Online e-compendium on INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT OF AGRI- HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Online e-compendium on INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT OF AGRI- HORTICULTURAL CROPS (15-16 October, 2020)

Organized by State Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute (SAMETI-J) Course Coordinator Dr. Uma Shankar

In collaboration of with

Division of Entomology Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu Chatha, Jammu-180 009 (J&K), India

Online e-compendium on INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT OF AGRI- HORTICULTURAL CROPS (15-16 October, 2020)

Cover page Photographs 1. Frugivorous bird rose ringed parrot 2. Coccinella dimitida feeding on peach aphid 3. Mango mealy bug infestation on mango 4. Helicoverpa armigera larva feeding on tomato fruit 5. Spraying on mustard for aphid management

Organized by State Agricultural Management and Extension Training Institute (SAMETI-J) Course Coordinator Dr. Uma Shankar

In collaboration of with

Division of Entomology Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu Chatha, Jammu-180 009 (J&K), India

Agri-horticultural crop is lifeline of human society and play a pivotal role in food and nutritional security. Dr. Uma Shankar (Coordinator)

Schedule of training Programme S. Topic of the Lecture(s) Speaker No. Day-1 (15th October 2020) 1. Integrated Pest Management of Dr. Uma Agri-Horticultural Crops Shankar 2. Integrated Pest Management of Cereal Crops

Dr. Hafeez Ahmad

3. Integrated Disease management of Agri-Horticultural crops

Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh

Day-2 (16th October 2020) 4. Integrated Pest Management of Pulse and Oilseed crops

Dr. A. K. Singh

5. IPM of Post Harvest Grain Pests

Dr. Devinder Sharma

6. IPM of Ornamental and Floriculture Crops

Dr. Uma Shankar

What's app No./email

Time

9419202151 umashankar.ento@gmail.com

11.0011.50

9419856094 hafeezskuastj786@gmail.com 9469114298 ashoks286@gmail.com

12.0012.50

9469749685 amitskuast@gmail.com 9419117305 devskuastj@gmail.com 9419202151 umashankar.ento@gmail.com

11.0011.50

1.002.00

12.0012.50 1.002.00

Contents Chapter No.

Online mode of lectures topic(s)

Page Nos.

1.

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops

1-12

2.

Integrated Pest Management of Cereal Crops

13-23

3.

Integrated Disease management of Agri-Horticultural crops

24-30

4.

Integrated Pest Management of Pulse and Oilseed crops

31-38

5.

IPM of Post Harvest Grain Pests

39-49

6.

IPM of Ornamental and Floriculture Crops

50-61

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Chapter-1

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural crops Uma Shankar, Devinder Sharma, A. K. Singh, and Hafeez Ahmad Division of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Main Campus Chatha, Jammu-180009 ________________________________________________________________________________ trifolii; cabbage leaf webber, Hellula undalis Introduction and red spider mites on okra and cucurbits.

A rapidly growing human population has However, vegetable growers still depends on resulted in a demand for increased food chemical pesticides to counter the pest’s production which was met by increasing the problem and save their produce in time. land area under cultivation. As the land resources became limited, efforts were made The importance of fruit crops are many fold to increase productivity by fighting the losses such as in improving the productivity, inflicted by insects, weeds, and plant economic conditions of farmers, employment pathogens through the use of pesticides. At the generation for rural youth, enhancing export same time, pesticides proved to be more potential and above all providing the dangerous and resulting in pest resistance, pest nutritional security to the people. The resurgence, and pest outbreaks. As a result, the changing global scenario warrants reduced use need arose for integrated pest management to of agricultural chemicals without affecting produce safe food from the adverse impact of much to the ecological balance. One of the pesticide residues. limiting factors in achieving present and potential yield gap in fruit crop production is India is endowed with a wide variety of agrosevere attack of arthropod pests and diseases climatic conditions and unique comparative affecting yield and quality. Unlike agricultural advantage for growing almost all Agricrops, fruit crops are grown as perennial and horticultural crops (Cereals, pulses, oilseeds, monocultures, therefore, harbour the insect vegetables and fruits). pest and disease problems that are entirely Vegetables play an important role in food and different and complex in nature. These two nutritional security and its commercial factors impose huge losses upon horticulture. cultivation is more remunerative and profitable Integrated Pest Management than cereal crops, fetches higher income, employment to the rural people and adds IPM is the integration of cultural, mechanical, higher revenue to the state. However, the physical, biological, host plant resistance, production potential of vegetables is meager in novel and botanical pesticides the judicious Jammu and Kashmir compared to the other and need base use of pesticides. The objective states of the country due to uneven topography of IPM is to maintain pest population levels and un-availability of inputs like irrigation, below economically damaging levels while fertilizers, and chemicals at right time. The minimizing harmful effects of pest control on insect pests inflict overall crop losses to the human health and environmental resources. tune of 30-40 per cent in vegetable production.

Vegetable crops are comparatively more With the introduction of hybrids technology susceptible to various biotic and abiotic through vegetable seeds resulted in drastic stresses responsible for attack of insect pests changes in insect pest scenario leading to and diseases. In modern agriculture, economic minor pests assuming the status of major, like threshold level (ETL) has been replaced with serpentine leaf miner of tomato, Liriomyza Agro-ecosystem Analysis (AESA).

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

An Agro-ecosystem Analysis Strategies in Integrated Pest Management of vegetables 1. Crop selection and cultural practices 2. Sowing/planting time 3. Tillage or deep ploughing 4. Incorporate intercropping, trap crops and deterrent crops with main crop 5. Conservation of Farmers’ friend insects 6. Use of microbial pesticides: Use of nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) is limited to H. armigera, Spodoptera litura and P. xlyostella only. Lack of commercial production has suppressed its popularity and is used in limited areas. Application of HaNPV and SlptNPV @ 250 larval equivalent (LE) in the evening hour with some UV protectants like charcoal powder and adjuvents like molasses reduce the populations of the insect pests to a great extent.

7. Judicious and selective use of pesticides as the last resort

Integrated Pest Vegetable Crops

Management

of

Insect pests of Brinjal 1. Shoot and Fruit Borers, Leucinodes orbonalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Brinjal shoot and fruit borer (BSFB) inflicts a serious damage to the fruit causing drastic reduction in the marketable quality fruit yield.

The damage starts soon after transplanting the crop and continues till harvest of the fruits.

The adults are small moths having brown to black spots on the wings. The adult female lays eggs on the ventral surface of the leaves, flower buds and on young fruits. After

hatching within the week, small pinkish larva initially bores into the terminal shoots resulting in withering and drying of the shoot and at later stage, it damages the young fruits by making holes and feeds inside which makes the fruits unfit for consumption and marketing.

One larva is responsible to damage at least 4-6 fruits. Often the entry hole encourages the secondary bacterial infection and rotting of fruits. As its larvae are concealed within the twigs as well as in fruits it is very difficult to control.

Management 1. Continuous cropping of brinjal on the same piece of land should be avoided or discarded monocropping.

2. As soon as the insect is detected, the affected twigs and infested fruits should be clipped/removed along with the insect and destroyed.

3. The moths can be mass trapped by installation of Wota traps @ 100 per ha at 10 m spacing and pheromone traps @ 1215/ha.

4. Apply ash dust and avoid the excessive dose of nitrogenous fertilizers to reduce the infestation of BSFB. 5. Grow long and oblong varieties as they are less susceptible to BSFB. 6. Spraying the crops alternatively with profenophos 50 EC @ 2 ml /litre of water at 15 days interval and flubendiamide (0.3 ml/lit or spinosad @ 0.2 ml/ lit of water) starting from 30 days after transplanting to control the pest. Before spraying, all the affected twigs and fruits should be clipped off or removed from the field.

