Preface
Our vision To deliver a variety of information in joyful manner that is close to the mind of our audience Why did we choose the magazine as a start? As first of all, magazines are less harder than text books and references, in presenting facts . Also it contain a variety of content. Why it was named PharmTech? Our aim is to involve the technology use in science, and here was in Pharmacy. And was the name PharmTech.
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Index
Pharmacy: What’s next Drug Delivery & Self-assembling-------------------------1 CRISPR Cas9----------------------------------------------------5 Genome editing with engineered nucleases----------7 Use of aspirin in cancer prevention--------------------12 Academics success Myths and facts about top students-1 -----------------3 Pharmacy as a Business Bayer the company that rose from the ash------------9 Brand Name vs. Generic ----------------------------------13 Pharmacy Mistakes The recall of Cerivastatin----------------------------------11 Green Pharmacy The amazing ways plants defend themselves------15 Technology The Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) ----------8
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Drug Delivery & Self-assembling One promising approach to increase the efficacy of parenteral drug delivery is through the use of delivery vehicles. In this method, the administered drug is encapsulated within a material that releases the therapeutic in a controlled manner that optimizes the dosage for a specified period of time. For localized treatments, the delivery vehicle is acutely retained at the site of delivery, ensuring the local administration of the therapeutic. For therapeutics that are delivered through the vasculature, the delivery vehicle increases the circulation half-life, and in some cases, targets the therapeutic to a desired tissue. Irrespective of the delivery method (local or systemic), the material acts as a depot for high concentrations of therapeutic,
Over view Recent developments in the pharmaceutical industry have led to the discovery of new therapeutics that target specific diseases, genetic disorders, and chronic ailments. Due to limitations in bioavailability and formulation challenges associated with some of these pharmaceuticals, parenteral drug delivery is a necessary method of administration. This includes intravenous, subcutaneous, and intramuscular injection. For specific, localized treatments, other methods of delivery that involve invasive surgical procedures or material implantation are utilized.
providing a solubilizing and protective environment. These attributes have the potential to increase the shelf life of the therapeutic before administration as well as to improve its efficacy after administration. Accompanying the enhanced performance, there are possible reductions in dosing concentrations and frequency of administration, which can increase patient compliance. Current, commercially available therapies that employ drug vehicles are summarized in Table shows Commercial Brands, some of which are derived from self-assembled systems. The therapies in The formerly mentioned table utilize micelles, vesicles, microspheres, hydrogels, and solid implantable devices.
Administering drugs parenterally is often associated with poor retention of the pharmaceutical at the site of delivery for localized treatments. In the case of systemic delivery, short circulation half-lives can be problematic. To compensate for these drawbacks, drugs administered parenterally are typically done so at high concentrations or at high dosing frequencies. However, high concentrations of the drug can result in adverse side effects or can elicit an immune response. Thus, the invasive nature, the chronic, lengthy delivery procedure, and the low effectiveness of these therapies are frequently faced with patient discomfort and noncompliance.
Its Engineering Engineering delivery vehicles that use self-assembled materials offer an attractive alternative to crosslinked polymers, rubbers, and metallics. Molecular self-assembly is a process by which non-covalent, weak interactions formed between molecules drive their assembly and organization, affording supramolecular structures that define the material. Monitoring of the former table shows that, to date, self-assembly has been employed to construct mainly micelles and vesicles from lipids and polymers for delivery purposes. However, other structures such as tubules, fibrils, or complex systems such as molecular hydrogels can be prepared via self-assembly.
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Self-assembling materials Most self-assembling molecules are amphiphilic in structure, containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains. The hydrophilic portion can be charged (anionic, cationic, or zwitterionic) or uncharged. Amphiphilicity is imparted to a molecule by spatially segregating the hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions either along the length of the molecule or on distinct faces of a structured molecule. The concept of using amphiphilicity to drive molecular assembly is grounded in Nature, where amphiphilic molecules such as lipids, peptides, and proteins serve as building blocks for the construction of functional assemblies, such as cellular membranes, the cytoskeleton, and the extracellular matrix. One of the simplest amphiphilic structures is the lipid.
Molecular amphiphiles self-assemble to form a variety of nano- and microscale structures under aqueous solution. The most common three-dimensional structures include micelles, vesicles, and molecular gels composed of tubules, fibrils, and fibers. Micelles typically consist of a hydrophobic inner core that is surrounded by a hydrophilic solvent-exposed outer shell-Vesicles are spherical, hollow, lamellar structures that surround an aqueous core-Molecular hydrogels encompass one of the largest structures possible through self-assembly. Hydrogels are three-dimensional continuous networks of fibers surrounded by a liquid aqueous phase
*Zwitterionic, formerly called a dipolar ion, is a neutral molecule with both positive and negative electrical charges. Examples of self-assembling materials for therapeutic delivery The first self-assembled materials used as drug carriers were predominantly prepared from lipids. Vesicles (liposomes) and lipid-based micelles have been extensively studied, and have been investigated for drug delivery applications as early as the 1970s. As a result, a significant number of liposomal drug formulations are available commercially.
