関VIEC-WUCT - CONSEII」 は- 20 novembre - London - St Marys’University
PROFESSIONS. SACRED AND PROFANE: R離しE⊂「lONS UPON THE CHANGING NATuRE OF PROFESSIONALISM
PROFESSOR GERALD GRACE DIR巨C丁OR
CENTRE FOR RESEARCH AND DEV軋OPMENT IN CATHOLIC EDUCATION
譜窮 鳥叶 串 と_⊥
申rofes8OrGerE]I個G昭臓KSG KHS乱映MEd PH.D 馴eGtor; Cen腫io「 Re艶剣c両n(i Dove10p爪飢白n Ca航0庵的uc釦00 夏dl(○ ○;個e周a㈹棚l S両面釣IlくねIhdIc ∈du筋t10I7
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WORLD 葛TNION OF (二ATHOLIC TEACHERS UNION MONDIAI」三DES IbNSEIGNANTS CAT1宣0LIQUES しTNION MU`DIAL DE EDしTCAl〕ORES (RA’l「OuCOS
高車車間伸輔臨
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「￣評語悪癖話語寓語霊:蕊二霊語羽 音
」 a mature and compIe†e humanity. testimony. This is no† bough†, il白SれO† soId言† is giveれ・
l As an Associa†ion, yOu are by nature qpe画調訪u加rta becauseでhere are aIways new genera†ions of lyoung people †o whom γOu maγ PaSS On yOur WeaI†h of knowledge and values. On a professional Ievei i† is
十mPOr†an† †o re庇助ysur 7励ch/匂S勅y eSpeCia=y in Iigh↑ of new †echnoIogies, bu†十eaching is no†
‖ust a job膏eaching is a re届海悌雌in which each †cacher mus† feel fu=y invoIved as a perso申n o「der 可O give meaれing †o †he †ask of educa面ng †hei「 s↑uden†s. 1 ￨ encourage you †o renew your passion for humanity - yOu CannO↑ †each withou† passion! - iれすhe
虚器豊島三富掌窺:了解and佃Never・ neVe「 Close a doo岬all of †hem 音 pope戸○○れ。s, 14仙ch 2015 」
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La premiere atti†ude d’un educa†eur es† l’amour" …・ POur animer de剛†drieu「 une 6cole qui, en dehors du fai† qu’e=e soi† gdr6e de maniere pubiique ou non pu帥que. a besoin d’6duca†eurs cr6dibIes e† de 俺moiれS d'une humanit6 mG「e e† compIむe. Le †6moignage. E† ceIui-Ci ne s’achむe pas. ne se vend pas. iI S-off「○○
En †an† qu’associa†ion. vous針es par na+u「e ou昭′・鳩d /各所Car = y a ↑oujou「s de∴nOuVe"es g6ndra†ions de jeunes d qui ↑ransme††「e Ie pa†rimoine de connaissances e† de valeu「s. Su「 Ie pIan
PrOfessionれeI, iI es† impo巾an† de meタブre d Jbur se叩,坤,nes Cm均g花
Ces崩白c巧的egalemen† a la
iumidre des nouve=es †echnoIog-eS, mais l’enselgnemen†れ,es† pas seuIemen† un ↑rava=・ L’enseignemen†
est M帥eh吻n a laque=e chaque enseigれan† doi† e両erement pa「†iciper comme personれe, POu「 donner un sens a la †ache educa†ive a l'6gard de ses propres 6胞ves. Vo†「e pr烏ence ici auJOurd'hui es† Ia PreuVe 「. 、■、●▼“￣ que 「“、■ ▼“′葛} r)}}ヽタ、〇、■{ 音}ヽ{′ VOuS PoSS6dez ces mo†iva†ions "-1} -. ▼ヽ具i ’}=- ヽ置ヽ′lll dont lltcole ヽ′}ヽ′i}‥○ a○′}.ヽ′lll● besoin. J。 V。uS 。n。。u。。g。 a.。n。.,。I。r V。†r。 P。SSi。れP。。r l’h。mm。 - 。n n。 P。.† p。S 。nS。ign。. S。nS P。SSi。n ! 」 )
dans son p「ocessus de forma†ioれ. e† d針re d庭肋,O方はde所e efd勾Dg庇棚e ￨l ne fau† jamais. jamais fermer une por†e, mais les ouvrir †ou† en grand, POur que les針udiaれ†s aien† I’espdrance. Pape FraれCois !