2. Jassids, Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Hemiptera:Cicadellidae) Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the lower surface of the leaves. The infested leaf 2

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

curl upward along the margins, which may turn yellowish and show, burnt up patches.

They also transmit mycoplasma disease like little leaf and virus disease like mosaic. Fruit setting is adversely affected by the infestation.

Management: 1. Seed treatment with gaucho WP or thiamethoxam 70 WS @ 3g/kg seed at the time of sowing.

2. Foliar spray of imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.3 ml/lit of water during the vegetative stage of the crop.

3.

Red Spidermite, Tetranychus cinnabarinus and Paratetranychus indicus (Acari: Tetranychidae) The red spider mite infests brinjal

particularly in low humid dry condition.

Different stages of mites are found in colonies covered by white-silky webs on lower surface of leaves. Nymphs and adults suck cell sap and white patches appear on leaves. Affected leaves become mottled, turn brown and fall down.

Management 1. Acaricides like dicofol and wettable sulphur (0.3%) gives effective control of mites. Avoid use of synthetic pyrethroids for borer control.

2. Collection and burning of severely infested plant parts reduces further multiplication of mites.

3. Proper irrigation and clean cultivation are essential to reduce the damage caused by mites.

Tomato is a very popular constituent of Indian diet which is devastated by an array of insect pests. However, the major damage is caused by fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera, serpentine leaf miner, Lariomyza trifoli and white flies, Bemesia tabaci at different growth stages of tomato.

1. Tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner Helicoverpa is a very serious insect pest of several vegetable crops and has been reported on more than 200 host plants in India.

Caterpillars are the immature stage of the insect which causes the considerable damage to the crops in various stages. In the prefruiting stage, the caterpillar feeds on the tender foliage including leaves, flowers, buds and even sometimes they make holes in the tender twigs which reflects the perforated look to the crops. After fruiting, the larvae bore large, clear, circular holes into fruits and feed on the pulp. Its name has been changed according to its host. Its larvae are stoutly built and robust. In tomato, it is responsible to destroy many fruits and make them unfit for the human consumption. Its larvae have peculiar feeding habit on host crop. The larvae thrusts its half of the body into the fruits and feeds the inner contents and rendering them unfit for the human consumption. It causes damage up to the tune of 50 to 80 per cent if not intervened at right time.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

and gradually enlarge often twisting through leaf which causes stippling of young seedlings.

Severe leaf mining slows down the plant growth and accelerates the leaf drop.

Management 1. Soil solarization for raising healthy seedlings are the recommended practices.

2. Plant one row of marigold as trap crop for every 16 rows of tomato.

3. Monitor and clip top three tender leaves for Helicoverpa eggs destruction.

4. Early maturing varieties should be planted to escape the damage by borers.

5. Installation of pheromone traps @ 5-7 per ha for early detection and 12-15 per ha for trapping and mass destruction for mating disruption.

6. Release Trichogramma chilonis @ 50,000 adults/ha per release (6 times) at weekly interval when eggs of Helicoverpa are noticed. Flowering strips should be ggrown to conserve Campoletis chlorideae, a potential parasitoid of H. armigera.

7. Spraying of Entomopathogenic nematode like Steinernema carpocapsae against Helicoverpa gave an excellent result in killing the larvae within 24 to 48 hrs.

8. Spraying of Ha-NPV 250 to 400 LE/ha (freshly prepared) 2-3 times at 10 days interval at evening hours is recommended.

9. Spraying of bacterial formulation Bt @ 500 g /ha also proveds good control against Helicoverpa larvae in the field condition.

2. Serpentine leaf miner, Liriomyza trifoli Leaf miners cause heavy leaf mining on upper or lower side of the leaves. Mines starts from the margins of leaves and progress towards the base/centre of leaf. Mines are initially narrow

Management 1. Dimethoate @ 2 ml per lit of water are found to be effective against leaf miner.

2. Hymenoptera (Eulophidae) an endo-larval parasiotid of leafminer, Hemiptarsenus varicornis is found to be very effective.

3. Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5 % found promising in controlling leaf miner followed by Karanj (Pongamia pinnata) oil.

Insect pests of chillies 1. Chilli mites, Polyphagotarsonemus latus Chilli crops are attacked by yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus which has become a serious problem in the entire country. Mite affected leaves of the chilli plant turn towards underside and look like an inverted boat. As young and adult mites attack the tender leaves, almost all new leaves curled downward and lower surface appears silvery whereas, the

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

upper surface of leaves look more dark green as compared to healthy ones. Further the plant growth is checked and the internodes become shorter.

Management 1. Since last few decades, farmers have used different kinds of insecticides for the control of mites which led to development of resistance.

2. Seedling root dip treatment with imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.3 ml per lit of water before planting.

3. Spraying of Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2ml per lit of water or propargite 57 EC @ 3-4 ml per lit of water at the beginning of mite attack may be promising in reducing the chilli mite problem.

4. Pusa Jwala is reported to be resistant/ tolerant to mites which may be included for commercial cultivation.

2. Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Besides mites, thrips also attack the chilli crop throughout the country. Thrips suck the plant sap from the leaves and the affected leaves turn towards upper side, internodes becomes long and seems to be normal boat shaped. Both the nymphs and adults of chilli thrips lacerate the leaf and imbibe the oozing

sap. Sometimes even buds and flowers are also attacked. Tender leaves and growing shoots are preferred for feeding, while the older leaves are rarely attacked. The infested leaves start curling and crumbling and ultimately shed while, buds become brittle and drop down.

Management 1. Rouge out the infected plants and burn them.

2. Grow resistant varieties, if any.

3. Periodic spray of metasystox @ 1 ml per lit of water or imidacloprid @ 0.3 ml per

lit water at 10 days interval for vector management.

Insect Pests of Cucurbits 1. Cutworms in cucurbits: Agrotis ipsilon It is a polyphagous insect pest which feeds mainly in seedling stages of many vegetables, potato, maize and other crops. Caterpillar is short, stout and highly destructive. At night, larvae cut the plant at ground level at an early stage of their growth. A few caterpillars in the field kill many small plants during one night.

They fell/cut more plants rather consume.

Management 1. The population of cut worm larvae can be considerably suppressed by applying carbofuron 3G @ 30 kg/ha or cartap hydrochloride 4G @ 20 kg/ha.

2. Red Pumpkin Beetle, Aulacophora foveicollis The beetles eat leaf lamina, cause perforation, irregular holes or complete defoliation and damage is severe, particularly at cotyledonary stage of crop. The grubs feed on the underground stem and root portion of the host plant forming holes/ galleries leading to dry up of branches or whole plant. They may also attack the fruits touching the ground surface by making holes.

Management 1. Early planting of crop in November to avoid the damage from this insect. After harvesting the cucurbits, the field should be ploughed to exposed and kill the grubs in soil.

2. Spray of acetamiprid 20 SP @ 0.2g/lit of water at evening time against red pumpkin beetles.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

3. Fruit flies, Bactrocera cucurbitae and B. tau Cucurbit fruit fly is most commonest and destructive pest of cucurbits like melon, pumpkin, cucumber and gourds. It is a major constraint in cucurbitaceous vegetable crops. It is found throughout the year but its abundance is reported in rainy season. Adult flies are reddish brown with lemon yellow markings on thorax.

Female fly lacerates or puncture the fruits by its pointed ovipositor and laid eggs on soft fruits.

Female secrets the gummy secretion which cements the punctured tissue and make the entrance water proof.