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Myths and facts about top students-1 #2. They study for 8+ hours a day , 7 days a week You're probably thinking "So they aren't exceptionally smart? then it must be something else...they must be doing a tremendous amount of studying!" not necessarily... assuming we have 2 students, X and Y, X studies chemistry for 10 hours everyday, his grade on chemistry test was lower than Y's who studies for 2 hours every other day. But why? because quality comes before quantity, top students (Y) know that 2 hours of focused studying is way better than skimming over notes for solid 10 hours. Number of hours you spend studying means nothing, it's what you do within the study session that matters.Of course you can multiply the number of hours you study after insuring you're doing it right; but make sure to keep your focus and energy levels high by taking regular breaks and studying at appropriate times...
What's the first image that pops into your head when you hear the word top student? That nerd you've never seen outside the class hall? or the girl with the glasses that accompanies no one but her books? the weirdo that spends his weekends at the library?
#3. They do nothing but studying Because Duuuh! If it's not on the curriculum then it is a waste of time for them! WRONG! extracurricular activities were found to have a positive effect on academic achievement.Top students know how to manage their time between their study,homework and hobbies.They don't get caught up by too much activities, they stick to two or three, prioritizing their studying. "If you want something to get done, give it to the busy person"they say.If you want some studying to get done give it to that student who runs a debate club and is a part of the orchestra...
ok, then you've probably gotten the wrong image! Top students are not necessarily bookworms or weird.., i mean.. we've all met that type of students that seems to study 24/7, but gets the worst results.And of course we've all met the type of students who you don't normally see at the library but gets straight A’s or distinctions.The latter one here is who were going to know better in this article.So if you're an undergraduate or a postgraduate student who's desperate to get better results, then this article is for you!
-Myths about top students: #1. They have high IQs... On a study performed by Ulric Nessier, the chair of psychology at the university of Emory, about the relationship between IQ and high academic performance, "There's not a single case of 1 to 1 relationship between IQ and academic achievement and a good many cases where there's a wide disparity between IQ ranks and ranks of academic achievement" he said.Simply because IQ helps in solving problems that are highly defined and have one correct answer such as in Math and chemistry;but is less appropriate for problems that have multiple answers or problems that require an individual to shift between perspectives or consider multiple viewpoints; which are the problems that takes a big proportion of the exams. So here you go! you don't need high intelligence to tackle your next exam! Top students have some study habits and skills that other students don't do, we'll get to know some of these in this article..
#4. They love studying They don't, nobody does, they don't go back home and feel excited for studying the new chemistry lesson! they feel tired, bored, they procrastinate.... surprise! they're human beings! But...they have strong self discipline, they don't feel like studying, but they do it anyway...they have clear goals, and they realize that in order to achieve them they have to work hard, stay consistent and push through the pain, because they know it's going to pay off later on!
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#5. They do all their homework assignments Top students realize the 20/80 rule. Only 20% of your work leads to 80% of the results. Homework and assignments are huge time suckers that don't participate to your final grades with more than 5-20%, so it's better to use that time studying for the exam that participate to 80% of your grades.
Of course that doesn't mean you should throw away all your assignments! But doing lots of them is something you should rethink..
#3. They make the most out of the lecture No matter how boring it is, they pay attention. Because even if the lecture doesn't add much to your understanding of the topic, your professor knows what needs to be understood and what is considered additional unnecessary information. Provided that you're going to be tested on what your professor said; not what the textbook is saying, and that the topics that your professor emphasize on, are probably going to be on your next midterm or final.
-facts about top students: #1. They study smarter Not just harder, because repeating your same old methods for longer time isn't going to get you any better. But what does it mean to study smarter? * Understanding that reading isn't studying, you feel familiar with the topic when you read it over and over, but feeling familiar is different from knowing, understanding, and remembering. You should actively engage yourself in the material by asking questions, finding examples, explaining to yourself, working problems and creating quiz... * Explaining what you learned to others, because as Albert Einstein said "If you can't explain it simply, you don't understand it well `enough". Teaching others helps you figure out the holes and weak points in your understanding, so you can refer to, and better understand it... * over learn, take the extra mile, try to deeply understand any concept instead of just memorizing it. It's not enough to memorize the steps of solving a problem, it's important to understand how to solve it, why a certain law or equation is used and even find out if there are easier methods. In addition; Knowing further about a topic solidify the basics that you need to know and makes them easier to recall... * use memory techniques such as, flash cards, mind maps, etc... * Find a good study group, people who you work complementary with... * Space your study sessions...
