Dissertation: Natural Disaster and Fijian Communities 2021

Natural disaster and Fijian communities An examination of potential strategies in the built environment.

Grace-Marie Spencer

AR602: Dissertation Architecture, Stage 5 Supervisor: Marialena Nikolopoulou Word Count: 8745 2020/2021

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abstract

With an increasing amount and severity of cyclones in the Pacific Islands, the impact on Fijian buildings, especially in rural areas, needs to be addressed. The current problem is there are a variety of vernacular, some because of globalisation. A lack of building codes and education, poorly built and maintained buildings by communities, resulting in buildings vulnerable to destruction during cyclones.

Fijian community resilience, noted to be strong, will be studied to determine how important this is to aid cyclone resilience within building construction. With an emphasis on residential buildings that can withstand cyclones, this crucial discussion highlights the effects of globalisation in Fiji by introducing Western materials and construction techniques as well as climate change, such as how increased cyclones impact Melanesian countries.

The continued success of the community resilience in Fiji has helped them adapt in a cyclone.

The buildings developed by locals through generations have shown to be adequate in cyclone resilience; however, they are dying out. Alongside this re-analysing, the use of local materials and ongoing research to address climate change, maintenance, cyclone-resistant and timeconsuming ways of growing materials is needed.

Education is hugely important to succeed, empowering the communities’ understanding of the issues, providing them with skills to build independently and adapt. Consulting the communities is also essential to progress, allowing industries to understand their lived experience and culture whilst providing designs they will trust, accept, and utilise for the future as resilient cyclone structures.

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keywords

Bures - Traditional Fijian vernacular.

CAUKIN - A design and construction organisation.

Community - A group of people living within the same vicinity.

Cyclone - A weather system creating intense storm conditions.

Melanesia - A group of Island in the Pacific with a rich cultural indigenous heritage.

Pacific Island Countries - The islands in the Pacific, consisting of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.

Remote - An area away from densely populated centres.

Resilience - The ability to recover quickly from natural disasters.

Resistance - The ability to stop the effects of a natural disaster.

Ring of fire - Located around the Pacific Ocean, it is prone to frequent volcanic activity.

Vernacular - Domestic architectural language.

Vulnerability - The amount something is at risk of being harmed (by a cyclone), which is affected by the quality.

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contents 1.0

5 6

Introduction 1.1 Methodology

9 9 13 13

2.0 Background Information 2.1 What is a Cyclone?

2.2 Vernacular 2.3 The Effects of Cyclones on Buildings External Wind Pressure Internal Wind Pressure 2.4 Designing to Resist Cyclones

15

3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Effects of Disasters 3.2 Risk Reduction and Disaster Management 3.3 Fijian Vernacular and Materiality 3.4 Building Code 3.5 Skills and Education 3.6 Construction Industries 3.7 Community Involvement

17 17 18 18 21 22 23 23

4.0 Experience of Cyclones

25

5.0 Building Code

27

6.0 How the Vernacular is Changing

28

7.0

30 30 32

Materiality 7.1 Concrete vs Timber 7.2 Research

8.0 Community

34

9.0

Discussion

36

10.0 Conclusion

43

11.0 Bibliography

45

12.0 List of Figures

46

13.0 Appendices

50

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Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Introduction

With an increasing amount and severity of cyclones in the Pacific Islands, the impact on Fijian buildings, especially in rural areas, needs to be addressed. The current problem is there are a variety of vernacular, some because of globalisation. A lack of building codes and education, poorly built and maintained buildings by communities, resulting in

buildings vulnerable to destruction during cyclones. Fijian community resilience, noted to be strong, will be studied to determine how important this is to aid cyclone resilience within building construction.

Construction methods will be investigated alongside the use of materials to discuss how globalisation has changed the traditional vernacular and whether this has

Figure 1. Pacific Island location, Authors own (2020).

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Melanesia, a group of countries in the Pacific Island region, located in Oceania, Figure 1. Fiji, is a part of Melanesia, located in Figure 2.

1.1 Methodology

The evidence collected is mainly qualitative; nonetheless, some quantitative information provides vital background information around cyclones, natural disasters, climate change and Fiji. During August 2020, I participated in the

Figure 2. Fiji’s location, Authors own (2020).

been successful. With an emphasis on residential buildings that can withstand cyclones, this crucial discussion highlights the effects of globalisation in Fiji by introducing Western materials and construction techniques as well as climate change, such as how increased cyclones impact Melanesian countries.

South Pacific Prototype Housing Workshop virtually. This workshop was run by CAUKIN, a design and construction organisation that believes better designed and built spaces should be accessible to everybody CAUKIN (2020). They

Figure 3. Map of Fiji, Authors own (2020).

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have worked on community design and build projects in Fiji and Vanuatu which two of their buildings survived two separate cyclones in 2020.

This workshop was research-based and consisted of focus groups with various people, discussed below, highlighting cyclone-resistant design issues in the Pacific island countries.

This information helped develop a cyclone-resistant housing scheme built by the local communities, meeting sustainable development

who have worked on projects in Pacific Island Countries highlight their views on Fijian vernacular and the communities’ faces and funding. The workshop involved a discussion with an engineer, Maxime Chollet from Eckersley O’Callaghan, who highlights the effects cyclones have on the buildings and solutions around it.

goals. The proposals presented are to be further developed by CAUKIN.

and aid workers from Vanuatu and Fiji, discussing issues and critical points around culture and how cyclones affect the communities and their buildings. CAUKIN organised a virtual video call (as part of the workshop) with Adi and Frances Tuniasakea who are residents in Batiki, Fiji. Max Francis works for an American charity, who has worked with CAUKIN and has spent twelve years living in Savusavu on Vanua Levu, Fiji. Both locations are shown in Figure 3. Nak Wity is a resident in Vanuatu, and Rachel Brooks runs a charity in Vanuatu helping CAUKIN on their projects, who knows the local area. These people have direct knowledge of Melanesia, so they understand the issues surrounding this topic. Virtual video discussions with architects from CAUKIN, Joshua Peasley, Harry Thorpe, and Harry Marshall, (who ran the

Focus groups/interviews as previously referenced was held with residents

The focus groups as previously referenced was held with residents and aid workers from Vanuatu and Fiji, discussing issues and critical points around culture and how cyclones affect the communities and their buildings. Adi and Frances Tuniasakea are residents in Batiki, Fiji. Max Francis works for an American charity, who has worked with CAUKIN and has spent twelve years living in Savusavu on Vanua Levu, Fiji. Both locations are shown in Figure 3.

Nak Wity is a resident in Vanuatu, and Rachel Brooks runs a charity in Vanuatu helping CAUKIN on their projects, who knows the local area. Discussions with architects from CAUKIN, Joshua Peasley, Harry Thorpe, and Harry Marshall, 1, See Literature Review

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workshop) have worked on projects in Pacific Island Countries highlight their views on Fijian vernacular and the communities’ faces and funding. The workshop involved a virtual discussion with an engineer, Maxime Chollet from Eckersley O’Callaghan, organised by CAUKIN, who highlights the effects cyclones have on the buildings and solutions around it and is knowledgeable of cyclone resilient building.

Figure 4. Geographical differences of cyclones, typhoons, and hurricanes. (Erikson, 2019).

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Natural disaster and Fijian communities

background information

2.1 what is a Cyclone?

that sucks air into the eye, causing extreme storm-like conditions. Due to Earth’s rotation, a cyclone will always travel East to West in an anticlockwise motion in the southern hemisphere. Six elements generally contribute to a cyclone forming and

Chollet (2020) began by elaborating there is no difference between hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons.

Apart from their geographical location, shown in Figure 4, a cyclone is a low-pressure system

Figure 5. Formation of a cyclone. (Berke, 2018).