Maggots feed on the pulp of fruit and cause premature dropping of fruits and also make them unfit for the human consumption.

Sometimes secondary bacterial infection also takes place. Sometimes, fruits become distorted and malformed. In severe condition or in rainy season 50-100 % damages are reported.

Management 1. In endemic areas, change in sowing dates to escape the crops during rainy season.

2. Collect infested fruits and dried leaves and burn it in deep pits. Expose the pupae by deep ploughing and turning over soil after harvest.

3. Use ribbed gourd as trap crop and apply bait spray (malathion+gur or jaggary) on the congregating adult flies on the undersurface of leaves.

4. Use poison baiting in severe infestation: Saturated sugar solution 5 ml+ Malathion 50EC 5ml+ gur or jaggary 100 ml are kept in the container and put it to the four corners of the field as a poison baits.

5. Use fly traps@ 10 traps /ha or use 5 g wet fish

meal in a polythin bag (20×15 cm in size and having 6 holes of 3 mm in diameter) and add 0.1 ml malathion (1 drop) in the cotton plug and put it in the bag. For better performance, malathion is added every week and fishmeal should be renewed after 20 days.

Insect pests of Okra 1. Okra Spotted Bollworms, Earias vittella pest of humid areas and E. insulana - pest of dry regions Eggs are laid singly on buds and flowers and occasionally on fruits. During the early stage of crop’s growth, the eggs are laid on shoot tips. When the crop is only a few weeks old, the freshly hatched caterpillars bore into tender shoots and tunnel downwards. These shoots wither, droop and ultimately the growing points are destroyed, and side shoots may arise giving the plant a bushy appearance. With the

formation of buds, flowers and fruits, the caterpillars bore inside these and feed on inner tissues.

Management 1. Use of resistant or tolerant varieties 2. Intallation of pheromone traps @ 25 per ha is quite effective.

3. Spraying of Neem oil 5 % as blanket spray for egg destruction.

4. As soon as flowering starts give 3 sprays at fortnightly interval with fenvalerate @1 ml/ lit of water.

Caterpillar pests of crucifer’s vegetables The cruciferous crops (cole), which includes economically important crops like Cabbage, Brassica oleracea var. capitata; Cauliflower, 6

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

B. oleracea var. botrytis; Knol khol, B. caulorapa (L.) throughout the world.

However, poor productivity is mainly attributed to the incidence of diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella; cabbage caterpillar, Pieris brassicae; leaf webber, Crocidolomia binotalis; cabbage head borer, Hellula undalis and aphid Brevicoryne brassicae infesting the crop in various seasons (Shankar et al., 2009a).

1. Cabbage butterfly, Pieris brassicae There are two different types of cabbage buttefly exists in Jammu region. P. brassicae is the big sized while P. rapae is smaller cabbage butterfly which laid eggs on crucifer leaves in batches of 15-300 eggs. As the emerged larvae grows, they completely eaten away the entire plants except mid ribs.

Management 1. Hand picking and mechanical destruction of caterpillars during early stage insect pest attack is beneficial.

2. Cotesia glomeratus are recorded as potential parasitoids against cabbage caterpillar larva.

3. Phryxe vulgaris (dipteran fly) are also observed abundantly in cole crops fields to parasitize the caterpillars.

4. Foliar spray of Bt formulations @ 500 g/ ha along with sticker (0.5 ml/lit of water) is found promising to control all lepidopteran insect pests.

5. Need based application of cypermethrin @ 1 ml per lit or malathion @ 2ml per lit of water are beneficial in case of severe infestation.

2. Cabbage head borer, Hellula undalis and Helicoverpa armigera Cabbage head borer is seen sporadically but its attack coincides with the head/curd initiation stage and a single larva is responsible to damage the entire head/curd. The early instar may feed on the growing point, and bore inside the head and damaging the head and excrements which prevents head formation.

When fully grown, larvae pupate inside the head, or on stems, or in soil. Helicoverpa armigera larvae have also been recorded at several places in Jammu region as head borer of cabbage. It may be due to absence of preferred host in winter months or some environmental and behavioural change.

Management 1. Monitoring and mechanical destruction of larvae at the time head /curd initiation may prove to be good.

2. Bracon spp. is important larval parasitoids against head borer.

3. Fungal formulations like Beauvaria bassiana and entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) may be beneficial to suppress the attack of head borer.

4. Spraying of synthetic pyrethroids like cypermethrin, fenvalerate, deltamethrin @ 1 ml per lit of water is effective to control head borer.

3. Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella Diamondback moth became the main and universal pest of cole crops and it remains one of the most serious problems for the intensive cole crops growing areas. Plants at all stages of growth may be attacked by this pest. In Jammu province, diamondback moth is 7

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Integrated Pestt Management of Agri-Horticulttural Crops (15-16 October, 20220)

recorded on late seasson cole cro ops and on i from Febbruary to Apriil-May. crucifers i.e.,

Managem ment 1. Use of o Wota traps are useful in monitoring and detection of th he DBM adultt popualtion in earrly stages.

2. Practiice of trapp or intercrropping of mustaard, corianderr and marigolld with cole crops may reduuce the DBM D pest infestation.

3. Releaase of Cotesia a plutellae, natural n bioagent of DBM larvae is effective e to d condition supprress its popullation in field (10000 adults per release everry 2 week intervval up to harveest).

4. Somee safer insecticcides and neeem products are recorded to be effective agaiinst DBM. ydrochloride @ 2ml, 5. Sprayy cartap hy spinosad@ 1ml annd Bt formulaation @ 500 m be prom mising in con ntrolling the g/ha may DBM M pest population.

Integrated Pest Management M t of Fruit Crops Mango Mango is better knownn as king of fruits f and is grown in n vast rannge of agroo climatic conditionss and attackeed by over 500 5 species of insectt pests. Ou ut of this, about 400 species have h been recorded from f Asia.

However, only a few w important species are of major concern c in Jaammu region..

Mango hoppers (Amritodus atkinsoni, Idioscopu us clypealiis and Idioscopus niveosparrsus) The manngo leaf hopppers are sm mall wedge shaped in nsects which continuously y suck the saps from m the infloresscence therebby reducing

the vigour of thhe plants annd particularrly destroyying the infloorescence andd causing fruuit drop. Heavy puuncturing an nd continuouus drainin ng of the saap encouragess development of sooty mould Maliola ma angiferae annd Capnoodium manggiferae on leaves annd infloreescence. The extent of daamage dependds upon the critical crop stage and hopper populaation.

Clooudy weathers annd precipiitations are cconducive connditions whicch favourrs the pest ppopulation buuild up at thhe time of o blooming.. Temperaturre and relativve humid dity constitutee important environmenttal factorss regulating the populatioon of the leaf hopperrs.

IPM strategy s 1. Connserve the natural enemies likke cocccinellids, chhrysopids an nd spiders as a they y are potentiial predators of nymphs of o hop ppers.

2. In senile orchhards, dense tree canoppy shoould be prunned heavily to t have betteer lighht and air pennetration.

3. Sprray insecticiddes at criticaal crop stagess, nam mely, bud burst staage, paniclle emergence and after fruit seet. First spraay cyppermethrin orr fenvalerate (1ml ( per lit of o watter) followedd by imidaclooprid (0.3 ml m perr lit of waterr) at fortnighhtly interval at a eveening hours. Do not spraay when treees are on full blloom to avo oid killing of o polllinators.

