,el i t ef emal esf el taut onomous,abl et oasser tt hei rowni dent i t i es andpower .Nobl ewomenr el at edt hei raccompl i shment st ot heachi evement sof anci enther oi nessuch asJudi t h,Lucr et i a,Por t i a,and Cl eopat r a who wer e pr ai sedf ort hei rcour age,f or t i t ude,andl oyal t y . MEM
34 HansBal dungGr i en( Ger many ,1484/ 851545) TheWi t ches’ Sabbat h,1510 Chi ar oscur owoodcut
I nt hi spr i nt ,HansBal dungGr i en,aGer manpai nt er ,pr i nt maker ,andf ol l owerof Al br echtDür er ,i l l ust r at eshi spr eoccupat i on wi t ht he dar kersi de ofhuman nat ur e,t hesuper nat ur al ,wi t ches,anddeat h.I nt hi schi ar oscur owoodcut ,he depi ct sawi t ches’sabbat h,anoct ur nalcer emonyi nadesol at ef or estwher e womenpar t i ci pant sr i debackwar dsonf l yi nggoat s,st ew humanbones,eat f l eshsupposedl yofchi l dr en,andcopul at ewi t hSat ani nt heshapeofagoat . Thi si mageofwi t chesst andsasacl earexampl eoft hepoweroft hecul t ur al myt hi nher i t edf r om t heMi ddl eAgest hatassoci at edwomenwi t hwi t chcr af tand t hef emal ebodywi t hsi n.Dur i ngt heRenai ssance,f r om t he14t ht ot he17t h cent ur y ,t he myt h became a r eal i t y ,and women became t he t ar get s of wi t chhunt s as a r esul tofsoci al ,pol i t i caland economi c changes,t he emer genceofanewr el i gi on,i nt er esti nast r ol ogy ,changesi nt her ol eofwomen, and t he gr owt h ofpr i nt ed l i t er at ur e on wi t chcr af tsuch as t he Mal l eus mal ef i car um ( f ormor ei nf or mat i on on t he evol ut i on ofpr i nt i ng,r ef ert ot he exhi bi t i onsect i onSci enceandTechnol ogy) . Commonpeopl ewer enott heonl yonesaf r ai dofwi t chesandt hei rdest r uct i ve nat ur e. Hi ghr anki ngchur chmenandmanyi nt el l ect ual sal sobel i evedi nt he powerofwi t ches,andf el tapr of oundpessi mi sm aboutt heevi l sofsoci et y . Thesel ear nedmenagr eedt hati twasupt ot hem t ocont r olpeopl ewhol acked di sci pl i neandpr opereducat i on. Amongt hosewhoneededt obecont r ol l ed wer e women,si nce t hey wer er egar ded as danger ous,seduct i ve,and suscept i bl et owi t chcr af tbecauseoft hei ri nf er i orphysi cal ,ment al ,andmor al capaci t y . Power l essagai nstsecul arandr el i gi ousl aw,womenbecameeasy t ar get sf oral lt heabnor mal i t i esofsoci et yandvi ct i msofmal er esent mentand gui l t .Al ongwi t hwar sandt hebuboni cpl ague,wi t chhunt swer epar toft he dar kersi deoft heRenai ssance. MEM
THECLASSI CALREVI VAL: EXPANDI NG KNOWLEDGEACROSSTI ME Br onzeSt at ue e s Thr oughoutt heRenai ssancel ar gescal ebr onzescul pt ur eswer ecommi ssi onedbyt heCat hol i cChur chaswel lasweal t hypat r ons.Cr eat edf or publ i cdi spl ay ,t hesewor ksat t est edt ot hepol i t i calaut hor i t y ,r el i gi ousdevot i on,orsoci alst at usoft hei rcommi ssi oner sandenhancedt heChur ch’ s r el i gi ouspr ogr am. Br onzest at uet t es,knownasbr onzet t i ,f i r stappear edi nt heear l y15t hcent ur yi nFl or ence,t hought hepr oduct i onoft hese smal l si zewor ksr eachedi t szeni t hi nt heci t yofPadua. Of t ensuper bpi ecesofscul pt ur e,t hesebr onzesf or m ani nt egr alwef ti nt hef abr i coft heI t al i anRenai ssance,hel pi ngt hevi ewert ounder st andt he ar t i st i ci deasandst yl i st i cpr edi l ect i onsoft hei rmast er s,aswel last hedemandsofanew cl i ent el et hatvar i edf r om t her i si ngmi ddl ecl assest o humani sti nt el l ect ualci r cl es.Att hesamet i met heyacquai ntuswi t hsever alscul pt or swhodi dnotpr oducemonument alwor ks,aswel laswi t h st yl es,t hemes,mot i f s,andsubj ect swhi choccur r edl essof t eni nl ar gescal escul pt ur es,suchast her epr esent at i onoft henude( cat .nos.35,37, 38,39,41,42,43) .Thesebr onzet t i wer eof t enr epl i casofl i f esi zeor i gi nal s( cat .nos.1,41,42)orpr el i mi nar ysket chesf ort hem,cl osel yassoci at ed wi t hl ar gerwor ksbyt hear t i storhi scont empor ar i es( cat .no.1) .Manywer er epr oduct i onsofant i quewor kst hatei t hersur vi vedi nt he15t hand16t h cent ur i esorhadbeenel oquent l ydescr i bedi nt hecl assi calt ext sst udi edbyer udi t ehumani st s( cat .nos.1,41,42,43) .Thus,t heywer esoughtby ot herar t i st swhocoul dst udyandr epr oducef amouswor ksi nt hesecl usi onoft hei rst udi os.Fur t her mor e,si ncet hemaj or i t yoft hesesmal lbr onze st at uet t esar ef r eest andi ngf i gur esi nt endedt obeseenf r om al lsi des,t heydi spl ayt hear t i st ’ st al entf ordesi gni ngi ndi vi dualf i gur esorgr oups det achedf r om wal l sorni chesf orwhi chmanymonument alst at ueswer ei nt ended. Agoodnumberoft hesest at uet t eswer edesi gnedf ordomest i cpur posesand,t houghpr i mar i l ydecor at i ve,t heyal sohadut i l i t ar i anf unct i ons,such assuppor t i nganoi ll amp,i nkwel l ,orcandl esocket( cat .nos.35,38,39) .Whet hercopi esofr enownedant i quemast er pi ecesoror i gi nalwor kson anci entsubj ect s( cat .nos.1,35,38,39,43) ,t heydemonst r at et henewRenai ssanceconceptofr evi vi ngacul t ur edi f f er entf r om Chr i st i ancul t ur e, andt husar evehi cl esoft hei deaofpl ur al i sm.Att hebegi nni ng,mostoft hesest at uet t eswer eexactr epl i casoft heor i gi nal s.Event houghmany ar t i st st r i edt ogi vet hei rbr onzesnovelqual i t i esi nor dert osat i sf yagr owi ngmar ketf oruni quevar i ant s,i mpr ovement si nt hebr onzecast i ng pr ocess—t aki ng pl ace i n wel l est abl i shed publ i c,r at hert han cost l y ,pr i vat ef oundr i es—opened t he possi bi l i t yf orexactdupl i cat i on. Var i ous der i vat i veobj ect s,sever alver si onsofwhi chsur vi ve,wer epr oducedei t herbyt hear t i st ’ swor kshoporhi sf ol l ower s,whor et ai nedt hei ni t i almodel s andmol dsandcopi edt hem l ongaf t ert hear t i st ’ sdeat h.Thel ar genumberofRenai ssancebr onzest at uet t esat t est st ot hei rpopul ar i t yashi ghl y appr eci at edcol l ect i bl es,andsi mul t aneousl ymakest hem pr edecessor soft hemasspr oducedobj ect sofourt i me. CP
35
Wor kshopofSever odaRavenna( I t al i an,ca.14961543) For mer l yat t r i but edt oAndr eaRi cci o( I t al i an,14701532) I nkwel lwi t hseat edCupi dsuppor t edbyt hr eewi nged sphi nxes Br onze
Thi st wopi ecei nkwel loncewasat t r i but edt ot hewor kshopof Andr eaRi cci o.I tconsi st sofaci r cul arbase,suppor t edbyt hr ee sphi nxes,andal i dont opofwhi ch,onat r eest ump,si t sawi nged cupi d.Ast hesphi nxesspr eadt hei rwi ngs,t het i psnear l yt ouch: onl yanor nament aldr aper yst andsbet weent hem,accent uat i ng t hedecor at i vel eafmot i foft her i ng.ThebabyEr osl ooki ngt ohi s l ef tor i gi nal l yhel danobj ect ,possi bl yabow andar r ow t oshoot i nt ot he hear tofan unsuspect i ng vi ct i m. The t r ee st ump i s pi er cedwi t hequal l yspacedhol est ohol dqui l l pens,t hef eat her s ofwhi ch sur r ounded t he Cupi d and musthave cr eat ed a r emar kabl evi sualef f ect . I nt he16t hcent ur y ,t heset ypesofobj ect s,besi dest hei rpr act i cal f unct i on,wer e made f ort he del ect at i on oft he Renai ssance connoi sseur , who coul d appr eci at e t he combi nat i on of myt hol ogi calf i gur esf r om t wo di f f er entcul t ur es,Egypt i an and Gr eek.Thecoexi st enceoft het hr eef emal ehybr i dcr eat ur eswi t h t hegodofl ovegi vessymbol i cmeani ngt ot hi sgr oup:accor di ng t ot heEgypt i ant r adi t i on,sphi nxesper soni f yhumanwi sdom t hat chal l enges t he i r r at i onal i t y ofer ot i c passi on,i nspi r ed by t he wi ngedcupi d.However ,t hepr edomi nantpl acementofEr oson t hecoveroft hei nkwel lal l udest ot hedomi nanceofi nf at uat i on overr eason. CP
36 Ar t i stunknown,I t al i an BustofaMan,ca.1600 Br onze
At t r i but edatonepoi ntt ot he16t hcent ur yVenet i anar t i stNi ccol oRoccat agl i at a, t hi sst at uet t ei sabustpor t r ai tofamandr apedi nat ogal i kegar ment .I tsi t son amar bl ebaseandi si ngoodcondi t i onexceptf oral ar gehol eont her i ghtsi de oft he head and a numberofdi sper sed,smal l erhol es. Render ed i na nat ur al i st i cst yl e,i thasanani mat edandconvi nci ngexpr essi on. Li kecat al ogueno.40,abustofamandr essedasaRomanemper or ,t he cl ot hi ng and st yl e oft hi s por t r ai tr evealan i nt er esti nt he ar tofant i qui t y . Educat edpat r onsandar t i st soft heRenai ssancewoul dhaveunder st oodt hat bustpor t r ai t ur ehadbeenani mpor t antgenr ei nant i quear t ,andwoul dhave beenf ami l i arwi t hanci entbust sdr essedandposedl i ket hi sone. Her e,t he man’ spost ur e,wi t hi t ssl i ghtupwar dandbackwar dt i l toft hehead,par t i cul ar l y r ecal l sanexpr essi vest yl eofpor t r ai t ur epopul ari nt heHel l eni st i cage,whi ch wasr evi vedi nsomeoft hemostendur i ngl yf amouswor ksoft heRenai ssance. Becauseoft hei raugustor i gi ns,bust sl i ket hi s,whi chwoul dl i kel yhavebeen owned byan i ndi vi dualand used t o ador n a pr i vat e home orst udy ,wer e symbol sofweal t handeducat i on. Ther evi valoft hecl assi calst yl eofbustpor t r ai t ur ecor r espondedt oar enewed i nt er esti nt heant i queunder st andi ngoft heval ueandr ol eoft hei ndi vi dual . St at uesl i ket hi s,askt hevi ewert oi nvesti nani ndi vi dualper sonal i t y .Whet her r ealori magi ned,t heyr epr esentadr amat i cshi f tf r om t hecommunal l yor i ent ed r el i gi ousspi r i toft heMi ddl eAgest oacul t ur et hatr evi vedt hebel i eft hat“ mani s t hemeasur eofal lt hi ngs, ”ast hepr eSocr at i cphi l osopherPr ot agor asputi t . NS
37 Wor kshopofSever odaRavenna( I t al i an,ca.14961543) Seat edSat yr esswi t hChi l d Br onze
At t r i but ed t ot he wor kshop oft he pr omi nentPaduan scul pt orSever o da Ravenna( cat .nos.35,38,39) ,t hi sst at uet t eshowsasat yr esssi t t i ngcal ml yon anant i quest yl et r eest ump,wi t honear m ar oundt heshoul der sofachi l dsat yr , andt heot herext ended,pr obabl yoncesuppor t i ngt hecandl ehol dernowbol t ed t ot hest at uet t e’ sbase. I nt het r adi t i onofsi mi l arRenai ssancebr onzes,t he gr oupi sel egant l yandnat ur al i st i cal l ymodel ed,wi t hat ypi cali nt er esti nt he car ef ulandl i f el i ker epr esent at i onofbodi l yf or m. Li ket hest at uet t e’ snat ur al i st i cst yl e,i t ssubj ectwoul dhavebeeni ncongr uousi n t hepr eRenai ssanceer a.Thesat yr ess,l i kehermal ecount er par t ,t hesat yr ,i s acr eat ur eder i vedf r om cl assi calmyt hol ogy .Combi ni nghumanf eat ur eswi t h t hoseoft hegoatorhor se—not eherhor ns,t ai l ,andhai r y ,goat l i kel egs—she appear si nant i quear tandcul t ur ei nconnect i onwi t ht hecul tofDi onysus,t he Gr eekgodofwi neandr evel r y ,andof t enasasymbolofwi l dandunbr i dl ed sexual i t y . I nr epr esent i ng a myt hol ogi calcr eat ur e,t he st at ue r ef l ect st he gr owi ng awar enessandi nt er esti nCl assi cal t houghtandcul t ur et hatemer geddur i ngt he Renai ssance.Byemphasi zi ngnat ur al i st i cf or m andbychoosi ngi mager ywi t h heavy ,sexualconnot at i ons,t hest at uesi gnal sar et ur nt oanunder st andi ngof t hebodyandofsexual i t yt hatwasunaf f ect edbyChr i st i anascet i ci sm.St i l l ,t hi s sat yr ess,pr esent ed i n a cal m and mot her l ypose,can be seen notasan unqual i f i edr ebi r t hofCl assi cali deal s,butasagent l erandmor er est r ai ned commentont hef or cesoft henat ur alwor l d. Thest at uet t ei sanexampl eofagenr eofsat yri mager yt hatbecamepopul ar amongI t al i anar t i st soft heear l y16t hcent ur y( compar ecat .no.45)–r ef er r i ng t ot her i t esofBacchanal .I ni t ,asi nt heper i odgener al l y ,i ti spossi bl et ot r ace t hecombi nat i onofcl assi calandmedi evali nf l uencest hatdef i nedear l ymoder n vi ewsofl ustandembodi ment . NS