#4. They follow a study plan (timetable) I know... you've tried,I...I know...you throw it away every time, I know...yeah...I understand. Another study that Douglas Barton performed on year 11 students found that only a minority of students stick to the timetable for months and up to a year, and again within this minority top students were found. The reason that helped those students to stick to the timetable is how they create it in the first place. Top students start by putting their extracurricular activities, hobbies, socializing,and part time jobs. And then they fill in the empty spaces with the study sessions. As a results they don't feel overwhelmed by the amount of studying they need to do or the fun they need to sacrifice. They feel happier and more free, which increases their productivity... #5. They have a growth mindset They believe anything can be done through dedication and hard work.If they lose marks; they don't start feeling stupid and just give up, they never do that; they start working harder, finding new strategies, figuring out what they've done wrong, embracing their failures and learning from them.They understand that struggling makes them stronger and better.And again, they never give it up.
#2. They do practice exams On his TEDx talk, Douglas Barton explained the importance of practicing exams.On a study he performed on a group of year 11 students in the U.K and Australia, about what they did before the exams. A minority of 11% of the students did practice exams, and within this minority top students were found."They realize that an exam is not a test of memory" he said speaking about top students, "an exam does not test how much you can remember, it tests how you use what you remember".
Now that you've known the secret to success, don't you have some exams to conquer?
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CRISPR-Cas9 Genome editing with engineered nucleases (GEEN) Genome editing was selected by Nature Journal as the 2011 Method of the Year. Genome editing is a way of making specific changes to the DNA of a cell or organism. An enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific sequence, and when this is repaired by the cell a change or ‘edit’ is made to the sequence. What is genome editing? 1. Genome editing is a technique used to precisely and efficiently modify DNA within a Cell. 2. It involves making cuts at specific DNA sequences with enzymes called ‘engineered nucleases’. 3. Genome editing can be used to add, remove, or alter DNA in the Genome. 4. By editing the genome the characteristics of a cell or an organism can be changed. Genome editing can be used: 1. For research: Genome editing can be used to change the DNA in cells or organisms to understand their biology and how they work. 2. To treat disease: Genome editing has been used to modify human blood cells that are then put back into the body to treat conditions including leukaemia and AIDS. It could also potentially be used to treat other infections (such as MRSA) and simple genetic conditions (such as muscular dystrophy and haemophilia). 3. For biotechnology: Genome editing has been used in agriculture to genetically modify crops to improve their yields and resistance to disease and drought, as well as to genetically modify cattle that don’t have horns. How does genome editing work? Genome editing uses a type of enzyme called an ‘engineered nuclease’ which cuts the genome in a specific place. 1. Engineered nucleases are made up of two parts: -A nuclease part that cuts the DNA. -A DNA-targeting part that is designed to guide the nuclease to a specific sequence of DNA. 2. After cutting the DNA in a specific place, the cell will naturally repair the cut. 3. We can manipulate this repair process to make changes (or ‘edits’) to the DNA in that location in the genome.
Illustration showing the basic structure and function of engineered nucleases used for genome editing.
Types of genome editing 1) Small DNA changes 2) Removal of a section of DNA 3) Insertion of section of DNA Genome editing systems 1. Several ‘gene editing’ technologies have recently been developed to improve gene targeting methods, including CRISPR-Cas systems, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) and zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs). 2. They all contain a nuclease part to cut the DNA and a DNA-targeting part to recognize the DNA sequence they cut. 3. They mainly differ in how they recognize the DNA to cut: - RNA-based: contain a short sequence of RNA that binds to the target DNA to be cut. -Protein-based: contain a protein that recognizes and binds to the target DNA to be cut.
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The Buzz of CRISPR The CRISPR-Cas system was selected by Science Journal as 2015 Breakthrough of the Year. What is CRISPR-Cas9? 1. CRISPR is an abbreviation of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. 2. CRISPR-Cas9 is a unique technology that enables geneticists and medical researchers to edit parts of the genome . 3. It is currently the simplest, many-sided and precise method of genetic manipulation and is therefore causing a buzz in the science world. How was it developed? 1. Some bacteria have a similar, built-in, gene editing system to the CRISPR-Cas9 system that they use to respond to invading pathogens ; like viruses, much like an immune system.