Mango fruit fly, B Bactrocera doorsalis, B. zontau us Fruit flies f are polypphagus in naature and theiir extent of damage depends uppon type, sizze and coondition of frruit, availabiliity of differennt 8

Integrated Pestt Management of Agri-Horticulttural Crops (15-16 October, 20220)

hosts and population density. d They have been recorded on various host crops in Jammu like manggo, guava, littchi, citrus, ber, b peach, phalsa etcc. Female lay ys eggs below w the fruit epidermiss (1-4mm) deep. d On hattching, the maggots feed on fruitt pulp and thhe infested fruit startts rotting duue to further bacterial infection. Attacked fruits usuaally show signs off oviposition n punctures and ripe fruits wiith high suggar content exude a sugary liiquid. The maggots m com me out of the affectted fruit to pupate p in sooil. Due to climate change c and adoptability of insects the unrippe and imm mature fruits are also claimed to be damaaged by the fruit fly.

On the average, 36--40% fruits of mango have beenn observed damaged. Obbservations recorded varietal ressistance revealed that most off the comm mercial varrieties are susceptiblle, however, infestation iss quite low in Langrra, Dasheharii and Bombbay Green varieties.

IPM straategy 1. Fourty y five days prior p to harvvest, deep ploughh the soil arround trees to t expose and deestroy the faallen and pup pating fly populaations.

2. Install sixteen methyl m eugen nol bottle traps (0.1%) ( per ha h or one Fllig-T trap per treee (PCI Pvt. Ltd.) L 3. One months beefore harvesst, spray decam methrin (0.5 ml/lit) or malathion (2 ml//lit) along with w gur solu ution and stickerr.

4. Treat the t harvestedd fruit with hoot water for 1 hourr at 48 ͦ C.

Mango mealy bugg

Mangoo mealy buggs are polyp phagous andd seriouss pests from m India on several s hostt crops. Nymphs annd adult femaale bugs aree flat, oval o and covvered with waxy whitee powdeer which makkes them harrd to control..

Generaally eggs aree laid in silk ken pouch inn ending g May to June, J which hatches outt duringg ending Deceember to starrting January..

The neewly hatched nymphs ascend the treess and seettle on infloorescence caausing flowerr drop and a affecting fruit set.

IPM strategy s 1. Deeep ploughingg of orchard d immediatelly afteer harvest or during sum mmer monthhs to expose e eggs and pupae of o mealy buggs to natural enem mies and sunn heat. Heavvy irrigation of orcchard in Octoober also helpps in destruction d off eggs of meaaly bugs.

2. Raaking of soil around the tree t trunk annd mixxing with meethyl parathioon 2% dust @ 2500 g per tree or drench the t tree basiin witth imidacloprrid @ 0.5 ml m per lit of o watter for controolling early instar nymphhs of mealy buugs in thee month of o Novvember–Deceember.

3. Rellease Cryptollaemus montrrouzieri at 10 beeetles/plant. M Mealybug deestructors arre obsserved devouuring the mealybugs m i in Jam mmu conditioons.

4. Aftter mud plasttering 25 cm m wide, 400µ µ gauuge alkatheene (polyth hene) sheett shoould be fasttened on thee tree trunkk aboout 30 cm abbove the groound level too preevent migration of freshly hatchedd nym mphs in Deceember-Januarry.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Bark eating caterpillar, Inderbela quadrinotata This is a serious problem especially in neglected orchards of mango, citrus, litchi, guava and aonla. Eggs are laid by female in cuts and crevices in the bark. On hatching the larvae bore into the bark or main stem and remain within the bored holes during day and come out at night to feed on bark. They feed and shelter under the silken galleries full of frass and faecal matters on the bark surface. Pupation takes place within the galleries.

IPM strategy 1. Orchard sanitation should be maintained.

2. As soon as noticing the infestation, kill them mechanically by inserting the iron spike into hole.

3. In case of severe infestation, insert the cotton swab soaked in o r chorpyriphos @ 5ml or d e l t a m e t h r i n @ 3 m l and plug the hole with mud plaster.

Citrus More than 300 species of insects and mites have been recorded on different Citrus spp. from Asia. However, the key pests are leafminer, psylla, mealybugs, scales, blackfly, whiteflies, aphids, fruitfly, fruit sucking moths, mites and thrips. In Jammu condition, six insect pest viz., citrus psylla, leaf miner, aphids, citrus caterpillar and fruit sucking moth have been recorded as the major pests of citrus.

Citrus Psylla The citrus psylla is widely distributed in Asia that’s why it is also being called Asian

psyllids. Adults are grey coloured actively flying insects and while at rest, they raise their body upward. The nymphs are orange yellow in colour, flattened and circular in shape. The damage is caused by the nymphs

and adults who suck sap from buds and leaves. The affected leaves get curled and shoots become dry. The psyllid also acts as a vector of greening disease.

IPM strategy 1. Several species of predators and syrphids have been reported feeding on eggs and nymphs of citrus psylla.

2. At the initiation of new flush, spray dimethoate (3ml per lit) or Imidacloprid (0.5 ml per lit). If required, repeat the spray at 15 days interval, once or twice.

Citrus Leafminer Leafminer adult is a tiny silvery white moth with black eyes and narrow fringed white hind wings. Eggs are minute, rounded and yellowish green. The caterpillars are legless and pale yellow in colour with brownish head. The larvae feed on the epidermis of tender leaves making serpentine mines of silvery colour. Severely infested leaves

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Integrated Pestt Management of Agri-Horticulttural Crops (15-16 October, 20220)

become distorted, d crum mpled and fiinally fall off. Attaack of leafm miner encourrages the incidence of canker duuring rainy seeason.

IPM straategy For the effective management m of citrus leafminer,, clipping off infested leeaves and their prunning is advised d.

Commenccement of new n flushes should be sprayed with w fenvaleraate (0.05%) and a neem seed extrract (2%), alternatively, a at 10-12 days inteerval (Jyothii et al., 19990a, b).

Release of o parasitoids C. quadristrriatus and T. phylloccnistoides is also a recommeended.

Citrus caaterpillar Two speccies of citruus caterpillar butterfly namely Papilio P demooleus and P. P Polytes have beeen recorded in Jammu u causing complete defoliation of citrus (Kumar, 2008). The pests are active throuughout the y e a r e x c e p t w i n t e r m o n t h s . The

i n f e s t a t i o n i s m o r e prono ounced in nurseries and on youung trees. Peak P pest activity coincides c witth the new flushes f in citrus. This T pest haas also beeen found defoliatingg the beal an nd Karry pa tta plants (personneel observationn).

IPM straategy 1. Collecct and destro oy the larvae which look like bird b excreta inn early stage.

2. Sprayy cypermethrrin @ 1ml per lit of water.

Guava Out of 80 0 species of insect i pests recorded r on guava, onnly few of theem are considdered as pest of regular occurrence o and causing serious daamage to thee guava trees. These are

bark eating e caterpiillar (Indarbeela spp.), fruuit fly (B Bactrocera spp.), fruit borer, guavva aphidss, mealy bbug and scale inseect (Chlorropulvinaria psidii). Inteensive surveyys of guava g grow wing regionss of Indiaan subconntinent reveaaled that guav va fruit boreer, Deudoorix isocratess (Fabricius)) incidence is rapidly y increasing (2.5–22.5%) ( with crop loss range from 5.00 too 35.00 per cent. Commoon occurrrence of anothher fruit boreer, Dichocroccis punctifferalis (Guennee) in rainy season guavva was also noticedd throughouut the guavva growinng belts in the countryy. Four othher speciess of fruit bborers, viz., Cryptophlebba illepid da, Rapala vvaruna, Deuddorix isocratees and D. epijarbaas have been b reporteed damagging the Guaava fruits. Guuava fruit fliees have been a m major limitinng factor in producction of rainyy season guaava. Infestatioon of fruiit fly rangedd from 20.000 to 46.00 per cent with w crop loss of 16.00–440.00 per cennt, which is a matter oof serious conncern.