さ調帥機"蘭書軸血輸:同格●亡は調u調廿輸口幅晴山は田山能が打〇億回珊輸i印
南re arg…ent Of this paper is that profe§StonS and professtonaIs have a crucial role in society which is fro speak truth to power’. This was one of the roIes of the first professio鵬of priesthood, nedicine
and faw but today the evidence suggests that professiona-isml is being reduced in scope to the demonstration of technical expertise and e怖cient perfomativity onlyJ
Historically・ PrOfe§Sionalism invoived the demonstration of esoteric knowledge and expertis両ut it
also involved commItment to codes of moraL ethical and socfal conduct. Th鵬commItments might, in certain circumstances・ CauSe some Profe§SfonaIs to be critical ot o「 even oppose, POlicies
introduced dy powe血I autho珊es.
This a舶Iysis w肌be deveIoped in three sections. In Section l the origins of鵬professions in the Middle Ages, in the ouIture ofthe sacred wi‖ be examined.
1n Section 2 the transition of professtonalism fron the culture of the sacred to the culture of the Profane by the nineteenth century w紺be discussed′ With special reference to Emile Durkheim・s
d砥彊te此間(1郭〃l拍2) In Section 3・ the ∞ntemPOrary Situation of professionaii§m W棚be a間Iysed, With special reIevance to those professionels who wo鮎n the fieids of economics′ finance, banking and business studies
and also those who work in the fi的of education・ This section wm focus on what can be caIIed Professionalism in the cuIture of global ma「ketisation.
醜く議als ln廿記伽帆l鵬of持場Sa帥ed
The very idea of a ’profession’(as a鴫Iling’and not sinply a job) and of ′professionalism′ (as a
ProCeSS and a way of life) had its o噂i鵬in re晦ion 0)urkheim, 1992)"押ficaIly, in Europe, professi。軸Sm Was formed in t11e religious cuiture and habitus esta輔shed try the hegemony ofthe
Catho"c Church. Thus the first p○○fessious of p「iesthood′ medi緬e andほw we晦Shaped by a sodeI mili‘叫which invested the tech面cal activities of the practitioれers With a spirit脚一. moral, ethicaI, and
even・ On OCCaSions′ POlitical significance. Wh畦unde「 the jurisdiction and command of the tempo調l
authorities of the time, §uch professionaIs had another al頓nce, tO the service of God and to revealed Truth as taught by the Ch冊Ch. This was the concept of p「ofessional fyocation・. The
Priesthood existed to administe「 the Sacraments and to w韓ness to the Truth; the phys繭ans v唯re
Ca醐to contjnue the work of the G鳩at Physjcjan and Iawyers were ca棚to adm鵬ter the justice
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and mercY OfGod. To be a professiona=n its historicai origins was′ at its best′ tO have a command of
esoteric knowIedge and competences set within a moral framework of service to the common good, guided by the teachings of religious faith. The notion of a ′ca冊ng’gave to the early professions a
relation to the sacred. Over time, PrOfessionaIs such as physicians and lawyers began to form associations and organisations which codified the moral princIPIes which ought to regulate professionai behaviour. At another level′ that of various merchants and traders′ Guilds were
estabiished to regu-ate economic activity.2 The culture of the sacred′ aS mediated bY the Catholic
Church, Shaped these forms of regulation invoIving concepts such as the sanctity o川fe′ Service fo「
the common good, the just priCe, the just wage etc.
As Nisbet (1965) has argued, the帥ghtenment as a phi-osophicaI and cultural movement in 18th centu「y Europe, With its questioning of traditionaI doctrines a=d vaIues and its emphasis upon
individuaIism and the free use of reason, marked the beginning of the end of the cuiture of the
sacred as the dominant habitus in Europe. This major transition from a culture of the sacred to a culture of the profane, in which religion and ideas of a ′conscience coIIective′3 were marg'naIised′
provided an inte一一ectua- cha=enge for the French socioIogist′ Emile Durkheim・ What wouId be the
basis for sociaI solidarity in the future? What sources of moraI education and moraI regulation couId be found in the future? ln this situation of potentiai anomie, Durkheim saw professions and p「ofessionaIism言n new forms′ aS eSSentiaI to the sociaI order and stabiIity of secular societies. The text, Professiona- Ethics and Civic MoraIs IS in fact a coilection of Durkheim’s lectures deIivered at
Bordeaux between 1890 and 1900, and the book first appeared in Eng=sh in 19与7. 1t is st用regarded
as a cIassic in its socioIogical/historicaI analysis ofthe development of professiona=sm.