38 Andr eaRi cci o( I t al i an, 14701532) For mer l yat t r i but edt ot hewor kshopofSever odaRavenna( I t al i an,ca. 14961543) At l asSuppor t i nganOi lLamp Br onze
For mer l yat t r i but ed,l i kecat al oguenos.35,37,and39,t ot hewor kshopoft he I t al i anscul pt orSever oCal zet t adaRavenna,At l asSuppor t i nganOi lLampi sa pr oductofabr onzecast i ngt echni quet hatenabl edt hear t i standhi sassi st ant s t ocr eat emor et hanonest at uet t ef r om agi venmodel .Setuponasquar ebase, t het i t ani swei gheddownbyanoi ll amp,shapedl i ket hegl obeoft heheavens, r est i nguponhi sr i ghtshoul der .Hesuppor t shi msel fwi t hhi sl ef thandandt ur ns hi sheadt owar dst hel amp,t hehemi spher i cl i dofwhi chi sl ost .Mostl i kel y ,a spoutandawi ckemer gedt hr ought hemi ssi ngcover . At l as’upwar dt ur ned headconveysei t herangui shoranger ,si ncehewascondemnedt ot hel aborof bear i ngt heheavensonhi sheadandhands.Legendhasi tt hatZeuschoset hi s puni shmentf orhi m,asAt l asdi sput edhi spol i t i cal aut hor i t yandl edt heTi t ansi n ar ebel l i onagai nsthi m. Themanyver si onsi nwhi chourf i gur eexi st ssuggesti t spopul ar i t yamonga humani st i cel i t ewhol ookedf orsophi st i cat edcol l ect i bl es.Sever odaRavenna wasoneoft hepr ot agoni st soft hePaduanSchoolandhi scl i ent swer ePaduan andVenet i ani nt el l ect ual swhor ever edmyt hol ogi calsubj ect s. Thef i gur eof At l asmusthavebeenofpar t i cul ari nt er estt ot hem,si nce,accor di ngt oGr eek myt hol ogy ,hei nst r uct edmanki ndi nt hear tofast r onomy ,at ool whi chwasused bysai l or si nnavi gat i onandf ar mer si nmeasur i ngt heseasons. Theser ol es wer eof t encombi ned,andAt l asbecamet hegodwhot ur nedt heheavenson t hei raxi s,causi ng t he st ar st or evol ve. Humani st sdeepl yi nvol ved i nt he sci encesandempi r i calobser vat i onoft henat ur alwor l dandt heuni ver semust have been especi al l yf ond ofa f i gur er epl et e wi t h ast r onomi calr ef er ences. Fur t her mor e, oi ll amps wer e t r easur ed as symbol s of t r anscendent al i l l umi nat i onbyhumani st s,aconceptdat i ngbackt oAr i st ot l e. Moder nr esear chhaspr ovedt hatRi cci ocr eat edt hemaj or i t yofhi sbr onze st at uet t eswhi l e he waswor ki ng att he Sant o Chapeli nt he Basi l i ca ofSt . Ant honyi nPaduabet ween1507and1516.Ri cci o’ sci r cl econt i nuedt or epl i cat e hi sbr onzesf orasl ongast heysat i sf i edcl i ent s’ t ast e. CP
39 Wor kshopofSever odaRavenna( I t al i an,ca.14961543) Seat edSat yr ess Br onze
The st at uet t e shows a sat yr ess,a myt hol ogi calbei ng who combi nes t he char act er i st i csofahumanandagoat ,seat edi naf r ont alposeonawooden baset hathasl ostpar tofi t smol di ng.Oneofherhandsi sext ended,hol di ng whatmi ghtoncehavebeenacandl est i ck,whi l et heot heri sbentawkwar dl yat hersi de. Thewor ki si ngoodcondi t i on,butseemsunf i ni shed,wi t hsl i ght l y uncont r ol l edmodel i ngandal ackoff i nedet ai l . I t scomposi t i oni sr emar kabl ysi mi l art ot hatofanot hersmal l br onzesat yr ess,i n t hecol l ect i onoft heMuseodi Pal azzoVenezi a,whi chhasbeenat t r i but edt ot he wor kshopoft hePaduanar t i stSever odaRavenna,andal sot ot hatofcat al ogue no.37i nt hi sexhi bi t i on,aSeat edSat yr esswi t hChi l d.Al t hought hesat yr ess si t sonaver ydi f f er entbaseandi snotaccompani edbyachi l dsat yr ,shei si n near l yt hesameposeandi sr eal i zedi nal mostt hesamest yl e. Thesesi mi l ar i t i esmakei thar dt ounear t ht hepr eci sepr ovenanceoft hewor ks ort hei rexactr el at i ont ooneanot her ,butt heyal sor ef l ectanexpl osi onofmass pr oduct i on t hatbegan t o char act er i ze ar t maki ng dur i ng t he Renai ssance. Wor kshopsl i ket hatofSever o,whi chusedat echni queofbr onzecast i ngt hat al l owed cr eat i on ofmul t i pl e copi es ofa si ngl e obj ect ,began t o suppl ya f l our i shi ngpr i vat emar ketf orsmal ldecor at i veorut i l i t ar i anobj ect s. Wi t ht he i ncr easeddemandcameani ncr easei nout put ,andacor r espondi ngr i sei n ar t i st i cdi f f usi on,t ot heext entt hatt odayi ti sof t endi f f i cul tt oat t r i but ebr onzest o speci f i cPaduanwor kshops.Thewi deni ngavai l abi l i t yofar ti sr ef l ect edi nt he numberofwor ks,l i ke t hi s sat yr ess,t hathave sur vi ved t ot he pr esentas const anti nf l uencesonwest er nar tandcul t ur e. I tal sof or eshadowst hevast pr ol i f er at i on ofar t i st i cr epr oduct i on t hatchar act er i zes t he moder n vi sual exper i ence. NS
40 Unknownar t i st ,I t al i an Por t r ai tBustofaMani nt heGui seofaRomanEmper or ,ca.1500s Br onze
Thi sbust l engt hf i gur ecr ownedwi t hl aur ell eaves,wear i ngabr oadl ydr aped capef ast enedoverasquar eneckedt uni c,appear st obea16t hcent ur ymani n t hegui seofaRomanemper or .However ,t hi sf aci alt ype,wi t ht hi ckeyebr ows andbr ushymoust ache,doesnotr esembl eanyknownant i queemper ort ype.I t i snever t hel essbasedupont hel at eHel l eni st i candRomanbel i efi nsur vi val af t erdeat h,andt hatt hef acewast hevest i geoft hemor t albei ngwhoei t her ear ned orl osta bl i ssf ulher eaf t er . I t s vi sualsour ces ar el at e Roman: 2ndcent ur yC. E.mal ebust sar eshownwi t hhai randbear dst hatcascadewi t h cur l s,asopposedt oacent ur yl at er ,whent hel ong,f l owi ngcur l svani shandt he cl osef i t t i ngskul l capst yl e,seeni nt hi sbust ,wasf avor ed.Thef aci alhai ral so appear sasasi mpl esheat hont hechi n,asopposedt ot hegr i zzl i erbear dsoft he pr evi ous cent ur y . Towar ds t he l at t erpar toft he 3r d cent ur y ,t he wor r i ed, f ur r owed br ow seen i nt hi sbustr emai ned one oft he f ew nat ur al i st i cf aci al char act er i st i cs,andast he4t hcent ur ypr ogr essed,f acesofr ul er sbecamemor e gener al i zedandr i gi d. Unl i kemor enat ur al i st i cRenai ssancebust s,cl assi cali mi t at i onsl i ket hi sone l ackaf eel i ngofmobi l i t y .Theheadi sal waysonaf i r m ver t i cal axi swi t ht hebody and neck,whi l et he shoul der s ar e si t uat ed hor i zont al l y . To say t hatt he Renai ssancer evi vedt hecl assi cal busti st husnotent i r el yt r ue;t hedi f f er encei n st r uct ur eshowsot her wi se. I tshoul d be not ed t hatt he bustwas notal ways an accept abl ef or m of por t r ai t ur e,event houghi tcoul dt r acei t sr oot sbackt ocl assi calant i qui t y .The por t r ai tbust ,vi ewedbyear l yChr i st i ansasapagansymbolr emi ni scentofi dol wor shi p,wasnoti nf actwi del yr evi t al i zedunt i lt hel at t erpar toft he16t hcent ur y . GDM
41 Unknownar t i st ,I t al i an Romangl adi at or ,ca.1500s Br onze
Thi sRomangl adi at ori sadi r ectr evi valofcl assi calant i qui t ybasedonaknown sour ce( compar ecat .no42) .Thi ssmal l br onze,aswel l ast heot herbr onzesi n t he exhi bi t i on,hel ped Renai ssance knowl edge expand acr oss t he moder n wor l d,si ncear twasdi sper sedt hr oughoutEur ope.Al so,l i kemanybr onzes,t hi s obj ectmayhavebeenmadef r om auni quemol dandt husneverr epr oduced, unl esst hear t i stt ookacastoft heor i gi nal .Ahumani stmi ghthavebeent he commi ssi oneroft hi sbr onze,si ncesuchpeopl ewer ever yi nt er est edi nt he r evi valofbot h cl assi calt ext s and cl assi calar t . Unf or t unat el yf orus,t he col l ect or soft hesebr onzesdi dnotf eeli twasi mpor t antt or ecor dwhet hera br onzewasanor i gi nal ,f i r stcopy ,orsecondcopy;andt hei rr ecor dssel dom al l udet ot hear t i st ’ sname. I ni t sact i ve,unst abl epose—al mostl i keaphot ogr apht akenj ustast hesubj ect i si nt heactoft hr owi ngsomet hi ng–t hef i gur er ecal l sat r adi t i onofdr amat i c movementdat i ngbackt ot heGr eekscul pt orMyr on’ sDi skobol os,madei n450 B. C. E.I t si mmedi at esour ce,however ,i st hesocal l edBor gheseGl adi at or ,a mar bl est at uef r om Gr eeceorAsi aMi nor ,ca.100B. C. E. ,di scover edsomet i me bef or e161 1i nt her ui nsofEmper orNer o' svi l l a.Thecol l ect oroft hi sbr onze mayhavewant edt ost udyt hef or m oft hehumanbody ,ormi ghthavewant eda st at uet t er esembl i ngt heanci entgl adi at or ,because,i mmedi at el yuponbei ng unear t hed,i twaswi del yadmi r ed. L W
42 Unknownar t i st ,I t al i an Her cul es,basedont heFar neseHer cul es,ca.1600s Br onze
Thi ssmal lI t al i anRenai ssancebr onzei sal soanexampl eoft hedi r ecti mi t at i on ofcl assi calant i qui t y . The mi ni at ur e st at ue i s model ed af t ert he f amous, over l i f esi ze Her cul es t hatt he Far nese f ami l y dug up f r om t he Bat hs of Car acal l ai nRomei nt he16t hcent ur y . Muchi nt er estwasar ousedbyt hat near l yt enf oot hi gh,hi ghl ydet ai l edst at ue.TheGr eekar t i stGl ykon’ ssi gnat ur e i sont heanci entst at ue,butschol ar sbel i evet hathemodel edi taf t erabr onze at t r i but ed t o Lysi ppos. The Far nese Her cul eswasi mmensel ypopul arand at t r act edmanyvi si t or s. Humani stschol ar swhor eadanci entt ext sandcol l ect edanci entar t i f act swer e t he mostl i kel ypeopl et o acqui r e such smal lbr onze copi esoft he Far nese Her cul es,wi shi ngt ost udyi t . Thesesmal lbr onzescul pt ur esbecamever y popul ari nt he16t hand17t hcent ur i esasameansofst udyi ngcl assi calar t ,or si mpl yasl ear neddecor at i on.Theywer eeasi l ydi sper sedt hr oughoutEur ope becauseoft hei rsi zeanddur abi l i t y .I nnovat i veschol ar scommi ssi onedar t i st st o pr oducet hesemi ni at ur ebr onzesf ort hei rcol l ect i ons,f orst udyandt odel i ght guest swhoadmi r edt hem. L W
43
Unknownar t i st ,I t al i an,ca.1500s Cent aur Br onze
Thesamei nnovat i onsvi si bl ei ncat al ogue.nos.4042,whi chl ed t heRenai ssancei nt ot hemoder nwor l d,ar echar act er i st i coft hi s br onzeaswel l .Thecent auri sacl assi calf i gur et hathumani st s woul d have known,si nce t hey wer e wel l ver sed i n cl assi cal cul t ur e.I t s pat r on was pr obabl y a per son wi t h a cl assi cal educat i on.I nt heanci entwor l d,cent aur sr epr esent edbar bar i an f or ces,asseenont hescul pt edmet opesoft hePar t henont hat symbol i cal l yr epr esent ed t he bat t l e oft he Per si ans and t he Gr eeks.Wecannotsaywhet hert hear t i storpat r oni nt endedt hi s cent aurt osymbol i zet hebar bar i cf or ei gner soft hei rownt i me,or si mpl yval uedi tasagener i cal l ycl assi calal l usi on. L W
44 Jacopode’ Bar bar i( I t al i an,ca.1460/ 70bef or e1516) Apol l oandDi ana,ca. 15001505 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng,19t hc.