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TIN/IRON

HOMLESS

TIMBER

HEATWAVES

CONCRETE

INJURIES DEATHS

BUSHFIRE

BURE

FLOOD CYCLONE/STORM EARTHQUAKE 2%

0

5000

10000

15000

EARTHQUAKEFigure 6. Effects of natural disasters in Australia 198734%2016. from (Australian Business DROUGHT Authors own using information40% Roundtable for Disaster Resilience & Safer Communities, TIN/IRON 2017).

STORM

explained in Figure 5.

The data in Figure 6, from the emergency events database, (EMDAT) Australia, 1987 to 2016, shows how cyclones cause few deaths and injuries. Compared to other natural disasters, it costs more in other ways 20000 because cyclones destroy everything, including houses, crops, and cut off water and electricity supply.

HOMLESS

TIMBER

HEATWAVES

INJURIES

Natural disasters happen all over the DEATHS CONCRETE BUSHFIRE world; however, specific locations FLOOD BURE FLOOD Fiji, part of the Pacific suffer more.

24% Islands located on the Ring of Fire, is CYCLONE/STORM OTHER 5% 5% very vulnerable to natural disasters, EARTHQUAKE 5% 25% CARETAKER 0 5000as seen 10000 in Figure 15000 especially cyclones OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOYER EARTHQUAKE 7. “The regions of East and South Asia, and the Pacific Islands are PRIVATE DROUGHT among the most-hazard prone STORM GOVERNMENT HOUSING areas globally.” which has caused CYCLONE RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL the “most of the human casualties FLOOD RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD of natural-triggered’ disasters” 250 60% (Haque, 2003). Cyclone Winston 2%3% of types 14% of natural disasters in Fiji 2% Figure 7.

Frequency OTHER from 1980-2019. Authors own 200 (category five on the Australian using information from (Centre2% for Research on the scale, discussed further below) 4%2020).

CARETAKER Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, 150 devastated OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOYER Fiji in February 2016, FIJI 100 making the 131,000 of 900,000 PRIVATE MELANESIA homeless. During this cyclone, the CYCLONE

OCEANA

0

RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

WORLDWIDE

GOVERNMENT HOUSING

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74%

METEOROLOGICAL 7%

3%

2%

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

HYDROLOGICAL

250 CLIMATOLOGICAL

200

150

FIJI Figure 8. Risk report map of countries internationally, (Day et al. 2019).

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MELANESIA OCEANA

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10 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

WORLDWIDE

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METEOROLOGICAL

HYDROLOGICAL

CLIMATOLOGICAL

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Natural disaster and Fijian communities

GOVERNMENT HOUSING RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL Figure 9. Climate related disaster frequency from 1980-2019. Authors own

using information from (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, 2020).

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

250

200

150

100

LANESIA

CEANA

0

2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

ORLDWIDE

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METEOROLOGICAL

HYDROLOGICAL

CLIMATOLOGICAL

country had to endure “10-minute sustained winds reaching 64 m/s (230 kph), and gustiness peaking at 90m/s (325 kph)” (Aquino et al. 2018). According to World Risk Report 2019, presented in Figure 8, Fiji is rated in the top 12 countries at risk, including exposure to natural disasters, and vulnerability which means susceptible of suffering harm, ability to cope, capacity for long-

part of the Pacific Island Country group, and four out of five are part of Melanesia which emphasises the areas risk (Day et al. 2019).

term adaption (Day et al. 2019).

Within the top 15, five countries are

cyclones are getting stronger and more frequent which highlights

A scale categorises cyclones and measures the intensity of them.

The scale measures winds between 74 mph to around 157 mph, with a category five storm a one in a lifetime experience; however, the

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effects of climate change. The graph in Figure 9 shows the increasing frequency of climate based natural disasters worldwide over a 39-year period. The pattern suggests the frequency of the natural disasters is increasing suggesting climate change is having an impact including cyclones. The change in the pattern also suggests a category five storm could exceed the classification’s winds, suggesting the introduction of

greater categories (Chollet, 2020).

Table 1 shows the rating of cyclone damage based upon the cyclone category. It is an indirect scale that describes potential damage with each category.

Table 1. Effects of cyclone forces on structures, (Saffir-Simpson scale), (Berke, 2018).

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Figure 10. Different Fijian vernacular, Authors own (2020).

Traditional house, (lightweight) is the vernacular used through generations, usually with a thatched roof and mud or woven walls, structured from timber.

Permanent house, (heavy) usually constructed from concrete and tin. The word permanent has been adopted by the idea that they last longer.

2.2 Vernacular

There are three vernacular categories, pictured in Figure 10: permanent, temporary/semipermanent, and traditional housing.

Background research conducted, suggests these are split into two categories light and heavy houses.

Cami et al. (2016) explained that light houses follow traditional vernacular style, built from Adobe, clay, mud

2%

34%

40%

Temporary/semi-permanent, (heavy) named by the less durable characteristics over concrete homes. This is the most vulnerable, constructed from a range of materials, tin, timber etc.

timber etc. In contrast, heavier houses, built from concrete tin and other western materials structures are more susceptible to damage and cause severe casualties.

The traditional house, the bure is part of Fijian heritage. Recently, there has been a decline in Bures (traditional), Figure 11 emphasises how sparse the number of bures is in Fiji now (2007).

2.3 The effects of cyclones on buildings

When designing a building in a cyclone-prone environment, the HOMLESS TIMBER HEATWAVES building’s load is crucial for its INJURIES DEATHS CONCRETE stability,BUSHFIRE and all weak points, for example, FLOOD doors and windows, play a BURE part in the overall resistance.

CYCLONE/STORM TIN/IRON

24% 5%

5% of vernacular buildings from 2007 Figure 11. Quantity census in 5% Fiji. (Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2020).

25%

EARTHQUAKE 0 EARTHQUAKE DROUGHT 13 STORM CYCLONE

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Chollet (2020) also discussed how the roof design is equally a crucial element of the building, which can cause significant damage if not designed or built correctly, with emphasis on connections between the roof and the rest of the structure. During a cyclone, some flying projectiles and debris could harm people and damage the building, affecting the resilience and cause significant damage. The forces from a cyclone is shown in Figure 12.

Most codes internationally, according to Chollet (2020), are determined by the wind as a primary concern with cyclone resilience. Wind produces pressure, external wind pressure and internal wind pressure. External wind pressure is all pressure applied on the outer face of a building envelope which could be either the roof, the façade or a raised floor, and the internal pressure is the pressure acting on the interface of those same surfaces. The management of both pressures requires different methods.

Figure 12. Effects cyclone forces have on structures, Authors own using information from (Chollet, 2020).

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Figure 13. Forces of external wind pressure, Authors own using information from (Chollet, 2020).

External Wind Pressure Shown in Figure 13, inward pressure (positive) effects elements facing the wind direction; the wind passes around the building, which acts as an obstacle causing pressure. Outward pressure or suction (negative) effects elements leeward such as roof, side and back walls and raised floors. A domestic dwelling roof is vulnerable as the roof is large in proportion, resulting in difficulty to resisting the negative pressure (Chollet, 2020).

Figure 14. Forces of internal wind pressure, Authors own (2020) using information from Chollet, 2020).

Internal Wind Pressure Shown in Figure 14, internal wind pressure is the degree of permeability the building has, openings in the façade allow wind to enter the home, causing internal pressures. When all windows and doors are closed, the internal space is impermeable, and depression occurs against external pressure.

If a seal, or window breaks, the internal pressure becomes positive acting simultaneously with external pressures resulting in high risk of damage. The building’s seal can be broken elements effected by the wind’s force, causing flying damaging debris to collide with the building, a

Understanding how the building will behave is complex, Chollet (2020) suggests for simple structures, the local building codes provide pressure coefficients; however, more complex structures should use wind tunnel testing.

window or door left open or failure in hinges or window latches (Chollet, 2020).

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Figure 15. A ‘optimal designed’ building to resist cyclones according to Chollet (2020).

2.4 Designing to resist cyclones

the ground to reduce the risk of flooding and storm surge water damage. to achieve this the building could either be placed on raised grounds or piled foundation placed lower than the permeable ground.