IPM strategy s

1. Luccknow 49 ((round big) is the moost resiistant cultivars to fruitt damage by b Bacctrocera spp.

2. Fruuit fly can be controlled by using baait trapps (See manggo pest managgement) 3. Meealy can be managed as a in case of o Maango.

Litchii Litchi Fruit Borerrs Four species of o fruit borers, vizz., Cryptoophleba illepida, Rap pala varunaa, Deudoorix isocratess and D. eppijarbas havve been reported r damaaging the fruuits. C. illepidda causess extensive damage d rangging from 40060%. The caterpillars borre into thhe develooping fruits annd feed on seeeds. The borre hole gets filled with the exxcreta of thhe caterpiillar and infested fruits staart rotting.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

IPM strategy 1. Collect all fallen infested fruits and destroy them.

2. At early stage of fruiting which coincides with egg laying, spray monocrotophos (2 ml per lit) or cypermethrin (1ml/lit of water). Repeat twice at 10-12 days interval.

Birds Damage (Parrots, bulbul, Koel, Magpie, Barbets etc) Several birds were found infesting the fruits of litchi crop such as parrots, bulbul and crows.

IPM strategy 1. Birds damage can be reduced by using local made sound devices or using some reflectors ribbon or tapes reel.

Anar Fruit borer, Deudorix isocrates This one of the most dreaded pest of anar which also infested heavy losses on guava and aonla fruits. Due to its attack in initial fruiting stage, the fruits become mummified and hanging on trees.

IPM strategies on Pomegranate 1. Bagging of fruits with butter paper gives good protection.

2. Spray Neem oil 5 % which is the best ovicidal properties and kill eggs laid by moths.

3. Spray of deltamethrin (1ml/lit of water and acetamiprid 0.2g/lit of water at 1521 days interval starting from fruit set is quite effective method to control borers.

4. Bark eating caterpillar of pomegranate can be controlled by plugging of holes with mud followed by spray of dimethoate @ 2ml/lit or chlorpyriphos @ 2ml/lit or metasystox @ 1ml/lit of water.

5. Release of Trichogramma embryophagum @ 01lacs/week for 6 continuous weeks especially in hilly and fragile land ecosystem.

Mummified fruits

Deudorix larvae on aonla

Life cycle of Anar Fruit borer, Deudorix

isocrates

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Chapter-2

Integrated Pest Management of Cereal Crops Hafeez Ahmad, Uma Shankar, A. K. Singh and Devinder Sharma Division of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, SKUAST-Jammu, Chatha-180009 ___________________________________________________________________________________ been found to be the major pest. The global Introduction losses due to various categories of pests vary Cereal crops are the lifeline of the human with the crop, the geographical location and the civilization. The three most important cereals prevailing weather conditions. Total yield losses grown for human food are rice, wheat and from different pests of all crops have been maize. Tropics contribute 30% to the world’s estimated to be US$ 500 billion worldwide. cereal production wherein, wheat, maize and Despite the plant protection measures adopted to rice together comprise at least 75% of the protect the principal crops, 42.1% of attainable world’s grain production. production is lost due to attack by pests.

Rice is the most important tropical crop; it is However, if no control measures are used to grown on one third of all land cropped to cereals protect the crops, the figure would be 69.8%. and it currently contributes 52% to all tropical Animal pests account for 15.6% loss of cereal production. Rice ecosystem represents production, pathogens 13.3% and weeds 13.2 %. one of the highly diversified agro-ecosystem in In India, the following insect pests have been the world wherein, over 800 insect species have recorded as major pest of rice in different parts been reported to utilize either standing or stored of the country /states. The important insect pests rice. of rice in Jammu region are presented in the About 300 species of insects have been reported Table1. to attack rice crop in India out of which 20 have Table1: List of major insect pests of direct seeded rice in different parts of Jammu region Common name of insect pests Scientific name Borer pests Yellow rice borer Scirpophaga incertulas White rice borer Scirpophaga innotata Sucking pests Green leaf hopper (GLH)

Nephotettix virescens

White backed plant hopper (WBPH) Brown plant hopper (BPH)

Sogatella furcifera Nilaparvata lugens

Green stink bug Rice leaf folder

Nezara viridula Cnaphalocrosis medinalis

Rice bug Rice hispa

Leptocorisa acuta Dicladispa armigera

Rodents

Bandicota bengalensis , Tatera indica, Rattus meltada, Mus booduga, Bandicota indica, Nesokia indica etc.

Avian fauna

Baya and other birds 13

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Horticultural Crops (15-16 (15 October, 2020)

Important insect pests of rice in Jammu region 1. Paddy stem borer: Scirpophaga incertulas, S. innotata Family: Pyraustidae Order: Lepidoptera

Symptoms of damage Larva of paddy stem borer feeds on the stem and causes drying of the central shoot known as “dead heart” in the young seedlings; results in drying of the panicle in grown up plant called “white ear”. ”. Damage varies from 30 30-80% based on the crop phenology and location to location.

Bionomics Eggs are laid in a mass of 15-80 80 on the upper surface of the tip of the he leaves and covered with buff coloured hairs. The egg period is 55-8 days.

Larva is pale yellow with dark brown head. It swims in water and reach the tillers, then it enters the leaf sheath, feeds there and attack the stem near the node and bores inside. The larva migrates to other tillers also. Larval period is 33 3341 days. It covers the exit hole with a thin web forms a white silken cocoon and pupates there.

The pupal period lasts for 6-10 10 days. Female moth has bright yellowish brown fore wings with a black ck spot and posses a tuft of yellow anal hairs. Male moth is smaller with pale

yellow forewings without black spot. Cold weather with high humidity and low temperature tempe prevalent during October-- December is conducive for multiplication.

Integrated Management 1. Grow resistant varieties like Ratna, Jaya, TKM 6, IR 20 and IR 26.

2. Avoid close planting and continuous water stagnation at early stages and clip the tip of seedlings before transplanting to eliminate egg masses.

3. Collect and destroy the egg masses ma and pull out and destroy the affected tillers.

4. Set up light traps to attract and kill the moths population.

5. Release the egg parasitoid, Trichogramma japonicum on 30 and 37 DAT twice @ 5 ml/ha/release followed by dimethoate spray thrice @ 1200 ml/ha on 55, 65 and 75 DAT reduce the damage.

6. Apply Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki and neem seed kernel extract in the combination of 2.5 kg/ml and 1% to reduce the oviposition by the stem borer.

2. Rice leaf folder: Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Family: Pyralidae Order: Lepidoptera Symptoms of damage The caterpillar folds the leaves longitudinally and hides inside. It scrapes the green tissues of the leaves with in the field and makes them white and dry. During severe infestation the whole field exhibits xhibits scorched appearance.

Bionomics The adult moth is often seen in the field during daytime. The moth is brownish with many dark wavy lines in centre and dark band on margin of 14

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Horticultural Crops (15-16 (15 October, 2020)

wings. The female moth lays eggs in batches of 10-12, which are arranged in linear row in the lower surface of leaves. The eggs are flat, oval in shape and yellowish white in colour. The egg period is 4-7 days. Larva is 15-20 20 mm long pale green transparent actively moving caterpillar.

The larval period is 15-20 20 days. It pupates inside the leaf fold. The pupa is greenish brown. The pupal period is 6-88 days. Total life cycle: 25 25-35 days.