Thi sevocat i onoft het wi ngodsApol l oandDi ana,r ul er soft hesunandt he moon,i sbyJacopode’ Bar bar i ,whowasknownasaVenet i an( whet herbybi r t h oradopt i oni sunknown) .Hewast hef i r stI t al i anRenai ssancear t i stt ot r avelt o t henor t her ncour t sofGer manyandt heNet her l ands,andhi smostnot abl ewor k was t he monument alwoodcut map Bi r d’ s Eye Vi ew of Veni ce, dat ed appr oxi mat el y1500. Thi sengr avi ngdat esf r om t het i mewhende’ Bar bar iwasi nNur ember gand Wi t t enber g,wher e hi s cr eat i ons wer e pr obabl yi nt ended f ort he ci r cl e of humani st sanduni ver si t ypr of essor st hatwer ehi sGer manassoci at esatt he t i me.I nt hesewor ks,t hei nf l uenceof Al br echtDür eri smostevi dent ,not abl y ,hi s useofengr avedbur rt ocr eat et ext ur es.I nt ur n,de’ Bar bar i ’ sst udyofpr opor t i on i nf l uenced Dür er ;Dür er ’ sdr awi ng ofApol l oi scommonl ycompar ed t ot hi s engr avi ng. JM
45
SchoolofNi col asPoussi n( Fr ench,15941665) ,pr obabl yby Gaspar dDughet( Fr ench,16151675)andCar l oMar at t i( I t al i an, 16251713) Bacchanal ,ca.16641670 Oi loncanvas
Thi spai nt i ngwasf or mer l yat t r i but edt oChar l esMel l i n,aFr enchbor npai nt eranddr af t smanwhol i vedandwor kedi nI t al y ,pr i mar i l yRome,f r om 1620onwar d. Basedonr eeval uat i onofar chi val paper sandt hepai nt i ngi t sel f ,t hi swor kseemsmor el i kel yt ohavebeenpai nt edbyGaspar dDughet ,ast udentofNi chol as Poussi n,cour tpai nt ert oLoui sXI I I .Dughet ,whobecamePoussi n’ sbr ot her i nl aw,wasoneoft hebestknownl andscapepai nt er sof17t hcent ur yRome. Al t houghcel ebr at edasal andscapear t i st ,Dughet ’ sf i gur eswer eof t enexecut edbyot herpai nt er s—possi bl y ,i nt hi swor k,byCar l oMar at t iwi t hwhom he wor kedonsever alpai nt i ngs.Dughet ’ sst yl ewasi nf l uencedbyt hewor kofSal vat orRosa( cat .no.48) . Abacchanal i awasaquasi r el i gi ousgat her i ng,i nt r oducedi nt oanci entRomef r om t heGr eekcul t ur eofsout her nI t al y .Theseevent swer ewi l d,myst i cal f est i val soft heRomangodBacchus—t hegodofwi neandf r enzyseenpoi nt i ngt ot heheavensi nt hecent eroft hepai nt i ng—whowashal f humanand hal f godi nor i gi n. Theanci entbacchanal i a,hel di nsecr etandat t endedonl ybywomen,becamenot or i ous,apl acewher ecr i mesandpol i t i cal conspi r aci eswer epl anned.The ar t i stdepi ct s“ t hemor ni ngaf t er , ”wi t hsomepar t i ci pant ssl eepi ngorr el axi ng,whi l eaf ew di ehar dr evel er sst i l lcar ousei nt hebackgr ound.Assoof t en happenedi nt hi sper i od,amyt hol ogi cal subj ectpr ovi dedasaf epr et extt ocel ebr at ei deal nudebeaut y ,bot hmal eandf emal e,despi t et hepr obl emsposedby paganmyt hsandval uesf orChr i st i anmor al i t y( compar et heBacchus,cat .no.1,i nasi mi l arpose) . WS
46 Agost i noMusi( Agost i noVenezi ano,I t al i an,14901540) Apol l oandDaphne,ca. 1518 Engr avi ng
47 At t r i but edt oAnt oni oMar i aZanet t i( I t al i an,16801757) AeneasCar r yi ngAnchi sesf r om t heBur ni ngofTr oy Wat er col oronpaper ,r epr oduct i on,19t h20t hc.
Ther e ar et woAnt oni o Mar i a Zanet t i ’ s known t o ar thi st or i ans:Zanet t it he Youngerand Zanet t it he El der . Ther ei sl i t t l e schol ar shi p aboutt hese t wo di f f er entar t i st s,butonecanseet hei rdi f f er encesi nst yl e.Apr i nti dent i cal t ot hi s dr awi ngwassi gnedbyZanet t it heEl deranddat ed1723.Thi sdr awi ngmay t hushavebeenbyt hear t i sthi msel f ,t houghi tcoul dal sobeacopyorasket ch byast udentorf ol l ower . Ant oni oMar i aZanet t it heEl derwasbor ni nVeni cei n1680andwasacol l ect or ofar taswel l asawr i t erandanar t i sthi msel f ;hi sdat eofdeat hi sunsur e.Some bel i evehedi edi n1757,butot her ssayhecoul dhavel i vedunt i l1765. He t r avel ed t hr oughoutEur ope,had an ext ensi ve ar tcol l ect i on,and waswel l knownf orhi sbooksofar tcr i t i ci sm.Hewasal soknownf orhi sengr avi ngson copperand wood,whi ch i s how he pr obabl y pr oduced al lofhi s wor ks. Engr avi ng was nott he onl yf or m ofar tt hatZanet t ipr oduced:once col or woodcut sbecamepopul ar ,hei mmedi at el ysetoutf orPar i st ol ear nt hi st r ade. Zanet t ipubl i shedabooki n1748basedondesi gnsbyt heear l i erRenai ssance ar t i st ,Par mi gi ani no. Thedr awi ngi l l ust r at esascenef r om t het r agi cf i nal eoft heTr oj anWar ,dr awn f r om Vi r gi l ’ sepi caccountt heAenei d.Thedef eat edpr i nceAeneasf l eesf r om t hebur ni ngci t yofTr oy ,st r uggl i ngt obeart hel oadofhi sagedf at her .Anchi ses l ooks back,whi l eAeneas pl ods r esol ut el y on t owar d hi s new dest i ny ,t he f oundi ngofRome. L W
48 Sal vat orRosa( I t al i an,16151673) Tr i t onsi nCombat ,ca.1660 Facsi mi l eet chi ng
49 Mast erE.S.( Ger man,act i veca.14401467) TheEmper orAugust usandt heTi bur t i neSi byl ,ca.1450 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng
EXPLORI NG THEGLOBE: EXPANDI NG KNOWLEDGEACROSSSPACE Al t houghexpl or at i onout si deofEur opeoccur r edl ongbef or et heRenai ssance,i twasnotsi gni f i cantunt i lt headventofsever aldevel opment st hat ul t i mat el yal t er edt hegl oball andscape.Themagnet i ccompass,i nnovat i veshi pbui l di ng,andt hepr i nt i ngpr ess—whi chi ncr easedt hespr eadof secul arknowl edge,par t i cul ar l ywi t hbet t erandcheapermaps—f aci l i t at edt r avelt odi st antl ands.Eur opeanexpl or at i on,andof t enconquestofbot h t heOl dandt heNewWor l ds,changedsoci et i esar oundt hegl obe. TheOl dWo r l d I ncr easedexpansi oni nt oAf r i caandAsi achangedbot hWest er nandEast er nsoci et i es.I nar t ,ar evol ut i onar ysynt hesi sofst yl est ookpl ace.Obj ect s cr eat edi nwest er nAf r i cai ncl udedEur opeani conogr aphywhi l er et ai ni ngAf r i canmot i f sandst yl e.TheWestaf f ect edr ul er si nt heEastsuchast he Ot t omanTur ki shr ul erMehmedI I ,whocommi ssi onedamedal l i onofhi msel fnotonl yt oemul at eWest er npor t r ai tpr act i cebutal sot odemonst r at e hi saut hor i t y . adewi t hAsi abr oughtnew spi cesandt ext i l esi nt oEur ope,wi t hvi br antpi gment st hatenhancedar t i st s’pal et t es.Ar t i st si ncor por at edI sl ami c Tr decor at i oni nt ot hei rwor kandcr eat eddesi gnsbasedonAr abi cscr i pt .Musl i m ar t i st si nt heMi ddl eEastemul at edWest er nt r adi t i on,maki ngi tpar t oft hei rownar t .Ar t i st si nEastAsi a,however ,l ar gel ycont i nuedt hei rexi st i ngt r adi t i ons,ascanbeseeni nt heJapanesedr awi ngonvi ew ( cat .no. 57) .Att hesamet i me,t hesear t i st sal socr eat edobj ect sspeci f i cal l yf orEur opeans,whi chi nt ur ni nf l uencedt hei rownt r adi t i onalar t . TheNe wWo r l d TheSpani shconquestoft heI ncaEmpi r ei n1532i mposedanewf ai t h,RomanCat hol i ci sm,ont hi sar ea,asi nmuchoft heAmer i cas.Pr i est sf r om t hevar i ousr el i gi ousor der swhoaccompani edt heconqui st ador s—Domi ni cans,Fr anci scans,andJesui t s—est abl i shedcent er sf ort hepr opagat i on ofChr i st i ani t y .Tost ampoutwor shi pofpagangods,t heChur chest abl i shedt heTr i bunaloft heI nqui si t i oni nLi ma,f r om 1569t o1820.However , nat i ver i t ualpr act i ceshonor i ngt heSunandMot herEar t hcont i nued. Pai nt i ngbecamet hemostef f ect i vecondui tofconver si on.Spani shar t i st swer esentt ot hef i r stPer uvi an( f or mer l yt heI nca)capi t al ,Cuzco,t ot each i ndi genouspeopl edr awi ngandpai nt i ng;andar t i st swer er epeat edl yr equest edf r om Rome.Mor eover ,devot i onal bookswer esentt ot heAmer i cas, especi al l yt hoseont hel i vesoft hesai nt s,i l l ust r at edwi t hdr awi ngs.Fl emi shpr i nt sandpai nt i ngssuchast heMadonnaandChi l dat t r i but edt ot he wor kshopofPet erPaulRubens( cat .no.52) ,ser vedasmodel sf orpai nt er swel li nt ot he19t hcent ur y .Byt he17t hcent ur y ,Cuzcohadbecomet he maj orar t i st i ccent eroft heAmer i cas.OurMadonnaandChi l d( cat .no.50)i sat ypi calexampl eoft hei nnovat i vear t i st i cvocabul ar yt hatdevel oped t her e,r epr esent i ngasynt hesi sofEur opeanandnat i veAndeani conogr aphyandi mager y . Thet r ansf or mat i onswr oughtbyEur opeanRenai ssanceexpansi onwer ebot hposi t i veandnegat i ve.Eur opeanawar enessofEast er nphi l osophy , ar t s,andsci ences,i ncr eased,andknowl edgeofWest er nsci enceandempi r i ci sm spr eadabr oad.Ont heot herhand,t hehor r or sofsl aver yandt he devast at i ngcul t ur alr eper cussi onsoft hi sageofconquestar est i l levi denti nLat i nAmer i cat oday . CG/ AMF
50 Unknownar t i st ,CuzcoSchool ,Al t i pl ano,Per uorBol i vi a MadonnaandChi l d,ca.1700s Oi loncanvas ( Phot ogr aphi cf acsi mi l eoft heor i gi nalunderconser vat i on) Thi spai nt i ngoft heMadonnaandChi l di sadel i cat ewor kt hatshowcasest he synt hesi sofEur opean i conogr aphyandAndean st yl esf ound i nt he Cuzco School . The l avi sh pi ece waspr obabl ymodel ed af t erwor kssuch ast he MadonnaandChi l d( cat .no.52)whi chpr esent st heseheavenl yper sonagesi n amannert hatf ol l owst het r adi t i onaldepi ct i onofMar yast he“ GoodMot her . ” Al sot ypi calofEur opeani conogr aphyar et hegr apest owhi cht heChr i stChi l d poi nt s,whi chnotonl yr ef ert ot heEuchar i st ,butmayal sor el at et oanot her pl ant basedmot i f —t heper soni f i cat i onofMar yast he“ t r uevi ne”f oundi nbot h I sai ahandGenesi s—wi t hChr i stsymbol i zi ngt her i peni ngf r ui t . Fol l owi ngCuzquenot r adi t i ons,t heVi r gi nandChi l dar edepi ct edi napal et t eof r ed,yel l owandear t ht ones.The“ embr oi der ed”f l or alandveget almot i f si nt he r obe,al ong wi t ht he st ar s and aur a—meani ngf ult o bot h Chr i st i an and pr eCol umbi ansoci et i es—wer eappl i edt hr ought het echni queofbr ocat eadoor sombr eadof oundi nCuzquenopai nt i ngs,i nwhi chpat t er nswer edet er mi nedby pl ant i l l as or st enci l s and pai nt ed f r eehand when i mper f ect i ons needed cor r ect i on. Thesef l or almot i f sandst ar sar er el at edt ot heI ncawor shi pof nat ur eandMot herEar t h,Pachamama;t hegol doft heembr oi der yst andsf ort he Sun( I nt i ) ,sacr edt ot heI ncas. Thewor ki sdi spl ayedi naf acsi mi l er epr oduct i onbecausei ti scur r ent l ybei ng r est or edbyconser vat orAl exanderKat l an,asi t sl ongt er m sur vi vali satr i sk. Ti mehasbeenunki ndandt hepai nt i nghassuf f er edst r uct ur al damage,sur f ace l osses,cr acki ng,f l aki ng,andst ai ni ng,aswel lasdi scol or at i onandabr asi on. Thesef act or shavenotonl ychangedt hephysi calqual i t i esoft hepai nt i ngbut r enderi tunst abl e and vul ner abl e. The pr esentr est or at i on oft he wor kwi l l ensur et hepr eser vat i onofar i chcul t ur alher i t agef orf ut ur eeducat i onaland r esear chpur poses. AMF
51 Unknownar t i st ,CuzcoSchool ,Al t i pl ano,Per uorBol i vi a Madonnawi t hChr i stChi l dReadi ngaBook,ca.1700s Oi loncanvas