Professionaiism in the cultu「e of the profane
in modem EngIish discourse′ the use of ′profane′ is often taken to mean that which treats something sacred in a hostiIe and abusive way. Durkheim used ′profane′ in a quite different way′一・e. in an
objective and ana-yticaI sense which referred to a major cultural change observabIe in Europe and particular-y in France. This cu-turai change invoIved the end of the hegemony ofthe Catholic Church′
of its Christian teachings a=d dogma, Of the cuIture of the sacred which it sustained and of its associated vaIues and practices. ln its place′ Durkheim observed′ eSPeCi訓y in France′ the
deve-opment of a profane culture in which the dominant princIPIes were reason′刷viduaIism′ enterp「ise and reIative personai autonomy" ReIigion had retreated from its centrai role as reguIator
of sociaI, eCOnOmic and poiitica川fe to a minor roIe as guide to some beIievers in thei「 Private =ves.
丁his newly estab-ished profane culture chailenged Durkheim to consider in what ways sociaI
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SOIidarity, SOCiaI order and forms of morai reguIation of human behaviour could be guaranteed in the future. The problem was, aS Durkheim expressed it: ′It is not possibIe for a sociaI function to exist without moral discipIine. Otherwise, nOthing
rem∂ins but individuaI appetites, and since they are by nature boundiess and insatiable, if
there is nothing to controI them, they w川not be abie to controI themselves’(1992 pp. 10-
11).
RecognISing that the Church couId no Ionger be the reguIator of social and economic activity,
Durkheim came to the viewthat this roIe had passed to the secuIarState, Which he accepted wouid have to be ′the organ of moral discipIine’〈1992 p. 72) in profane cuIture. However, an a= powe血I
State, Iike an a= powerfuI Church, might become an oppressive force in society. Other sociaI institutions were required to achieve a sitllation of some baiance of power, institutions which in some senses could monitor the activities of the State. Fo「 Durkheim, these other socia=nstitutions
would be found in the secular professional associations with their reiative autonomy and codes of ethics. AsTurner (1992 p. 〉蘭v〉 puts it, for Durkheim: -
`the reai disIocation of mode「n society was the absence of intervening socia=nstitutions
between the individual and the State; OCCuPationai and professionaI associations were intended to fi旧his gap.’
In this sense, PrOfessions and professionaIs had a potentia=y cruciaI poIiticaI significance in society. In p-ace ofthe Church which had′ On OCCaSions′ reSisted the power of kings′4Durkheim believed that p「ofessionaI associations could provide a source of restraint upon secular govemments in the future.
Professions, With their associated codes of ethics, WOuId also provide, in a secular mode, a continuation of moraI education and moraI regulation in the new cuitural context. As Du「kheim
argued:′the professionaI group is by no means incapabIe of being in itseIfa moraI sphere′ Since this
was its cha「acter in the past’(1992 p. 23)
This moraIity and this form of regulation wouId find its justification in secuIar ethical reasoning, ratherthan in the relIgious precepts of an earlier age.
But there 「emained a ma」Or PrObiem to which Durkheim devoted the g「eater part of his anaIysIS" This was the probIem presented by the growth of capita=st ente「Prise in France and its associated
financiaI and business practices. Whereas pre-CaPitaiist enterprlSe and trading had been reguIated 4
by the Gui-ds and by the Church′ these agencies were no Ionger a powe血I eIement in modern society. Therefore in the reaIm of cap剛st enterprISe and business reIations′ Durkheim perceived a
moraI vacuum. ProfessIO=a- Ethics and Civil Morals presents a powe剛anaIysis and critique of this
situation which has obvious reIevance to ma=y Of our contemporary situations and chaIIenges" Of course, Durkheim′s observations re-ate to the cap剛St and business wo「-d of the 19th century′ but the issues they raise c剛enge us to conside「 what has changed since his time" In this sense′ he presents us with an agenda for contemporary reSearCh′ analYS-S and discussion′ With these
● ′This lack of organisation in the business professions has one consequenCe Of the greatest
moment; Which is, that in this who-e sphere ofsocia冊e′ nO PrOfessionaI ethics exist.’(1992′
P.9) . ′This am。ral cha,aCterOfeconomic life amountsto a pubIicdanger.’(1992′ P. 12) ● ′CIearIy, if there has been se-f-de-usio= tO this degree among the cIassical economists it is
because the economic functions were studied as if they were an end in themseIves′ Without considering what further reaction they might have on the whoIe sociaI orde「・′ (1992′ P. 15)
● ′The more the markets expand, the greaterthe urgency ofsome regulation to put an end to
個s instab冊∨.’(1992, P. 16)
within the 19th and ear-y 20th century ofthe p「ofane in Europe′ Durkheim had great hopes that
the estabiished professions wou-d provide a mora- and ethica- environment for societY Which
wouId compensate for the loss of the power of the sacred in sociaI and economic Iife. As professor of Education and Socio-ogy at the Sorbonne he regarded the teaching professio= aS
especiaIlv ImPOrtant in disseminating secu-ar understandings of moraI education in the schooIs of France. It couId be said, that for Durkheim′ teaChers were seen aS a form ofsecular priests of
rationaI moraI education who wou-d rep-ace the former roIe undertaken by CathoIic prleStS. NevertheIess, it seems like-y that he knew that the work of the schooIs alone would not
compensate for the economic anomie and anarchy which characterised the sphere of capitaiist enterprlSe grOWing ever strOnger in France.