Integrated Management 1. Keep the bunds clean by trimming them and remove the grassy weeds.

2. Avoid use of excessive nitrogenous fertilizer.

3. Passes the kerosene dip ropes across the field.

4. Set up light traps to attract and kill the moths.

5. Release Trichogramma chilonis on 35, 45 and 55 DAT thrice followed by three sprays of dimethoate or metasystox @ 1200 or 500 ml/ha.

6. Spray neem seed kernel extract 5% @ 25 kg or chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1.25 lit/ha.

3. Grasshopper : Hieroglyphus banian Family: Acrididae Order: Orthoptera Symptoms of damage The nymphs and adults of grasshoppers cause enormous losses to the crop by chewing and cutting various plant portion viz., leaves, flowers and grains. They completely defoliate the plants

leaving only the mid ribs and plant growth is affected.

Bionomics Adults ults = Green, larger with transverse black lines on pronotum. It lays eggs in soil at a depth of 5 cm. Nymphal period = 2.5 - 3.5 months Integrated Management 1. Bunds should be cleaned at frequent interval 2. Expose the eggs by deep ploughing to be picked up by birds for predation.

3. Spraying chlorpyriphos 20 EC 80 ml/ha or malathion 50 EC@ 2.5 lit/ha.

4. Brown plant hopper: Nilaparvata lugens Family: Delphacidae Order: Hemiptera Symptoms of damage Nymphs and adults congregate at the base of the plant above the water level and suck the sap from the tillers. The affected plant dries up and gives a scorched appearance called “hopper “ burn”. ”. Circular patches of drying and lodging of matured plant are typical symptoms caused by this pest. It is vector of grassy stunt, st ragged stunt and wilted stunt diseases. It has been reported as the serious problem in Vijaypur, Kathua districts of Jammu regions wherein, our university had provided the advisory to the farming community.

Bionomics The brown plant hopper has a brown brow body and chestnut brown eyes. Adult measures about 4 4.5 mm in length. It can fly a long distance drifting with the wind. Adults are of two forms 15

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Horticultural Crops (15-16 (15 October, 2020)

viz., Macropterous (long winged) and brachypterous (short winged). The female makes an incision in the leaff sheath and inserts 200-300 small eggs. Egg period lasts for 6 days; Nymphal period 15 days. Adult longevity is 18 1820 days.

Integrated Management 1. Use resistant varieties and avoid close planting and provide 30 cm rogue spacing at every 2.5 m to reduce the pest incidence.

2. Avoid use of excessive nitrogenous fertilizers and control irrigation by intermittent draining 3. Set up light traps to monitor pest population and release of generalist predators spiders like Lycosa pseudoannulata pseudoannulata, and Cyrtorhinus lividipennis 4. Avoid use of synthetic pyrethroids insecticides and quinalphos which causes resurgence and biotype development. Drain the water before the use of insecticides and direct the spray towards the base of the plants 5. Spray methyl demeton meton 25 EC 1000 ml (or) acephate 75 SP 625 gm (or) chlorpyriphos 25 EC 1250 ml (or) imidacloprid or thimethoxam 5. Rice hispa: Dicladispa armigera Family: Chrysomelidae Order: Coleoptera Symptoms of damage Adults feed on chlorophyll by scraping and causing white parallel streaks (or) white patches along with long axis of leaf whereas, grubs mine into the leaves and make blister near leaf tips.

Bionomics Adult is blue-black black shiny beetle with spines on the thorax and elytra. It lays eggs singly on the th leaf tip. Grub is minute, flat and yellow. It mines between the epidermal layers of leaf and pupates in leaf mines. Egg period: 4-5 4 days; Larval period: 7-12 12 days; Pupal period: 3-5 3 days There are six generations / year.

Integrated Management 1. The leaff tips containing blotch mines should be plucked and destroyed 2. Dusting the crop with 10% BHC dust @ 30 kg/ha at least two times at an interval of 40 days proves effective.

3. Spraying of the crop with Metasystox @ 500 lit/ha

Integrated Pest Management of premium quality Basmati rice The main purpose of Integrated Pest Management of Rice, is to train the farmers to employ the practical approaches of integrated pest management (IPM) so that they can able to 1) explore the arthropod community, biocontrol agents and their dynamics, and 2) to understand how biological control are effective and affected by insecticide use in rice.

Presently, the use of chemical pesticides is the most popular method for the control of these rice pests. However, several cultural cultu practices, a number of predators, parasitoids are also known to work effectively against these insect pests. It is common opinion of scientists that rice ecosystem are rich in diversity natural enemies fauna and they are not advocating the use of chemical mical pesticides in rice as they are sufficient enough to mitigate the harmful pest population.

A. Cultural method 1. Remove / destroy stubbles after harvest and keep the field free from weeds.

2. Use resistant varieties wherever available.

3. Provide effective drainage wherever there is problem of Brown Plant Hopper.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

4.

Clip the tip of seedling before transplanting to prevent the carryover of egg masses of rice yellow stem borer from nursery to main field.

5. Organise synchronized planting wherever possible.

6. Leave 30 cm rogue space at every 2.5 m to reduce damage by BPH and rodents.

7. Avoid use of excessive nitrogenous fertilizers.

8. Use irrigation water judiciously and remove the egg masses of stem borer in the main field.

B. Mechanical methods 1. Dig out the rat burrows and destroy the rats and young ones at the beginning of the season.

2. Set up light traps to monitor and control crop pests.

3. Set up-bow traps or use of chronic anticoagulents to kill rodents.

C. Biological methods 1. Release Trichogramma japonicum on 30 and 40 DAT twice 5 ml/ha/release against

stem borer.

2. Release Trichogramma chilonis on 35, 45 and 55 DAT (Thrice) @ 5 ml/ha/release against leaf folder.

3. Set up birds/owl perches to reduce rat damage.

D. Botanicals 1. Spray neem seed kernel extract 5% (25 kg/ha), neem oil 3% (15 lit/ha) to control brown planthopper.

2. Spray botanical powder formulation viz., NSKE, Vitex negundo (Notchi), Prosopis juliflora and Ipomoea carnea leaf extract 5% to control earhead bug and black bug.

E. Chemical methods 1. In BPH prone areas / season avoid use of synthetic pyrethroids and use of recommended chemical like acephate, imidacloprid or thiomethoxam at recommended doses.

2. Use insecticides based on Economic Threshold Level (Table 2).

Table 2: List of insecticides used to control various insect pests of rice Pest When to apply What to apply (Kg. a.i./ha) 2 Stem borer Nursery: 1 moth or 1 egg mass/ m Granule of carbofuran (1-1.25) or spray Chlorpyriphos (0.50) Planting to Mid Tillering: 5% dead Granule of carbofuran(0.75), quinalphos, cartap heart or 1 moth or 1 egg mass/ m2 (1.00) or fipronil (0.075) Panicle initiation to Booting stage: 1 Spray chlorpyriphos or cartap WP (0.300) or moth or 1 egg mass/ m2 fipronil SC (0.050). Repeat 7-10 days after. Or apply carbofuran or isazophos granule (0.75) Flowering and after : 1 moth / m2

Spray as above, but in the afternoon

Leaf folder

Planting to Booting: 1-2 freshly Spray chlorpyriphos, cartap WP (0.300) or damaged leaves/hill fipronil SC (0.050).Or apply cartap granule (1.0)

Green leaf hopper

Planting to Pre Tillering: 2 insects/hill Spray imidacloprid (0.025) or apply carbofuran in tungro endemic area, 10 insects/hill (0.75)or fipronil (0.075) granule in other areas