I n pr eHi spani c Andean soci et i es,women wer et he keeper s ofr el i gi ous or gani zat i ons dedi cat ed t of emal e dei t i es concept ual i zed as t he f or ces of pr ocr eat i onandr egener at i on. Notsur pr i si ngl y ,af t ert heSpani shconquest , I ndi anconver t svener at edt hei mageoft heVi r gi nMar yast hei rpat r oness, endowi ng herwi t h mi r acul ous power s,f orshe was easi l yi dent i f i ed wi t h Pachamama,t heI ncaear t hmot hergoddess,i mpr egnat edbyt heSungodI nt i , whoai dsandsust ai nshumani t y .Thus,t hemostabundantsubj ectoft heCuzco Schooli st heVi r gi n,whowasvener at edi nmanycul t s. TheMadonnaandChr i stChi l dReadi ngaBooki sanexampl eoft heexpr essi ve, “ naï ve”st yl ef oundi nCuzquenopai nt i ngs. TheVi r gi nandChi l dar eatt he cent er :t heChr i stChi l dhol dsanopenbook—asymbol ofknowl edge—whi l et he Vi r gi nt ender l yhol dsherson.Shewear st het ypi calcol or sassoci at edwi t ht he I nca:r edf orst r engt handwar ,gr eenf ornat ur eandf er t i l i t y ,andyel l ow f ort he Sun. Twoangel sf l anki ngt hef i gur esf l oatabove,t r yi ngt ohol dt heVi r gi n’ s cr owni npl ace.Angel swer eext r emel yi mpor t anti nCuzquenowor ks;t hecul tof angel st hathadenj oyedpopul ar i t yi nol dSpai nwaspr obabl ybr oughtt ot he Amer i cast hr ough wor ksofar t i st sl i ke Fr anci sco de Zur bar an. I n col oni al Andeanwor ks,t hesecel est i al bei ngsar epl acedatt heapexoft hegr oup,si nce t heyst andi nf orpr eHi spani cgods. Byt he18t hcent ur y ,t heCuzcoschoolbecameamasspr oduct i onbusi ness, wi t hmanyl ocalar t i st sbei nghast i l yandf or ci bl yt r ai ned,i nor dert osuppl yt he l ar geamount sofr el i gi ouswor kst hatwer edi ssemi nat ednotonl yt hr oughout Sout h Amer i ca butEur ope as wel l . Si nce t he pr oduct i on ofwor ks was consi der edacommunalef f or t ,t hevastmaj or i t yofwor ksar eunsi gned,whi ch makesi dent i f yi ngi ndi vi dualar t i st spr obl emat i c. Thi spai nt i ng,l i ket heot herCuzcoSchoolMadonnaonvi ew,i si nneedof r est or at i on. We di spl ayi ther e,nonet hel ess,asan act ualexampl ef ort he benef i tofvi ewer s. AMF
52 Wor kshopofPet erPaulRubens( Fl emi sh,15771640) ,possi bl yby Wor kshopofFr ansSnyder s( Fl emi sh,15791657) MadonnaandChi l d,c.16151624 Oi lonl i nen
Dur i ngt he16t hcent ur yChar l esV,Hol yRomanEmper or ,waspi vot alf ort he appr eci at i onanddi ssemi nat i onofar tf r om Fl ander s,wher ehewasbor n,t o Spai n,wher e he r ul ed as Ki ng Char l es I( see hi s por t r ai t ,cat .no.29) . Consequent l y ,Fl emi sh pr i nt s and pai nt i ngs wer e expor t ed t ot he Spani sh empi r ei nt heAmer i casdur i ngt heageofexpl or at i on( c.14001600) .Thear tof t he Bar oque mast erPet erPaulRubens,i n par t i cul ar ,may be t he most si gni f i cantFl emi shi nf l uencei nt hedevel opmentofAndeanpai nt i ngdur i ngt he col oni alper i od,wi t hmanyoft hear t i st ’ swor ksal r eadydi st r i but edt ot heNew Wor l d dur i ng hi sl i f et i me. Pai nt i ngs l i ke t he Madonna and Chi l d became essent i alcomposi t i onalai dsf orAndeanar t i st si nCuzcoandel sewher e.Her e, wear econf r ont edwi t hani nt i mat e,t enderi mageofmat er nall ove,wher et he Vi r gi nandChi l dar epl acedi nadomest i ccont ext ,st r i ppedoft hei rheavenl y r egal i a.Theemphasi s,asi nt heCuzcowor ksnear by( cat .nos.50and51) ,i s onamor ehumani zedver si onoft het hemeoft heVi r gi nandChi l d,asadvocat ed byt heCount er Ref or mat i on. Fort hataggr essi vemovement ,r el i gi ouswor ks ser vedadi dact i cpur pose:t oevokeanemot i onalandmor alr esponsei na devoutpopul at i on. I nt he New Wor l d such i mageswer e used byr el i gi ous mi ssi onar y or der s as i nst r uct i onalgui des i nt he conver si on ofi ndi genous popul at i onst ot heCat hol i cr el i gi on. AMF
53 Handwovent ext i l ef r agmentofr epeat i ngf i gur es Per u,Sout hCoast ,ca.12001400 Woolandnat ur aldyes
Thi s,andt hef ol l owi ngt wopr eCol umbi anobj ect sf r om ourcol l ect i on( cat .nos. 54and55) ,ar edi spl ayedi npr oxi mi t yt ot hewor ksf r om t heCuzcoSchool ,t o al l ow compar i son bet ween t he pr eHi spani c ar tpr oduced by t he excel l ent weaver s,pot t er s and met al l ur gi st s oft he var i ous i ndi genous gr oups who popul at edt heAmer i cas,andt hecont r ast i ng“ newar t �t hatcamei nt obei ngaf t er t heSpani shconquestoft heNewWor l d. Fr om t heear l i estper i odofAndeanhi st or y ,t ext i l epr oduct i oncont r i but edt ot he f oundat i on ofa compl exsoci et y . Thi st ext i l e depi ct sni ne i magesoff el i ne f i gur esi nr ect angul arpanel s,i nr edorbr ownyel l ow col or swi t hcont r ast i ng backgr ounds.Thef i gur esar eabst r act edandmayr epr esentt hegodCcoa,who cont r ol l edl i ght ni ngandst r uckdownbot hcr opsandpeopl e. AMF
54
Ani malef f i gy Mexi co,Paqui me( CasasGr andes) ,12001450 Ter r acot t a
Thi s pol ychr omed zoomor phi c vessel has an expr essi vef acewi t hwhi sker s. I t sl i ghtt ant obr own t er r acot t asl i psur f acei sdecor at edwi t hr edandbl ack pai nt edgeomet r i cdesi gns. I ti sat ypi calexampl eof t hepot t er ypr oducedbyt heCasasGr andescul t ur ei n Mexi co. Such pi eces wer e used i n shamani c cer emoni es and wer et r aded t hr oughoutnor t her n Mexi coandasf araspr esentdayNew Mexi coand Ar i zona. AMF
55
War r i orOr nament Col ombi a,East er nHi ghl ands,Lat eMui scaPer i od,10001600 Tumbaga( al l oyofgol dandcopper
Thi sdecor at i vepi ece,madeoutofaver yt hi nsheetof gol d,por t r aysawar r i orhol di ngaspearandshi el d.I ti s const r uct edi nr el i efandpi er cedt hr ought hegol datt he war r i or ' s hands. The war r i or wear s a hel metor headdr essandi sdecor at edwi t hchasi ngandr epousĂŠe det ai lont hef aceandbody . Suchpi nswer et unj os, vot i veobj ect s,madei navar i et yoff or mst hatf r equent l y r i orf i gur eswi t ht r ophyheadsorweapons, depi ct edwar mi ni at ur epot s,andani mal s.Tunj oswer eusual l yused asof f er i ngsandl ef ti ncavesorhol es.Theywer emade f ort hel ar gerMui scapopul at i onf orr i t ualof f er i ngs. AMF
56 Unknownar t i st ,Per si an Ki ngRost am r ecogni zeshi ssonSohr ab Mi ni at ur ef r om amanuscr i ptoft heepi cShahnamah ofFi r dawsi( “ BookofKi ngs” ),ca.13701507 Temper aonpaper
Thi si samanuscr i ptpagef r om t heShahnameh( orBookofKi ngs)ofFi r dawsi . Thepaperi sbur ni shedwi t hahar dst oneorgl asst opr epar ei tf oruse,andt he ar t i stcr eat esapr el i mi nar ydr awi ngbef or epai nt i ng.Thecal l i gr aphyi swr i t t eni n moder nPer si an,whi chi sasl i ght l ymodi f i edAr abi cal phabet . hedi st i nct i onsofPer si anpai nt i ngi st heuseofbr i l l i antcol or scr eat ed Oneoft f r om mi ner al sandani malorpl antmat t er .Thi smanuscr i ptpagecanbepl aced i nt he Ti mur i d per i od ( 13701507) based on t he vi vi d col or s,gest ur es, ar chi t ect ur eandnat ur albackgr ound,andt heChi nesei nf l uenceofovoi df aces andspi kymoust aches.Ther ewer edi f f er entcent er sofpr oduct i onandt hi spage mayhavecomef r om t heShi r azschool . Thi s manuscr i ptpage di spl ays a di si nt er esti n west er nst yl e per spect i ve. Per si anar t i st sknew t hi st echni queandcoul dr enderi magesconvi nci ngl y ,but pr ef er r edt oconveyt heemot i onal i t yofast or y .Addi t i onal l y ,t hedepi ct i onof nat ur eandar chi t ect ur eemphasi zesani nt i mat emomentbet weenar oyal f at her andhi sson. TheShahnamehi sanepi ccomposedbyt hepoetFi r dawsii n1010,basedon pr eI sl ami csour cesr ecount i ng t he hi st or yoft he Per si an ki ngs. Si mi l art o Renai ssanceEur ope’ st r ansl at i onsofGr eekt ext s,ear l yPer si anl i t er at ur ewas t r ansl at edi nt oAr abi candmoder nPer si ani nt heMi ddl eEast .Thepat r onageof t he ar t s,phi l osophy ,and t he sci encesf l our i shed dur i ng t heTi mur i d per i od, whi chcanbeconsi der edar i valt ot hecont empor aneousI t al i anQuat t r ocent o. Handmademanuscr i pt swer et heonl yt ypeofbookspr oduced,event hough Musl i msknewhowt opr i nt .Oneoft hemosti mpor t antdevel opment sdur i ngt he Ti mur i d per i od wast he cr eat i on oft he Per si an mi ni at ur e pai nt i ng. Mi ddl e East er nmanuscr i pt sf asci nat edear l yRenai ssancear t i st s,whoemul at edt hem byi ncor por at i ng“ pseudoAr abi c”cal l i gr aphyandot herI sl ami cmot i f si nt ot hei r pai nt i ngs. CG
57
Unknownar t i st ,Japanese Car i cat ur eofFi veMen,Tokugawaper i od,1700s Col or edi nkonr i cepaper
Thi sCar i cat ur eofFi veMeni sanexampl eoft r adi t i onal Asi anar t unaf f ect ed byt he expansi on ofRenai ssance Eur ope i nt ot he East .Dur i ngt heEdoper i od( 16031868) ,t her ul i ngTokugawa f ami l yf ear ed t hatEur opean i nf l uence i n Japan mi ghthel pt o over t hr ow t hem. Though t he Tokugawa cl osed Japan t o f or ei gner s,i ndi r ectt r adest i l lper mi t t edJapanesear t i st st ol ear n aboutRenai ssancet echni quessuchaswest er nper spect i veand l andscape.I nt ur n,t heJapaneseexpor t edEdost yl ear t ,suchas cer ami csandl acquer s,whi chi nf l uencedEur opeanar t i st s. Thi s dr awi ng exhi bi t st he basi c char act er i st i cs ofmuch East Asi anar t .Thepaperi smadeofr i ce,basedont echnol ogyand mat er i al si nt r oducedf r om Chi na. Thei nksar ebasedonr ed pi gment s,suchasor gani cmat er i al sofci nnabarandr edochr e, andar t i f i ci al l ypr oducedver mi l l i on;t hebl ackpi gmenti sChi nese i nk.Asi anpai nt i ngst yl ei sbasedonaf l exi bl ebr ushmadef r om humanorani malhai rorf eat her s.Thear t i st ’ shandmovement s cont r olt het hi cknessoft hel i ne;i t sshapecanber egul ari ft he br ushi sl oadedwi t hi nk,ori r r egul ari ft hei nki sdr i edsl i ght l y .The r esul tofbr ushwor kt hatseemssi mpl eandcondensedgi vesan emot i onalef f ectt hati sapt l ydemonst r at edi nCar i cat ur eofFi ve Men. Thi sr edmonochr omedr awi ngcombi nest wost yl i st i ct r adi t i ons. Thegr aphi c humori sbasedonyamat oear t ,whosel ooseand qui ck mannerand i nf or malr eal i st i c st yl e al l owed Japanese ar t i st st ocr eat eamusi ngorsat i r i cal wor k.Thei mageal sodr aws ont hesket chl i kehai gast yl ecr eat edbyJapanesepai nt erand poetYosaBuson( 17161783) ,whi chdef i neseachi ndi vi dualby r ender i ng t hem wi t hl oose,qui ck,and abbr evi at ed st r okes, wi t houtt heneedofanyphysi calset t i ng. CG
58 Seat edLi on I ndi a,Tr avancor e,Mughalper i od,ca.15001700 I vor y
Thi si vor yl i on st at uet t e,seat ed wi t h al lpawson t he base,i sconvi nci ngl y depi ct ed.Thecar verdemonst r at est hepr eci si onofhi sski l l wi t hst yl i zeddet ai l s, suchasr ender i ngt het opoft hel i on’ st ai landneckwi t hpar al l ell i nes.Ther ei s al soanaddedt ouchatt het opoft hel i on’ shead,wher est r andsofcur vi nghai r br eakf r om t hest yl i zedpat t er noft her estoft hemane. Thesest yl i zedmot i f scoul ddemonst r at et hatt hi sst at uet t ei sf r om I ndi a,si nce l i onsar ei mpor t antmot i f si nBuddhi stscul pt ur eandar epor t r ayedasl i f el i ke. Unf or t unat el y ,however ,t her ei sno i ndi cat i on whet heri ti sa Buddhi stora secul arl i on.I vor y car vi ngs pr oduced dur i ng t he Mughalper i od i nI ndi a ( 15261707)wer eext ensi veandvar i ed,butar enott heonl ypossi bl eor i gi nof ourst at uet t e.Asi mi l arst yl eal soexi st edi nMi ddl eEast er nar tandsuchapi ece coul dal sohavebeenmadei nChi nadur i ngt heMi ngper i od( 1368–1644) ,when ol i f er at i onofi vor i es,st r i ki ngi nt hei rsi mpl i ci t y ,wer eei t hersmal l ,l i ket hi sl i on apr st at uet t e,orel ongat ed,f ol l owi ngt henat ur alcur veoft het uskorbody . OnceJesui tmi ssi onar i eswer eest abl i shedi nAsi amanysuchar t wor ksf ound t hei rwayt oRenai ssanceEur opeandf asci nat edcol l ect or s.Manypar t soft he cont i nental sopr oducedi vor ycar vi ngs,bot hf orEur opeanr esi dent si nAsi an l andsandf orexpor tt oEur ope.Ani vor ywor kshopi nt hePor t uguesecol onyof Goapr oducedahybr i dst yl et hatcombi nedChr i st i anwi t hHi ndumot i f sand Mughalwi t h ear l y Per si an desi gns. Thi sl i on coul d have been made f or Renai ssanceEur opesi ncei tevokest heexot i cnat ur eoft heEast .I ti sal so symbol i c,si ncet hel i onr epr esent edr oyal t y ,st r engt h,andt hepoweroft hesun wi t hi t ssupr emacyoverever yt hi ng. CG
