Green Car Journal's '25 Years of Green Cars'

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GREEN

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Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 3

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SPECIAL EDITION 25 YEARS OF GREEN CARS

contents VOICES 15 Morry Markowitz Fuel cell vehicles in the present tense 28 Mitch Bainwol A huge breakthrough in fuel economy 31 Dr. Alan Lloyd Electric drive can get us there

FEATURES 10 Plugging In Evolution of the electric car 16 Clean Diesel The other ‘alternative fuel’ comes of age 20 Hybrids! Engines of change 24 Alternative Fuels An answer to petroleum dependence?

27 Hydrogen Highway Hydrogen fuel cell cars are coming 32 Green Car Awards Three auto shows, five notable awards 36 Imagining the Road Ahead Favorite ‘green’ concept cars

LONG-TERM TESTS 34 Honda Accord Hybrid Life with our Green Car of the Year

TECHNICAL 23 Well-Connected Advantages of the plug-in hybrid

DEPARTMENTS 06 Outspoken Documenting 25 years of ‘green’ cars 07 Auto Trends Self-driving vehicles, car sharing 09 Directions Engineering for efficiency ON THE COVER From GM’s circa-1990s EV1 electric car to Tesla’s coming Model X…it’s been an amazing 25 years of ‘green’ innovation

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CarsOfChange.com Editor/Publisher Ron Cogan Executive Editor Todd Kaho Technical Editor Bill Siuru Contributing Editors Cam Benty Drew Hardin Jeff Karr Photo Editor Sheree Gardner Staff Photographer Ian Billings Columnists Dr. Alan Lloyd Mitch Bainwol Morry Markowitz Contributors Devin Cogan Art Director Thomas Reiss Graphic Designers Bryan Bremer Priscilla Wilson Advertising Information (805) 541-0473 Green Car Journal ® (ISSN 1059-6143) is published

by RJ Cogan Specialty Publications Group, Inc. 1241 Johnson Avenue #356 San Luis Obispo, Calif. 93401 Phone 805.541.0473 © 2014 by RJ Cogan Specialty Publications Group, Inc. All rights reserved.

D Nissan’s Mixim electric show car is one of many favorite concepts from the past 25 years, page 36

Printed on recycled paper.

ISSUE NO. 1, 2014

GCJUSA.COM

OUTSPOKEN :: DOCUMENTING 25 YEARS OF GREEN CARS

I Photography by Ian Billings

Covering this field for 25 years lends an invaluable perspective that’s important to understanding not only where we’ve been, but where we’re headed.

was inspired by the 1990 introduction of the GM Impact electric car concept at the Los Angeles Auto Show, and then again by the amazing array of electric, hydrogen, and ‘green’ concept vehicles I witnessed at the 1991 Tokyo Motor Show.

I knew then that ‘green’ cars would be important. So, for 25 years now, this has been my focus as publisher of Green Car Journal and earlier as feature editor at Motor Trend.

Covering this field for 25 years lends an invaluable perspective that’s important to understanding not only where we’ve been, but where we’re headed. There’s certainly plenty of ‘green’ car news to share these days, but what does it really mean? With each announcement of a new technology, fuel, or battery breakthrough there comes great excitement and also great expectations. It has been so for quite some time.

Over the years so many of these have had their moment of fame and then faded away. The reasons are as diverse as the ‘breakthroughs’ – lack of funding or interest, misread demand, or losing out to new or better answers. This has been the story with electric car battery technologies that have come and gone over the years. The same can be said of many entrepreneurs who strived to bring electric cars to market, only to meet with failure as they realized the cost and complexity of doing so. In the midst of this there have been many successes, perhaps none as notable as Tesla Motors in the electric car space or Clean Energy Fuels in natural gas fueling.

It has been enlightening to document the early research and development of the vehicles we take for granted today. While there is no crystal ball for predicting the automobile’s future, I’ve long been fascinated by researching patents for advanced and alternative fuel vehicle technologies because this reveals what automakers and their technology suppliers have in mind for the years ahead. Patent abstracts were a regular part of Green Car Journal during its first decade until this field evolved from early research and development to actual products in new car showrooms.

Several decades ago, many of these vehicles and technologies were but ideas to potentially pursue, the subject of technology deep dives I attended, or opportunities that allowed driving advanced technology prototypes and developmental vehicles on test tracks.

Two of these experiences come readily to mind – driving a nondescript Japanese-market Toyota test mule equipped with an early gasoline-electric hybrid drive and a Geo Storm equipped with a prototype GM battery electric powertrain, both at their respective manufacturer’s proving grounds. These powerplants evolved to become the Toyota Hybrid System powering the first-generation Prius and the electric drivetrain powering the GM EV1.

Early developmental electric drive vehicles were often quirky and unexpectedly noisy in myriad ways, emitting high-pitched frequency sound from their motor controller and gear noise that would otherwise have been masked by the sound of internal combustion. Some early natural gas vehicle prototypes suffered from gaseous fuel injector clatter. Developmental hydrogen fuel cell vehicles sacrificed loads of space for large and cumbersome fuel cells and hydrogen storage. Diesel vehicles were unacceptably loud and emitted soot.

Drive an electric, natural gas, hydrogen fuel cell, high mpg gasoline, or clean diesel personal-use vehicle today and they are quiet, clean, and seamless in their operation.

We have great ‘green’ cars today because a lot of important work has been done over the past 25 years. Just imagine what’s coming next.

Ron Cogan Editor and Publisher 6 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

AUTOTRENDS Google Pod Prototype The Google Car gives a glimpse of how a fully driverless pod-like vehicle would operate. There is no provision for a human driving since the car is devoid of a steering wheel, mirrors, or brake and accelerator pedals. The only controls are stop and start buttons in the center console and a navigation system for selecting and displaying a planned route. Top speed is a limited 25 mph.

Sensors can ’see’ beyond blind spots and detect other vehicles, objects, pedestrians,

Self-Driving Cars

and landmarks within a 360 degree radius over a range spanning the length of two football fields. This information is fed to a computer that drives the car. Since there’s

Just about every major automaker is developing automated vehicle technology.

no accommodation for human control in

Experts predict we’ll see the first highly automated production vehicles by 2020

the event something goes amiss, Google

with fully automated cars expected by 2025. Automation will come incrementally

uses two redundant motors for steering

with more of these technologies becoming available with each new model year.

and braking to provide back-ups. Worst

Already, vehicles with early forms of self-driving technology are in dealer

case? Hit the ‘off’ button.

showrooms, such as adaptive cruise control that automatically maintains a safe

Google will build about 100 self-driving

following distance from the car ahead and parking assistance that helps maneu-

cars within the year and plans a small

ver a car into parking spaces. Other available automated technologies include

pilot program in California. If successful,

Lane Departure Warning, Obstacle Warning, and Blind Spot Detection. While most

it will work with partners to bring this

are passive systems that alert a driver to a hazardous condition, in the future

technology worldwide. – BS

these will be able to automatically take corrective action if a driver fails to react.

Most of the near-term technology augments a human driver in controlling the vehicle, similar to the autopilot used in airliners that allows the driver to take over at any time. Since today’s computers and other electronics are now quicker than the human brain, on-board systems could also provide control in an emergency situation.

As an example of what’s coming soon, BMW’s Traffic Light Assistant will communicate with traffic lights to inform a driver of the speed needed to match the timing of traffic lights. In the future, this could be done automatically. Traffic Jam Assistant, debuting in the BMW i3, maintains a safe distance between vehicles, controls speed and steering, and stops the car in heavy traffic if necessary. As long as the driver keeps one hand on the steering wheel, it keeps the car in its lane at speeds up to 25 mph.

There are several challenges to automated vehicles, not the least of which is cost since LIDAR (laser radar), ultrasound sensors, computer vision systems, and other electronics are expensive. However, following the known trajectory of advanced electronics in all facets of our lives, prices will surely drop dramatically with widespread use. – Bill Siuru Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 7

AUTO TRENDS

Lean & Green How cool is this? An innovative car sharing program in France is using threewheel Toyota i-Road urban electric vehicles for travel in the greater Grenoble metro area. Not quite a yard wide, these diminutive personal transports are designed to be agile like a scooter while sporting the stability and enclosedcanopy comfort of a car. They rent in 15 minute increments with users able to pick them up and return them to the same location, or drive them one-way to connect to the city’s various mass transit options. Lithium-ion batteries provide just over 30 miles of zero-emission electric range and charging is available at 27 stations in the area.

The brightly-colored i-Road uses Active Lean technology that allows

Share the Ride Car sharing has been quietly catching on in the United States. Once the domain of Europeans desiring mobility without the cost of car ownership, there are now some 1.3 million car sharing members in the U.S. with 21,000 shared vehicles available from 24 operators. Avis Budget Group’s Zipcar, the most prolific provider of car sharing services worldwide, offers services in three dozen U.S. cities, usually at or near universities or airports. Other companies offering car sharing include Hertz 24/7, Enterprise CarShare, and U-Haul Car Share.