吐ofess-o間一s In the cuIture of教Iobal markedsatIQD
if the great theorist of the transitions f「om the cuItu「e of the sacred to the cuiture of the
profane 〈with its i岬Cations for the roIe of professionaIs) was EmiIe Durkheim′ the leading contemporary theorist and empi「lCal researcher of todaY′s culture of globai marketisation is
ManueI CasteiIs. ln his massive th「ee vo-ume stud-es of出y lnfomation AEe: Eco=OmV’SocietY 5
and Culture (1996, 1997, 1998), Caste=s has documented in detail the consequences of what he describes as ′The Rise of the Network Society’. This provides an authoritative anaiysis of the
economic, SOCiai and culturai context of giobaIisation, the context in which professionaIs of eve「y category are now working. It is necessary, in order to grasp the sIgnificance of this
revoiutionary change, tO quOte Caste=s at some length: ′A new economy has emerged in the last two decades on a worIdwide sc∂le. 1 ca= it
informational and gIobaI to identify its fundamental distinctive features... 1t is informationai because the productivity and competitiveness of units or agents in this economy 〈be it firms
regions or nations) depend upon their capacity to generate, PrOCeSS and appIy e冊cientIγ knowIedge-based information, It is gioba教 because the core activities of production, COnSumPtion and circuIation, aS We= as their components 〈capital, iabor, raW materials,
management, information, teChnoIogy, markets) are organized on a giobai scaie... and COmPetition is plaved out in a gIobal network of interaction. 1t has emerged in the last
quarter of the twentieth century because the lnformation TechnoIogy Revoiution provides the indispensibIe materiaI basis for such a new economy.’(1996, P. 66).
Caste=s goes on to argue that the cuIturaI, SOCiaI and politicaI consequences of this economic revoiution are far reaching. 1nternational competitiveness has emerged as a key dynamic in every SOCiety:-
∴. together with the search for profitab冊y as the driving motivation of the firm, the
informational economy IS also shaped by the vested interest of poIitica=nstitutions in fostering the competitiveness of those economies they are supposed to represent... The emphasis here is on the reIative position of nationai economies vis-a-Vis other countries as a maJOr legitimizing force for govemments… PracticaIIy a= countries have to steer their
economies in cooperation and in competition with others... (1996 pp 86-87).
What are the impIICations of ali of this for professionais and professiona=sm in the culture of gIobal marketisation? AIthough Caste=s does not address this specific question, it seems cIear f「om his
analysis that there are many impIications. For those professionals who work in the fields of
economics, finance, banking and business management, a PreOCCuPation with profit yields and ′competitive edge′ now becomes paramount over a一一other conside「ations. Durkheim i= the 19th
Century had commented on the absence of professionai ethics or of moraI reguIation in these SPheres of activity.
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In the intens棉ed compe輔Ve COnditions of giobal market capitalism′ nOtions of professionaI ethics
and moral regu-atien can now be categorised as outmoded impediments to business derived什om a vanished age. The ′real woHd′ ofintemational business it w紺be said camot be shackIed by ideas of professio=a一′ ethics or moral reguIation which or吃inated in a long forgotten cuIture of the sacred o「
even a more recent cuIture of profane e=lightenment a=d reason. This is the ideoIogical claim ofthe 竹ee′ market i.e. to be free of state reguIation or even moral reguIation.
W珊ng什om a CathoIic perspective′ Edwa「d Hadas ln ∂ SmaII publ庇tlon′ The C「e皿Crunch: Makin角 型ral sense ofthe financiaI crisis (2009) comments on the recent wo「-d financiai probIems5‥ -
・whiIe oniy a few went so far as to endorse the siogan ′Greed is good’′ many eCOnOmists
argued for and obtained -ighter reguIation and g「eater 「eliance on ′market signals’・・・ One
other factor mav have played a roie in the pre-Crisis abdication of responsibi時in finance. That is the refusaI to take morality seriously in any economic discussions’(P.42).