59 Si xsi dedcer emoni alcont ai ner Chi na,Qi ngdynast y ,ca.16501750 Br onze
Thi sbr onzevesseli sdecor at edwi t hsi xoft heEi ghtI mmor t al sofTaoi sm,an anci entkeyr el i gi onofChi na.Ri t ualvessel swer eusedf orof f er i ngs,andt hi s cont ai nerpr obabl ybur nedi ncense.Thesi xI mmor t al sher ear edef i nedbyt hei r at t r i but esandTaoi str obes,char act er i zedbydi agonall apel sandwi desl eeves. OneI mmor t ali sr epr esent edt wi ce. TheI mmor t al sdepi ct edar e:LuDongbi n( pat r onoft hesi ckwi t hhi sat t r i but e,a swor d swung overhi s back) ;Han Xi ang Zi( pat r on ofmusi ci ans wi t h hi s at t r i but e,af l ut e) ;Li Ti eguai ( whof r eest hespi r i tf r om t hebodywi t hhi sat t r i but e, a beggar ’ s cr ut ch) ;He Xi angu ( pat r on ofhousehol ds wi t h herat t r i but e,a peach) ;ZhangGuoLao( whor ender shi msel fi nvi si bl ewi t hhi sat t r i but e,t heYu Kui nst r umenti nt heshapeofabamboot ube) ;andLiTi eguai ,r epr esent eda secondt i mewi t hanot herat t r i but e,api l gr i m’ sgour d) .Nextt oeachI mmor t al ar e si xguar di answhomaybebi xi es:myt hol ogi cal cr eat ur escombi ni ngt hef eat ur es ofl i onsandgoat swhohavet hepowert owar dof fevi l . Theupperpor t i onoft hevesseli snotpar al l elt ot hebase.Thi smayhavebeen done pur posel y ,si nceTaoi sm emphasi zest he questt o under st and nat ur e. Thus i mper f ect i on coul dr ef l ectt he “ j our ney”t hr ough ear t hl yi mper f ect i on t owar dt heul t i mat egoalofnat ur e’ sper f ect i on.TheI mmor t al sl i vedi ndi f f er ent t i mes,achi evi ngi mmor t al i t yt hr oughi nst i nct ualunder st andi ngoft hesecr et sof nat ur e.ThoughTaoi sm di f f er sf r om Chr i st i ani t y ,i tnonet hel esscont ai nssi mi l ar per sonagessuchast heI mmor t al s,whower epat r onsai nt sf ort heChi nese;and t hi svessel wasusedf orr i t ual ssi mi l art ot heChr i st i anl i t ur gy ,whi chusedobj ect s aswel l . Thi s Taoi stvessel ,dat i ng f r om t he per i od ofr i si ng Eur opean i ncur si ons, exempl i f i es Chi na’ sr esi st ance t o Eur opean expansi oni sm.Though some concessi onswer emade,Chi naneverl osti t saut onomy ,andt hei nf l uencesof Chi nesear tf l owedbot ht oandf r om Renai ssanceEur ope. CG
60 Br acel et Mal i ,WestAf r i ca,ca.10001400 Br onze Br acel et Mal i ,WestAf r i ca,ca.10001400 Copperal l oy
Theset wobr acel et s,f r om t hear eaknownt odayasMal i ,ar eknownt her eas mani l as,f r om t he Por t uguese wor df orbr acel et ,mani l ha. Mani l l as ( t he angl i ci zedf or m oft hewor d)wer ei nt r oducedbyt hePor t ugueseasanewf or m ofcur r encywhenEur opeant r adi ngbegani nWestAf r i caar ound1450;br onze and copper al l oy met al s wer ei mpor t ed by Eur opeans and used f ort he exchange ofgoods. These met al s al so pr ovi ded r aw mat er i al sf orl ocal i ndust r i esandmani l l ast her ef or eal sower eusedt opr omot eAf r i caneconomi es. Mani l l asevent ual l ybecamedecor at i veandwer eusedasj ewel r y .Al ongwi t h ot herj ewel r y ,t heyi ndi cat edst at usandweal t hi nl i f eandi ndeat h,f orbot h womenandmen.Thedemandf ormani l l aswassogr eatt hatwhent heki ngdom ofBeni n—t odayknown asNi ger i a—i mpor t ed t hese br acel et s,t heypai df or t hem wi t hgol d. Thi si nt ur nhel pedsat i sf yt heEur opeandemandf orgol d. Mani l l asbecamesoent r enchedi nWestAf r i caneconomi est hatt heywer enot wi t hdr awnf r om ci r cul at i onunt i lt hel at e1940s. The Por t uguese al so di scover ed t hatt he WestAf r i can coastpossessed r emar kabl et r adi t i onalar t .Consequent l y ,a synt hesi s ofst yl es ar ose i n depi ct i onsoft he Por t uguese byBeni n ar t i st swho i ncor por at ed t hei rnat i ve mot i f s. Fori nst ance,onesur vi vi ngbr acel etcombi nesmot i f sofPor t uguese headsandAf r i canmudf i sh,si ncet heBeni nbel i evedbot hwer ecomf or t abl e bei ngonei t herl andorwat er .Si mi l ar l y ,pl aquesdepi ctPor t uguesemenwi t h mani l l as,t hecur r encyt heycr eat ed,andt her i chest heyamassedi nt heBeni n ki ngdom. The mani l l as and hybr i d ar tr eveal maj or changes i n t he soci oeconomi cl andscapeofAf r i caaf t erEur opeancont act . CG
SCI ENCEAND TECHNOLOGY: PRI NTMAKI NG AND PAPER Pr i nt ma k i ng-Hi s t o r ya ndTe c hni q ue s Theconceptofpr i nt i ngst ar t edi npr ehi st or i ct i mes.TheSumer i anscar vedi magesi nt ocyl i nderseal st omar kowner shi pofgoodsi nt he3r d mi l l enni um B. C. E. TheChi nesecr eat edr ubbi ngsf r om car vedt ext sca.200C. E. ,and8t hcent ur yJapanesear t i st spr i nt edmul t i pl ecopi esof Buddhi stt ext s.Pr i nt maki ngchangedwi t ht hei nvent i onofpaper( seesl i deshownear by)andspr eadt oEur opewher e,i nt he14t hcent ur y ,woodcut pr i nt sspr eadChr i st i ani magest ot hecommonpeopl e. Thei nvent i onoft hepr i nt i ngpr essbyt heGer manJohannGut enber g,ca.1445,changedhi st or ybyal l owi ngt r uemasspr oduct i onofbooksand pi ct ur es.Thepr esspr oducedl ar gequant i t i esataf r act i onoft hecostofhandmadebooks,al l owi ngmanypeopl et obuyr eadi ngmat er i al andhel pi ng t ospr eadawar enessofnewi deas. Ther ear et wobr oadcat egor i esofpr i nt maki ngcal l edr el i efandi nt agl i o,dependi ngonwhet hert hei magei spr oducedf r om t her ai sedsur f aceofa pr i nt i ngbl ockorf r om i t scut outl owerar eas: i nt i ngi st heol destf or m.Tomakear el i efpr i nt ,t hear t i stusesashar pt oolt ogougeoutar easf r om af l atsl abofmat er i al ,or i gi nal l ywood. Rel i efpr Thear east hatar er emovedappearwhi t ei nt hepr i nt ,andt her ai sedpor t i onscr eat et hei mage.Thear t i stappl i esi nkt ot her ai sedsur f aceandpl aces asheetofpaperoni t ,t hent r ansf er st hei maget ot hepaperbyr ubbi ngt hebackoft hepaperorr unni ngt hebl ockandpapert hr oughapr ess.Text s wer et r adi t i onal l ypr i nt edwi t hal phabetbl ockscuti nr el i ef . I nt agl i opr i nt i ngcr eat esani magebyusi ngavar i et yoft ool sorchemi cal st ocar vedepr essi onsi namet alpl at e.Thear t i stpr essesi nki nt ot he i nci sedl i nesandwi pest her ai sedsur f acecl ean,t henpl acespaperont hepl at eandr unsi tt hr oughapr ess,f or ci ngt hepaperi nt ot hei nkedcr evi ces. Ther ear ef ourmai ni nt agl i ot echni ques: Engr avi ng:Cr i spl i nesar ecr eat edwhent hear t i stusesast eelt oolt ocar vei nt oamet alpl at e;t hedeepert hecut ,t het hi ckert hel i ne. Dr ypoi nt :Thear t i stscr at chesadr awi ngont oamet alpl at ewi t hashar pneedl e.Ther ai sedmet albur r st hatar ecr eat edt r apandhol dt hei nkaf t er t hepl at ei swi pedcl ean,cr eat i ngasof t ,heavyl i ne. Et chi ng:Themet alpl at ei scover edwi t hanaci dr esi st antgr ound.Thear t i stscr at chesani magei nt ot hegr oundwi t haneedl et hensubmer gest he pl at ei naci dt hat“ bi t es”i nt ot hear easwher et hegr oundhasbeenr emoved,cr eat i ngcl ear l ydef i nedgr ooves.Thel ongert hepl at ei ssubmer ged, t hedeepert hegr ooveswi l lbecome,r esul t i ngi nheavi erl i nesordar kerpr i nt s. Aquat i nt :Thear t i stdust st hemet al pl at ewi t haci dr esi st antpowdert hatadher est ot hepl at ewhenheat ed,t henpl acesi ti nanaci dbat ht hat“ bi t es” ar oundeachoft hedust edpar t i cl es.Thi st echni quecr eat esbr oadar easoft one,f r om l i ghtt odar k.
61 Mar t i nSchongauer( Ger man,14451491) Deat hoft heVi r gi n,ca.14701475 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng
Mar t i nSchongauer ,t hesonofagol dsmi t handf or mal l yt r ai nedasapai nt er ,wasuni quel y si t uat edi nt hedevel opmentofcopper pl at eengr avi ng.Hi sar tmar kedat ur ni ngpoi nti nt he l astquar t eroft he15t hcent ur ywhenengr avi ngpr ogr essedf r om agent eell ocalcr af tt oa maj ori nt er nat i onal ar tf or m.Nogr aphi car t i stbef or eAl br echtDür ercont r i but edasmuchi n i nnovat i on,andSchongauer ’ smannerofengr avi ngi mmedi at el yat t r act edar emar kabl e numberofi mi t at or sandcopi er s,cont i nui ngupt hr ought he19t hcent ur y . EvenDür er bor r owedi magesf r om t hi sandot herSchongauerengr avi ngsf orhi sownpr i nt s.Because ofSchongauer ’ s ski l li n usi ng t he bur i nt o cutdeep,cl ean l i nes,he coul d pul lan unpr ecedent edl yl ar genumberofhi ghqual i t yi mpr essi ons.Bei ngwel l posi t i onedal ongt he t r ader out eoft heRhi neRi ver ,heeasi l ydi st r i but edhi spr i nt st hr oughoutEur ope,at t r act i ng admi r er sandbuyer s,i ncl udi ngpai nt er s,scul pt or s,andcr af t wor ker si nsear chofdesi gn i deas and mar ket abl ei mager y .Schongauernotonl y mar ked a pi vot alpoi nti nt he i nt er nat i onaldevel opmentofpr i nt maki ng,butal sopl ayedani mpor t antr ol ei ndevel opi ng nowf ami l i arwaysofar tmar ket i nganddi st r i but i on. ThesecondofMar t i nSchongauer ’ sengr avi ngsbel ongi ngt ot het r adi t i onalcycl eoft he Sor r owsoft heVi r gi n( f r om hi sLi f eoft heVi r gi nser i es) ,Deat hoft heVi r gi nwasver ypopul ar andendl essl ycopi edi nhi sownt i me( l i kehi sot herpr i nt sonvi ew,cat .nos.62,63) .I twas common f orengr aved copperpl at est o be r ecutonce t heywer e exhaust ed,of t en by copyi st swhoappl i edt hei rownmonogr amsandcl ai medt hei mager yast hei rown.Wehave yett odet er mi net heper i odoft hi sf acsi mi l eofoneofSchongauer ’ smostadmi r edand i nf l uent i alengr avi ngs. Thi spr i ntwasconsi der edpar t i cul ar l ydar i ngbecausei tbr oket heGer manar tt r adi t i oni n of depi ct i ngt heVi r gi nonherdeat hbedvi ewedf r om t hesi de,wi t ht heApost l esst andi ng behi ndi nar ow.I nst ead,i tf ol l owst heFl emi shpi ct or i al t r adi t i onshowi ngt hef or eshor t ened vi ew f r om t hef ootofherbed.I tal sol ef toutt hef ami l i armedi evalf i gur eofJesushol di ng t hesoulofhi smot herasal i t t l egi r l .Thepr i nti sf ur t hernot abl ef ori t svi sualr ef er encet oa wel l knownJanvanEyckpai nt i ngi ni t sdepi ct i onofgl asseshel doverabook,magni f yi ng t het extbel ow;andf ori t si ncl usi onofanel abor at el ydet ai l edcandl est i ckatt hef ootoft he bed,adet ai l edbl uepr i ntf oramet al wor kdesi gn.Remar kabl et ooi st heski l l f ulat t ent i ont o t hepat t er nedf ol dsoft hedr aper yandr obesoft heApost l es.I ti snowondert hatI sr ahel von Meckenem and ot hermonogr ammi st s and copyi st s used t hi si mage:i twas a ver y mar ket abl ecommodi t y ,especi al l yi naper i odwhent heAr smor endi ( TheAr tofDyi ng)was apopul arbookoft heday . AP
62 Mar t i nSchongauer( Ger man,14451491) TheFl i ghti nt oEgypt,ca.147075 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng,17t h18t hc.