Another consideration is if the soil is permeable, during a storm surge or flood, the ground fills with water which causes the forces which potentially can lift the building. The concrete pile is an excellent buoyant force that loses up to 40% of uplift resistance. Installing this deeper than the permeable soil will reduce the likelihood of uplift (Chollet, 2020).

Figure 15 is the image that Chollet (2020) used to describe what he believes is a well-designed building to resist cyclone forces; however, the achievement is debatable in Pacific Island Countries’ rural areas.

Each connection’s design must deal with that tension force into the wall and displace it into the foundation. The roof must be tide down from its connection to the foundation, especially if there is light construction. However, it is not as crucial with concrete because it is dense (Chollet, 2020).

The Fijian government’s ‘Help for Homes’ documentation highlights how to achieve this, with visual guidance on how to construct and maintain structures. It notes how metal brackets help resist cyclone forces at connections, while shutters around doors and windows can prevent breakage from flying debris (Chollet, 2020).

It is vital to raise the building from

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2%

60% 3% 2%

14% OTHER 2% 4%

CARETAKER

OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOY PRIVATE

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GOVERNMENT HOUSING RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL 74%

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

LITERATURE REVIEW

7%

3%

2%

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Figure 16. The number of cyclones in Oceania, Melanesia, and Fiji in relation to the total number worldwide from 1980-2019. Authors own using information from (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, 200 2020).

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FIJI 100

MELANESIA OCEANA

3.1 Effects of disasters

0

1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

WORLDWIDE

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and reconstruct due to geographical METEOROLOGICAL isolation and limited resources, while the region is vulnerable to climate change, natural hazards and disasters (Becker, Miyaji et al., 2017). Temporary housing and reconstruction become a challenge (Miyaji et al., 2017). Baker et al.

(2019) states that the Ministry of Economic’s disaster recovery framework predicted several years

Sources agree that natural disasters affect the Pacific Islands with increasing severity. Figure 16 presents the quantity of cyclones compared to the total number worldwide showing the significant frequency in Fiji and surrounding Islands. Miyaji et al. (2017) argues that rural Pacific Island communities, including Fiji, take substantially

from cyclone Winston to full

longer to recover from disasters 17

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recovery. Cyclones and disasters have significantly impacted lowincome houses, causing massive distribution in communities.

access to materials, or even power supply (Baker et al., 2019).

3.3 Fijian Vernacular and materiality

3.2 Risk reduction and disaster management

When working on Fiji projects, Marshall et al. (2020) described how there ends up being a hybrid of local vernacular and construction in terms of engineering advice alongside the availability of materials and local vernacular style which is just as important in these

Haigh and Amaratunga (2010), Baker et al. (2019) and Aquino et al.

(2018) emphasise the importance of the built environment and its contribution to reduced disaster risk.

However Becker (2017) argues that modernity has an impact on this.

The effect of “modernity in disaster risk in remote communities” has not been researched thoroughly; Becker (2017) adds modernity is “undermining the social capital necessary for a whole range of communal risk reduction strategies”. Vrolijks (1998) believes looking towards long term recovery will be the best way towards resilience; Baker et al. (2019) described the government’s approach, Building Back Better, a “comprehensive approach to promoting community resilience” prioritising the context of structure in a booklet. However, the government seems to have not covered all remote communities and situations; The step-by-step manual does, however, gives clear construction guidelines. In other words, communities may not have

communities. There is also potential that combining ideas from different sectors can improve the vernacular style, emphasising local materials.

Finance is an essential aspect to the building; communities will design to minimal cost which could affect the build, and therefore it’s quality. According to Marshall et al. (2020), the Fijian government guidance state it costs 18,000 Fiji dollars to build a residence. The government will provide 12,000 Fiji dollars if the family raises 6,000 for post-disaster destruction rebuild.

Miyaji et al. (2017) emphasised the funding substitution for destroyed homes post-cyclone Winston never arrived in small communities, who rebuilt themselves. Consideration for transportation, the cost of materials and fixings, and the cost for the generations. Hard to access locations

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CYCLONE FLOOD Figure 17. Ownership of Fijian houses from 2007 census in Fiji. Authors own using information from (Fiji Bureau of 60% Statistics, 2020).

2% 2%

3%

14%

OTHER 2% 4%

CARETAKER OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOYER PRIVATE GOVERNMENT HOUSING RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL

74%

result in substantial costs resulting 2% 3% turning to the locally in communities 7% grown resources.

Materiality is an important and controversial topic. Vrolijks (1998) states that concrete houses are dangerous if improperly built, while

250

the traditional vernacular bure,

described by Vrolijks (1998) and 200 Cami et al. (2016) as safer. Cami et al. (2016) observed that the Bures 150 are rarely life-threatening; during FIJI a storm, the100woven lightweight MELANESIA components are not harmful if they fly off during50high winds. Vrolijks OCEANA (1998) and Cami et al. (2016) further 0 explain traditional methods have WORLDWIDE adapted to local climate, resisting CL METEOROLOGICAL earthquakes and cyclones. Miyaji HYDROLOGICAL et al. (2017) added the Bures give enough warning of collapse so residents can escape.

Miyaji et al. (2017) asked residents where they feel safe, and “70% of the respondents considered bures as safer than modern houses,” since modern iron sheeting injures people when blowing off. Miyaji et al. (2017) added evacuation centres could inhabit in bures; likewise,

2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

Marshall et al. (2020) explains that it adds to the final cost when a project takes longer. If building post-disaster destruction, the community will rapidly want habitable buildings, which can compromise the quality due to the material’s availability.

Following a cyclone, communities build with a mix of shelter resources from aid agencies and other materials they can find quickly, resulting in poor structures. Figure 17 presents the quantity of privately owned houses resulting in the owners having responsibility in maintenance and rebuild.

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

Cami et al. (2016) report their use

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as community cyclone shelters.

Contrastingly, Miyaji et al. (2017) argued that Bures’ use has declined because of natural disasters. The leading cause of the decline in Bures is modernisation: the newer, the better. Petal et al. (2008) explains that communities identify progression in modern materials.

Miyaji et al. (2017) describe how in Fiji most islands now use these, for example, concrete and iron sheeting for constructing their homes.

(Vrolijks, 1998), while Miyaji et al.

(2017) and Cami et al. (2016) note the inadequate maintenance can lead to dangerous consequences, for example, Miyaji et al. (2017), describes how iron sheets flying around cause serious injury. Cami et al. (2016) believe buildings that are quickly and repeatably utilise local skills and materials would be the best solution technically and financially. According to Cami et al. (2016), the government uses

Miyaji et al. (2017) explain that the use of new materials quickly build houses, describing how the how the material palette changed since British colonisation in Fiji in 1870 when westernisation introduced new materials. Miyaji et al. (2017).

There is still evidence of traditional construction methods; however, some buildings imitate the traditional vernacular style Vrolijks (1998) and Becker (2017) agrees. Traditional knowledge still exists in the elders (Cami et al. 2016); however, Miyaji et al. (2017) says in 2017, bures only accounted for 1.9% of the population. Cami et al. (2016). Miyaji et al. (2017) concurs that although it takes one to two months to construct ten to fifteen, it lasts 20 even 30 to 40 years.

Another issue is the improper use of new technology and materials

permanent buildings over traditional or temporary. However, Cami et al. (2016) observe that permanent houses, although resistant to cyclones and earthquakes, can be hazardous if improperly built.

According to Baker et al. (2019), even though some communities live in extremely dangerous and poorly maintained permanent houses, they believe they are strong.

There is a considerable debate around the feasibility of using western materials. Baker et al. (2019) asked local communities about newer materials. They cited the difficulty of transportation to islands and remote villages, on small boats that cannot hold heavy materials (Baker et al., 2019). Becker (2017) adds the hiring of larger, more expensive boats is necessary to transport heavy materials to increase

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logistics costs. These issues escalate if post-disaster housing recovery is required Miyaji et al. (2017); Cami et al. (2016). Becker. (2017) gathered data citing it “cost $50,000-$100,000 to build a concrete house but with more remote islands, it costs $5000 for a wooden house”.