Car manufacturers have also introduced their own car sharing services. The most ambitious of these is Daimler’s car2go with services in 11 major U.S. cities and three in Canada. Car2go uses the diminutive smart fortwo, most running on gasoline with some electric versions as well. BMW’s DriveNow, featuring its all-

driver and vehicle to lean into turns

electric ActiveE based on the BMW 1 Series Coupe, oper-

with movement said to emulate that of

ates in the San Francisco Bay Area.

a skier. No special skills are required

Since many car share locations are easily accessible from

since the vehicle is tasked with main-

college campuses, a growing demographic more attuned to

taining balance rather than the driver,

smartphones than cars is able to enjoy on-demand mobil-

providing stability on curves, slopes,

ity without owning their own ‘wheels.’ The environmental

and uneven surfaces. The i-Road origi-

benefits of car sharing, and especially the use of hybrid

nally debuted at last year’s Geneva

and electric vehicles, is viewed as an important plus. Senior

Motor Show. – Ron Cogan

citizens can also benefit from car sharing since retirees drive far fewer miles and could save money by foregoing car ownership. While not as intuitive to seniors accustomed to owning their own vehicles, that hasn’t stopped AARP from exploring the option through its recent partnership with Zipcar that brings seniors reduced membership fees.

Peer-to-peer car sharing that finds individual owners renting their vehicles to others is gaining some traction. Businesses like Getaround, RelayRides, and Buzzcar facilitate this by screening owners and renters, providing a website, and offering a mobile app to bring parties together. These services manage bookings and collect payment, in return keeping a percentage of rental fees. – BS

DIRECTIONS :: ENGINEERING FOR EFFICIENCY

I

’ve just driven a revolutionary new vehicle and it isn’t an electric car, extended range electric car, plug-in hybrid, hybrid, or alternative fuel vehicle. None of the above. It was a gasoline-powered pickup truck.

How can a pickup truck be revolutionary, you might ask? The pickup in question is Ford’s all-new aluminum bodied F-150, the best-selling nameplate in America for the past 37 years. By engineering an all-aluminum body, Ford has been able to take some 630 pounds out of the vehicle. A redesigned, stiffer and high-strength steel frame reduces weight by another 70 pounds, bringing overall weight savings to 700 pounds compared to the 2014 pickup.

This lightweighting provides benefits on all fronts. In the ‘green’ world, fuel efficiency gains lead the agenda. While official EPA test results are not available at the time of this writing, Ford expects fuel economy increases between 5 and 20 percent depending on vehicle configuration and powertrain options. That is a huge increase when you consider Ford sells roughly 650,000 F-Series pickups each year. Fleet-wide, even a fraction of a mile-per-gallon increase multiplies to substantial savings in fuel and a commensurate reduction in tailpipe emissions.

But the weight reduction also makes the 2015 F-150 perform better as well. First

Major engineering advancements are on the horizon across the automotive landscape, and clearly ‘green’ isn’t just about small fuel efficient cars.

it takes less power to propel the truck when empty, so acceleration is noticeably improved. With less mass working on the chassis, the truck has a lighter feel and handles better than the previous model. It also stops better, since there is less weight to bring to a halt. The real benefit to traditional truck owners, however, is load capacity. Cargo bed payload capability and gross towing weights remain similar on the new truck, so the aluminum F-150 can haul and tow an additional 700 pounds. That’s quite an advantage over the steel-bodied competition.

Ford has also expanded the downsized, turbocharged EcoBoost engine line in the new F-150 and the results are equally dramatic. The latest version is a 2.7-liter V-6 with a displacement roughly half the size of what you might expect in a full-size pickup truck. The direct injected 2.7-liter V-6 utilizes a host of advanced technologies, not the least of which are two turbochargers that boost performance to V-8 levels. It produces an amazing 325 horsepower and even more impressive 375 lb-ft torque. There is virtually no turbo lag as the pickup accelerates like its larger 5.0-liter V-8 cousin.

Small but mighty, a 2.7 EcoBoost F-150 has a maximum towing capability of 8,500 pounds with a 2,250 pound payload capacity.

Unsurprisingly, the 2015 Ford F150 is in the running for Green Car Journal’s inaugural Green Truck of the Year™ award. It is nothing short of a complete rethinking of the pickup truck platform.

Major engineering advancements are on the horizon across the automotive landscape, and clearly ‘green’ isn’t just about small fuel efficient cars. We applaud advancements like the addition of the 3.0-liter EcoDiesel engine in the full-size Ram pickup truck and Grand Cherokee SUV, which offer exceptional fuel economy and performance in their respective segments. GM’s latest Active Fuel Management cylinder deactivation technology in new EcoTec3-powered Silverado pickups effectively transforms their V-6 and V-8 engines into fuel-efficient four-cylinder engines under low load conditions, saving fuel and reducing emissions. ‘Green’ is not just for cars anymore…trucks can play a big role here, too. – Todd Kaho Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 9

PLUGG P L U G G Evolution of the Electric Car

T

B Y

R O N

C O G A N

here’s something almost

during the year Green Car Journal edi-

extraordinarily high costs and a

magical about plugging your

tors drove GM’s remarkable EV1 elec-

challenging business case were its

car into an outlet at night and

tric car in the late 1990s. Daily drives

demise. GM lost many tens of thou-

waking up to a full ‘tank’ in the morning.

in the EV1 were a joy. The car was

sands of dollars on every EV1 it built,

There’s no need for a stop at the gas sta-

sleek, high-tech, distinctive, and with

as did other automakers comply-

tion, ever. Plus, there’s no nagging guilt

the electric motor’s torque coming on

ing with California’s Zero Emissions

that the miles metered out by the odom-

from zero rpm, decidedly fast. That’s a

Vehicle (ZEV) mandate in the 1990s.

eter are counting off one’s contribution

potent combination.

Even today, Fiat Chrysler CEO Sergio

toward any societal and environmental

The EV1 is long gone, not because

Marchionne says his company loses

ills attendant with fossil fuel use.

people or companies ‘killed’ it as the

$14,000 for every Fiat 500e electric car

This is a feeling expe-

so-called documentary Who Killed the

sold. Combine that with today’s need

rienced

Electric Car suggested, but rather because

for an additional $7,500 federal tax credit and up to $6,000 in subsidies from some states to encourage EV purchases, and it’s easy to see why the electric car remains such a challenge.

This isn’t to say that electric cars are the wrong idea.

On the contrary, they

10 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

GING IN I N G

I N

are perceived as important to our driving

homeowner’s solar array is offsetting the

es that can be sustainable. Where’s the

future, so much so that government, auto-

electricity used to energize a car’s bat-

downside in that?

makers, and their suppliers see electrifi-

teries for daily drives, then all the better.

Still, new car buyers have not stepped

cation as key to meeting mandated 2025

This is the ideal scenario for a battery

up to buy battery electric cars in

fleet-wide fuel economy requirements and

electric car. Of course, things are never

expected, or perhaps hoped-for, num-

CO2 reduction goals. The problem is that

this simple, otherwise we would all be

bers, especially the million electric

there’s no singular, defined roadmap for

driving electric.

vehicles that Washington had set out

getting there because costs, market pen-

There remain some very real chal-

as its goal by 2015. This is surprising

etration, and all-important political sup-

lenges. Government regulation, not

to many since electric vehicle choices

port are future unknowns.

market forces, has largely been driving

have expanded in recent years. However,

The advantages of battery electric

the development of the modern elec-

there are reasons for this.

vehicles are well known – extremely low

tric car. This is a good thing or bad,

Electric cars are often quite expensive

per-mile operating costs on electricity,

depending upon one’s perspective. The

in comparison to their gasoline-powered

less maintenance, at-home fueling, and

goal is admirable and to some, crucial

counterparts, although government and

of course no petroleum use. Add in the

– to enable driving with zero localized

manufacturer subsidies can bring these

many societal incentives available such

emissions, eliminate CO2 emissions,

costs down. Importantly, EVs offer less

as solo driving in carpool lanes, pref-

reduce oil dependence, and drive on an

functionality than con-

erential parking, and free public charg-

energy source created from diverse

ing, and the case for electrics gets even

resourc-

more compelling. If a

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 11

P L U G G I N G

I N

ventional cars because of limited driv-

Nissan LEAF, Smart ForTwo Electric

like Coda Automotive failed, as have

ing range that averages about 70 to 100

Drive, Tesla Model S, Toyota RAV4 EV,

many lesser ones over the years. Often

miles before requiring a charge. While

and VW e-Golf. While most aim at lim-

enough, inventors of electric cars have

this zero-emission range can fit the

ited sales, some like BMW, Nissan, and

been innovative and visionary, only to

commuting needs of many two-vehicle

Tesla market their EVs nationwide. The

discover that becoming an auto manu-

households and bring substantial fuel

Honda Fit EV and Toyota RAV4 EV are

facturer is hugely expensive and more

savings, there’s a catch. Factoring future

being phased out. Fleet-focused EVs

challenging than imagined. In many

fuel savings into a vehicle purchase

are also being offered by a small num-

cases their timeline from concept and

decision is simply not intuitive to new

ber of independent companies.

investment to production and sales

car buyers today.

BMW’s i3 offers buyers an optional

becomes so long that before their first

The next 10 years are crucial as cost, infrastructure, and consumer acceptance challenges are tackled and hopefully overcome to make affordable, unsubsidized electric cars a mass-market reality. Clearly, a lot of people are counting on it.