OneofMar t i nSchongauer ’ sear l i estandmostsought af t erengr avi ngs,The Fl i ghti nt oEgypti soneoft wot hatbel ongt ot heSor r owsoft heVi r gi n( f r om hi s ser i esont heLi f eoft heVi r gi n) .Theot her ,Deat hoft heVi r gi n,i sonvi ewt ot he ( l )or( r )( cat .no.61) . Her et heVi r gi nandChi l dsi tast r i deasmal ldonkey , beneat hboweddat epal m br anches.Angel sensconcedi nt het r eebendt he boughs down,hel pi ng Joseph t o gat hert he f r ui t .The t wo t r opi calt r ees, i magi nat i vel y depi ct ed i nt he scene and notnat i ve speci es nor t h oft he Pyr enees,wer eunf ami l i art oSchongauer ’ saudi encei nt heRhi neVal l ey . Per haps t hi s exot i ci sm,and t he i nt i mat e,mi r acul ous nat ur e oft he scene, i ni t i at ed t he enor mous popul ar i t y oft hi s pr i nt .Demand f orengr avi ngs as i l l ust r at i onsf orpopul arbooksonr el i gi ouspr act i ce,suchast heAr smor i endi , i ncr easedr api dl y . AP
63 Mar t i nSchongauer( Ger man,14451491) Sai ntAnt honyTor ment edbyDemons,ca.147075 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng,17t h18t hc.
Sai ntAnt honyTor ment edbyDemonsi soneoff our t eenpr i nt st hatSchongauer madeofmal esai nt s.I ti sar guabl yt hemostf amousofSchongauer ’ sengr avi ngs amonghi scont empor ar i esandr epr esent edapopul art hemeoft heper i odi n Ger many .Li kemanyofhi sear l ypr i nt s,i ncl udi ngt heot hert woonvi ew,Sai nt Ant honyTor ment edbyDemonswaswi del ycopi edandasour cef ori mager yby ar t i st sandcr af t smenofal lst at ur esdur i ngt hel at e15t hand16t hcent ur i es. Ver si onsoft hi spr i nthavebeencal l edTheTempt at i onofSai ntAnt honyand al soTheTr i bul at i onsofSai nt Ant hony.Her eSai nt Ant honyi sshownsur r ounded byvi ci ousani mal l i kedemonshi t t i nghi m wi t hcl ubsandpul l i nghi shai randr obe whi l ehel ookscal ml yahead. Schongauerobvi ousl ymadeacl osest udyof ani mal s,ut i l i zi nghi sobser vat i onoff ur ,cl aws,hooves,scal es,andwi ngst o r endersomeoft hemostr epul si ve,f anci f ulcr eat ur esevercr eat ed. Thi si mager yi gni t edt hei magi nat i onandar t i st i ci ncl i nat i onsofsuchdi ver se ar t i st sasMat t hi asGr ünewal d( whoseI senhei m Al t ar pi ecesceneofAnt hony’ s t empt at i onsst r ongl yr ef er st oSchongauer ) ,Mi chel angel o( whomadeaf ai t hf ul pai nt edcopy) ,Hi er onymusBosch,andLucasCr anach,aswel lasnumer ous i mi t at or s,pl agi ar i st sandcopyi st s.Whi l et hepr eci seper i odoft hi sf acsi mi l ehas notyetbeendet er mi ned,t hi spr i nti syetanot herear l yexampl eoft hepowerof Schongauer ’ sengr avi ngst oadvancei magesandi deast hr oughoutEur ope,as wel l asani l l ust r at i onoft hebegi nni ngsofwi despr eadandr el at i vel yi nexpensi ve ar tcommer ce. AP
ALBRECHTDÜRER: FATHER OFTHENORTHERN RENAI SSANCE I ti snear l yi mpossi bl et odescr i behow t heRenai ssancegaveust hemoder nwor l dwi t houtcr edi t i ngt hi smast eroft heNor t handhi scont i nui ngl egacy . Equal edonl ybyLeonar dodaVi nci ’ sachi evement s,Dür er ’ st echni caladvancement si nt hear t shavebeent hesubj ectofext ensi veanal ysi sand i nt er pr et at i on.Hewast hef i r star t i stnor t hoft heAl pst opai ntasel fpor t r ai t ;t hef i r stGer manar t i stt opai ntanddr awdi r ect l yf r om nat ur ei ndependentof Chr i st i ani conogr aphy;t hef i r stt odr awnudesf r om l i f e;t hef i r stt owr i t eabouthi sownl i f e;andt hear t i stwhot ookt hewat er col orandpr i ntmedi af arbeyond anyot herar t i stofhi st i me.Dür er ’ spr i nt sest abl i shedhi sr eput at i onacr ossEur opewhenhewasst i l l i nhi st went i es,andhehasbeenr egar dedeversi nce ast hegr eat estar t i stoft heRenai ssancei nnor t her nEur ope. Dür er ’ sr emar kabl er ef i nementi nt hemodel i ngoff or msanddef i ni t i onoft ext ur est hr oughdescr i pt i vedet ai lenabl edhi mt ocapi t al i zeont hepot ent i alof gr aphi csandt hei rpr omi si ngf ut ur ei nt hemar ket .Heevencompar edhi spr i nt st ot hepai nt i ngsofRaphael andGi ovanni Bel l i ni .Dür er ’ snewar t i st i cpower al l owedhi mt ocl ai m equalst at uswi t ht hem,bot hi nhi spr i nt sandi nhi sski l li npor t r ai tpai nt i ng.Notonl ycoul dheequalt heI t al i ansi npai nt i ngand dr awi ng—hesur passedt hem i nhi suseoft henewmedi aofpr i nt . Af t ert r avel i ngt oI t al yi n149495,hebecamei nt er est edi nt her evi valofcl assi calcul t ur e,bot hmyt hol ogi calsubj ectmat t erandt hest udyofi dealbeaut y i nt hehumanbody ,wi t hwhi chhebecamef ami l i arf r om t hewr i t i ngsoncl assi calpr opor t i onoft heanci entaut hor i t yVi t r uvi us.I nhi sl at eryear shewr ot e hi sFourBooksonHumanPr opor t i on,whi chhef i ni shedi n1528,t heyearofhi sdeat h. Al ongwi t hhi si nt er esti nanat omy ,hi ssci ent i f i cst udi esofpr opor t i on andl i neargeomet r yl edt ohi st heor et i calt r eat i se,FourBooksonMeasur ement ,al soar evi valandr evi si onofi deasf r om ant i qui t y . I nt henewspi r i tofempi r i ci sm,Dür ermadewat er col orst udi esoft hel andscapeashet r avel edovert heAl pst oandf r om I t al y ,wor ki ngdi r ect l yf r om nat ur e. Hi swat er col orsket ches,whi chhecont i nuedt hr oughouthi scar eer ,ar eamongt hef i r stpur el andscapest udi esknowni nWest er nar t . Dür er ’ si nt er esti nt hei deasoft hePr ot est antRef or mat i onpl acedhi m amongt hel ar gegr oupofi ndependentt hi nker swhobecamer ef or mi st swhi l e r et ai ni ngt hei rf or malal l egi ancet oRome. Hi sbel i efi nMar t i nLut herandhi sf r i endshi pwi t hPhi l i ppMel ancht honandEr asmusofRot t er dam,bot h humani stl eader s,show hi scl osecont actwi t ht hemovement . Yethi sf r eedom ofappr oach,andcel ebr i t yst at us,madehi m at ypi calRenai ssance humani st ,whosel ear ni ngcar r i edhi m beyondt heconf i nesofhi sr el i gi ousvi ewsandmadehi m af or er unnerofmoder nt hought . PL
64 Al br echtDür er( Ger man,14711528) Phi l i ppMel ancht hon,1526 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng
Al br echtDür er ,of t encal l edt he“ Leonar dooft heNor t h, ”wast hemostpr omi nent and i nf l uent i alGer man ar t i stoft he Renai ssance ( see wal lpl aque near by) . Dür er ’ sf r i endshi pswi t hPhi l i ppMel ancht honandEr asmusofRot t er dam,bot h f r eet hi nki nghumani stl eader s,show hi scl osecont actwi t hr el i gi ousr ef or m movement s oft he t i me. Mel ancht hon was a gr eathumani stpr of essorat Wi t t enber gwhosuppor t edMar t i nLut her .Themai nemphasi sofhi sr esear ch wasont heol ogy ,phi l osophy ,andr het or i c.Hei sshowni nat hr eequar t erpr of i l e ador ned wi t h a Lat i n phr ase meani ng:“ 1526.Dür erwasabl et o dr aw t he f eat ur esofPhi l i ppf r om l i f e,buthi sexper thandcoul dnotcapt ur ehi sspi r i t .A. D. ” PL
65 Al br echtDür er( Ger man,14711528) Vi r gi nandChi l dwi t haMonkey,ca.1498 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng
Thi sengr avi ng,pr oducedbet ween1496and1502,showst heyoungDür er ’ s advancedski l li nusi ngt hebur i nt echni que.Thegr oupoft heVi r gi nandChi l d wasacommonmedi eval t heme,whi chovert heyear sbecameaf r equentout l et f orDür ert oshowhi si mpr ovi ngski l l sandhi snewi nt er esti nt hest r uct ur al f or ms vi si bl ei nI t al i anar t .Hi spr eci sel i neandsensi t i vemodel i ngbecamemor eand mor edet ai l ed.Thi si sar emar kabl ycl earpr esent at i onofadr apedf i gur ei na deepl andscape.Thehat chedl i nesi nt hedr essandmant l eofMar yar ecur ved t of ol l ow t he cont our soft he dr aper y . The kneesoft he Vi r gi n ar e br i ght l y hi ghl i ght edanddel i cat et ur nsi ndr aper yf ol dsar emodul at edi nsubt l et onal i t i es, r angi ngf r om t hewhi t epat chesont hekneesanduppershoul dert ot hedar k r ecessesoft hepocket sandover l apst ot hel ef t . Thechi l dpl ayf ul l yt easesabi r d,asymboloft hesoulvol unt ar i l ycapt ur edby Chr i st ,whi l eamoodymonkey ,chai nedt ot hewoodenf ence,gl ar esoutatt he vi ewerasi fr esi gnedt oi t sunwel comecapt i vi t y .Themonkey ,apr i sonerofi t s bodi l ypl easur es,wasof t enusedasasymbol oft hel ustofman,subduedbyt he new Adam andEve—t heVi r gi nandChi l d. Dür er ’ si nt er esti nexot i cf or ei gn ani mal si swel ldocument edt hr oughouthi scar eer . Thepl antl i f enat i vet ot hi sar easeemst ohavebeent akendi r ect l yf r om t he ar t i st ’ snor t her nhabi t at .Thehousei nt hebackgr oundwasbasedonasur vi vi ng wat er col orsket chbyt hear t i st .I t sl andscapehasbeeni dent i f i edasanar eaj ust out si deNur ember g,wher eDür erl i vedandwor ked. Thel andscapepr oj ect s di agonal l yal ongt hebanksofawi ndi ngr i verwi t hsunl i ghtbr eaki ngt hr ought he cl oudsher eandt her e,cast i ngauni f yi ngi l l umi nat i onont her ecedi ngspace. PL
66 Al br echtDür er( Ger man,14711528) Madonnabyt heWal l ,1514 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng
Madonnabyt heWal l ,madei n1514,i squi t edi f f er entf r om t heear l i erVi r gi nand Chi l dwi t hMonkey( cat .no.65) .Theef f ectoft hedeepbl ackl i nes,whi chcr eat e amor eevent emper ed,si l ver ymat t et ext ur e,i sal mostt r agi c—per hapsar esul t oft hedeat hofDür er ’ smot her ,onMay14t h,1514.Hi sr api dmast er yoft he medi um ofengr avi ngcanbef ol l owedyearbyyear ,wi t hever ynewpr i ntbyt he ar t i st . heVi r gi nandChi l dwi t hMonkeyi sl ar gel ybl ackandwhi t ei nt one,t he Wher east Madonnabyt heWal l showsauni quevar i et yoft ext ur e.I tal sodemonst r at esa pr eci si on of desi gn al ong wi t h an i ncompar abl e sof t ness.The over al l combi nat i on ofat mospher e and mood al l ows t he vi ewercl ose emot i onal i dent i f i cat i onwi t ht heVi r gi nandChi l d.I nt hebackgr oundappear st hecast l eof Nur ember g,whi chDür ercoul dseef r om t hewi ndowsofhi shome.Her ei smor e evi dence ofhi s use ofacut e obser vat i on i n hi sl at eryear s,t o cr eat ea nat ur al i st i cscenet owhi cht hecommonmancoul dr el at e. PL