2. Using CRISPR the bacteria snip out parts of the virus DNA and keep a bit of it behind to help them recognise and defend against the virus next time it attacks. 3. Scientists adapted this system so that it could be used in other cells from animals, including mice and humans. 4. The CRISPR-Cas9 system currently stands out as the fastest, cheapest and most reliable system for ‘editing’ genes. How does it work? The CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of two key molecules that introduce a change (mutation) into the DNA. These are: 1. An enzyme called Cas9. This acts as a pair of ‘molecular scissors’ that can cut the two strands of DNA at a specific location in the genome so that bits of DNA can then be added or removed. 2. A piece of RNA called guide RNA (gRNA). This consists of a small piece of pre-designed RNA sequence (about 20 bases long) located within a longer RNA scaffold. The scaffold part binds to DNA and the pre-designed sequence ‘guides’ Cas9 to the right part of the genome. This makes sure that the Cas9 enzyme cuts at the right point in the genome. 1. The guide RNA is designed to find and bind to a specific sequence in the DNA. The guide RNA has RNA bases that are complementary to those of the target DNA sequence in the genome. This means that, at least in theory, the guide RNA will only bind to the target sequence and no other regions of the genome. 2. The Cas9 follows the guide RNA to the same location in the DNA sequence and makes a cut across both strands of the DNA. 3. At this stage the cell recognizes that the DNA is damaged and tries to repair it. 4. Scientists can use the DNA repair machinery to introduce changes to one or more genes in the genome of a cell of interest.
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Diagram showing how the CRISPR-Cas9 editing tool works. Image credit: Genome Research Limited. What are the applications and implications? 1. CRISPR-Cas9 has a lot of potential as a tool for treating a range of medical conditions that have a genetic component, including cancer, hepatitis B or even high cholesterol. 2. Many of the proposed applications involve editing the genomes of somatic (non-reproductive) cells but there has been a lot of interest in and debate about the potential to edit germline (reproductive) cells. 3. Because any changes made in germline cells will be passed on from generation to generation it has important ethical implications. 4. By contrast, the use of CRISPR-Cas9 and other gene editing technologies in somatic cells is uncontroversial. Indeed they have already been used to treat human disease on a small number of exceptional and/or life-threatening cases. What’s the future of CRISPR-Cas9? 1. It is likely to be many years before CRISPR-Cas9 is used routinely in humans. 2. Much research is still focusing on its use in animal models or isolated human cells, with the aim to eventually use the technology to routinely treat diseases in humans. 3. There is a lot of work focusing on eliminating ‘off-target’ effects, where the CRISPR-Cas9 system cuts at a different gene to the one that was intended to be edited. 4. Cas9 is not the only enzyme in town, due to a recent discovery of a protein called Cpf1, which may make it even easier to edit genomes. 5. The Cas9 enzyme may cut at the wrong site- due to the complementarities of the guide RNA - and end up introducing a mutation in the wrong location. So it could affect a crucial gene or another important part of the genome. 6. Scientists are keen to find a way to ensure that the CRISPR-Cas9 binds and cuts accurately.
The Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) Did you know that Democritus (ancient Greek philosopher) was the first one to come up with the atomic theory? His theory stated “The universe is composed of two elements: the atoms and the void in which they exist and move”, atom is a Greek word meaning indivisible. During the following decades a lot of scientists had contributed to the atomic theory, including John Dalton, Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. The atomic theory was accepted because it explained a lot of observations at that time, but no one had actually seen atoms, not until 1981… In 1981, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer invented the STM (Scanning tunneling microscope).It’s basically a microscope that uses electrons rather than light photons to see with a higher resolution. It is designed to make detailed images about atoms or molecules on the surface of any material. It can also locate the atoms and shift them from their positions!
Now how does the STM works? It's based on the quantum tunneling effect, by which particles can pass through a wall or barrier if it is thin, as if a tunnel is made through the wall. The particles here are electrons. The scanning tip is made of a high conductance metal, when a voltage is applied to the tip the electrical current (electrons) flows from the surface of the sample to the tip. The closer the tip is from the surface the easier it is to the electrons to tunnel into it. In order to maintain the electrical current the tip adjusts its position as it is moving along the surface to keep its distance from the surface constant. The tip moves up when the surface is higher and down when the surface is lower. This motion is detected, processed and recorded then graphically represented on the computer screen.
At 1986, they got a Nobel Prize…
These are some of the images taken by the STM…
2D STM image of Si (111) 7×7 Reconstruction
The components of an STM include scanning tip, piezoelectric controlled height and x, y scanner, coarse sample-to-tip control, vibration isolation system, and computer.