Many drivers who would potentially

two-cylinder gasoline range extender

cars are produced, mainstream auto-

step up to electric vehicle ownership

that generates on-board electricity to

makers have introduced models far

can’t do so because most electric mod-

double this electric car’s battery elec-

beyond what they were offering, and at

els are sold only in California or a

tric driving range. A growing number

lesser cost with an established sales

select number of ‘green’ states where

of electrified models like the Prius

and service network to support them.

required zero emission vehicle cred-

Plug-In and Chevy Volt can also run

A high profile exception is Tesla

its are earned. These states also tend

exclusively on battery power for a

Motors, the well-funded Silicon Valley

to have at least a modest charging

more limited number of miles (10-15

automaker that successfully built

infrastructure in place. Manufacturers

for the Prius and up to 40 miles in the

and sold its $112,000 electric Tesla

selling only in these limited markets

Volt), and then drive farther with the

Roadster, continued its success with

typically commit to only small build

aid of a combustion engine or engine-

the acclaimed $70,000-$100,000+

numbers, making these EVs fairly

generator. Many extended range elec-

Model S electric sedan, and is now

insignificant in influencing electric

tric vehicles and plug-in hybrids like

retooling its manufacturing plant

vehicle market penetration.

these are coming soon from a surpris-

to build the Tesla Model X electric

Battery electric vehicles available

ing number of auto manufacturers.

crossover at an MSRP similar to the

today include the BMW i3, Chevrolet

It has been an especially tough road

Model S. Tesla’s challenge is not to

Spark EV, Fiat 500e, Ford Focus

for independent or would-be automak-

prove it can produce compelling bat-

Electric, Honda Fit EV, Kia Soul EV,

ers intent on introducing electric vehi-

tery electric cars, provide remarkable

Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive,

cles to the market. Well-funded efforts

all-electric driving range,

Mitsubishi iMiEV,

12 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

or build a wildly enthusiastic – some would say fanatical – customer base.

It has done all this. Its challenge is to continue this momentum by developing a full model lineup that includes a promised affordable model for the masses, its Model 3, at a targeted $35,000 price tag.

This is no easy thing. Battery costs remain very high and, in fact, Tesla previously shared that the Tesla Roadster’s battery pack cost in the vicinity of $30,000. While you can bury the cost of an expensive battery pack in a high-end electric car that costs $70,000 to over $100,000, you can’t do that today in a $35,000 model, at least not one that isn’t manufacturer subsidized and provides the 200+ mile range

of building out a national infrastruc-

expected of a Tesla.

ture of SuperCharger fast-charge sta-

The company’s answer is a $5 billion

tions along major transportation cor-

‘Gigafactory’ being built in Nevada

ridors to enable extended all-electric

that it claims will produce more

driving. These allow Tesla vehicles the

lithium-ion batteries by 2020 than

ability to gain a 50 percent charge in

were produced worldwide in 2013. The

about 20 minutes, although they are

company’s publicized goal is to trim

not compatible with other EVs. For

battery costs by at least 30 percent to

all others, Bosch is beginning limited

make its $35,000 electric car a real-

deployment of its sub-$10,000 DC fast

as cost, infrastructure, and consumer

ity and support its growing electric

charger that provides an 80 percent

acceptance challenges are tackled and

car manufacturing. Tesla has said

charge in 30 minutes.

hopefully overcome to make afford-

it’s essential that the Gigafactory is

The past 25 years have not secured

able, unsubsidized electric cars a

in production as the Model 3 begins

a future for the battery electric car,

mass-market reality. Clearly, a lot of

manufacturing.

but things are looking up. The next 10

people are counting on it.

Tesla is well-underway with its goal

years are crucial

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 13

GIVE IT A TEST DRIVE.

WWW.CARSOFCHANGE.COM

VOICES :: By Morry Markowitz

>

FUEL CELL VEHICLES – IN THE PRESENT TENSE

Today, consumers in California can drive and lease the first wave of commercially available fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) in the U.S, and additional models are promised from several leading automakers in the next few months and years. Of equal importance, today’s FCEV drivers can fill-up at any of nine hydrogen fueling stations in the Los Angeles and San Francisco areas, with 50 stations expected to be operational by the end of 2015.

What does this mean? For the fuel cell and hydrogen industry, and for those who will benefit from FCEVs, the time has come to talk about these vehicles in the present tense. A new game clock is running; the longenvisioned fuel cell future is indeed underway.

Fuel cells generate electricity through a hydrogen-based chemical process, not combustion. The process is silent, with no moving parts, and because there is no combustion there are no tailpipe emissions; the only byproducts are heat and water vapor.

FCEVs can run on hydrogen generated from renewable sources including biogas, wind and solar power, as well as from more traditional fuels like America’s abundant natural gas.

Moreover, as consumers in California are discovering, FCEVs are the only zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) technology that replicates today’s driving experience and convenience with a 300 to 400 miles or greater driving range and rapid fill-up of three to five minutes.

FCEVs will be part of a diverse mix of vehicle types that allow American consumers to fulfill a wide range of driving needs. It only takes a quick look at recent headlines to see why the commercial arrival of FCEVs is so important for America.

With traditional energy-exporting regions of the world in turmoil, America is looking more and more to domestic energy sources. Hydrogen can be produced virtually anywhere in the country from many conventional and renewable energy sources. The nation already produces nine million metric tons of hydrogen annually, enough to fuel 30 to 40 million FCEVs. Environmental concerns from clean air to global warming also help explain why FCEVs are so important. In 2013, governors of eight states signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) agreeing to put 3.3 million zeroemission vehicles (ZEVs) on the road within 12 years. More recently, NESCAUM (the nonprofit association of air quality agencies in the Northeast) developed a plan to begin implementing the ZEV vision defined by the MOU. Fuel cells and hydrogen energy are the last clean energy technologies in which the U.S. is the global manufacturing leader. Nearly half of all jobs in the industry involve high-skill manufacturing, and when the infrastructure development, sales, and service jobs are added, the job potential is very significant.

Despite recent progress, the path to America’s hydrogen future faces many uncertainties, but most analysts agree the chief concern is how to develop the nation’s crucial hydrogen infrastructure. To help address this issue, in 2013 a public private collaboration, H2USA, was co-launched by the U.S. Department of Energy and industry. H2USA’s mission is to promote the commercial introduction and widespread adoption of FCEVs across America, and its members include state governments, automotive companies, fuel cell and hydrogen energy technology suppliers, energy companies, national laboratories, and trade associations.

Through the combined efforts of its members, H2USA is developing real-world approaches to address the

Environmental concerns from clean air to global warming help explain why FCEVs are so important.

technical, financial, and societal issues surrounding hydrogen infrastructure.

America faces a very bright fuel cell future, but it will take hard work and strong planning to fulfill the FCEV promise. Today FCEVs are no longer at the curb; they have entered the on-ramp and are preparing to merge into the mainstream of American driving.

And I can tell you, the FCEV industry is already thinking about the passing lane.

— Morry Markowitz is President & Executive Director of the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association, www.fchea.org Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 15

C L E A N

The Other ‘Alternative Fuel’ Comes of Age

D

B Y

B I L L

S I U R U

iesels have been purchased in

models like the Jeep Grand Cherokee

ern diesels clean enough to meet stringent

huge numbers by Europeans

EcoDiesel, Ram 1500 EcoDiesel, and the

emissions standards in all 50 states.

for decades, with over half of

coming Mazda6 SKYACTIV-D diesel.

Today’s clean diesel vehicles are

all new vehicles sold there powered by

Growing diesel interest in the U.S. is

able to use biodiesel blends, with some

this efficient engine technology. The die-

largely due to improved diesel technolo-

automakers approving B5 (5 percent bio-

sel experience in Europe is sharply con-

gies that eliminate noisy engines, smelly

diesel/95 percent petroleum diesel) and

trasted by that in the U.S. where diesel

exhaust, and perhaps most important

others allowing B20 (20 percent biodies-

accounts for only about one percent of

in a highly competitive auto market,

el/80 percent petroleum diesel). Biodiesel

all new cars sales, in its best year.

lackluster performance. Modern clean

can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by

This is about to change. Thirty-six new

diesel’s inherent performance advantages

57 to 86 percent, according to the EPA.

clean diesel models are now available or

– more power compared to like-size gaso-

Highly efficient clean diesel vehicles

coming shortly and it’s predicted there

line engines and much higher torque at

fueled with a biodiesel blend further

will be over 50 diesel-powered models in

lower rpms –mesh well with aspirational

reduce dependence on foreign oil.