Miyaji et al. (2017) adds that traditional houses’ construction was cheaper and more straightforward.

The materials can be sourced

there is no coverage of the traditional bure and how to build it safely. Baker et al. (2019) adds it does not represent affordable or local construction methods. Aquino et al.

(2018), Petal et al. (2008) and Baker et al. (2019) state, the enforcements not mandatory of the national building code, resulting in vulnerable structures, prone to destruction in disasters. It is evident building codes are currently unused in Fiji resulting in buildings inadequately

locally and constructed with local knowledge, while modern houses’ reconstruction needed more money for materials and skilled carpenters.

However, Baker et al. (2019) explains that younger fitter people of the communities migrating out of the villages causes difficulty bringing timber to the villages and a decline in local construction knowledge.

built to standards that are at risk of destruction in cyclones.

Aquino et al. (2018) recommend updating the building code and training staff who implement the code. At the same time, Baker et al. (2019) argues that the code’s enforcement is possible through adapted traditional designs with a star rating. In contrast, Petal et al. (2008) suggest voluntary compliance above enforcement; this method would eliminate control, which would be better for rural communities. With adequate training and education, the building code emphasising traditional building would become habitual, guaranteeing compliance.

3.4 Building code

Widely discussed is the application of the building code in the Pacific Islands. Aquino et al. (2018) states that Fijian codes have not been revised since released in 1990, although they mention updated Australian and New Zealand standards. Baker et al. (2019) claim the only use of building codes is required for commercial and industrial buildings insurance.

Aquino et al. (2018) also mentions

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3.5 Skills and Education

knowing correct methods (Petal et al., 2008). They report “knowledge is hierarchical in society” and neglect of education affects rural communities. However, Vrolijks (1998) claims knowledge is already widely available, requires the focus is to improve access to it, not creating new design construction methods. Petal et al. (2008) claim that a bottom-up demand for learning is required to prevent knowledge denial and potential

An important issue is the lack of skills and education in rural communities. Generations have been taught the traditional techniques; with the youth migration and consequences of globalisation are causing this knowledge to disappear. Baker et al. (2019) state that skilled craftsmen remain in rural communities, with only a few: “20% of communities have an active craftsman, and 10% were reliant on neighbouring communities.”

Becker (2017) states communities worry older generations are ignored by younger ones. In an interview, Becker (2017) states “people go to the main towns and bring back new thinking to the village”. He adds external funding removes responsibility from the villagers; accepting favours from outsiders causes future debt, removing the need to share or learn local knowledge. “They are no longer proud of what they are as Fijians.”

danger in unsafe construction.

Achievable at minimal cost, the bottom-approach would facilitate suitable construction solutions.

However, Petal et al. (2008), evidence insufficient professionals; to achieve this successfully, there must be a combination of “external and internal knowledge through action orientated community risk assessment.” Baker et al. (2019) believes training all local carpenters with free construction support in tooling and skills is necessary, requiring it to reach all remote communities, and it is possibly unfeasible. Baker et al. (2019) argues that the formal education system should integrate the traditional construction techniques within education, while new techniques taught should be simple structural design, not complex unfeasible engineering solutions.

Fiji’s rural areas now use western materials and building techniques; without proper training, which could lead to disastrous consequences. Aquino et al.

(2018) reports insufficient builders; lacking education, resulting in the community building without

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3.6 Construction Industries

have a rich knowledge based on the environment and accommodating structures. When a natural disaster occurs, they build back themselves, voluntarily and through regular meetings (Miyaji et al., 2017; Becker, 2017). Cami et al. (2016) adds these communities collect and share materials whilst organising repairs communally. Becker (2017) describes how, when rebuilding, they must understand correct techniques and materials to speed

There is some suggestion the construction industry contributes to disaster resilience. Haigh and Amaratunga (2010) believes that “improving construction industries ability to manage post-disaster in developing nations is recognised,” but more effective project management is needed. Haigh and Amaratunga (2010) states that “the engineering community is key to create balanced solutions” while Petal et al. (2008) believe engineers contribute to reduced vulnerability: “Engineers are promoting expensive and complex construction technologies both supplant to local knowledge and local labour”.

Therefore, it is commonly known that construction industries are successful in recommending resilient buildings, nonetheless they do not have the knowledge of the heritage and community lifestyle resulting in depersonalised buildings not suited to the climate.

up recovery and reconstruction, which the Fijian Red Cross facilitate.

Without this knowledge, rebuilding could be dangerous. According to Becker (2017), modernisation has consequences within communities, affecting their resilience. He believes traditional coping strategies are disappearing through outside support, providing a greater understanding of western life.

According to Becker (2017) outside support creates community tensions.

However, he has agreed that other communities analysed remain strong.

Even though small island states are the most vulnerable to recent global change, modernisation has not “yet undermined traditional communal ownership of natural resources in the two villages regardless of influential voices requesting property privatisation” (Becker, 2017).

3.7 Community involvement

There is still a substantial sense of community in Melanesian countries, including Fiji. According to Cami et al. (2016), changing this dynamic should not occur in any way. Becker.

(2017) Moreover, Cami et al. (2016) argues that rural Fiji communities

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which is also crucial when educating communities (Baker et al. (2019) and Petal et al. (2008)). A building form that is trusted will encourage communities to repeat and repair in 40 years whilst engaging the younger generation.

The understanding between a cyclone-resistant design and building a community is essential.

Petal et al. (2008) believes the current focus is “on structure rather than home” without considering the local communities.

Ignoring local communities creates a communication breakdown, according to Baker et al. (2019), with community feeling undermined and dissatisfied with the buildings (Petal et al., 2008). They lose trust in building or construction methods to use building methods they already know (Petal et al., 2008).

Petal et al. (2008) suggests a bottom-up educational approach to help implement education and codes directly to the communities.

Consultation with local communities and construction workers would encourage knowledge exchange of the most successful elements of cultural, heritage, economic and climatic advantages, which the local communities have adapted through generations. Construction and technical additions from professionals will create successful buildings (Petal et al. (2008); Becker.

(2017); Baker et al. (2019.) Involving the communities in the process strengthens resilience (Cami et al.

(2016); Haigh and Amaratunga (2010)

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EXPERIENCE OF CYCLONES

“There is a huge difference between a category four and a category five. Category five you remember them, and you do not know how to protect your children. The rain is so painful it is like being punched.” (Francis, 2020)

children and our lives”. Whereas Francis (2020) discusses that he has “been through so many cyclones I do not remember them. However, I remember Winston because it was different.”

The country was unprepared for cyclone Winston. According to Tuniasakea (2020); Francis (2020) the radio station gave out inaccurate information telling it would come later than it did resulting in people sourcing supplies thinking they had enough time. As Francis (2020) states putting rocks on a roof, tying down rafters, or putting ply or roofing ion over windows, as stated in the government documentation ‘Help for Homes’, will not make a difference. Even with the louvres closed, “it is like a water blaster coming in”.

Tuniasakea. (2020) has been through two big category five cyclones in 2009, including cyclone Winston.

She had just given birth when the cyclone hit. Tuniasakea (2020) describes how it “gets dark and everybody is running around, thoughts come into your mind of what you have to do next if the house is blown away.

It is scary.”

Their house survived; however, they experienced flooding, but they had “to get up and keep on going and do whatever we can to save our

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Francis (2020) believes it is slightly down to luck which houses survive and which do not. He witnessed two buildings side by side; one built with government funding and an expensive contractor destroyed

by Winston. In contrast, the neighbouring house, a “rickety rusted roof”, survived. He also knew of a village with three rows of houses where the first and third row, wiped out by a wave whereas the middle row was damaged but still intact.