An STM image of single-walled carbon nanotube
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Applications: The STM is used in studying friction, surface roughness, defects and surface reactions in materials like catalysts. It is also involved in nanotechnology and manipulation of single atoms to create desired nanostructures...
The First synthetic pharmaceutical drug But since the chemical structure of the compound was figured, the French chemist Charles Frederick started to manipulate the Salicin and came-up with the Acetylsalicylic acid. And this was the last dress of Aspirin that it clothed. Bayer, the German pharmaceutical company, at 1897 was the first to market the Acetylsalicylic acid under the commercial name Aspirin, With the ‘A’ standing for Acetylsalicylic acid and the ‘Spir’ standing for the name of the host plant Spiraea Ulmaria. But the myth of how Aspirin worked was not discovered yet. However, due to an English-swedish partnership, it was fulfilled and known that the Aspirin act on Compounds called Prostaglandins by inhibiting it's biosynthesis. And not to forget that these compounds are the pea under the Quilt which caused the discomfort. Aspirin was the magical wand a man or a woman uses when he got Fever, Rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis or even Kawasaki disease. Which are all inflammation-related diseases. Regardless of the fatal side effects of long-use of Aspirin, this was a monopoly for Aspirin which was stolen by the developing of NSAIDs drug, like Acetaminophen and Ibuprofen. But Aspirin strike back when it was proved that aspirin reduces production of Thromboxane, a chemical responsible for blood clotting. Accordingly, it decreased the chance of Stroke and Heart-attack faced by participants using Aspirin.
4000 years ago, the ancient Sumerians made a surprising discovery, If they scraped the bark of a particular kind of tree and ate it their pain is gone. Imagine a Discovery like that in a time were Vikings cut their wounded limbs and hope it will grow back. What the Sumerians had discovered was a precursor to the medicine known today as aspirin, Aspirin's active ingredient is found commonly in willow trees and other wild plants. They were not the only people who adopted this remedy, but also ancient Greece and ancient Egypt. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates (the father of modern medicine) referred to their use of Willow leaf tea to reduce childbirth pain. A time later, the Englishman Edward Stone with 5 years’ experience recommended that Willow powder is perfect as Antipyretic. But along this period, it was myth what aspirin is or how it did work? This was a little bit illustrated when a German pharmacist named Johann Buchner, when he filtered and purified Willow powder until he end up with the compound responsible for all previous effects, Salicin. After that, physicians started to prescribe both Willow bark beside Salicin-rich plants.
Aspirin advanced further, recent researches show that Aspirin has an Anti-cancer effect, and that was simply because the Aspirin reduces the amount of protein during blood-clotting related to cancerous spread. And so, this was a fall-and-rise of Aspirin from merely an NSAID up to a potential life-saving drug. iMAGINE if those Sumerians didn't eat the willow bark, would we be using Aspirin today?!
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Bayer the company that rose from the ash Founded in 1863 by Friedrich Bayer who made a living as a dye salesman. At that point in history the chemical industry was still very young, and not so many people know how to make dyes, the obvious thing to do was to build a dye factory of course, not only the competition was weak but the cloth industry uses natural dye which is rare and expensive, his business grow like fire, from 3 employees in 1863 to over 300 in 1881, but with all good thing they must come to an end, many competitors joint the business of dye making, thus reducing the price of dyes. So what Bayer do now, making their dyes much cheaper? Nah only Sudanese will do that, they establish their own research department, which was a huge deal at the time people didn't know acidity, radiation, electrons or even the nuclear model of the atom. They were so barbarian and uneducated, hell they only knew that washing your hand was hygienic less than 50 years ago, despite the pathetic state of medicine at the time, this equally pathetic research department was able to discover aspirin, well rediscover aspirin because the active ingredient was discovered more than 100 years ago. But the original structure of the active ingredient (salicylic acid) causes a terrible stomachache, so it generally wasn’t used. What Bayer research department manage to do is to make it less disruptive and more effective changing its structure to (acetylsalicylic acid).
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salicylic acid on the right acetylsalicylic acid on the lift
Aspirin was a real money maker it didn't just save Bayer ass but make their asses rich, it kick started Bayer global expansion, and by the year 1913 they have subsidiary in America, UK, France and Russia. Another breakthrough of Bayer research is heroin, Now! Now! Heroin is a respectable medication if it was used right, but who is right at that time, Bayer market heroin as a “non-addictive cough suppressant”, it was effective though and compiled with aspirin Bayer become very successful, over 80% of their revenue comes from exports, they stopped producing heroin for obvious reasons, but that didn’t stop their honeymoon phase. Things really started to go wrong for Bayer when world war I began most of their international subsidiary were expropriated, lost Aspirin trademark status in United States, United kingdom and France and their assets ended up to be sold to competitors, about 80% of Bayer assets were taken.