North American new car showrooms by

models like those from Audi, BMW, and

Fuel quality is a critical component for

2017. Diesel has been consistently moving

Porsche that must provide an exceptional

greater acceptance of biodiesel by both

well beyond its traditional role in power-

driving experience as a matter of course.

automakers and consumers. This is being

ing medium- and heavy-duty trucks on

Among clean diesel’s most important

met by stringent biodiesel fuel standards

America’s highways to powering a full

enabling technologies are direct injection,

for B100 and biodiesel blends. The biodiesel

spectrum of personal use vehicles. These

common rail fuel distribution, unit fuel

industry’s BQ-9000 fuel quality assurance

include entry-level cars like the Chevrolet

injectors, intercooled turbocharging, and

program for biodiesel producers, marketers,

Cruze Turbo Diesel to upscale clean diesel

pilot injection. All are controlled by great-

and testing laboratories includes education,

sedans and SUVs primarily from pre-

ly improved on-board computers, sensors,

encouragement, and enforcement related to

mium German brands, plus other popular

and advanced electronics that make mod-

BQ-9000 accredited companies. All of this

16 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

D I E S E L

is making biodiesel increasingly likely to be

mixture of gasoline and air is delivered to

extremely high pressure fuel supplied to

used in greater quantities by clean diesel

the combustion chambers, compressed by

the electrically-operated injector at each

vehicles in the future.

pistons, and ignited by spark plugs. A die-

cylinder via a single thick-walled tube,

sel (compression ignition) engine works

the ‘common rail.’ Besides reducing diesel

WHAT MAKES ‘CLEAN DIESEL’ SO CLEAN?

differently, with air compressed during

noise, CR greatly increases injection pres-

Today’s diesel engines are turbocharged to

the engine’s compression stroke and fuel

sure compared to older distributor pump

compress and supply greater volumes of

injected into hot, compressed air in the

injection systems. This results in a much

air to the combustion chambers, thus pro-

cylinder spontaneously ignite. With direct

finer fuel mist for greater engine efficiency.

viding more powerful explosions within

injection (DI), fuel is injected directly into

Another important technology used

each cylinder that result in greater power

the combustion chambers to provide a

in modern clean diesel engines is pilot

output. The turbocharger’s turbine is spun

fine, high-pressure mist of fuel that large-

injection, which injects a small amount of

by the car’s exhaust at up to 150,000 rpm

ly eliminates diesel’s traditional knocks

fuel prior to the main injection to create

to drive an air pump providing this ‘boost’

and rattles. High pressure results in

a more gradual increase in combustion

pressure. Turbocharger temperatures are

improved fuel atomization for increased

chamber temperature. This helps elimi-

very high because of these hot exhaust

engine efficiency, resulting in more power

nate diesel knocking and rattling caused

gasses so an intercooler – an air-to-air or

and better fuel economy.

by a sudden increase in temperature.

water-to-air heat exchanger – is integrated

Diesel fuel has to be injected at very high

to cool down the hot compressed air cre-

pressures to counter the huge compres-

CLEAN DIESEL’S FUTURE

ated by the turbo. Cooler air is denser so

sion pressure in a diesel engine. Typically,

Influencing clean diesel’s slow adoption

more air can be delivered to the cylinders

the higher the pressure, the more power

timeframe in the U.S. has been a general

for maximum power.

produced and the cleaner the exhaust

lack of support from politicians and

A gasoline (spark ignition) engine runs

emissions. With a common rail (CR) sys-

government. In contrast, European gov-

on the Otto cycle, in which a vaporized

tem, an engine-driven pump produces the

ernments are much more diesel-friendly, Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 17

C L E A N

D I E S E L

aggressively encouraging the development

tax diesel higher than gasoline.

smaller 39 percent of those 45 and older

of diesel technology and creating emis-

Beyond better technology and extreme-

said they would purchase a diesel over

sion rules that favor rather than penal-

ly low emissions, consumer attitudes

a gas car under the same circumstances.

ize diesels. Most importantly, tax breaks

toward diesel in the U.S. are also chang-

This tells us that a growing percentage

in most of Europe make diesel fuel less

ing. In a recent Harris Interactive poll,

of consumers is open to driving diesel

expensive than gasoline. This not the case

59 percent of the 18-34 year old drivers

and that younger drivers who will com-

in the U.S., in part because the federal tax

queried said that if the cost of diesel fuel

prise the biggest share of the future car

on diesel is 24.4 cents/gallon versus 18.4

was on par with gasoline, they would

market may well be driving efficient

cents/gallon for gasoline. Some states also

purchase a diesel-powered vehicle. A

clean diesel in growing numbers.

REDUCING DIESEL EMISSIONS A variety of emission control devices are used to reduce diesel exhaust emissions. Along with more sophisticated electronic engine management control and fuel injection systems, these include oxidation catalysts, particulate filters, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and selective catalytic reduction (SCR).

Catalytic filters reduce carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter.

Particulate filters physically trap particles before they can leave the tailpipe.

SCR uses a catalyst and a special diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) comprised of water and urea to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions, one of clean diesel’s greatest challenges. EGR recycles a portion of the exhaust back into the engine to reduce NOx emissions as well. Many advanced exhaust emission control devices can be compromised by diesel fuel containing high concentrations of sulfur, like that found in older fuels. Thus, ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel is required. Regulations that limit the sulfur content of on-highway diesel fuel to 15 parts-per-million (ppm) by weight have made ULSD available everywhere in the U.S. and Canada. - Bill Siuru 18 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

SPONSORED CONTENT

BIODIESEL FUELING THE ROAD AHEAD

THE ROAD TO A SUSTAINABLE DRIVING FUTURE is an important one. Decreasing petroleum use, reducing tailpipe and greenhouse gas emissions, and supporting the use of fuels that can be created from renewable resources are all critical goals. These are areas in which biodiesel excels.

Made from diverse sources including soybean oil, animal fats, and even recycled cooking oil, biodiesel’s value as a petroleum alternative is recognized worldwide. In the United States, its role is growing significantly with over 1.8 billion gallons of biodiesel produced here in 2013, the third straight year of record biodiesel production of this domestic renewable fuel. These biodiesel activities now support over 62,000 jobs nationwide.

Auto manufacturers are continuing to expand their clean diesel product lines with wide-ranging passenger cars, SUVs, and light trucks, which means greater opportunity for running on B5 or B20 biodiesel blends. All new diesel models in the U.S. are manufacturer-approved for operating on B5 –a blend of 5% biodiesel and 95% petroleum diesel – while nearly 80% are also approved for B20 with its higher 20% biodiesel content. B20 approved models range from the Chevrolet Cruze diesel sedan and Jeep Grand Cherokee SUV to pickups from Chevrolet, Ford, GMC, Ram, and more, with the new Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon mid-size diesel pickups the latest additions to this ever-expanding list.

The biodiesel industry’s activities are expanding along with the ever-growing choices of clean diesel models capable of running on this clean, renewable fuel. Biodiesel is produced in nearly every state with over 2,000 biodiesel retail sites available nationwide. A rigorous BQ-9000 fuel quality program also continues to move biodiesel forward as a favored motor fuel. All this means greater opportunity for domestically-produced biodiesel to offset petroleum use and achieve meaningful emissions reductions now and in the years ahead.

National Biodiesel Board®, www.biodiesel.org America’s Advanced Biofuel

HYB W

hat once was a novelty is now a mainstream technology.

Today, gasoline-electric powertrains,

hybrid

or ‘hybrids’, are not only accepted,

pow-

but expected across a wide range of

ertrains

vehicle platforms. The modern age of

have

mass produced hybrid cars began in

done more

the late 1990s.

than any

While the Toyota Prius launched in

other technologi-

Japan first, Honda was first to the North

cal advancement to

A hybrid uses two forms of motive

American market with the original two-

increase fuel efficiency and lower over-

power for propulsion – an internal

seat Insight in 1999, followed shortly by

all emissions. They made good environ-

combustion engine and an electric

the first generation Toyota Prius. While

mental sense to the early adopters who

motor. The way an auto manufacturer

many automotive experts downplayed the

wanted to make a green statement.

blends gasoline and electric power

potential of these cars, Toyota recently

While an eco-friendly image is still a

together is one of biggest differences

sold the 7 millionth hybrid and is deliv-

prime motivator for buying a hybrid

between models. For example, Toyota

ering 250,000 Prius cars per year here, in

today, these cars increasingly present

and Ford have long engineered hybrid

four unique models.

a strong financial case due to their

systems with the ability to run in pure

You could make the argument that

exceptional fuel economy.

electric mode when sufficient battery

20 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

RIDS! Engines of Change

B Y

TO D D

K A H O

Assist hybrid system traditionally

combustion engine shuts off when the

used its electric motor to bolster the

vehicle is stopped to save fuel, then

power of the gasoline engine so less

automatically restarts when the brake

fuel was needed, but did not allow

pedal is released. While common on

for even limited all-electric driving.

hybrids, the technology proven here

Honda’s latest Earth Dreams hybrid

is also being adapted to non-hybrid

system uses hybrid power most of the

vehicles including some clean diesels

time but also allows operation in pure

and gasoline models.

electric mode for short durations

One of the positive attributes of

when conditions are right.

hybrid technology is that it is scalable.

Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)

A manufacturer can engineer a very

and lithium-ion (Li-ion) are the two

powerful system for performance as

most widely used battery chemis-

Porsche has with the 918 supercar, the

tries found in hybrids today. Li-ion

Panamera S E-Hybrid, and the Cayenne

is lighter and offers greater energy

Hybrid, or build a hybrid model aimed

density but is also considerably

at achieving modest performance but

more expensive, thus the evolving

maximum efficiency, as is the case with

nature of hybrids that strive to bal-

the Toyota Prius.

ance power with cost. Regenerative

Hybrid fuel economy can also be

braking performance continues to improve with each generation of hybrid vehicles. Kinetic energy normally lost

greatly enhanced by additional battery power and a plug-in charger that allows a hybrid to operate as an electric car for

charge is available, although only for short durations since on-board battery power in a hybrid is much more limited than

The way an auto manufacturer blends gas and electric power together is one of the biggest differences between hybrid models.

in an all-electric vehicle. Generally, the larger the battery designed into a

to friction and heat during braking in a

greater distances. Plug-in hybrids and

hybrid vehicle, the longer the EV range.

normal car is partially captured by the

extended range electric vehicles of this

Increasing battery size is very costly

electric motor in a hybrid as it acts as a

type are on the market now in limited

so automakers generally provide a bat-

generator to feed electricity back to the

numbers but expected to grow signifi-

tery pack optimized for fuel efficient

hybrid’s battery pack.

cantly. The challenge is in balancing

hybrid operation with all-electric driv-

Auto stop/start technology is a natu-

expected electric capability and overall

ing a modest side benefit.

ral application for hybrid vehicles.

cost or a vehicle can easily be priced out

Honda’s early Integrated Motor

With auto stop/start, the internal

of the market.