Francis briefly highlighted the community response (2020), after Winston, the port and the roads were inaccessible before the government could get onto the island. People were out clearing roads and starting to rebuild together, sharing what was available in terms of resources. This evidence suggests the literature is accurate in terms of the strong communities that aid post-cyclone relief, which could be a vital in teaching them adequate construction skills.

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BUILDING CODE

The literature highlights the issues surrounding the building code within Fiji, during the discussion with Chollet (2020), he describes how in Australia and the US, the buildings designed according to the code provide adequate protection against wind and flood damage, compared to the lack of use of codes in Pacific Island Countries like Fiji. Therefore, more damage happens to result in financial implications. Chollet (2020) also highlights buildings which have greater financial input and involvement from engineers, experience far less cyclone damage suggesting that money and knowledge from professionals result in better-built buildings.

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HOW THE VERNACULAR IS CHANGING like before, we live in a new age now with modern living, the separation is now no more, and now comfortable and easy.”

Wity (2020) agreed that this transition has occurred in Vanuatu’s urban areas. Buildings have changed a lot with modernisation; however, he highlights how there is still a substantial amount of separate living.

Tuniasakea (2020) emphasised how a preferred living is an integrated and comfortable, “because of modern living and houses. We want people to live an easier life”.

Tuniasakea (2020) describes how the conflict between modernisation and traditional living was essential to consider before changes happened.

Tuniasakea (2020) illustrates the communities respect for the Fijian culture, so trying to keep tradition is essential.

“Having a toilet and kitchen inside the house is not a traditional way of living. We see the modern way of life, now we want everything to be together. We had to leave the house in the middle of the night and when it is raining.”

When asked will most people agree with this response to an integrated house, Tuniasakea. (2020) replied “100%, we do not want to live

Francis (2020) describes how access to power is uncommon in Fiji, often around 15-20km away from the town the powerline ends. In places with power, residents want modern kitchen products, resulting easier indoor cooking facilities. In contrast to this, in rural locations without power, there are still traditional ways of cooking producing substantial smoke, so separation from the living spaces is. Similarly access to running water determines separate

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vs integrated living. According to Brooks (2020), Fiji’s flush toilets are a status symbol, it is not realistic to have a flush toilet under the same roof as the living spaces if there is no access to running water, therefore a strong argument towards separate living.

Tuniasakea (2020) describes the bure as a substantial house “especially when a cyclone comes.” In this discussion, it was apparent that climate change has affected the traditional bure where the grass used for the thatching is affected by the sun-drying the crop out and killing it. (Tuniasakea, 2020) Before her grandfather died “he told the villages to build either out of concrete or wood

The transition of material and vernacular was not an instant shift; it had to prove itself. Still today, any new construction method or

instead.” However, she describes the maintenance requirements as not feasible. Tuniasakea (2020) noted how her grandmother’s bure withstood many cyclones but was destroyed in category five, leaving nothing but the floor. Whilst Tuniasakea (2020) describes bures as strong, she highlights due to climate change, and the ever-increasing intensity of the cyclones, there needs to be something more robust.

material will need to prove itself, Brooks (2020) mentions moving away from the traditional is a significant change, so there needs to be proof of function, which takes time. Wity (2020) agrees with this adding after the earthquakes and cyclones.

Communities looked at buildings that survived; therefore, any new building proved itself was successful.

Tuniasakea (2020) grew up in a Fijian Bure until teenage years where the vernacular started to change towards modern with introducing new materials. Her grandfather built bures, however, she stated nobody in the village now knows the techniques. The Fijian government, according to Francis (2020), are about to fund a workshop focusing on traditional builds which could produce jobs and making the traditional building more desirable.

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MATERIALITY

7.1 Concrete vs Timber

by using concrete that is likely to ‘last’ 50 years with low maintenance.

Similarly, bures which are strong, use perishable materials resulting in a shorter lifespan and significant maintenance. Francis (2020) states in Fiji, salt in the wind rusts the galvanised steel fixings which expand and pop the weatherboard and studwork, disrupting the whole structure. The use of stainless steel or copper nails adds costs, although it prevents this problem. Wity (2020) emphasises the cost implication of concrete in rural areas compared to timber which is easier to cut and source. Concrete and any other imported materials can become very expensive and a logistical problem in more remote areas where transportation is difficult, therefore suggesting the traditional house is cheaper.

There are ongoing discussions over timber vs concrete and which material is more appropriate in Pacific Island Countries. Tuniasakea (2020) describes how they witnessed concrete buildings last 50-80 years without any damage, but when cyclone Winston came, it overturned and destroyed these buildings and left the town like a war zone.

When asked why there is still the use of concrete even though it is so destructive Tuniasakea (2020) responded, “because of the modern world, we want a good house, it is cheaper than the timber house.”

Francis (2020) adds by responding it is the ease of maintenance that convinces people to choose concrete over timber. Most people in Fiji build their own house and want to leave it for their children,

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Figure 18. Results of lightweight reinforced clay LRC tested with different reinforcements, (Zaryoun, 2019).

Another material used throughout the Pacific Islands is bamboo.

Francis (2020) describes how it is flexible and inexpensive whilst Brooks (2020) states how it grows quickly, 2-3 years. However, during the discussion, there were some issues surrounding bamboo.

Marshall et al. (2020) highlighted that bamboo is not applied to permanent buildings, only temporary buildings. Firstly, it is vulnerable to destruction in a category five cyclone, therefore taking 2-3 years to regrow. This period is a long time to wait for a community without a home. People result in using tarpaulin shelters provided by aid agencies alongside other materials they can find (Brooks, 2020). These structures are not sufficient to withstand any natural disaster. Another reason discussed is the loss of skills used to construct traditional methods using bamboo, resulting in communities using other materials and techniques. Tuniasakea (2020) adds that bamboo requires maintenance and if becomes wet,

it starts to rot and therefore, not a long-term solution. Brooks (2020) explains how the weather changes have caused the bamboo to turn black and powdery but suggested further research for a better crop to withstand Pacific Island countries’ weather conditions.

Marshall et al. (2020) discuss material availability in Fiji; how remote Fijian communities are cut off and only have access to small boats. The transportation of the building materials is a problem, but the transportation of materials for maintenance is also crucial.

Marshall et al. (2020) describes how the materials need to be as local as possible to help the communities logistically, increasing the likelihood of maintaining the buildings vital to cyclone resistance.

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7.2 Research

access to the timber in 25 years which could be used and shared further, developing their economy.

The timber needs treating to prevent rot and decay, therefore, adding durability.

There is ongoing research on local materials. Fiji Institute of Sustainable Habits, (FISH), researched ‘Hybrid Adobe’ used for landscaping and building consisting of recycled materials (newspaper and paper), alongside water, clay, plant fibres and a binder. It is flexible and dries in 2-7 days, sealed by a waterproof sealant. This material is beneficial; it is cheap, easy to source locally and quick to build.

Governments, including Fiji, have set up mobile timber treatment, giving a lifetime of 50 years, addressing maintenance issues in the rural communities (Bainimarama, 2017).

Plant fibres are easily accessible in Fiji; Zaryoun already tests coconut fibre (2019), shown in Figure 18, adding human hair and natural fibres to clay, resulting in more robust building material.

Timbers grown in Fiji have been tested for their construction load by the Fiji department offices and the University of California as potential materials for local use (Baker et al. 2019) Table 2. Francis (2020) describes how the timber is prime for exportation and they are quite rare. The time it takes to grow these hardwoods is also considerably long meaning replacing them will take years but replanting these trees and sharing the remaining availability throughout the islands until fully grown timber is ready has potential.

Each developed village will have

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Table 2. Fijian hardwoods strength tested, (Baker et al. 2019).

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COMMuINITY

There is an extensive cultural heritage in Fiji which needs considering before designing. To help accomplish this, community involvement is crucial. Marshall et al.