But these implications are not confined to the world of business only. Established professions such as medicine, iaw and educE面On (higher education and schooIs) are presented w軸ideoIogicai and politica- cha-Ienges to their professionaI ethics′ VaIues and commitments to common good service"
what we are witnessing in contemporary society is an attempted market cuIture coIonisation of alI forms of sociaI service in order to sharpen the overa用e靴iency and compe軸Ve edge of the totaI sociaI formation and not s而piy the sphere of business activrty. This is particularIy apparent in the
fieId of education.
In his studies ofthe economic success ofthe Asian ′t鳴ers’, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and Hong
Kong, CasteIIs (1998 pp" 2与6282) argues that′ amOng Othe「 things′ StrOng State direction (by the ′deveIopmentai state) was apparent. This process of development invoIved transformations of
educationa- systems to be more c-oseIy coupIed to the needs of economic deveIopment. EducationaI institutions were ′re-engineered′ to become service agencies for inereasing the competitive edge of
the economy.
A similar deveIopment has been noted in the UK by Stephen Bail′ Professor of the SocioIogy of
Education at the University ofしOndon’lnst輔e of Education・ ln his research-based book′ Education
且垣(2007〉 Ba= concludes: ・within institutions - COIIeges声ChooIs and universities, the means/end logic of education for
economic competitiveness is transfo面ng what were compIex′ interpersonai processes of teachingJearning and research into a set of standardised and measunble products.’〈p.186) 7
Teachers both at schoo=evel and in higher education, Who in previous decades have been regarded as‘ professionals invoived in the inte=ectual′ Cu血ral′ SOCiaI and morai deveIopment of chiIdren and
young peopie, are nOW being reconst「ucted as agents to service the economic needs of the COmPe航ive state. BaIl argues that′ ′education is... spoken of w軸in poI-ey′ i= termS its economic vaIue and its contribution to intemational market competitiveness’, and a situation is developing in
the UK in which there wi= be, ′a thorough subordination of moraI ob=gations to economic ones’(p" 18与).
Knowledge itse旧s being reconstructed as a commodity in the market place which can be traded =ke
any other commodity in the gIoba- economy.6
Ail of these argume=tS had been anticipated by Ba=′s predecessor at the lns師ute of Education′ Professor BasiI Bemstein. ln a prescient section of his text, Pedago賃∨. Svmbolic ControI and ldentitv
(1996), Bernstein argued: ′there is a new principle guiding the Iatest tra=Sition of capitalism. The principies of the
market and its managers are more and more the managers of the poiicy and practices of education. Market reievance is becoming the key orientating c航erion for the seIection of
discourses… This movement has profound impiications什om the primary schooi to the university…
There is a new concept of knowledge… This new concept is a truiy secuIar concept.
KnowIedge shouid flow like money to wherever it can create advantage and profit. 1ndeed
knowIedge is not like money, it 4 money. KnowIedge is divorced from persons, their commitments, their personaI dedications. These become impediments…’(P. 87).
1n the cuIture of gIobaI marketisation, Bemstein was waming professionals working in schooIs and universities that their professional ′commitments, to the principIes of a liberal and humane
education were being devaiued and that their ′personaI dedications’in writing and research might be seen as ′impediments′ to higher education p-c or the university as a business corporation.7
1fthe work of ali these analysts, CasteIIs, Hadas′ B訓and Bemstei= is taken together′ it amounts to a major chailenge to the future of professiona=sm. WilI p「ofessions Iose their reIative autonomy in the
face of the insatiabIe demands of the gIobal ma「ket economy, a Situation in which, ′there is no aItemativeγ Wi= professions Iose their poIiticaI roIe as part of the baIance of power 「elations in
society? What wi= become of professionaI ethics and professionaI moral regulation of activrty, if the
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verY COnCePtS Of ethics and reguIation are categorised as impediments to the maximisatio= Of p「ofit?
丁he last section ofthis paper wi= attempt to address some ofthese questions.
professionals as critics and conscience of society:
P「ofessionaiism, at its best, has always attempted ′to speak truth to power.’At va「ious historicai
periods, this ・truth′ has been based upon the Truth of a revealed relIgion or a secular truth based
upon reason, SChoIarship, eVidence and research. ProfessionaIs have enjoved a degree of reiative autonomy from the demands ofthe State and the economy.9 This autonomy’Which aiways had to be
fought for, WaS granted in respect of the powerful knowiedge and competences which they possessed. At their best′ SuCh professions sought to operate with codes of p「ofessionaI ethics and
notions of moraI regulation and service to the common good. However′ aS Durkheim observed′ the world of capitalist enterprise gener訓Y OPerated outside of the sphere of professionaI ethics and
moraI regulation. That sphere has grown larger since the time of Durkheim.
under the hegemony of the contemporary cuIture of gIobal marketisation訓categories of professional and a一一forms of professionaIism are faced with a radicaIIy changed environment. GIobal
marketisation has generated ve「sions of the St「ong State′10 of what CastelIs (1996) caIIs the ′developmentaI state′, and 」essop (2002〉 calls ′the competition state′・ The reIative autonomy of
professions is -ikely to be reduced by imperatives from the Strong State"11 These forms of the Strong state w川, at the same time, be working to increase the autonomY Ofthe free ma「ket economy.