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 21

HYBRIDS! system is more easily absorbed in the overall cost of the vehicle since there is generally more profit margin in these vehicles. At the lower end of the price scale, a hybrid system generally comes at greater cost to the consumer since there is often little markup or margin.

So what’s the future of hybrid technology? We expect to see more applications across a wider spectrum of vehicle models as automakers strive to meet looming federally mandated Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Honda’s first-generation Insight was the first hybrid in the U.S., beating the Prius here by mere months.

On the low end of the hybrid scale are

and a hybrid’s unique components.

mild hybrid systems that use smaller

Integrating a hybrid powertrain into an

electric motors and battery packs for a

existing model has also proven to be a

modest increase in fuel economy. These

viable option and today we have dozens

simple systems are much less expensive

of examples in both the car and SUV

and have been used in models as large as

markets. Generally, the biggest obstacle

full-size General Motors pickup trucks.

is determining where to package the

They work quite well, but have not caught

battery pack. Larger vehicles like SUVs

on to the extent of full hybrid systems.

make this somewhat easier, but it’s not

Many hybrids allow a driver to

uncommon for a battery pack to impact

select different driving modes for the

cargo space in some way.

standards. Hybrids have increasingly

mission at hand. One option is to run

Most consumers’ perception of

become an accepted powertrain option

in electric mode, which programs the

hybrid vehicles is that they are smaller

and with gas prices forever fluctuat-

system to maximize use of the electric

economy cars that deliver 50 miles per

ing, consumers are demanding more

motor and drive exclusively on battery

gallon…chalk that one up to the Prius.

fuel efficient options. Advancing hybrid

power when there’s sufficient charge.

Larger SUVs, though, are a great appli-

technology is a sure way to meet those

Another common setting is an ‘Eco’ or

cation for a hybrid powertrain, particu-

demands for generations.

economy mode that somewhat deadens

larly in the luxury market. In a larger

initial accelerator response to force a

luxury vehicle, the cost of the hybrid

smoother, more efficient driving style that brings higher mpg. Many hybrids also offer a sport or performance mode that programs the car’s on-board computer to deliver maximum performance and a more responsive accelerator feel.

Purpose-built hybrid models like the Toyota Prius that are designed from the very beginning for hybrid operation often offer advantages in terms of space efficiency. Simply, designing a car around hybrid power allows seamlessly accommodating batteries 22 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

For the past 15 years Prius has set the pace for hybrids.

WELLCONNECTED B Y

P

B I L L

S I U R U

lug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) combine the functionality of a gasoline-electric

hybrid with the zero-emission capabilities of an all-electric vehicle. Unlike conventional hybrids that rely solely on an internal combustion engine and regenerative braking to charge their batteries, PHEVs also allow batteries to be charged through an electrical outlet or EV charging station.

A PHEV’s battery pack is significantly larger and more powerful than a conventional hybrid, but still quite smaller

than that of a dedicated battery electric vehicle. Thus, a PHEV’s electric driving

add several thousand dollars to a hybrid’s

or, depending on its configuration, pow-

purchase price. For example, Ford’s

ers its motors with electricity created

Fusion and C-MAX Energi models use a

by an on-board internal combustion

7.6 kilowatt-hour lithium-ion battery that

engine-generator. For this reason, PHEVs

provides about 21 miles of electric-only

are often called extended range electric

driving. This compares to the smaller and

vehicles (EREVs).

less expensive 1.4 kilowatt-hour battery

Calculating PHEV fuel economy is

A plug-in hybrid’s real advantage is driving on battery power with no EV ‘range anxiety.’

range is shorter than an electric vehicle.

Still, the added functionality of 10 to 40

in Ford hybrids without plug-in capabil-

complicated due to differing operating

miles of zero-emission electric driving is

ity. The kilowatt-hour capacity of a bat-

modes – all-electric with no gasoline

a real plus to many hybrid owners.

tery is an indicator of the miles a PHEV

used, combined electric and gasoline use,

Examples of PHEVs already avail-

can travel in electric-only mode, much like

and gasoline-only operation. Plus, series

able to U.S. consumers include the BMW

the gasoline in a conventional car’s tank

and parallel plug-in hybrids operate dif-

13 and i8, Chevrolet Volt, Cadillac ELR,

indicates its range.

ferently. For this reason, federal PHEV

Ford C-MAX Energi, Ford Fusion Energi,

A PHEV’s greatest advantage is that

fuel economy labels have been established

Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Porsche

driving range is not limited by the finite

to illustrate a plug-in hybrid’s expected

Panamera S E-Hybrid, and Toyota Prius

battery capacity carried on board, thus

efficiency measured in miles-per-gallon

Plug-In. Other PHEVs from various auto-

there is no ‘range anxiety.’ Once battery

(MPG) when running on gasoline-electric

makers are in the works.

power is depleted, a PHEV reverts to

hybrid power and MPGe (miles-per-gallon

The larger battery pack in a PHEV can

conventional gasoline-hybrid operation

equivalent) when running on electricity.

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 23

ALTERNAT An Answer to Petroleum Dependence?

T

B Y

R O N

C O G A N

here has been serious interest

Alternative fuels like natural gas, pro-

petroleum fuels.

in alternative fuels through-

pane autogas, alcohol fuels (ethanol/

According to the Department of

out the motor vehicle’s long

methanol), biodiesel, synthetic fuels,

Energy, in summer 2014 the average per-

history. In fact, Rudolf Diesel

electricity, and hydrogen have dominat-

gallon cost of gasoline was $3.70 and

demonstrated his compression engine

ed this interest, driven by an imperative

diesel $3.91. In comparison, the cost of

running on peanut oil in the late 1800s

to replace petroleum-based fuels and

fuel alternatives were both higher and

and Henry Ford expected his Model T

decrease tailpipe emissions, and more

lower than these traditional fuels with

would run on ethanol. While fossil fuels

recently to reduce transportation-relat-

B20 biodiesel $3.98, E85 ethanol $3.23,

have reigned since then, oil shortages

ed CO2 greenhouse gases. With such

propane $3.07, and natural gas $2.17

caused by Arab oil embargoes in the

promise, this begs the question why

(gallon of gas equivalent).

1970s and 1980s triggered a renewed

alternative fuels aren’t yet widely avail-

Cost comparisons are instructive

emphasis in alternatives that resonates

able in the U.S. The answer is simple,

but it’s also important to look at the

to this day.

big picture since energy density of

and complicated.

The differential cost

each fuel varies and this can influence

between gasoline and

miles-per-gallon, and thus cost per mile

diesel versus other fuels

driven. Typical fuel economy will some-

has historically been an

what decrease when running on natural

important factor, but this

gas and propane and be substantially

changes with the times,

lower with E85 ethanol (85 percent eth-

the political climate, and in

anol/15 percent gasoline). B20 biodiesel

the case of propane auto-

(20 percent biodiesel/80 percent petro-

gas, the seasons. Plus, as

diesel) offers no noticeable difference

domestic oil production

in fuel economy.

significantly increases

One of the most serious challenges

due to new oil field

to widespread alternative fuel use is

discoveries, hydraulic

a lack of infrastructure to widely dis-

fracturing extrac-

tribute these alternative fuels. Today,

tion (fracking), and

DOE’s Alternative Fuel Data Center

petroleum pro-

indicates there are about 15,000 public

duction from

stations dispensing various alternative

Canada’s tar

fuels nationwide, a number that’s far

oil sands, the

eclipsed by the 120,000 gasoline sta-

issues of for-

tions that conveniently dispense con-

eign oil depen-

ventional fuels today.

dence and

24 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

supply dimin-

THE LINEUP

ish and this

Natural gas is the cleanest-burning fos-

can temper

sil fuel with about 90% used in the U.S.

the urgency

being produced here and most of the

to further

rest produced in Canada. Today, only

develop non-

two compressed natural gas passenger

TIVEFUELS cars are sold by automakers in the U.S.

a vehicle in about five minutes, these

Honda’s Civic Natural Gas, which this

slow-fill devices refuel a vehicle over-

automaker has assembly line produced

night, just like recharging an electric

since 1998, runs exclusively on com-

vehicle at home.

pressed natural gas (CNG) and has a

CNG is stored on board vehicles in

driving range of just over 200 miles per

cylindrical gaseous storage vessels at

tank. The new 2015 Chevrolet Impala

3,000 to 3,600 psi. Liquefied natural gas

Bi-Fuel is capable of seamlessly run-

(LNG) used in heavy-duty commercial

ning on CNG or gasoline. Ford, GM, and

trucks is stored in cryogenic tanks at

Ram Truck also offer pickups and vans

-260 F. Natural gas vehicles emit less

propane in the U.S., with most of these conversions. Propane autogas is even more popular than CNG in Europe with virtually every automotive brand offering propane autogas capability, either from the factory or as aftermarket conversions. There are also nearly 30,000 propane autogas stations in Europe, driven by this fuel’s lower fuel cost.