(2020) emphasised the importance of a non-governmental organisation, (NGO), or local partner when working in Fiji. This source is based in Fiji and has the local community’s trust, helping them develop a brief understanding of the community.

Marshall et al. (2020) believes the end-user and local community are crucial when developing a brief, who should have input from the onset to the end of the design and build process through workshops. Not involving them from the start could lead to the building not maintained and loved. The community are the ‘experts’ in their communities’ day-to-day lives with an ingrained understanding from living through

generations in a close-knit society in these houses and remote locations. Therefore, referencing their accounts of lived experience is crucial as they have the most accurate understanding of how they live, helping influence external designers. Logistics is crucial to forming a design; the community’s network is strong and successful, according to Marshall et al. (2020), which helps the build projects run smoothly. The strong networks help with transportation of materials and access to tools, an ongoing issue in remote villages (Marshall et al.

2020).

Marshall et al. (2020) discusses the varied skill level within the communities. They often do not have the building educational background to construct; however, they have local and vernacular knowledge.

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Sharing knowledge between sectors can fill the gaps which is crucial to get successful buildings. From experiencing of building in remote areas in Fiji, Marshall et al. (2020) believe it is vital to future-proof the building, design for flexibility and adaptability, ensuring the community feels comfortable repeating the construction without needing to refer to professionals.

CAUKIN discusses how it is important to find local skilled workers who can teach and encourage young unskilled workers to train them, helping them try and incorporate this into their work learning the traditional methods (Marshall et al. 2020).

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DISCUSSION

Although the potential effects of climate change and modernisation has caused conflict within communities as some would suggest, Melanesian countries still have a strong resilient community relationship and network. The evidence presented shows how communities are likely to use their vital networking with the community leader to aid post-cyclone destruction, building back together before external or government input, however, this can create problems.

The lack of skilled and local builders to build cyclone-resistant structures is limited, resulting in a rebuild that is at greater risk of failure in storms creating a repetitive cycle. With an emphasis on educating communities to build correctly, teaching them valuable skills can improve the communities’ resilience and build structures that have a significant

chance of survival without external aid.

During the discussion with Fiji and Vanuatu’s residents, Fiji has experienced greater modernisation and Westernisation than Vanuatu and other Pacific Island Countries.

What can be seen is a divide from wealth and status in the urban areas and poorer and traditional ways of living in rural areas. Importing materials takes longer, adding cost and issues of transportation to the site. The result of globalisation led to Western materials used in the Pacific Island countries, however, have been known to fail in disaster, due to minimal research. In some areas, communities have seen Western materials new and exciting without knowing the correct construction methods resulting in disastrous consequences. The conventional

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MODULAR OPTION 1 - THE SQUARE, THE HEXAGON, THE OCTAGON

Toilet Hut

Shower Hut

2m

Living Hut

4m

Community

Cooking Hut

Hut

4m

4m

MODULAR OPTION 2 - THE SQUARE, THE RECTANGLE Toilet Shower Hut Hut

2m

Living Hut

4m

Cooking Hut

8m

Community Hut

10m

Figure 19. Individual building solutions with different options regarding the shape, Authors own (2020).

vernacular provides an additional benefit of using local resources and materials that are financially viable and accessible to obtain by communities.

Although it has become apparent during the research, local materials are no longer as feasible. During the discussions with residents and workers in Melanesian countries, it

resulting from climate change has impacted the crops used for building materials. These materials used to be accessible and proliferate, resulting in communities looking further afield for materials. Hardwoods, which grew well and was accessible is now sparse, with a vast amount exported to other countries for financial gain.

Investing now for the communities to plant these timbers could provide a

is apparent that change in weather

sustainable future solution; however,

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MODULAR OPTION 1

MODULAR OPTION 2

semi-SEPERATED

semi -SEPERATED

attached

attached

SEPERATED

SEPERATED

Figure 20. A modular flexible design which is an adaptable buildable solution from Figure 19, Authors own (2020).

it is arguably too late.

Additionally, cyclones can destroy building materials whilst destroying the buildings, leaving communities to rely on costly imported materials with the logistical issues postcyclone. The local natural materials have the downside of maintenance.

However, the locals in the discussion do not mention the need to maintain concrete and tin (imported modern materials), because of

Figure 19 and 20 show a possible building solution with ongoing research of local materials, which can be applied to a whole masterplan or an individual building.

This solution has taken the issues into context and will be a flexible buildable solution which will easily transfer to communities.

poor education of these building

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materials. Overall maintenance adds costs to a building, resulting in either poorly maintained buildings increasing the risk of destruction or improper use of modern materials.

The ongoing research highlights the potential of reinventing local materials to withstand climate change, therefore, more resilient to cyclones. The added benefit of the newly developed materials would make communities independent, overcoming the near-impossible

this building to rural Fiji, it has not considered the rich heritage of community living which has been a crucial element of the discussion by professionals and locals, leading them not to accept and trust the building. Transportation of materials for this building would not be feasible in rural areas would become a logistical issue and would add cost and time.

logistical issue and saving money.

Despite this, it will take time to achieve the renovation of traditional materials. To be successful, it must be integrated within the local community sensitively, providing a building they trust whilst educating them on maintaining the new structures.

Chollet (2020) suggested that Figure 15 was the ideal building for cyclone resilience. This image is an example of the construction industry applying the knowledge well; however, it does not consider the context. To replicate this building in Fiji, the likelihood of achieving this standard with a lack of available skills and no training would be minimal, resulting in a dangerous building. This building is well designed, but not feasible in remote locations in Fiji. Moreover, if the introduction occurred of

at greater frequency suggests category five cyclones will not just be a once-in-a-lifetime experience, it is more likely there will be multiple cyclones at category five and over. Designing to withstand these forces is a substantial task. Further research is needed to develop design solutions as even the bestconstructed buildings can still easily be demolished.

The increasing severity of cyclones

Another issue in Fiji is the lack of the building code. Even with a viable substantial construction method, it needs to be feasible for rural communities, for example, using local materials. Secondly, an improvement of the building code is crucial. It has not been revised since the original draft and is currently not used in residential buildings, resulting in limited local knowledge, and it does not cover affordable buildings

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or traditional vernacular styles. To utilise as successful building design, addressing these issues is critical.

Education of the code is vital to remote communities. Nonetheless, before this happens, the government must improve and update the code whilst addressing viable solutions in remote communities with little access to resources needed to build on a budget. The government needs to work with construction industries alongside communities to achieve a

Altogether, the implementation of a detailed and well-written building code is necessary. However, implementing this code could be achieved by compliance, as the literature suggests, which would consequently encourage communities rather than enforcement, feeling controlled and less likely to comply. To achieve this, the importance of working with the communities whilst educating them

viable building code which is more likely to be adopted.

on skills is important. The evidence has suggested the government are retraining remote communities in traditional skills; however, this could expand with communication from construction industries on an adequate cyclone-resistant building.

Working with communities will allow them to trust building solutions presented whilst providing them with an opportunity to educate themselves about the details and importance of the building code.

One of the solutions, as highlighted, is the ‘Help for Homes’ visual guide.

However, the evidence collected does not accommodate rural communities as the tools, materiality and electricity supply required is not accessible in some situations.

This generic building method looks towards good detailing but without the resources, it just not achievable.

Additionally, this guide focuses on structure rather than community collaboration and does not consider all Fijian vernacular. Additionally, it does not consider separation if water or electric supply is not available.

This guide is a step towards providing information to communities; however, it is just a guide and is not substantial enough to successfully implement a reliable way to build.

It has become apparent how the Fijian government provides funding towards building back after cyclones and conversely, emphasised that rural communities have not seen this funding. With cyclones at such a high risk to Fiji and the predictions of greater intensity and frequency, it is arguable that the government is not doing enough to help. Changes and

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improvements are vital to achieve the best resilience to cyclone damage and prevent catastrophic impacts.

locals and building sectors is the primary way of achieving a building design that utilises advantages of bures, keeping the cultural heritage, whilst addressing the issues creating a resilient design. This solution would provide communities and an opportunity to understand the building and relearn the skills to build it themselves, repeat and share the techniques throughout the rural communities using their strong networks.