The second chaiIenge arises f「om what l have c訓ed the ′attempted market coionisation of aIl forms of sociaI service,′ including education, health and sociai welfare systems. Market c亜ure in these
arenas w川have a detrimental effect upon practices of professionai ethics and moral considerations.
They are, after al一′ impediments to ′progress.′ Durkheim′s hope that professions wouId be the
necessary宜tervening socie。nstitutions′ between the individuaI and the State w冊ot be 「eaIised.
current conditicms present p「ofessionaIs and professions with a test of occupationaI integrity. Eithe「
they w川accept the roIe of being simp-y technicaI experts and e輔ent producers or deIiverers of state specified outcomes or they w冊nd the morai courage to maintain a roIe (Where necessa「y〉 of being aIso ′critics and conscience of society.′
Bernstein 〈1996〉 concIuded his ana-ysis of contemporary changes in education bv saying ′what is at stake is the very concept of education itseIf’〈p.88). This paper must cOnCIude′ in the light of the ana-ys-S PreSented here′ that what is at stake is the very concept of a profession itseif′ aS understood and practised historica一一y’However′ this raises a much larger question′ does the present secuIar 9
Culture ofgiobal marketisation have the morai resources for the renewa1 0f ethicaI professionaiism? Aiasdair MacIntyre (1985) is cIearthat it does not:- ′the probIems of modem moraI theory emerge as the product of the faiiure of the EnIightenment prqject’〈p,62). Perhaps an answer to our present
moraI anomie, may be found in revived forms ofthe cuIture ofthe sacred.
Conclusion: SourCeS Of ethical renewal for orofessionalism
Wilson (1999), in his analysis ofthe deciine of reIigious faith in Europe, neVertheless concIudes his influential book, God’s Fune輪I. with the observation that ′the immense strength ofthe CathoIic idea
Piayed a demonstrabie roIe in the co=apse of the Soviet Communist system’(p.354). If a great
Cha=enge to the cuiture of reiigion and of the sacred in the recent past, i.e. that of Communist
atheism with imperiaiist intentions has decIined, it can be seen that a new chaIlenge has emerged, that of gIobaI cap舶Iisl∵VaIues. Soros (1999) has charted the nature of this new cultural and
economic impe南Iism and has concIuded that, ′market vaiues have assumed an importance at the PreSent mOment in historythat is way beyond what is appropriate and sustainable’(P.46).
Usher and Edwards 〈1994), in their study ofthe effects of gIobalisation upon education, have argued that nationaI objectives in education w紺soon be limited to ‘fuI剛ing the requirements of the
economv under conditions of giobaI compe珊on’(P.175). Howeve「, What is remarkable about the g「owing臨e融u「e on gIobalisation and educatio両S that the roIe of re=gion is generally ignored.12
W刷e it is the case that the roIe of re=gion and ofthe culture ofthe sacred declined in i州uence in the profane cuIture of Europe什om the 18thcentury to the 20th′ it is a-so the case′ aS argued by Karen
Armstrong (1999, 2001, 2009), that there has been a resurgence of reIigions as a reaction to the
hegemony of secu-arism.13
Anaiysts working w軸in a secular inte=ectuaI paradigm appear to be reIat手vely unaware of these
deveIopments. The fact that world -based reIigions such as Catholic Christianity and lslam are intemationaI power sources which have mi§Sions other than those of economic gIobaiisation has
been marginaIized in globaIisation anaIyses and debates・
10
One of the counterva冊g institし南OnS agai=St the hegemonv of market materiaiism′ individual competitiveness, COmmOdity worship and the death of ethical p「ofessionaIism is the Catholic Church
and its various agencies throughout the wor-d.14
in ReIi目ion in the SecuIar Citv (1984), Harvey Cox made the profound observation: ′If什eedom once required a secuIar critique of rel-gion言t can also require a reIigious c「itique ofthe
secuiar’(PP.170-71),
A §trOng rei-gious critique of the culture of gIobal marketisation has recentlv been pubIished by Pope
Benedict XVi in his encyc=cal, Caritas」n Ver岬 吐出(2009). This statement is not addressed orty to CathoIics but to a= ′persons ofgoodw帖
The Pope presents an age=da of issues which shouId be debated and considered by a= categories of professiona-s a=d by alI agencies responsibIe for the education of professionaIs. Issues such as:-
● ・underdevelopment is the lack of brotherhood among individuals and peopIes. As society
becomes ever more globa=sed言t makes us neighbou「s but does not make us brothe「s" Reason can estab"sh civic equa=ties but it camot estabIish f「aternitv’(Para"19) . ・The world′s wealth is grow-ng 'n absoiute terms but inequaIities are on the increase. The scandaI ofglaring inequaIities continues ′(Para.22〉
' ・The conviction that the economY muSt be auto=OmOuS′ that it must be shieided from the infIuences of a moral character, has Ied man to abuse the economic p「ocess in a tho「oughIy destructive way’(Para.34) . ′Financie「s must rediscover the ethical foundations of their activity so as not to abuse the
sophisticated instruments which can serve to betray the interests of savers’(Para.65)
By statements such as this′ the Pope is making a contribution to the renewaI of ethicaI
p「ofessionaIism in the face of its demoralization in contemporary wo「Id culture. The voice of the
culture ofthe sacred has not been siienced in the cuIture ofgIobaI marketisation.