Back in German they become involved in the war that mean producing war material like explosives and chemical weapons. Things didn't get any better at the end of the war German economy is still terribly bad and bayer had no other choice but to agree to the massive merging of the chemical company at Germany the resulting of their union is called IG Farben which is abbreviation of (Interessen-Gemeinschaft farbenindustrie Aktiengesellscaft), -thanks god I don't speak Germanthat was a good move by the german to save their economy and companies in fact it was great move, some British and French companies joined IG Farben, after Hitler became the “president” of Germany he needed some nasty chemicals for his arm, and IG Farben sees a great business in that, IG Farben uses slaves for their man power, slaves often told by IG Farben employees “if you don't work faster, you will be gassed” what gas are they talking about well it has to be Zyklon B the horrifying gas that was used for execution, and yes the held the right to produce it no other company have the right to do so, even at war you have to be a professional business man. IG Farben was involved in really messed up things and after the end of the war they faced justice but they manage to get off lightly compared to their friends from the military. Of the 24 defendants who were accused of war crimes only 13 were found guilty and their sentence berly from 1.5 year to 8 year, hmmm using slaves for labor work, producing international forbidden chemicals, and other unspeakable thing, to get off lightly like that, other major cooperation must have their hand on it, but that is a story for another time.
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G Farben spelt to its constituent companies and Bayer was reestablished again, and their plan hasn't changed from the last time research and constantly releasing products into the market. Bayer survived the world war one and two not just to stay around but to become one of the greatest pharmaceutical companies, in addition to that Bayer produce about 20% of the world seeds, they also produce pesticides and high quality polymer.
The company's corporate logo, the Bayer cross, was introduced in 1904. An illuminated version of the logo is a landmark in Leverkusen, the location of Bayer AG's headquarters. So what we learn from Bayer story, having the will to research and develop, because “science for a better life”.
Cerivastatin (Baycol) Cerivastatin is a synthetic member of the class of statins used to lower cholesterol and prevent cardiovascular disease. Maker : Bayer Recalled : 2001 (after four years on the market) why ? “Cerivastatin was recently recalled from the market because of 52 deaths attributed to drug-related rhabdomyolysis that lead to kidney failure. The risk was found to be higher among patients who received the full dose (0.8 mg/day) and those who received gemfibrozil concomitantly “ Cerivastatin is a synthetic member of the class of statins used to lower cholesterol and prevent cardiovascular disease. What is Cerivastatin, and how does it work (mechanism of action)? Cerivastatin is a drug that lowers cholesterol in the blood by blocking the enzyme in the liver that is responsible for producing cholesterol. It lowers total cholesterol as well as the LDL subfraction of cholesterol in the blood. LDL cholesterol is believed to be the "bad" cholesterol that is primarily responsible for the development of coronary artery disease. Lowering LDL cholesterol levels retards and may even reverse coronary artery disease. What brand names are available for cerivastatin? Baycol What are the side effects of cerivastatin? Cerivastatin generally is well-tolerated, and side effects are rare. Minor side effects include constipation, diarrhea, fatigue, gas, heartburn, nasal congestion, and headache. What is the dosage for cerivastatin? Cerivastatin usually is taken once daily at bedtime. It may be taken with or
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Aspirin could cure Brest cancer Why wouldn't higher-dose aspirin also be protective? Regular-dose aspirin is more likely to be taken sporadically for pain such as headaches, the authors believe, while they think that women taking baby aspirin were doing so on a regular basis for heart protection.
MONDAY, May 1, 2017 -- Score yet another point for low-dose aspirin: Regularly taking "baby" aspirin appears to protect women from the most common type of breast cancer, new research suggests. Use of low-dose aspirin at least three times a week was linked to a 20 percent risk reduction for cancers known as hormone-receptor positive, HER2 negative -- the most common breast cancer subtype, said study senior author Leslie Bernstein.
The researchers can only speculate as to why the baby aspirin appears to reduce risk of breast cancer. "Aspirin not only reduces inflammation, but it's a mild aromatase inhibitor," Bernstein said. Aromatase inhibitor drugs are used to treat hormone-receptor positive breast cancer in women past menopause, since they reduce the amount of estrogen circulating in the blood, and the estrogen fuels the tumor.
That's a "moderate" reduction in risk, said Bernstein, a professor at the City of Hope Cancer Center in Duarte, Calif. It's "maybe not as good as exercise," she said, but she added that more people might adhere to an aspirin regimen than an exercise routine. However, the study doesn't establish a direct cause-and-effect relationship, and Bernstein said it's too early to recommend taking daily aspirin for breast-cancer risk reduction.