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Mid Tillering to Booting: 2-3 insect/hill in tungro endemic area, 20 insects/ hill in other areas Brown plant hopper White backed plant hopper Rice hispa

Case worm Army worm

Planting to Mid Tillering: 5-10 Spray acephate (0.60), carbaryl (0.75), or insect/hill for brown plant hopper and imidacloprid (0.025), fipronil (0.050) or apply 10 insects/hill for white backed plant granules of carbofuran (0.75) or fipronil (0.075) hopper Panicle initiation and after : 5-10 Preferably spray as above during evening hours. insect/hill Direct the nozzle at basal portion of plant Planting to Mid Tillering: 2 adults/hill Spray chlorpyriphos, ethofenprox EC (0.075) or or 2 damaged leaves/ fipronil SC (0.050) or apply granules of carbofuran (0.75) hill Mid Tillering : 1-2 case/hill Spray carbaryl (0.50) or apply carbaryl dust @ 30kg/ha 1 larva/hill

Spray dichlorovos, chlorpyriphos

Maize

damage to maize in India. However, only about a dozen of these insect-pests were 5% but has reached up to 25%. Arthropod Maize is the staple food for the people dwelling on mountainous and hilly tracts of Jammu and Kashmir. Our state is one of the major maize producing states occupying an area of 298 thousand hectares with a production of 0.36 million tonnes in Jammu division (indiaagristat.com, 2014-15).

A variety of insect pests attack maize crop right from seedling to maturity. These insect pests includes lepidopterous pests (borers, cutworms, armyworms, earworms, and grain moths) are the most damaging world over, followed by the coleoptera (root worms, wireworms, grubs, grain borers, and weevils). Next in importance is the group of insects that serve as carriers (vectors) for disease agents or pathogens, among which leafhoppers and aphids are of prime importance.

1. Cut worm (Agrotis ipsilon, A. segatum) Symptoms of damage Black or grey coloured larvae hidden inside the clod at day time. Adults are grey coloured

Maize (Zea mays L.) is among the world's three most important cereal crops grown in a wide range of environments. It is an important staple food in many tropical countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America and occupies third place in the world after wheat and rice. Of the 27 maize producing countries of the world, India ranks fifth in terms of area and eighth in production.

Maize has multiple uses. In most developing countries maize is grown as a food crop (grain maize); in other countries (USA, Brazil) it is an important animal feed or is a basic compound for ethanol production. Globally losses due to insect pests of maize are reported to be approximately 9%, which is equivalent to 52 million MT and worth approximately $5.7 billion annually.

In India, maize crop is grown in about 9.18 m ha area with production of about 24.2 million tonnes. Its average productivity (2.6 tonnes/ha) which is very low in comparison to its potential (indiaagristat.com, 2014-15). Most important reason for its low productivity is improper management of insect pests’ infestation. More than 130 insect pests have been recorded causing

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Management 1. Clean cultivation, remove the weeds and compost heap surrounded by main field.

2. Increase the seed rate @ 1.25 kg per kanal 3. Apply carbofuron 3G @ 20-25 kg per ha at the time of last ploughing.

4. Spray profenophos @ 2ml per lit of water at evening hours.

2. Stem fly: Atherigona soccata Symptoms of damage The maggot feeds on the young growing shoots results in “dead hearts”. Adults are Small grey coloured fly.

Management 1. Seed treatment with imidacloprid 70 WS 10 g/kg of seeds 2. Plough soon after harvest, remove and destroy the stubbles.

3. Installation of low cost fish meal trap @ 12traps/ha till the crop is 30 days old.

4. Soil application of carbofuron 3G @ 20-25 kg/ha at the time of sowing 5. Apply any one of the following insecticides: Methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml/ha or dimethoate 30%EC 1155 ml/ha 3. Stem borer: Chilo partellus Symptoms of damage: Central shoot withers and leading to “dead heart”, larvae mines the midrib enter the stem and feeds on the internal tissues, bore holes visible on the stem near the nodes, young larva crawls and feeds on tender folded leaves causing typical “shot hole” symptom, affected parts of stem may show internally tunneling caterpillars Management 1. Mix granular insecticides like Phorate 10% coated granule @ 10 kg/ha or Carbaryl 4% G @ 20 kg/ha with sand to make up a total quantity of 50 kg and apply in the leaf whorls on the 20th day of sowing 2. For stem borer, release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis @ 2,50,000 /ha coinciding egg laying period.

Three releases at weekly interval are

desirable. Third release is to be accompanied with larval parasitoid Cotesia flavipes @ 5000/ha.

3. If granular insecticides are not used, spray any one of the following : Acetamiprid SP @ 1.2 kg/ha on the 20th day of sowing (600 lit of spray fluid/ha is required) or spray dimethoate 30% EC 660 ml/ha.

4. Pink stem borer: Sesamia inferens Symptoms of damage Pink larva enters into the stem causing dead heart symptom. Adults are straw coloured moth with white wings.

Management 1. Spray dimethoate 30% EC 660 ml/ha at every 20 days interval 5. Corn Earworm: Helicoverpa armigera Symptom of damage Larva feeds on silk and developing grains. Bore hole on the cob. Larva shows colour variation from greenish to brown. It has dark brown grey lines on the body with lateral white lines. Adults are light pale brownish yellow stout moth.

Management 1. Set up of light traps for efficient trapping of moths 2. Set up sex pheromone traps @ 12/ha for early detection, mass trapping and mating disruption.

3. Two applications of NPV at 10 days interval at 1.5 X1012 POB along with robin blue 4. Apply any one of the following on 3rd and 20th day after panicle emergence: Carbaryl 10 D 25 kg/ha, Malathion 5 D 25 kg/ha, Phosalone 4 D 25 kg/ha 6. Aphid: Rhopalosiphum maidis Symptom of damage Colonies of aphids found in central leaf whorl which causes yellowing of leaves. Aphids are yellow with dark green legs Management 1. Spray any soft systematic insecticides like Dimethoate 30% EC 660 ml/ha or metasystox @ 1 ml per lit of water 19

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

7. Blister beetle, Myllocerus postulate Symptom of damage Adult beetles feed on silk and tassel Management 1. Early sowing of maize seeds i.e. in 1st week of June.

WHEAT Of the more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, at least 10,000 species are cereal grains. Among the insect pest attacking wheat crop in India, cereal aphids has assumed

2. Boredr crop of okra or pigeonpea or sunkukra @ 2-3 rows around the main crop.

3. Hand picking and destruction and Spray Acetamiprid SP @ 1.2 kg per ha.

economic importance during past three decades and have become regular pests in all major wheat growing areas ( Singh,1986 and 1998).

The insect pests infesting wheat are given in the table 1.

Table 1: Major insect pests of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ) in different regions of India Name of the Scientific name Order /Family pest Wheat leaf Sitobion avenae Fab. (Hemiptera : Aphididae) and earhead aphid Army worm Mythimna seperata How. (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae) Shootfly Atherigona soccata Diptera: Muscidae Termites (white ants) Surface grasshopper Fall army worm Thrips Rodents (Common field rats- 6 species)

Microtermes obesi Hol. Odontotermes Obesus Ramb.

Chrotogonus trachypterus Blanchard Attractomorpha crenulata Fabricius Spodoptera frugiperda (Boisd.)

(New record from Jammu) Anaphothrips flavicinctus (Karny.)

Bandicota bengalensis , Tatera indica, Rattus meltada, Mus booduga, Bandicota indica, Nesokia indica etc.