It is fu=y recognised that CathoIic Christianity is not the o=Iy source for the renewal of ethicaI practice in the professions. Ethical renewal can be empowered by the teaching of訓Christian
Churches, bY those of othe「 faiths such as′ Islam′ 」udaism and Buddhism′ and by secuIar humanists.
However言t is the conviction of this writer, that ethicai and mo「aI professionaIism, Which had its origins in the cu-ture of the sacred′ has its best hopes for renewa=n a worId cuiture in which reasoned forms ofthe cuiture ofthe sacred are aga'n刷uentiaI・15 such professionalism represents′
圃
at its best, the continuance of what MacIntv「e (1985 p. 254) ca=s ′the tradition of the v而ues’in
contemporary conditions16
Postscript A ′critical f「iend’who read the first version of this paper suggested that l needed to add further
refIections on the cruciaI question:′what is the possib冊y of professions conti…lng tO eXist as reIativeIy independent sources of ′speaking truth to power’and what resources can they find to maintain a morai and ethicaI cuIture
and p「actice in the era ofglobai ma「ketisation? This c「itic clearIy beIieved that my conciusion, that ethicai and moraI p「ofessionalism had its best
hopesfor renewai in a worId cuIture ′in which reasoned forms ofthe cuIture ofthe sacred are agaIn
influentiaI’, WaS tOO utOPi∂n and failed to engage with the contemporary conditions of moral and
ethicaI piuraIism, eSPeCia=y in the West. For many modern professional§ the beliefs, VaIues and p「actices of the cuIture of the sacred are no Ionger relevant to the way that they lead their lives or perform their professionai responsib輔ies.
Theirs is a worId in which secuIar, eCOnOmic, humanistic and scientific vaIues are dominant and in Which precepts derived from Christian, MusIim or 」ewish cultures of the sacred are either
marginaIised or compieteIy rejected. My critics point was that secular practitioners probabIy COnStituted the ma」O「ity of professional workers, at least in the West and that the future of
PrOfessionaIism was now in their hands. This raised a key question. ln these new cuIturaI conditions, how wi旧he integrity of professionaI vaIues be maintained in the future?
The answer wouId appear to lie in the initial and continuing formation of aIi those who claim the StatuS Of professionaIs, from the traditional categories of priests, lawyers, doctors, Civil servants, academics and teachers to the many new catego「ies generated by capitaIist enterprise, SCientific
enterprise and mass media forms of communication and ma「keting. If the concept of a p「ofessiona=s not to be 「educed to that of旬nction。I technic。/ experts (exempt
from morai and ethical considerations) then the education of professionals (both initiaI and continuing) must include mandatory programmes which deaI seriousiy with the poiitical, SOCiai, moraI and ethica=ssues related to various fo「ms of professionai practice.
in other words, the formation of professionaIs of a= categories must aIways be a process of humane and inclusive education and not mereIy a process of narrow technicai t「aining.
The hope must be that the founding professions of prleSthood′ medicine and law w川act as exempla「s and role models for new and emergent professions to emuIate in this cruciaI a「ea ofthe iarger responsib冊es of the professional role. 1f the professions fail to resource and renew their
12
sociai, mOral and ethiccJI commi亡ments, then Durkheim’s great project that professionals shouId be
the necessary socia=nterve面ng ins航utions between individuaIs and the State wi= not be reaIised.