It is apparent that the traditional vernacular is dying out for many reasons; being propelled, evidentially the idea of modernisation and living a comfortable life. The evidence from the locals and literature suggests it is gone past the point of reverting to bures with the lack of skilled people to build them and the consequence of living in integrated buildings. Bures have adapted over generations to withstand cyclones; however, the locals seem to have given up on them, despite admitting concrete is dangerous. The idea of a comfortable life and little maintenance draws them towards concrete and tin buildings. Despite all the advantages bures have, they are not feasible now, and they will altogether die out. Nonetheless, the evidence gathered suggested an adapted and developed traditional vernacular style could have potential.

It is evident that the community’s home prioritises integrated living (depending on water and electric supply), adaptable, less maintenance, cheap and robust in cyclones.

The continued success of the community resilience in Fiji has helped them adapt in a cyclone.

Ongoing research discusses having integrated communication with the

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CONCLUSION

The buildings developed by locals through generations have shown to be adequate in cyclone resilience; however, they are dying out. With cyclones predicted to increase and intensify, the traditional ways of coping, even though they are strong, must be re-examined. There has been a significant amount of research conducted and conclusions on how to build resilient cyclone structures as discussed. However, this has also flagged logistical problems in rural communities. It has led to engineering-based structures and no education in communities on the building techniques resulting in poorly built structures.

the community adapting themselves.

The result of globalisation modernisation has brought new materials and vernacular that has less maintenance needed. Nonetheless, the lack of education surrounding the application and maintenance has led to improper use and frequently left dangerous buildings causing more harm over traditional buildings.

In remote communities, these materials are also expensive even though seen to be successful within the communities and resources, and transportation available to them is hugely difficult and nearly impossible. The remoteness has left some communities cut off from the technology, resulting in traditional techniques with limited local materials due to climate change creating vulnerable buildings. The strong community resilience has proven to be successful; however,

The lack of skills has declined over the years in remote communities due to local traditional knowledge dying out, educated youth moving away and globalisation, resulting in

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the lack of skills and education surrounding building is problematic primarily when relying on one another to build back post-cyclone.

Modernisation has started to provide some remote communities greater infrastructure, from improving roads for accessibility to running water and electricity. Modernisation through integrated buildings has attracted communities wanting a better life and leaving the heritage behind.

everyone in Fiji in all situations.

Education of this code is also critical to successful use of the code.

In conclusion, Fiji’s main issue is the cyclones’ greatening and intensifying, which needs to be the primary concern for vernacular design. It highlights the built environment is crucial to achieving disaster risk reduction, which needs to be addressed in all areas of Fiji, not just in rural areas. To accomplish this, there needs to be a substantial improvement from the current situation. The government must do more to co-ordinate this, starting with re-visiting the building code with help from construction industries.

Having a building code in the US and Australia has shown that enforced buildings codes offer buildings a greater chance of survival and less damage from cycling forces. The code must consider a viable and varied range of building solutions depending on communities’ remoteness, making it available to

be successful, but local material issues and maintenance result from modernisation, the traditional bures will die out. To re-examine the successes of traditional building alongside the communities’ requests and views with an integrated collaboration between the design and construction sector can lead to a viable building vernacular that the locals will welcome. Alongside this re-analysing, the use of local materials and ongoing research to address climate change, maintenance, cyclone-resistant and time-consuming ways of growing materials is needed. This can lead to new and innovative ways of utilising, saving time and money whilst making them less resilient on external sources. Altogether, the communities must prioritise creating successful resilient designs. Education is hugely important to succeed, empowering

Overall, vernacular style is not essential, but creating cycloneresistant structures, buildable at a low-cost is the conclusion that all resources want. Reinventing traditional methods of building is not just an aesthetic or and cultural choice. These buildings have shown and proved that they can

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the communities’ understanding of the issues, providing them with skills to build independently and adapt. Consulting the communities is also essential to progress, allowing industries to understand their lived experience and culture whilst providing designs they will trust, accept, and utilise for the future as resilient cyclone structures.

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11.0 Bibliography Aquino, D.H., Wilkinson, S.J., Raftery, G., Potangaroa, R. and Chang-Richards, A. 2018.

Challenges to building housing resilience: the case of Fiji post-cyclone Winston. Procedia engineering, 212, pp.475-480.

Bainimarama, V. 2017. Fiji’s First Self-Contained Mobile Timber Treatment Plant In Kadavu. [online]. [ Accessed 15 August 2020]. Available from: https://fijisun.com. fj/2017/01/27/fijis-firstself-contained-mobile-timber-treatment-plant-in-kadavu Baker, T., Matalomani, M., Naidike, L., Tupou, A. and Valentine, S. 2019. A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO Supporting Resilient (Re)Construction in Remote Fijian Communities.

Habitat for Humanity. https://reliefweb.int/report/fiji/holistic-approach-supporting-resilientreconstruction-remote-fijian-communities Becker, P. 2017. Dark side of development: Modernity, disaster risk and sustainable livelihoods in two coastal communities in Fiji. Sustainability, 9(12), p.2315.

Caimi, A., Moles, O., Joffroy, T. and Serlet, M. 2016. Local Building Cultures for sustainable and resilient habits.. International Centre for Earthen Construction: Villefontaine, France. https:// craterre.hypotheses.org/1140 CAUKIN Studio Ltd. 2020. CAUKUN’s website. [Online]. [Accessed 24 October 2020].

Available from: https://www.caukinstudio.com/home Costa, M. and Sharp, R., 2011. The Pacific Island Countries Fiji, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Tuvalu. University of South Australia.

Day, S.J., Forster, T., Himmelsbach, J., Korte, L., Mucke, P., Radtke, K., Thielbörger, P. and Weller, D., 2019. World risk report 2019. World Risk Report; Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft: Aachen, Germany; Ruhr University Bochum—Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV): Bochum, Germany, p.71.

Govt. Fiji. 2016. Help for Homes - Tips to Build Back Safer: How to make your house more resilient to natural disaster. [Online]. [Accessed 4 August 2020]. Available from: https:// reliefweb.int/report/fiji/help-homes-tips-build-back-safer-how-make-your-house-more-resilientnatural-disaster

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Haigh, R. and Amaratunga, D. 2010. An integrative review of the built environment discipline’s role in the development of society’s resilience to disasters. International journal of disaster resilience in the built environment. vol. 1 Issue: 1, pp.11-24.

Haque, C.E., 2003. Perspectives of natural disasters in East and South Asia, and the Pacific Island States: Socio-economic correlates and needs assessment. Natural hazards, 29(3), pp.465-483 Miyaji, M., Fujieda, A., Waqalevu, S.V. and Kobayashi, H. 2017. Challenges for self-recovery from cyclone disasters in a traditional Fijian village: the case of Navala village after tropical cyclone Winston. WIT Transactions on the Built Environment, 173, pp.161-172.

Petal, M., Green, R., Kelman, I., Shaw, R. and Dixit, A. 2008. Community-based construction for disaster risk reduction. Hazards and the built environment: Attaining built-in resilience, pp.191-217.

Vrolijks, L., 1998. Disaster Resistant Housing in Pacific Island Countries: A compendium of safe low cost housing practices in Pacific Island Countries. South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). http://lib.riskreductionafrica.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/291/ disaster%20resistant%20housing%20in%20pacific%20island%20countries.pdf?sequence=1 World Health Organization, 2012. WHO multi-country cooperation strategy for the Pacific 20132017.

Zaryoun, M. and Hosseini, M., 2019. Lightweight fiber-reinforced clay as a sustainable material for disaster resilient architecture of future buildings. Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 15(6), pp.430-444.

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12.0 list of figures Figure 1

Spencer, G. (2020) Pacific Island location [Diagram] Authors Own .