Domestic availability of propane is better than other alternative fuels.

While traditional fueling opportunities at stations are relatively limited, there are many thousands of fueling points available that dispense propane, most of them just large propane cylinders with a hose and fittings that are mainly used to refill tanks for BBQ grilles and recrethat run on CNG and several aftermarket

carbon monoxide, non-methane organic

ational vehicles.

companies convert specific gasoline or

gases, and oxides of nitrogen emissions,

Propane autogas is different from

diesel vehicles to run on CNG as well.

with fewer greenhouse gases and only

natural gas. Although both are hydrocar-

Since virtually every home and busi-

tiny amounts of particulate matter.

bon fuels, LPG is comprised primarily of

ness has natural gas service, a refuel-

Propane autogas, more commonly

propane and butane while CNG and LNG

ing infrastructure of sorts is already in

known as propane or liquefied petroleum

are mostly methane. Virtually all LPG

place. By using an appliance like BRC

gas/LPG, is the third most popular trans-

used in U.S. is produced domestically.

Fuel Maker’s Phill, a natural gas vehicle

portation fuel in many countries, after

Like CNG, this alternative fuel produces

can be refueled at home or at the work-

gasoline and diesel. There are nearly

less nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide,

place. Unlike the fast-fill CNG dispens-

150,000 vehicles such as police cars,

unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate

ers found at stations that can refuel

taxis, and school buses operating on

emissions than traditional motor fuels, Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 25

ALTERNATIVEFUELS Biodiesel is a cleaner-burning fuel made from domestically renewable feedstocks such as soybeans, peanuts, cottonseed, sunflower seeds, rapeseed, jatropha, and canola. It also can be made from vegetable oils such as frying oil and waste animal fats.

An increasingly interesting potential for biodiesel production comes from algaculture. Algae grows naturally all over the world with over 100,000 different species, many that can be converted into biodiesel and other biofuels.

Algaculture can use land unsuitable for growing conventional crops, including arid land and areas with excessively saline soil and groundwater. It can also Chevy’s 2015 Impala Bi-Fuel is the only factory-produced sedan in the U.S. that can run on CNG and gasoline.

use seaweed abundant in the world’s oceans as well as industrial and municipal wastewater. Importantly, algae can

with CO2 emissions decreased some 20

with food for these feedstocks and thus

produce up to 300 times more oil per

percent compared to gasoline.

is quite controversial. This could be

acre than conventional crops.

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is an example

solved by cellulosic ethanol produced

Most manufacturers’ warranties have

of what happens when alternative fuel

from waste agricultural products and

limited their vehicle’s use to B5 (5% bio-

vehicle production far outpaces the dis-

non-food feedstock that use less energy

diesel/95% petrodiesel) or B20. Diesel

tribution infrastructure. For years, the

to grow. Cellulosic ethanol is being, or

powered Ford, Chevrolet, GMC, and Ram

federal government has provided incen-

soon will be, produced on a commercial

light trucks are warranted for B20 as is

tives for automakers to produce flexible-

scale at four locations in the U.S. Critics

the Chevrolet Cruze Diesel, with more

fuel vehicles capable of running seam-

say it takes more energy to produce etha-

B20 approvals in the wings. Vehicles can

lessly on E85 ethanol or gasoline from

nol than the energy it saves, although

run quite well on pure B100 biodiesel as

the same tank. However, without com-

Argonne National Laboratory points out

shown by a thriving homebuilt biodiesel

panion incentives for developing a fuel-

that if 100 BTUs of energy are used to

conversion community.

We now have 90 ethanol-capable models totaling 16 million vehicles on American roads but only 3,250 E85 retail fueling stations. ing infrastructure, we now have some 90

plant corn, harvest the crop, and trans-

Combustion of biodiesel results in

ethanol-capable vehicle models totaling

port it, 138 BTUs of energy are available

reduced unburned hydrocarbons, carbon

16 million vehicles on American roads

in the fuel ethanol...a net 38 percent

monoxide, and particulate matter, with

but only 3,250 E85 retail stations provid-

increase in energy availability.

a negligible increase in nitrogen oxide

ing this fuel, mostly in the mid-western

E85 reduces oxides of nitrogen, carbon

emissions. Feedstocks absorb CO2 during

U.S. The result is that the vast majority of

monoxide, and carbon dioxide emissions.

growth to make this biofuel essentially

these FFVs drive exclusively on gasoline.

Its higher hydrocarbon emissions can be

carbon-neutral. There is no sulfur in

Ethanol is typically produced from

mitigated by exhaust emission control

biodiesel so it works well with catalysts,

corn although other grains like wheat

systems. Ethanol advocates point out

particulate traps, exhaust gas recircu-

and barley can be used. The challenge

that CO2 emissions are offset by the CO2

lation, and other systems designed to

is that ethanol production competes

absorbed by feedstock crops as they grow.

reduce diesel emissions.

26 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

HYDROGEN HIGHWAY M

any believe hydrogen to have the greatest potential of all alternative fuels, not

only for vehicles but as a primary energy source for all aspects of life. Used in fuel cells to electrochemically create electricity for powering a vehicle’s electric motors, hydrogen produces no emissions other than water vapor and heat. There are no CO2 or other greenhouse gases.

While hydrogen is largely extracted from methane today, there are bigger things on the horizon. Hydrogen is a virtually unlimited resource when electrolyzing water using solar- or wind-generated electricity, a process that splits H2O Hyundai has recently followed suit with

ues to evolve. A new study by Sandia

its Tucson Fuel Cell crossover vehicle,

National Laboratory focused on 70 gas

also available to limited numbers of

stations in California – the state with

consumers in California where hydrogen

the largest number of existing hydrogen

refueling is more readily available. Both

stations –to determine if any could add

Honda and Toyota have announced plans

hydrogen fueling based on requirements

to introduce next-generation production

of the 2011 NFPA 2 hydrogen technolo-

fuel cell vehicles for consumers in 2015.

gies code. The conclusion is that 14 of

As with any game-changing technol-

the 70 stations explored could readily

(water) into hydrogen (H) and oxygen

ogy, hydrogen vehicles come with their

accept hydrogen fuel, with an additional

(O) molecules. Water covers much of the

challenges. Hydrogen vehicles are pres-

17 potentially able to integrate hydrogen

Earth’s surface and is the most abundant

ently quite costly to produce, although

with property expansions. In this light,

compound on the planet.

their cost to consumers who lease them

expanding the network of hydrogen sta-

Many automakers have hydrogen vehi-

will surely be subsidized by manu-

tions may be more straightforward than

cle development programs underway and

facturers until this field matures. The

previously thought.

some, like GM and Honda, are working

production of ‘green’ hydrogen through

Even amid these challenges, with

cooperatively to develop next-generation

electrolysis and other means is also pres-

major commitments from automakers

fuel cell systems and hydrogen storage.

ently limited and costly, plus the nation’s

like Honda, Toyota, GM, and others in

In recent years, Honda has been leasing

hydrogen refueling infrastructure is

Europe and Asia, hydrogen vehicles are a

its FCX Clarity fuel cell sedan to limited

extremely sparse, although growing.

very real and exciting possibility for the

numbers of consumers in California and

The hydrogen vehicle field contin-

road ahead. - Ron Cogan Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 27

VOICES :: By Mitch Bainwol

>

A HUGE BREAKTHROUGH IN FUEL ECONOMY

A steady stream of advanced powertrains, new fuel-efficient systems like stop/start, and more alternative fuels have helped raise fuel economy to new heights in recent years, but the latest breakthrough in energyefficient cars may surprise you: safety technology.

You got it. Safety equals green. New safety systems are fuel economy game-changers, because fewer crashes mean less congestion, less fuel use, and fewer carbon emissions.

Recently in a white paper on autonomous vehicles, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) noted that “Vehicle control systems that automatically accelerate and brake with the flow of traffic can conserve fuel more efficiently than the average driver. By eliminating a large number of vehicle crashes, highly effective crash avoidance technologies can reduce fuel consumption by also eliminating the traffic congestion that crashes cause every day on our roads.”

NHTSA is referring to a new generation of energy-saving, life-saving technologies on our roads – and often these systems are money-saving and time-saving, too.

Real-time navigation in cars helps drivers keep their eyes on the road while diverting them around traffic. The Texas Transportation Institute estimates that, in 2011, congestion in 498 metropolitan areas caused Americans to travel 5.5 billion hours more and buy an extra 2.9 billion gallons of fuel, for a congestion cost of $121 billion.

Adaptive cruise control is a new driver assist that automatically keeps a safe distance from the car ahead, keeping traffic running smoothly. A report by MIT estimates that a 20 percent reduction in accelerations and decelerations should lead to a 5 percent reduction in fuel consumption and carbon emissions.

The Federal Highway Administration estimates that 25 percent of congestion is attributable to traffic incidents, around half of which are crashes. Sophisticated automatic braking technology helps drivers avoid crashes, and fewer fender benders improve fuel economy since drivers spend less time idling in traffic.

In the future, autonomous cars may enhance road safety while giving us a leg up on fuel efficiency. After analyzing government data, Morgan Stanley observed, “To be conservative, we assume an autonomous car can be 30 percent more efficient than an equivalent nonautonomous car. Empirical tests have demonstrated that level of fuel savings from cruise control use/smooth driving styles alone. If we were to reduce the nation’s $535 billion gasoline bill by 30 percent that would save us $158 billion.”