Another researcher praised the study. "This is really very exciting work," said Sushanta Banerjee, a professor of hematology and oncology at the University of Kansas Medical Center. In his research, confined to the lab and animals, "we found that aspirin has the capability to destroy the tumor-initiating cells that can lead to breast cancer."
Many adults already take low-dose aspirin -- 81 milligrams -- daily to lower their risk of heart attack. This study -- led by Christina Clarke, who was with the Cancer Prevention Institute of California -- looked at the medication use of women enrolled in the ongoing California Teachers Study. That trial, begun in 1995, recruited more than 133,000 active and retired women teachers, administrators and other public school professionals.
In a study presented at a recent cancer meeting, his team reported that aspirin may prevent new blood vessels from forming and "feeding" the cancer. Yet, he agreed it's too soon to suggest taking baby aspirin to reduce breast cancer risk.
In 2005, more than 57,000 participants answered questions about their use of aspirin and other medications, family history of cancer, use of hormone therapy, alcohol use, exercise, height and weight. By 2013, nearly 1,500 had developed invasive breast cancer.
If more study bears out the link between baby aspirin and breast cancer prevention, Bernstein said low-dose aspirin may also help prevent recurrence.
Overall, regular baby aspirin use reduced the risk of breast cancer 16 percent, the study says. But the more significant finding was the risk reduction for developing HR-positive/HER2-negative cancer, the researchers said. The researchers found a protective link with use of low-dose aspirin, but not with regular-dose aspirin or other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen or acetaminophen.
The study was published online May 1 in the Breast Cancer Research journal. It was funded by the U.S. National Cancer Institute and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund.
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Brand Name Vs Generic Drug
*The dose of paracetamol is 500mg, but I’m sure you've noticed that paracetamol table is way heavier than 500mg and that's because of excipients, excipients are the inactive ingredients that are added for better handling, stabilization of the drug and many other reasons*
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Usually excipients don't make a big deal, but take a look at this case of phenytoin (an anticonvulsant drug) in the late of 1960s patients begun to experience severe side effect in 87% of patients experiencing toxicity, drug level measured in the blood were well beyond the therapeutic range, putting them at risk of side effects. After examining the drug capsules it turn out that it contains lactose in the place of calcium disulphate dihydrate, lactose formulation allow phenytoin to dissolve more readily from the capsule, leading to higher concentration of the drug in the blood.
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Yes, generic companies can use whatever excipient they want but they have to prove that their drug have the same bioequivalence as the brand name BUT the 60s is long time gone it's history now, drug regulation is much better now, right? I will let studies answer this question.
Is the galaxy prime
A 2008 meta-analysis compared the clinical effectiveness of generic and brand name cardiovascular drug. The study included 38 randomised control trials of 9 different subclasses of these medication. Bioequivalence was seen in 7 classes of the medication. It was seen in 10 of 11 RCTs of diuretics, and 71% of calcium channel blockers. These differences were minor and did not impact clinical outcomes. Overall, the aggregate effect of the meta-analysis indicated that there were no significant differences between brand and generic drugs.
They both take pictures make calls reply to emails even view PowerPoint slides, BUT why is the iPhone triple the price of the prime, we all know why! It’s an iPhone; it takes much better pictures; it makes clearer phone calls, its way faster, it’s just better because it’s expensive. In general all expensive things are better than their cheaper counterpart. But does this apply to drugs? All drugs must go through Abbreviated New Drug Application ANDA which is a test regulated by the FDA, every ANDA examination looks to ensures two things pharmaceutical equivalent and bioequivalent. Pharmaceutical equivalence means that the drug has the same route of administration as brand name counterpart as well as strength, dosage form To achieve bio equivalence it means that the drug should have the same effect on the body at the same amount of time. BUT the generic companies are free to use whatever excipient as they see fit.