PRI NTMAKI NG: FACSI MI LES,COPI ES,AND FORGERI ES Af acsi mi l ei sanexactcopyofabook,pai nt i ng,ormanuscr i pt —af ai t hf ul r epl i caofanor i gi nal composi t i on.Thi si st heor i gi noft het er m“ f ax” .When wet r ansmi texactcopi esofdocument susi ngaf axmachi ne,wear eusi ngt hemostadvancedst at eofat echnol ogyt hatbegani nt heRenai ssance. Ouri deal i zedvi si onoft heRenai ssancear t i stt oi l i ngi nsol i t ar yi sol at i ondoesn’ ti ncl udecopi es,r epl i cas,orf acsi mi l es.I nr eal i t y ,t hough,many ar t i st swor kedwi t hawor kshopst af fandar t i st sf r om ot hermedi at or epr oducet hei rwor ki npr of i t abl equant i t i es.Onenot abl ecol l abor at i onbet ween t hepr i nt makerMar cant oni oRai mondiandt hepai nt erRaphaelcanbeseeni nt hei rThr eeGr aces( cat .no.71) . ecl assi f i edi nt hr eecat egor i es,dependi ngont hei rcl osenesst ot heor i gi nalar t i st ’ shand.Fi r st ,pr i nt maker sgener al l ypr eser vedt hei r Copi esar usedpl at es.Thus,atanyt i meaf t ert hef i r stser i esofpr i nt swaspr oduced,pr i nt er s( ort hei rhei r s)coul dmakemor ecopi esf r om t hei rst ockofol d pl at es.Suchwor ksar eat t r i but edt ot hedesi gni ngar t i stbutt er med“ notor i gi nalt ot het i meper i od” —l i keourRai mondi .Second,i magest hat ar er eengr aved—wher eal at erpr i nt makerr edr aws( copi es)t heor i gi nalar t i st ’ si mageont oanewpl at e—ar ewhatar epr oper l ycal l edf acsi mi l es. t enmadesmal lchangest ot hei rf acsi mi l est oavoi daccusat i onsoff or ger y . Af or ger yi sanexactr epl i camadebyal at erar t i st , Engr aver sof mi sl eadi ngl ypr esent edast hewor koft heor i gi nalcr eat or . I tcanbedi f f i cul tt odi st i ngui shbet weent heset hr eet ypesofr epl i cas,butnumer ouscl uescanhel p.Mostbr oadl y ,anal ysi sofanar t i st ’ sst yl e, met hod,andt hemescanl eadt opr operi dent i f i cat i onorr ej ect i on.Al so,someengr aver ssi gnedormonogr ammedt hei rr epl i caswi t ht hei rown names.Fi nal l y ,paperandi t swat er mar kscani ndi cat ewher eandwhenani magewaspr oduced.Event hei mpr essi onmadebyt hepl at eont he paperi sr eveal i ng,becauset hemor et i mesapl at ei sused,t hef l at t ert hemet albecomes.Shar p,cl eani mpr essi onsi ndi cat et hepr i ntwaspul l ed whent hepl at ewasnew;awor nedgel eavesabl ur r edi mpr essi on. Pr i nt swer et hemostsi gni f i cantmet hodf ordi ssemi nat i ngar t i st i ci magesunt i l t he19t hcent ur yi nvent i onofphot ogr aphy .Dur i ngt heRenai ssance, or i gi nal sandf acsi mi l esci r cul at edwi del yamongar t i st sandcol l ect or s,evenbei ngusedt ot r ansmi tEur opeani mager yt ot heNewWor l d( seet he sect i ononExpl or i ngt heGl obe) .I nt he18t hand19t hcent ur i es,pr oduct i onoff acsi mi l esofmuchol derwor kswasbasedont hecont i nui ng admi r at i onf orRenai ssancear t ,whi chst i l li nf or msourt hi nki ngt oday .I nourowner aofgl obali nf or mat i on,t heabundanceofi nexpensi ve r epr oduct i onsenabl esar t wor ksr angi ngf r om Leonar dot oRembr andtt ogr acet hewal l sofhomes,dor mi t or i es,andwor kpl acesar oundt hewor l d. Ourmot i vat i onf ordi spl ayi ngt hesecont empor ar yf acsi mi l esi st hesameast hatofRenai ssancepat r ons:t hepl easur eofvi ewi ngt hewor kofgr eat ar t i st st hatwoul dot her wi sebeunavai l abl eorunaf f or dabl e. TCF
69 Publ i usTer ent i usAf er ,“ Ter ence”( Roman,ca. 185159B. C. E. ) Comoedi ae,publ i shedi nSt r assbur g byJohann( Rei nhar d)Gr üni nger ,1496 Pr i nt edpagewi t hwoodcuti mageofCl i t i pho
70
Unknownar t i st( I t al i an,Fl or ent i ne) TheChast i sementofEr os,ca.14501500 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng,l at e18t hor19t hc.
Er os,al soknownasCupi dorLove,wasacommont hemei nRenai ssance ar t ,r epr esent i ngt hest r uggl ebet weent her at i onalandt hei r r at i onalmi nd. Er osi sher et i edt oat r eeand,aswasusual ,bl i ndf ol ded.Hei ssur r ounded byf ourangr ywomenwhohavesnappedhi sbow,br okent hebowst r i ng, andt or ni tawayf r om hi m.Theyoungwomanatt hef arr i ghthasherar ms r ai sedwi t har r owsi nhand,asi ft obeatt hecapt ur edgod;t hewomannext t oherwi el dsapi eceoft hebr okenbow,andt hescat t er edar r owsl i e t r ampl edi nt hef or egr ound.Nextt owar dt hel ef t ,amor emat ur ewoman car r i esi n one hand whatappear st o be a wr apped skei n ofyar n,an at t r i but eoft hef emal esex,andanempt i edqui veri nt heot her .Theset hr ee womenmayr epr esentt het hr eeagesofawoman’ sl i f e,dur i nganyof whi chshemi ghtbef oi l edbyt hepr omi sesoft hegodofl ove.Thef our t h, l ef t most ,f i gur ei st heonl yonewi t hanact ualweapon.Shewi el dsal ar ge kni f ei nherr i ghthandandgr aspst heedgeofEr os’ sf eat her s,asi ft o suggestt hatr easoni saboutt ocl i pl ove’ swi ngs( herheaddr essr esembl es t hatofasphi nx;compar ecat .no.35) .Thet r eet hatEr oshangsuponi s cr uci f or m,l endi ngt hesceneaf ai ntr el i gi ousover t oneofsacr i f i ce.I t sbar e andt r uncat edbr anchesar esymbol i cofwi t her edl ove,t hedr yi ngupof passi on. Thei magei snotr ender edi napar t i cul ar l yski l l f ulmanner .Er os’ sbodyi s st i f f l ydr awnandcr udel ymodel ed,andt hespacei sshal l owandf l at t ened, wi t hnor ef er encet oal andscapet hatwoul di ndi cat edept horpl ace.The ci r cul arf or matdoes,however ,i nt ensi f yt hesenseofvi ol enceandr age. Thest yl ei st ypi caloft heear l i estengr avi ngsoft hemi d15t hcent ur y . Thi s pr i nti s one ofmany f acsi mi l es i nt he exhi bi t i on,whi ch can be det er mi nedbyt het ypeofpaperonwhi chi ti spr i nt ed,aheavyandsmoot h mat er i al madeofwoodf i ber sr at hert hanr ags.Paperwasmadef r om r ags unt i lt heear l y1700s,whengr owi ngdemandr equi r edi nexpensi veand r eadi l yavai l abl er aw mat er i al s.Thust hi sver si onmusthavebeenpr i nt ed i nt hel at e18t hor19t hcent ur y . TCF
71 Mar cant oni oRai mondi( I t al i an,ca.14801534) TheThr eeGr aces,ca.ear l y1500 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng,19t hc.
Mar cant oni oRai mondi ,gol dsmi t handpai nt er ,wast hemostadmi r edpr i nt erof hi sdayandt hi si sanexampl eofhi sf ul l ydevel opedst yl e.Her el i edl esson cont ourmodel i ngt hanf i necr osshat chi ngt omodelt hef i gur es.Thewomen’ s bodi es ar er ounded,t hr eedi mensi onal ,and scul pt ur alwi t houtappear i ng muscl ebound.Theyar epl acedi naspacewi t hdept h:t hecent r alf i gur e’ sf oot j ustbr eakst hepi ct ur epl ane,asi fi twer ecomi ngovert heedgeoft hest ep, subt l y enhanci ng t he sense ofr ealspace.The i mage cr eat es an el egant combi nat i onofmovementanddet ai l .Wef eel t hegent l eswayoft heGr acesas t hey ar ej oi ned i n cont empl at i ng and shar i ng t he f r ui t st hey hol d,whi l e Rai mondi ’ s def tuse off i ne l i ne pr oduces t hei ri nt r i cat e hai r st yl es and t he swayi ngpal ml eavesabove. Thi scl assi cal i mageandi t smeani ngar et ypi cal oft heRenai ssance.TheThr ee Gr aces,daught er sofZeusandt henymphEur ynome,r epr esent edJoy ,Char m andBeaut y ,i deal st hatwer ecent r alt oNeoPl at oni cdi scussi onsast heyar e t oday—l ovebei ngat i mel essl ypopul arsubj ect .Theyar eof t enassoci at edwi t h t hegodandgoddessofl ove,VenusandCupi d( orAphr odi t eandEr os) . Rai mondi pr oducedsome1, 000pr i nt s,t hemaj or i t yoft hem f r om desi gnsbyt he pai nt erRaphael . Thei rhi ghl ysuccessf ulpar t ner shi p,an ear l yexampl e of col l abor at i on bet ween a desi gni ng ar t i stand a r epr oduct i on pr i nt er ,i s an exampl eofamoder nf or m ofpr oduct i onwecant r acebackt ot heRenai ssance. Ski l landsubj ectmat t erputRai mondi ’ swor ki nhi ghdemandacr ossI t al yand t hr oughoutnor t her nEur ope.Ar t i st swoul dcopyt hesepr i nt st ol ear nhow t o model dr aper y ,gest ur es,andt hef i gur e.Hi sst yl ewascl earandhi smodel i ngof f i gur esunobt r usi ve,qual i t i est hatl endt hemsel vest ot eachi ng,wi t houtt hear t i st over power i ngt hest udent ’ sowndevel opi ngst yl e. TCF
72 Hei nr i chAl degr ever( Ger man,15021561) TheAbduct i on,1530 Facsi mi l eengr avi ng
Hei nr i chAl degr ever ,a gol dsmi t h,pai nt er ,and pr i nt er ,pr oduced some 300 pr i nt s,mosti naver ysmal l f or mat ,whi chl edt ohi si dent i f i cat i onwi t hagr oupof pr i nt er sknownast heLi t t l eMast er s.Hi swor kf ocusedont heOl dandNew Test ament s,al l egor i calf i gur es,andmyt hsf r om ant i qui t y .Thi sengr avi ngi san exampl eofhi scl assi cal l yi nf l uencedi mages:amyt hi calsat yrr i di nghor seback car r i esof fapr ot est i ngmai denasawel l muscl edmanst andsbyi mpot ent l y . Thesel ust ycr eat ur es,hal f manandhal f goat ,wer eof t endepi ct edki dnappi ng, seduci ng,orr api ngyoungwomen.Vi sual symbol sf ort heani mal aspect soft he humanpsyche,t heysi gni f i edmi schi evousandsal aci ousact i vi t y .I n1530t he vi ewerwoul dhaver eadt hi si mageasacaut i onar yt al e:man,t hel owl ysi nner , mustst r i vet oover comehi sbasi cbodi l yi nst i nct s.Symbol i cal l y ,t hemai deni s l ooki ngaboveandbeyondt hehel pl essmal e.Sal vat i oncomesf r om onhi gh, notf r om someear t hl ysour ce.Thef r ami ngofChr i st i anspi r i t ual devel opmenti n cl assi calmot i f swast ypi caloft heRenai ssance. I nf l uencedear l yonbyAl br echtDür er , Al degr evercr eat edaper sonal monogr am ( AG,upperr i ght )t hatgi vesanobvi ousnodt ot hef amousAD si gnat ur eoft he manhesoadmi r ed.St r ong,wel l devel opedmodel i ngoft hef i gur esandhor se i sanexampl eofDür er ’ si nf l uence,asi st heuseoff i necr osshat chi ngt hat f ol l owst hecont our soft hemuscl es,cl osel ywor kedt ocr eat eshadowanddept h. Al degr ever ’ st r eat mentofdr aper y and hai rset s of fcul mi nat i ng cur l s and bi l l owi ngf ol dsagai nstl ar gepl anarar eas. Themane,t hemai den’ sf l owi ng l ocks,andt hecoi l edpubi chai rpeepi ngoutf r om t hemal e’ sdr apedgr oi nar e f i nel yr ender edi nhi scur vi l i nearst yl e. TCF
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Gi ovanniBat t i st aPi r anesi( I t al i an,17201778) “ Cl ement iXI I IP. M. ” Fr ont i spi ecef orAnt i chi t ad’ Al banoediCast elGandol f o ( Rome,1764) Et chi ng
SCHOLARS, EXPLORERS, PRIESTS HOW THE RENAISSANCE GAVE US THE MODERN WORLD
7. Jusepe de Ribera, Lo Spagnoletto (Spanish, 1591- 1652) St. Jerome Reading, ca. 1624 Etching with engraving and drypoint, 7 ¼” x 9 ¾” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P53
INTRODUCTION
8. Rembrandt Harmenz van Rijn (Dutch, 1606-1669) Jews in the Synagogue, 1648 Etching with engraving and drypoint, 3 ¼” x 5 ¼” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P91
1. After Pierre Garnier (French, 1725-1800, Master 1742) Bacchus Bronze, 18 ¼” x 7 ¼” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.85
9. Frans Francken II (Flemish, 1581-1642) Worship of the Golden Calf, ca. 1630-1635 Oil on canvas, transferred to wood in 1812, 20” x 30” Mr. and Mrs. Julius J. Cardile, 74.2.1
2. Unknown artist, Flemish Virgin Annunciate, Late Medieval, ca. 1400s Stone with traces of paint, 39” x 24” x 11 ½” Gift of Albert Fried, 63.14
10. Follower of Alessandro Algardi (Italian, 1598-1654) Christ at the Column, ca. 1630 Bronze figure in polychrome wood tabernacle, 23” x 15 ½” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.83
Catalogue Checklist
3. Workshop of Gian Lorenzo Bernini (Italian, 1598-1680) Bust of a Young Woman with a Mantle, ca. 1598-1680 Marble, 16” x 8 ⅝” x 5” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Andrew A. Lynn, 58.16 RELIGION AND THE ARTS: FROM UNITY AND FAITH TO PLURALISM AND REASON 4. Unknown artist, Spanish Papal Saint, Late Medieval, ca. 1500s Wood and paint, 43 ½” x 10 ½” Gift of the Class of 1958, 59.134 5. Unknown artist, Brabant, Dutch Reliquary bust of young woman, ca. 1400s Wood and paint, 14 x 11 ½” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 64.22 6. Unknown artist, Italian Reliquary in the form of an arm with a blessing hand, Late Gothic, ca. 1400s Wood and copper, 22” x 11” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 62.44
RELIGION AND THE ARTS: THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION 11. Peter Flötner (German, ca. 1475/85-1546) Printed by Hans Guldenmund (German, 1490-1560) The Poor Common Ass, 1525 or 1526 Woodcut, 7” x 15 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P195 12. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528) Erasmus of Rotterdam, 1526 Engraving, 10 ½” x 8 ¼” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Ternbach, 63.37 13. Workshop of Andrea della Robbia (Italian, 1435-1525) Lunette of Madonna between Saints Francis and John, ca. 1460-1520 Glazed terra cotta, 32” x 16 ¼” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin H. Namm, 59.167 14. Unknown artist, Limoges, French, ca. 1500s Six panels from a devotional shrine Grisaille enamel, 13 ½” x 15 ¾” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 64.20