With all these benefits, clearly the traditional definition of ‘fuel economy’ is restrictive and counter-productive. We can achieve much more with a broader view. Here’s how.

The federal government established a national fuel economy/greenhouse gas program with the ambitious goal to nearly double fuel economy by 2025. Our compliance is based on the fuel efficiency of what we sell, not what we offer for sale. While consumers have more choices than ever in energy-efficient automobiles, if they don’t buy them in large volumes, we fall short. So we will need every technology available to make this steep climb.

We can still squeeze more fuel savings from safety and congestion-mitigation technologies, but these systems reduce fuel use in ways not apparent in government mileage tests so the government doesn’t consider them towards meeting federal standards.

In the future, autonomous cars may enhance road safety while giving us a leg up on fuel efficiency.

The federal government should recognize the real-world fuel economy improvements from these safety technologies.

In fact, the government can encourage their deployment by allowing automakers to count the demonstrated fuel economy benefits of these safety technologies towards meeting their compliance with the federal fuel economy program.

While automakers don’t advocate speeding, we are urging regulators to put the pedal to the metal on this priority. More rapid adoption of these new technologies will help keep drivers safer, avoid traffic congestion, save time, save money, and reduce fuel use.

— Mitch Bainwol is president and CEO of the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, www.autoalliance.org 28 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

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THE HYDROGEN FUTURE HON DA’S NEXT -GENE RAT IO N F U E L CE LL ELEC TRIC VEHICLE IS CO M ING IN 2 0 15

IT IS A CERTAINTY THAT ELECTRIC DRIVE will play an important part in our driving future.

Whether powered solely by batteries or electricity generated by an on-board hydrogen fuel cell, vehicle electrification delivers high efficiency and zero localized emissions while presenting an ultra-low carbon strategy for the road ahead.

Honda has a long history with vehicle electrification, from its hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle prototype in 1999 and Insight gasoline-electric hybrid production model introduced that same year, to the recently-unveiled Honda FCEV Concept hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle. In between there have been many electrified Honda products including battery electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid models, two generations of FCX limited production hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles, and the FCX Clarity. Now, Honda is poised to introduce its most advanced third generation fuel cell electric vehicle in 2015.

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Honda FCEV Concept

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Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles present an ideal answer

STAIRSTEPS TO THE FUTURE

to the need for sustainable mobility. They offer the efficiency

Several decades of fuel cell research and development at Honda

and emissions benefits of battery electric vehicles with some

have led to milestone achievements enabling this seamless

important differences. In fuel cell vehicles, the electric motor is

operation on hydrogen. Honda’s first-generation FCX fuel cell

powered by a fuel cell where on board hydrogen meets up with

hatchback introduced in 2002 gained extensive real-world

oxygen to create electricity, without combustion or any emissions

testing with government fleets and select individuals, paving the

other than water vapor. Hydrogen is the most abundant element

way for the consumer friendly FCX Clarity. The next-generation

in the universe and can be created with many different energy

Honda fuel cell vehicle coming in 2015 benefits from the Clarity’s

sources including renewables like solar, wind, and hydroelectric.

real-world experience and that of the earlier FCX.

The early developmental vehicles that marked this field’s long

Along the way, Honda refined its fuel cell technology to operate

trajectory have made way to production fuel cell electric vehicles

in hot and sub-freezing temperature extremes and damp coastal

like Honda’s FCX Clarity. Offered to retail consumers in 2008, this

environments. Additional breakthroughs were achieved in fuel

remarkable fuel cell sedan featured crisp acceleration, excellent

cell stack size, efficiency, and packaging, plus fuel cell vehicle

handling, and an accommodating four-passenger cabin.

Driving range is a real advantage with hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles. The FCX Clarity could be driven 240 miles between fill-ups, with refueling at a hydrogen station taking about five minutes. The result? Anxiety-free zero-emission driving.

In other words, even though this sedan ran on hydrogen, it provided a satisfying, fun-to-drive, and familiar driving experience in every respect.

Honda FCX Clarity

FUEL CELL HISTORY AT HONDA

assembly line production. The FCX Clarity benefited from these advancements, proving that hydrogen fuel cell technology could be successfully integrated into a sedan in ways invisible to a driver.

Research on Fuel Cell powered 1986 vehicles begins at Honda R&D

In contrast to the incremental development curve of electric car batteries, the pathway to hydrogen fuel cells is more a series of ‘stairsteps’ in technology leaps. These leaps include Honda’s

Honda debuts world’s first Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicle 1999 prototype – Honda FCX-V1

amazing 33 percent reduction in fuel cell stack size and 60 percent improvement in power density compared to the FCX Clarity that now

Honda delivers FCX to world’s first individual Fuel 2005 Cell customer Honda debuts all-new FCX Clarity sedan, which delivers performance, driving range, 2007 and comfort on par with a four-cylinder Accord Sedan

2002 Honda FCX becomes first Fuel Cell vehicle certified by U.S. government for commercial use

make it possible to package and integrate hydrogen fuel cell technology in the engine bay of a sedan, with assembly line speed and precision as is done today at Honda automobile production plants around the world.

2006

Honda increases FCX range to an EPA estimated 210 miles

These leaps will continue and are being supported with development programs like Honda’s recently announced joint research work with General Motors, which aims at fuel cell component cost reductions and

2008

Honda delivers FCX Clarity to first retail customer

further improvements at the materials science level.

Honda is leading the way toward sustainable mobility with its coming next-generation fuel cell electric vehicle and continuing electric

Honda debuts new Fuel Cell 2013 Concept at L.A. Auto Show

drivetrain development. As government, industry, stakeholders, and 2015

Honda and GM 2013 collaboration advances thru Fuel Cell technologies 2020 toward the future

Honda plans to bring to market an all-new Fuel Cell vehicle

consumers step up to drive the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles and be pioneers in this evolving field, we’ll reach the goal of low carbon and sustainable transportation sooner than imagined.

For more information on Honda’s hydrogen fuel cell activities see world.honda.com/FuelCell

VOICES :: By Dr. Alan Lloyd

>

ELECTRIC DRIVE CAN GET US THERE

It is an exciting time to be involved with the auto industry, or to be in the market for a new car. The auto industry has responded splendidly to the challenge of new emission, fuel economy, and safety standards. The public is offered a greater than ever selection of vehicles with different powertrains, lightweight materials, hybrids, and electric drive vehicles across many platforms. We see increasing numbers of clean diesel vehicles and natural gas is making a resurgence, especially in the heavy-duty sector.

The positive response by the auto industry to the ever-tightening pollutant emission and fuel economy standards includes tactics such as the use of aluminum in the Ford F-150 and the increased use of carbon fiber by BMW, among many innovations introduced across many models and drivetrains. These evolutionary changes are a major tribute to the automobile engineers who are wringing out the most they can in efficiency and reduced emissions from gasoline and diesel engines. I view this evolutionary change as necessary, but not sufficient to meet our greenhouse gas goals by 2050.

New car ownership is currently down in Europe and is leveling off in the U.S. For global automotive manufacturers, however, this trend is offset by the dramatic growth in places like China and India. The potential for dramatic growth in the developing world is clearly evident: In the U.S., there are about 500 cars per thousand people, compared to about 60 and 20 in China and India, respectively.

How can these trends be reconciled with the environmental and health concerns due to climate change and adverse air quality in the developing world? The evidence for climate change accumulates by the day. Hazardous air quality in many major cities in China has drawn global attention, providing a visual reminder of how far the developed world has come and how much environmental protection needs to be accelerated in the developing world. Damaging air pollution is increasingly seen as a regional and even worldwide challenge. Dramatic economic growth in many developing countries is generating pollution that knows no boundaries. Air pollution from China, for example, fumigates Korea and Japan and is even transported across the Pacific to impact air quality in California and other Western states.

It will take a revolutionary change to provide personal mobility without unacceptable energy and environmental consequences. As a recent National Academy of Sciences (NAS) document states, it is likely that a major shift to electric drive vehicles would be required in the next 20 to 30 years. Electric drive vehicles, coupled with renewable energy, can achieve essentially zero carbon and conventional pollutant emissions.

The NAS report also predicted that the costs of both battery and fuel-cell electric vehicles would be less than advanced conventional vehicles in the 2035-2040 timeframe.

This transition will not occur overnight and we will be driving advanced conventional vehicles for many years to come. In a study for the International Council on Clean Transportation, Dr. David Greene calculated that the transition could take 10 to 15 years, requiring sustained investment in infrastructure and incentives in order to achieve sustained penetration. While this investment is not inexpensive, it is projected that the benefits of this investment will be 10 times greater than the costs.

I have little doubt that if we are serious about our energy, environmental, and greenhouse gas goals the revolution in technology will occur. All the major automobile companies seem to recognize this in their technology roadmap, which includes advanced conventional vehicles, plug-in hybrid vehicles, battery and fuel cell electric vehicles.

In conclusion, the next 25 years promise to be equally as challenging and exciting as the last 25 years. I have little doubt that the automobile engineers are up to the task ahead, but whether we have the political fortitude to stay the course to achieve the necessary air pollution and GHG reductions is far less certain.

The next 25 years promise to be equally as challenging and exciting as the last 25 years.