Conceptually, a meta-analysis uses a statistical approach to combine the results from multiple studies in an effort to increase accuracy
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Susan Robinson in 50s of age, Susan have epilepsy but her epilepsy was being controlled by a drug called Topamax. But then something started to go wrong. 'I began to have a lot more fits, as many as two a week instead of one every one or two months. 'I developed epilepsy late - in my early 50s - and am still coming to terms with it. 'But just when it was starting to become manageable, I was tipped back into the state I'd been in when it all started,' says Susan, who used to work as a personal assistant to NHS managers. Then Susan took a closer look at the packaging of her prescription. 'It looked different to the others I'd had. It had Portuguese writing and was called Topamac. 'The pharmacist said he had substituted it for my regular brand-name drug to save money.' Susan was getting a cheaper copy known as a generic drug, which have the same active ingredient as a brand-name drug and are expected to have the same effects. Of course there is no significant difference between the brand name and generic drug, they have the same bioequivalence for sure, but achieving the same bioequivalence isn't enough. Wait what is bioequivalence again? Bioequivalence is the area under the curve of concentration and time
Statistic showed that 2.1% of pharmacist have no negative opinion on generic drug compare to 30 something of doctors, that's because pharmacist know more
Absolutely you remember the Aufbau principle‌so who proposed this rule?!
Drug A
You might think he is Aufbau. But actually he is the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, and not Aufbau! THEN, who is Aufbau? I tell you, “Aufbau� in German language means ‘Construction’, which gives us an idea about the goal of the principle, which is the construction of electrons around the nucleus. Then we should ask what Aufbau is, and not who is Aufbau?!!
Drug B
Drug A and drug B have roughly the same area under the curve this is enough for most drugs BUT pay attention to the large spikes, they represent the maximum construction, the maximum construction is reached at a different time for the same drug, that is like changing the time of the dose.
Okay! So there are some patients with sensitive disorders, to the extent that the time of their medication is more important than the medication. BUT other than that it's okay to change between generic and brand name
You Didn’t Know
It’s all cheary so far BUT here is another case:
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The amazing ways plants defend themselves
This is a Tomato leaf, and this is an Aphid, slowly killing the tomato plant by sucking the juice of its leaves. The Tomato is putting up a fight using both physical and chemical defences to repel the attacking insects. But that is not all, the Tomato is also releasing compounds that signal nearby Tomato plants to release their own insect-repellents. Plants are constantly being under attack, they face threats ranging from microscopic fungi and bacteria, small herbivores like Aphids, caterpillar and grasshoppers. Up to large herbivores like turtles, koalas and elephants. All are looking for the devour plants to access the plentiful nutrients and water in their leaves, stems, fruits and seeds. But plants are ready with whole series of internal and external defences that make them much less appealing meal, or even a deadly one.
Leaves are protected by waxy cuticle that deters insects and microbes. Some plants go a step further with painful structures to warn would-be predators. Thorn, Spines and Prickles discourage bigger herbivores to deal with smaller pests. Some plants leaves have a sharp, hair-like structures called 'Trichomes'
For other plants species, the pain come after the herbivores first bite. Spinach, kiwi fruit, pineapple, fuchsia and Rhubarb are producing microscopic needle-like crystals called 'Raphides'. They can cause tiny wounds in the inside of animal mouth, which create entry points for toxins.
Plants defences start at their surfaces, the Bark covering the tree trunk is full of Lignin, a rigid web of compounds that is tough to chew, and highly impermeable to pathogens.
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Mimosa plant has a strategy designed to Prevent herbivores from taking a bite at all. Specialized mechano-receptors detect touch, and shoot an electrical signal through the leaflet to its base, causing cells there to release charged particles. The build-up charge draws water out of these cells and they shrivel pulling the leaflet close. The folding movement scares insects away and the shrunken leaves look less appealing to large animals.
Compounds toxic to microbes and insects are also often produced tailor-made for a specific threat. Many of the plant molecules that humans have adopted as Drugs, Medicine and seasonings evolved as a plant immune system, because they are antimicrobial or insecticidal. An area of the plant under attack can alert other regions using Hormones, Airborne compounds or even electrical signals. When other parts of the plant detect these signals they ramp up production of defensive compounds, and for some species like Tomato, this 'Early-warning' system also alerts neighbours. Some plants can even recruit allies to adopt strong offense. Against their would-be attackers. Cotton plants under siege by caterpillars, release specific cocktail of 10-12 chemicals into the air. This mixture attracts parasitic wasps that lay eggs inside the caterpillars.
If these external defence are breached, the immune system springs into action. Plants have no separate immune system like animals, instead every cell has the ability to detect and defend against the invaders. Specialized receptors can recognize molecules that signal the presence of dangerous microbe or insects. In response, the immune system initiate a battery of defensive of maneuvers, to prevent more pathogens getting their way inside, waxy cuticle thicken and cell wall become stronger, guard cells seal up pores on the leaves. And if microbe is devouring one section of the plant, those cells can self-destruct to quarantine the
Plants may not be able to flee the scene of an attack, or fight-off predators with teeth and claws, but with steady armour, a well-stocked chemical arsenal, a neighbourhood watch, and cross-spices alliances, a plant isn’t always as Easy meal.
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