15. Attributed to Nicholas Froment, (French, ca. 1435-1484) Lamentation over the Dead Christ, ca. 1450 Oil on wood panel, 33 ½ x 27 ¾” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 57.2
23. Adriaen Jansz van Ostade (Dutch, 1610-1685) Peasant Scene, ca. 1642 Oil on panel, 6 ¾” x 8 ½” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 64.15
16. Hartmann Schedel (German, 1440-1514) St. Philip Being Stoned on the Cross, The Nuremberg Chronicle, folio CV, 1493 Woodcut, 5 ¼’’ x 4 ¼’’ Gift of Audrey McMahon, P80
24. Wenceslaus Hollar (Bohemian, 1607-1677) Muffs, 1644-1652 th Facsimile etching, 19 c., 2 ½” x 3 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P166
17. Unknown artist, Italian Madonna and Christ Child, ca. 1550-1600 Boxwood, 10 ⅞” x 3 ¼’’x 3” Bequest of Joseph Ternbach, 88.1.20 18. Guido Reni (Italian, 1575-1642) St. Christopher Carrying the Christ Child, early 1600s Etching, 10 ¼’’ x 8” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P63 EMPIRICISM: AWAKENING INTEREST IN EARTHLY LIFE 19. Daniel Nikolaus Chodowiecki (German, 1726-1801) Cabinet d’un Peintre (The Artist and his Family), 1771 Facsimile engraving, 6” x 8” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P168 20. Philips Wouwerman (Dutch, 1619-1668) A Dutch Horseman’s Game, ca. 1650-1668 Oil on canvas, 48 ½” x 3 ¾” Gift of Dr. Joseph Schoneman, 67.134 21. William Hogarth (British, 1697-1764) William Hogarth Painting the Comic Muse, 1764 th Engraving, 6 state, 13 ½” x 13 ¾” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P202 22. Adriaen Jansz van Ostade (Dutch, 1610-1685) Cottage Interior with Peasant Feast, ca. 1650s Etching, 10 ½” x 12 ¾” Gift of Mr. Ernest Erickson, 58.51
25. Wenceslaus Hollar (Bohemian, 1607-1677) Hawks and Owls, 1663 Possibly from Animalium ferarum florium veriumque icons, Francis Barlow after Hollar, 1671 or 1674 Facsimile etching, 19th c., 5” x 7 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P164 26. Wenceslaus Hollar (Bohemian, 1607-1677) A Bolognese Dog, 1649 Facsimile etching, 19th c., 3” x 5” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P165 27. Franz Dotte (German, active ca. 1595-1600) Rosewater Basin with The Four Seasons Gilded silver, 21 ¾” diameter Gift of Mr. Paul Doll, 62.7 28. Albrecht Altdorfer (German, ca. 1482/85-1538) Fir Tree in a Mountainous Landscape, ca. 1520-23 Colored facsimile etching, 4 ¼” x 6 ¼” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P143 THE RISE OF THE INDIVIDUAL : PORTRAITURE AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN 29. In the style of Antonio Moro (Anthonis Mor van Dashorst, Dutch, 1516/20-1576/78) Charles V of Spain, ca. 1559-1561 Oil on wood, 36” x 28” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 58.23 30. Workshop of Giovanni da Bologna (Italian, 1529-1608) or Valerio Cioli Settignano (1529-1599) Dwarf Astride a Tortoise, after 1560-1608 Bronze, 4 ¾” x 3 ½” Gift of Max and Georgina Falk, 92.9.10
31. Attributed to Willem de Poorter (Dutch, 1608-1648) Repentant Magdalene Oil on canvas, 49 ¼” x 39 ¼” Gift of Dr. Joseph Schoneman, 60.40 32. Elisabetta Sirani (Italian, 1638-1665) Rest on the Flight into Egypt Etching, 6 ⅝” x 7 ⅛” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P61 33. Girolamo Mocetto (Italian, ca. 1470-1531) Judith, after Andrea Mantegna, 1500-05 Engraving, 11 ¾” x 7 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P133 34. Hans Baldung-Grien (Germany, 1484/85-1545) The Witches’ Sabbath, 1510 Chiaroscuro woodcut, 14 ½” x 10” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P145 THE CLASSICAL REVIVAL: EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE ACROSS TIME 35. Workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian, ca. 1496-1543) Formerly attributed to Andrea Riccio (Italian, 1470-1532) Inkwell with seated Cupid supported by three winged sphinxes Bronze, 6 ½” x 6” x 6” Gift of Judge Irwin Untermyer, 58.1 36. Artist unknown, Italian Bust of a Man, ca. 1600 Bronze, 8” x 4 ½” x 3 ⅓” Gift of Max and Georgina Falk, 88.3.2 37. Workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian, ca. 1496-1543) Seated Satyress with Child Bronze, 7 ⅞” x 5 ¼” x 5 ⅛” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 60.2 38. Andrea Riccio (Italian,1470-1532) Formerly attributed to the workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian, ca. 1496-1543) Atlas Supporting an Oil Lamp Bronze, 6 ⅜” x 4 ½” x 4” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 61.5
39. Workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian, ca. 1496-1543) Seated Satyress Bronze, 7 ¼” x 5 ⅜” x 3” Gift of Dr. Joseph Schoneman, 64.30 40. Unknown artist, Italian Portrait Bust of a Man in the Guise of a Roman Emperor, ca. 1500s Bronze, 11 ½” x 7” x 3 ½” Gift of Irwin Untermeyer, 59.2 41. Unknown artist, Italian Roman gladiator, ca. 1500s Bronze, 17 ½” x 12 ¾” x 10 ½” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.84 42. Unknown artist, Italian Hercules, based on the Farnese Hercules, ca. 1600s Bronze, 11 ⅜” x 5 ⅛” x 4” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.86 43. Unknown artist, Italian, ca. 1500s Centaur Bronze, 9 ¾” x 5 ½” x 10” Gift of Jack Linsky, 69.17 44. Jacopo de’Barbari (Italian, ca. 1460/70-before 1516) Apollo and Diana, ca.1500-1505 th Facsimile engraving, 19 c., 6 ¼” x 4’’ Gift of Audrey McMahon, P197 45. School of Nicolas Poussin (French, 1594-1665), probably by Gaspard Dughet (French, 1615-1675) and Carlo Maratti (Italian, 1625-1713) Bacchanal, ca. 1664-1670 Oil on canvas, 36 ½” x 50” Gift of Mr. Arthur L. Erlanger, 66.49 46. Agostino Musi (Agostino Veneziano, Italian, 1490-1540) Apollo and Daphne, ca.1518 Engraving, 9 ¼” x 6 ¾” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P57 47. Attributed to Antonio Maria Zanetti (Italian, 1680-1757) Aeneas Carrying Anchises from the Burning of Troy th th Watercolor on paper reproduction, 19 -20 c., 10 ⅞” x 6” Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Harris B. Steinberg, 63.54
48. Salvator Rosa (Italian, 1615-1673) Tritons in Combat, ca. 1660 Facsimile etching, 4 ¼” x 6 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P179 49. Master E. S. (German, active ca. 1440-1467) The Emperor Augustus and the Tiburtine Sibyl, ca. 1450 Facsimile engraving, 8 ½” x 5 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P189 EXPLORING THE GLOBE: EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE ACROSS SPACE 50. Unknown artist, Cuzco School Altiplano, Peru or Bolivia Madonna and Child, ca. 1700s Oil on canvas, 23” x 17” (Photographic facsimile of the original under conservation) Gift of Walter Marks, 2003.4.70 51. Unknown artist, Cuzco School, Altiplano, Peru or Bolivia Madonna with Christ Child Reading a Book, ca. 1700s Oil on canvas, 27” x 22” Gift of Walter Marks, 2003.4.69 52. Workshop of Peter Paul Rubens (Flemish, 1577-1640), possibly by Workshop of Frans Snyders (Flemish, 1579-1657) Madonna and Child, c. 1615-1624 Oil on linen, 40 ½” x 29” Gift of a friend of the Collection, 57.1 53. Hand-woven textile fragment of repeating figures Peru, South Coast, ca. 1200-1400 Wool and natural dyes, 8” x 4 ½” Gift of an anonymous donor, 98.11.2 54. Animal effigy Mexico, Paquime (Casas Grandes), 1200-1450 Terra cotta, 5 ¼” x 5 ¾” diameter Gift of Gladys Mills, 98.1.2
55. Warrior Ornament Colombia, Eastern Highlands, Late Muisca Period, 1000-1600 Tumbaga (alloy of gold and copper), 3” x 1 ¾” Gift of Anonymous Donor , 99.2.14 56. Unknown artist, Persian King Rostam recognizes his son Sohrab, Miniature from a manuscript of the epic Shahnamah of Firdawsi (“Book of Kings”) , ca. 1370-1507 Tempera on paper, 14 ¼” x 10” Gift of Ernest Erickson , 58.37 57. Unknown artist, Japanese Caricature of Five Men, Tokugawa period, 1700s Colored ink on rice paper, 10 ⅞” x 11” Gift of the Friends of Queens College Library, 66.5 58. Seated Lion India, Travancore, Mughal period, ca. 1500-1700 Ivory, 3 ¾” h Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 61.3 59. Six-sided ceremonial container China, Qing dynasty, ca. 1650-1750 Bronze, 12” h Bequest of Joseph Ternbach, 88.1.21 60. Bracelet Mali, West Africa, ca. 1000-1400 Bronze, 2 ¾” diameter Gift of Dr. Werner Muensterberger and Michael Ward, 2006.2.14 Bracelet Mali, West Africa, ca. 1000-1400 Copper alloy, 2 ¾” diameter Gift of Dr. Werner Muensterberger and Michael Ward, 2006.2.17 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: PRINTMAKING AND PAPER 61. Martin Schongauer (German, 1445-1491) Death of the Virgin, ca. 1470-1475 th th Facsimile engraving, 17 -18 c., 10” x 6 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P158
62. Martin Schongauer (German, 1445-1491) The Flight into Egypt , ca. 1470-75 Facsimile engraving, 17th-18th c., 10 ½” x 6 ½” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P157 63. Martin Schongauer (German, 1445-1491) Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons, ca. 1470-75 Facsimile engraving, 17th-18th c., 12 ½” x 9” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P156 ALBRECHT DÜRER: FATHER OF THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE 64. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528) Philipp Melanchthon, 1526 Facsimile engraving, 6 ¼” x 5” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P06 65. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528) Virgin and Child with a Monkey, ca. 1498 Facsimile engraving, 7 ¼” x 4 ¼” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P149 66. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528) Madonna by the Wall, 1514 Facsimile engraving, 5 ¼” x 4” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P151 67. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1520) “The Flagellation” (B33) from the Small Passion, 1511 Woodcut, 5 x 4” Gift of Ruth L. Cohen, Ph.D., Queens College, B.A., 1949 68. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1520) Christ Nailed to the Cross (B39), 1511 Wood engraving, 5 x 4” Gift of Ruth L. Cohen, Ph.D., Queens College, B.A., 1949
PRINTMAKING: FACSIMILES, COPIES, AND FORGERIES 69. Publius Terentius Afer, “Terence” (Roman, ca. 185-159 B.C.E.) Comoediae, published in Strassburg by Johann (Reinhard) Grüninger, 1496 Printed page with woodcut image of Clitipho, 9 ½” x 6” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P74 70. Unknown artist (Italian, Florentine) The Chastisement of Eros, ca. 1450-1500 th th Facsimile engraving, late 18 or 19 c., 7 ½" x 7 ½" Gift of Audrey McMahon, P194 71. Marcantonio Raimondi (Italian, ca. 1480-1534) The Three Graces, ca. early 1500 Facsimile engraving, 19th c., 8” x 14 ¼” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P135 72. Heinrich Aldegrever (German, 1502-1561) The Abduction, 1530 Facsimile engraving, 6” x 4” Gift of Audrey McMahon, P183 73. Giovanni Battista Piranesi (Italian, 1720-1778) “Clementi XIII P.M.” Frontispiece for Antichita d’Albano e di Castel Gandolfo (Rome, 1764) Etching, 17 ⅞” x 25 ⅝” Anonymous gift in the Memory of George Parks, 81.69
Godwi nTernbach Museum atQueensCollege,CUNY 6530Ki ssenaBoulevard,405KlapperHall,Flushi ng,NY11367