— Dr. Alan Lloyd is President Emeritus of the nonprofit International Council on Clean Transportation, www. theicct.org. He formerly served as Secretary of CalEPA and Chairman of the California Air Resources Board.

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 31

Finalists Announced for 2015 Award Program B Y

Green Car Journal has been honoring vehicles and technologies that raise the bar in more environmentally positive mobility for a decade now.

G R E E N

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C A R

E D I T O R S

he need for increasingly efficient and more environmentally positive vehicles is an imperative. Automakers have stepped up to meet the challenge in a big way, transcending early efforts that focused primarily

on a few select hybrid models and smaller vehicles to a more inclusive approach that now includes hybrids, electric vehicles, clean diesel, high efficiency gasoline, and alternative fuel models in wide-ranging vehicle classes. Their use of innovative ‘green’ technologies and efficiency measures is making a real difference in reducing CO2 and tailpipe emissions and reducing environmental impact. These achievements deserve to be recognized.

Green Car Journal has been honoring vehicles and technologies that raise the bar in more environmentally positive mobility for a decade now, beginning with the very first Green Car of the Year® award presented at the L.A. Auto Show in late 2005. This program has now expanded to five awards at three North American auto shows – the L.A. Auto Show in California, the San Antonio Auto & Truck Show in Texas, and the Washington Auto Show in DC – illustrating just how far this field has come and how important ‘green’ vehicles are to the automotive market.

Here, then, are the finalists for Green Car Journal’s five high-profile awards for the 2015 model year.

32 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

2015 GREEN CAR TECHNOLOGY AWARD FINALISTS

2015 GREEN SUV OF THE YEAR FINALISTS

BMW i8 Plug-In Hybrid Powertrain BMW i3 REx Range Extender Chevrolet CNG Bi-Fuel Powertrain Ford F-150 Aluminum Body Ford 2.7-liter EcoBoost V-6 Honda 1.5-liter Earth Dreams Engine Kia Soul Electric Powertrain Tesla Dual Motor AWD Volvo Drive-E Powertrain VW e-Golf Electric Powertrain

Honda CR-V Hyundai Tucson Fuel Cell Jeep Grand Cherokee EcoDiesel Lexus NX 300h Mazda CX-5

2015 LUXURY GREEN CAR OF THE YEAR FINALISTS Audi A8 TDI BMW i8 Cadillac ELR Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid Tesla Model S

*WINNERS ANNOUNCED JANUARY 22 AT THE WASHINGTON AUTO SHOW

2015 GREEN CAR OF THE YEAR FINALISTS

2015 GREEN TRUCK OF THE YEAR FINALISTS

Audi A3 TDI BMW i3 Chevrolet Impala Bi-Fuel Honda Fit VW Golf

Chevrolet Colorado Ford F-150 GMC Canyon Ram 1500 EcoDiesel Ram 1500 HFE

*WINNER ANNOUNCED NOVEMBER 20 AT THE LOS ANGELES AUTO SHOW

*WINNER ANNOUNCED NOVEMBER 6 AT THE SAN ANTONIO AUTO & TRUCK SHOW

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 33

LONG-TERM TEST>

2014 HONDA ACCORD HYBRID DRIVING 10,000 MILES IN OUR 2014 GREEN CAR OF THE YEAR

T

B Y

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C O G A N

Photography by Ian Billings

he Accord lineup that won

with the hybrid a reasonable $29,900.

on front light lenses, grille, and rear LED

Green Car Journal’s 2014

The fully-loaded $36,600 Accord Hybrid

tail lamps, plus a decklid spoiler and

Green Car of the Year® award

Touring is the one we tapped for a year-

unique wheels. Our tester is further dis-

is sleek, stylish, and sophisticated in an

long test to experience daily life with

tinguished with a dealer-installed Honda

unassuming way. It’s also packed with

Honda’s 50 mpg sedan.

aero package with front, rear, and aide

technology and comes with an array of

Unique design features distinguish the

underbody spoilers.

efficient powertrain choices including

Accord Hybrid from the already-pleas-

Power is supplied by Honda’s Two-

high mpg gasoline, hybrid, and plug-in

ingly aggressive style of the standard,

Motor Hybrid Intelligent Multi-Mode

hybrid variants, starting out at a very

new-for-2014 Accord. These include LED

Drive (i-MMD) system, a mouthful-of-a-

approachable MSRP just over $22,000

daytime running lights and blue-accents

name that earns its ‘intelligent’ designa-

34 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

tion. The 196 horsepower hybrid system

All this brings a very impressive 50

Time spent in the Accord Hybrid

achieves optimum efficiency through

mpg city fuel economy rating and 45 mpg

Touring’s accommodating cabin comes

intelligent and seamless transitions

on the highway. With the Accord’s 12.2

with an immersion of advanced electron-

between all-electric drive, internal com-

gallon fuel tank, filling up always shows

ics complemented by an 8-inch multi-

bustion drive, and hybrid drive depend-

a whopping miles-to-empty read of well

information display and an audio touch

ing on driving circumstances.

over 600 miles. This considerable driv-

screen compatible with smart phone

The hybrid sedan is responsive and

ing range has come in handy many times

features. Its electronics user interface

confident on the road with ample

during extended road trips, including a

is easy to use and driver assistive tech-

power at the ready, delivered through a

trek from California’s Central Coast to

nologies invaluable, including Forward

capable electric continuously variable

San Diego and back on a single tank.

Collision Warning, Lane Departure

transmission (E-CVT). Eco mode can

These drives are often made with the

Warning, and rear view camera with

be selected to tone down performance

Accord’s adaptive cruise control engaged,

LaneWatch blind spot display.

a bit to enhance fuel efficiency. The

a feature that automatically keeps a safe

The bottom line: Great styling, a bevy

Accord Hybrid’s regenerative braking

driving distance from the car ahead. It

of advanced electronics, and impressive

system feeds electricity back to the car’s

works seamlessly in adapting to traf-

efficiency – all wrapped in an aggres-

lithium-ion batteries immediately upon

fic speed and flow and is actually quite

sively handsome design –make Honda’s

lifting off the accelerator, rather than

amazing. Drives are smooth and comfort-

award-winning Accord Hybrid truly

starting when braking is applied.

able both on the open road and in traffic.

hard to beat.

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 35

IMAGINING THE ROAD AHEAD

Our Favorite ‘Green’ Concepts Over The Years B Y

G R E E N

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J O U R N A L

E D I T O R S

he inspiring concept vehicles introduced at auto shows are windows to our driving future. Some will never make it beyond their wild concept stage, while others will lead directly to production models. All offer hints of future

styling direction or innovative on-board electronics and propulsion. We’ve appreciated

Honda’s hydrogen-powered FCX concept presents an ideal example of how a concept car can lead directly to a limited production car with few changes. The FCX also previewed Honda’s design language in coming years.

many concepts over the past 25 years and thought we’d share some of our favorites.

Peter Horbury, head designer at Volvo and now VP of design at Volvo parent Geely, designed the transformational Volvo Environmental Concept Car (ECC) we test drove in 1992.

36 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

Volvo’s ECC championed hybrid power as an answer to California’s Zero Emission Vehicle mandate while sharing a revolutionary design language that would influence future Volvo models.

Audi’s low-slung, carbon fiber e-tron Spyder is powered by a bi-turbo, 3.0-liter V-6 TDI at the rear and a pair of front-mounted electric motors up front.

Driving a concept car is a rare experience, but one we enjoyed between auto show appearances in Audi’s aggressively-styled diesel-electric e-tron Spyder.

Cadillac’s Urban Luxury Concept combines aggressive crossover styling with a 1.0-liter engine and electric motor for efficiently driving crowded urban environments.

The swoopy Renault DeZir offered super car looks and efficient electric operation, with a 150 hp electric motor mounted mid-ship and a KERS kinetic energy recovery system for quick launches.

The ECC’s innovative HSG powerplant used a high-speed turbine generator to create electricity for driving an electric motor, a predictor of future hybrid power back in 1993.

The gull-winged Ford Reflex concept showcased diesel-electric hybrid power up front and an additional electric motor at the rear, with early integration of advanced lithium-ion batteries.

GM’s milestone Impact electric car prototype debuted at the 1990 L.A. Auto Show, leading the way to the modern electric car age and the production EV1.

Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 37

Darth Vader meets crossover in the Nissan Mixim, a gull-winged concept conceived to appeal to the computer generation with electric power and controls that mimic a game controller.

Collaboratively designed by ItaldesignGiugiaro and Toyota, the Alessandro Volta supercar concept integrated a 3.3-liter V-6 to create electricity for charging batteries and powering front and rear motors.

While whimsical, the Ford Airstream concept forwarded serious thought that a vehicle could be powered by a hybrid powertrain with lithium-ion batteries and an on-board fuel cell generator.

Saab makes fighter jets as well as automobiles, something clearly illustrated by the automaker’s sensuous Aero X concept. Bioethanol powered its 400 horsepower, 2.8-liter V-6.

Hyundai showed how wickedly cool a crossover could be with its Nuvis concept, which incorporated gull wing doors and a sharp body design with hybrid power.

38 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars

We could imagine a successor to the ubiquitous VW Microbus with VW’s Bulli concept, which brings waves of nostalgia along with lithium-ion electric power and a purported 185 mile range.

The Volt concept car that led to the production Chevrolet Volt shared new GM design language and hot rod influence with its top-chop style roofline.

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