This wi= mean a future in which the Strong State and the Strong MultinationaI Corporation w紺
POSSeSS an almost totaI hegemonv・
Acknowledgemeれts i am grate帥to Professor 」ohan Mu=er of Cape Town University for suggesting the need for this Postscript, i also thank Professor Alasdair Maclntyre of Notre Dame Universrty, USA fo「 encouraging
comments on an earlv draft ofthe paper.
Notes
1see Ba= (2OO8, PP 50-72)
2 on the importance ofGuilds, See Durkheim (1992 pp. 17-27)
3 ・Durkheim defines it as the tota=ty of beIiefs and sentiments common to the average members of
the same society’(Bierstedt p. 44)
4 Examples from English history wouId include the resistance of Archbishop Thomas a Becket to the policies of King Henry 。 and of SirThomas Mo「e to the policies of King Henry V川
5 unusua=y, amOng fin∂nCial commentators′ Hadas empIoys a discourse of moraiity. For Hadas on
the roIe of Greed in the financiaI crisis. See Hadas (2009, PP. 34-43).
6 For a co=ection of chapters debating the place of education in the marketpIace. See Bridges and McLaughIin (1994〉. For a critique of economics as app"ed to education′ See Grace (1994 pp. 126-
137)
7 For a critique ofthe corporatisation of highe「 education, See Conway (2011 pp. 158-169)
8 on the origins ofthis phrase, See Grace (2010 pp 89-92〉
13
9 The relative autonomy of professiona-s has, Of course, Varied in different historical periods and in d碓erent parts of the worId depending upon the nature ofthe State and ofthe dominant ideoIogy of
thereglme.
10 see GambIe (1998)
11 Michae- Young argues that there is a crisis in the professions at this time: ′professions assaiied by state 「eguIation in the case of teache「s and medicaI practitioners,
and by the encroachment of market reiations in the case o=aw and accountancy … The
basis for the deveIopment and appIICation of new specialist knowledge by professionais is Weakened and thei「 autonomy is reduced’(2008 p.97). For a more deveIoped statement, See Chapter lO, ’professionaI knowledge and the question of identity.’
12 see Grace (2004, PP. 47-56)
13 while part of this resurgence has expressed itseIf in forms of reiigious fundamentaiism (Christian, 」ewish and Muslim), mOre mOde「ate forms have concentrated on reiating reiigious teaching to social JuStice projects in various parts of the worId.しiberation Theoiogy is one exampie of this new
emphasis.
14The g-obaI system of CathoIic educationa=nstitutions is particuIar申mportant in this respect. With
200, 000 schooIs and co=eges and over l,000 universities, the Cathoiic Church has at its disposaI.a POWe血I agency forthe dissemination of its counter- CuituraI messages.
15 Those who disagree with this concIusion, may Want tO COnSider the concIusion reached by Manuei Caste=s after his three voIume study of, The lnformation Age : Economy, Society and Culture, Vo川I
(1998, Pp. 390-391) :‘The dream that the E捕ghtenment, that reason and science wouId soIve the probIems of
humankind is within reach…‥ There is no eternai evii in human nature. There is nothing that cannot
14
be changed bv conscious, PurPOSive social action, P「OVided with info「mation…. 1f peopIe are
informed, aCtive, and communicate throughout the worid; if business assumes its sociaI responsibiiity言fthe media become the messengers rather than the message; if poIiticaI actors react against cynicism, and restore beIief in democracy; if cuIture is reconstructed from experience言f
humankind feels the solidarity of the species throughout the globe; if we assert言ntergenerationai
SOIidarity by廟ng in harmony with nature戸fwe depart forthe expIoration of our inner self, having
made peace among ourseIves. 1f a= this is made possibIe bv our informed, COnSCious, Shared decision, WhiIe the「e is sti= time, maybe then we may, at last, be able to iive and le川ve, Iove and be
Ioved.
16 ′It mu§t have been cIear from earIier parts of my argument that the tradition of the virtues is at
variance with central features of the modem economic order and more espec副y its individua=sm, its acquisitiveness and its elevation ofthe values of the market to a centraI social place’
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Note on Contributor: GeraId Grace has taught Education Studies at King′s co=ege London′ the University of Cambridge′
Victo雨University of We=ington. New ZeaIand and Durham Univers時His eariy studies were
concerned with the SocioIogy of the Teaching Profession. He is at present Director of the Centre for Research and DeveIopment in Cathoiic Education, at Sr了・ tJl鋤屯S u"‘u岡巳St吋. 1寝.
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