Figure 2

Spencer, G. (2020) Fiji’s location [Diagram] Authors Own.

Figure 3

Spencer, G. (2020) Map of Fiji [Diagram] Authors Own.

Figure 4

Erikson, K. (2019) How Do Hurricanes Form? [Online] NASA Space Place. Available from https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/hurricanes/en/ [Accessed 06 September 2020].

Figure 5

Berke, J. (2018) How hurricanes like Michael form. [Online] Business Insider. Available from https://www.businessinsider.nl/how-hurricanes-form-2018-9/?jwsource=cl [Accessed 09 September 2020].

Figure 6

Spencer, G. (2020) Effects of natural disasters in Australia 1987-2016 [Table] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Australian Business Roundtable for Disaster Resilience & Safer Communities, (2017) Box 1: Intangible costs of natural disasters. [Online] Building resilience to natural disasters in our states and territories. Available from https://www.preventionweb. net/files/56004_abrbuildingresilienceinourstatesand.pdf [Accessed 09 September 2020].)

Figure 7

Spencer, G. (2020) Frequency of types of natural disasters in Fiji from 1980-2019 [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, (2020). EMDAT. [online] Available from https://www.emdat.be/ [Accessed 14 July 2020].)

Figure 8

Day, S.J., Forster, T., Himmelsbach, J., Korte, L., Mucke, P., Radtke, K., Thielbörger, P. and Weller, D., (2019). World risk report 2019. World Risk Report; Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft: Aachen, Germany; Ruhr University Bochum—Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV): Bochum, Germany, p.71.

Figure 9

Spencer, G. (2020) Climate related disaster frequency from 1980-2019 [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, (2020). EMDAT. [online] Available from https://www.emdat.be/ [Accessed 14 July 2020].)

Figure 10

Spencer, G. (2020) Different Fijian vernacular [Diagram] Authors Own.

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Figure 11

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Spencer, G. (2020) Quantity of vernacular buildings from 2007 census in Fiji. [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Fiji Bureau of Statistics. (2020) Census of Population and Housing. [Online] Available from https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/statistics/2007-census-of-population-and-housing [Accessed 12 July 2020])

Figure 12

Spencer, G. (2020) Effects cyclone forces have on structures [Diagram] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August.

CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 13

Spencer, G. (2020) Forces of external wind pressure [Diagram] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August.

CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 14

Spencer, G. (2020) Forces of internal wind pressure [Diagram] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August.

CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 15

Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August. CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 16

Spencer, G. (2020) The number of cyclones in Oceania, Melanesia, and Fiji in relation to the total number worldwide from 1980-2019 [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, (2020).

EM-DAT. [online] Available from https://www.emdat.be/ [Accessed 14 July 2020].)

Figure 17

Spencer, G. (2020) Ownership of Fijian houses from 2007 census in Fiji [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Fiji Bureau of Statistics. (2020) Census of Population and Housing. [Online] Available from https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/statistics/2007-census-of-population-and-housing [Accessed 12 July 2020])

Figure 18

Zaryoun, M. and Hosseini, M., (2019) Lightweight fiber-reinforced clay as a sustainable material for disaster resilient architecture of future buildings. Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 15(6), pp.430- 444. [Accessed 14 July 2020]

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Figure 19 Spencer, G. (2020) Individual building solutions with different options regarding the shape [Diagram] Authors Own. Figure 20 Spencer, G. (2020) A modular flexible design which is an adaptable buildable solution [Diagram] Authors Own.

Table 1

Berke, J. (2018) How hurricanes like Michael form. [Online] Business Insider. Available from https://www.businessinsider.nl/how-hurricanes-form-2018-9/?jwsource=cl [Accessed 09 September 2020].

Table 2

Baker, T., Matalomani, M., Naidike, L., Tupou, A. and Valentine, S. (2019) A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO Supporting Resilient (Re)Construction in Remote Fijian Communities.

Habitat for Humanity. https://reliefweb.int/report/fiji/holistic-approach-supporting-resilientreconstruction-remote-fijiancommunities [Accessed 14 July 2020]

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13.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

appendicies

The following information is additional content produced during the Virtual Workshop run by CAUKIN. All information is produced by the author.

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The post is risen 1 meter off the ground to find the right balance between storm surge resilience and feasibility of building. The recommended height of 2-10 meters above the ground helps avoid flooding from storm surges; however, this would require a lot of material and steps which would become more expensive and add much effort for the people who live and build themselves structure, reducing the likelihood of them building these structures.

Each wall will have the opportunity to build a window, door or both within them; this gives the communities to adapt each wall to provide for their needs. The openings will have a robust timber shutter system to bolt up if there is a storm or for other reasons. Glass will not be used for the opportunities due to shattering in winds.

The hip roof at 45-degree pitch is one of the optimal pictures to survive cyclone conditions. The thatching has been problematic in cycling previously, but if constructed well, it can be resilient. The important thing is to consider two use more leaf on the roof as possible, which helps it to reinforce one another.

Overhang – A minimal overhang will prevent uplift on the roof and separation of the roof from the walls.

To prevent uplift and to anchor down structures; rocks, coconut shells or any other available material will fill into the platform. ` The openings, windows and doors, will be kept open in the kitchen cooking during cooking, allowing ventilation across the hut, as well as the thatch, being able to filter out the smoke. When a cyclone hits the village, the opening requires shutting to prevent significant damage to the hut.

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01

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

tag line

The aim is to aid communities whilst creating a cyclone, resilient building typology that is research-based whilst rapidly built and inexpensive for the community. The community will, therefore, have an opportunity to build up a sustainable village improving on the sustainability goals.

The idea of this programme is to create a cultural plan that looks back on tradition whilst using modern technologies. There will be three aims to help create this plan.

Learn – Build – Share Learning is the research base where it looks at traditional building vernacular techniques of the pacific island countries and the modern technologies to create a more sustained collaborative design that is a low cost, using local materials and easy to construct. The researchers will always be striving for the better. Most of the research is carried out by looking at regulation, successes, and traditional building methods to accumulate the knowledge together along with the added aid of engineers and architects around the world designing and experimenting.

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Build – This stage is a crucial stage of the process, which is not just the construction, but teaching as well. The key is to understand how the communities work to create a success that the villagers also like and want to duplicate, which is just as crucial as creating cyclone resistance. The knowledge is transferred to the local communities at this stage, whilst building substantial structures and life for them.

Share – The idea is once a few people are taught the skills and techniques and approve of the building, they will be able to share the skills and methods they have learnt throughout their community and surrounding villages.

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02

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

description

The priority would be working with the community to create a sustainable core living set up programme followed by flexible buildings for the villagers that help with entrepreneurial work, education and other community events.

The style will try to mimic the traditional vernacular style in Vanuatu and Fiji, which engages the communities into the countries cultural heritage and relearning the traditional building techniques which can pass on successfully.

The modular type style allows effortless repetition. Once the wall and structure as learn and built, the process becomes simple. The idea is that the same building techniques used for every building in the village.

As the building sizes increase, so do the number of sides, for stability, whilst keeping symmetry which is vital to resist the wind.

One of the key objectives is to be able to utilise the local materials, so it is straightforward to access and therefore, more manageable and quicker to build. Importing materials takes longer as well as added cost and issues of transportation to the site. The embodied carbon will decrease additionally due to the use of local materials. Using local materials will need to be carefully looked at to be able to use them to their advantage and create resilient structures; therefore, the research team will continuously look into improving their use. Already there is existing research on materials sources local, included in this project.

The result of globalisation led to western material used in the Pacific Island countries, however, have been known to fail in community

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use as well as structurally, due to little or no research leading to destruction in a disaster. In some areas, the communities have seen western materials new an exciting without knowing the correct construction methods resulting in disastrous consequences when a disaster hits. The conventional vernacular methods provide an additional benefit of using local resources and materials which is financially viable and is more accessible to obtain by the communities.

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