1. Wheat Aphid : Sitobion avenae Fab.(Hemiptera : Aphididae) In India, wheat Aphid is reported from Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. It is the major pest of cereal crops in the winter/spring. Aphids are soft bodied insects that can be found in

Isoptera : Termitidae) Orthotera : Acrididae) (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae) (Thysanoptera : Thripidae) (Rodentia: Muridae) (rats and gerbils)

wheat anytime during the growing season. The most common aphids found on wheat are the bird cherry oat aphid, root aphid, green bug, corn leaf aphid and English grain aphid. The first four occur mostly in the fall and winter.

Only the green bug aphid causes direct feeding damage that appears speckled brown and discoloured with some leaf curling. Aphids also act as vector for viral disease named barley 20

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

yellow dwarf (BYD). Wheat and barley can be severely damaged, but oats are mostly susceptible to this disease. Infection can occur from seedling emergence through heading, but yield loss is greatest when plants are infected in the fall. Yield losses of 5-15% are common but losses can exceed 30% during epidemics.

Management 1. For the management of aphids, foliar spray of imidacloprid 200SL @20g a.i./ha on border rows at the start of the aphid colonization be given.

2. A well timed application of a persistent pyrethroid insecticide such as Lamda cyhalothrin can reduce the incidence of BYD and increase yields.

3. Spraying formothion or oxydemeton methyl @ 250ml a.i./ha or 2 ml per litre of water.

4. Growing aphid resistant varieties, if available.

2. Shootfly, Atherigona naqvii (Muscidae: Diptera) The maggots bore into the shoot of young plants, a week after germination to about one month and as a result the central shoot dries up resulting in ‘dead hearts’. If it is a little later the mother plant may produce side tillers. But the tillers also may be attacked. The infestation often goes as high as 60%.

Management 1. Early sowing of wheat will reduce the attack. st

2. In late sown crops (end of December to 1 week of January) spraying of cypermethrin 0.002% twice at fortnightly intervals in seedling stage was found effective. The most vulnerable period of crop is being upto 60 days of germination.

3. Fall army worm: Spodoptera frugiperda The scientific name of Fall armyworm derives from frugiperda, which is a Latin word meaning lost fruit. It is named for its capability to damage and destroy a large variety of crops. The genus “Spodoptera” has 25 species but S. littura, S.

muritia, S. exempta and S. frugiperda are economically significant species for agricultural crops. S. frugiperda (Fall Armyworm) is an invasive pest of many crops but most serious pest for wheat and maize. It is migratory lepidopteran insect pest which infest more than 100 plant species in India.

IPM of Fall Armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda Monitoring Installation of pheromone traps @5/acre in the current and potential area of spread in crop season and off-season.

Cultural Measures 1. Deep ploughing is recommended before sowing. This will expose FAW pupae to predators.

2. Timely sowing is advised. Avoid staggered sowings.

3. Erection of bird perches @ 10/acre during early stage of the crop (up to 30 days).

4. Clean cultivation and balanced use of fertilizers.

Mechanical control 1. Hand picking and destruction of egg masses and neonate larvae in mass by crushing or immersing in kerosene water.

2. Mass trapping of male moths using pheromone traps @ 15/acre.

Bio-Control 1. Augmentative release of Trichogramma pretiosum or Telenomus remus @ 50,000 per acre at weekly intervals or based on trap catch of 3 moths trap.

2. Biopesticides: Suitable at 5% damage in seedling to early stage and 10% panicle damage with entomopathogenic fungi and bacteria. a. Entomopathogenic fungal formulations: Application of Metarhizium anisopliae talc formulation (1x108cfu/g) @ 5g/litre at 15-25 days after sowing. Another 1-2 sprays may also be given at an interval of 10 days depending on pest damage.

21

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

b. Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki formulations @ 2g/l (or) 400 g/acre.

Chemical Control 1. To manage 2nd and 3rd instars larvae at 1020% damage, spray Emamectin benzoate @ 0.4 g/l of water or Spinosad @ 0.3 ml/l of water or Thiamethoxam 12.6% + lambdacyhalothrin 9.5 %@ 0.5 ml/l of water or Chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC @ 0.4 ml/l of water.

2. Insecticide management is not cost effective at this stage. Hand picking of the larvae is advisable. All the sprays should be directed towards early hours of the day or in the evening time.

Capacity building and mass awareness 1. Application and timely plant protection measures to avoid spread of the insect from the abandoned crop.

2. Creation of awareness among important stake holders through trainings/group discussions.

3. Community based and area-wide approach for implanting management strategies.

5. Termites: Microtermes obesi Hol., Odontotermes Obesus Ramb. (Isoptera : Termitidae) These are social insects live in colonies. They build up nests consisting of small chambers connected with narrow passages make superficial tunnels on the ground to attack growing plants, timber wood, dry leaves and grasses. In the plants, generally the roots and stems are damaged with the result that they don’t grow properly, wilt soon and dry up. An attacked plants when cut or dug up shows irregular galleries on the bark which are made by termites eaten up the woody tissues. A new termite colony is usually started at the beginning of rains when sexually mature winged males and females which emerge in vast numbers come out of their colonies. The male and female termites shed their wings and copulate; the female

burrows into the ground to build a new nest. The queen may lay 30,000 to 80,000 eggs/day and 15 million eggs throughout her life span of five years.

Management 1. Do not apply raw or undecomposed farmyard manure; if possible irrigate the field when infestation is serious.

2. Treat the seed with chlorpyriphos @ 5 ml/kg of seed before sowing.

3. Mounds of termites if any in the area should be treated with 0.5% chlorpyriphos after breaking open the earthen structure and making holes with an iron bar. The insecticidal emulsion should be used @4 litres /m3 of the mound.

4. In the termite prone areas, (especially the northern states) seed treatment with chlorpyriphos @ 0.9g a.i /kg seed.

5. Fipronil (Regent 5FS @ 0.3 g a.i./kg seed) is also very effective.

6. In the standing crop, the broadcasting of the insecticide treated soil 15 DAS be practiced. For this, chloropyriphos @ 3 ml mixed in 50 Kg soil be used for one hectare field.

6. Rodent pest management in wheat Rodents (order: Rodentia) possess a great feeding potential as they generally consume 5– 10% of their body weight on a daily basis.

Agricultural fields serve as a highly productive rodent habitat and crops such as sugarcane, rice, wheat, groundnut and fodder serve as an ideal habitat for rodent pests. They are one of the most successful animals on earth due to their vast breeding potential and adaptability to a variety of living conditions. Of over 2000 species reported globally, only a limited number of species (~10%) are considered as serious impediments causing significant losses to food production and storage. The pest rodents cause 5–10% losses to various production systems such as agriculture, horticulture, forestry and stored food grains. Indian Field Mouse, Mus 22

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Horticultural Crops (15-16 (15 October, 2020)

booduga occupies second position after Bandicota bengalensis in rice, wheat and sugarcane fields in many regions causing serious damage.

Management 1. Proper sanitation should be maintained.

2. Mechanical removal of the rodent population from any habitat is mainly done using different types of trap. Trapping of B. indica and B. bengalensis in flooded deep water rice in Bangladesh and of B. bengalensis, G. ellioti, M. meltada meltada, etc. in vegetable crops in Himachal Pra Pradesh, India was found to be an effective method of rodent control. An eco-friendly friendly mechanical ‘burrow fumigator’ device has been developed by the All India Network Project on Rodent Control. The device utilizes farm wastes for generating smoke, which is pushed shed into rodent burrows through an inbuilt blower. The rodents die of asphyxiation.

3. Habitat Manipulation methods are low cost treatments and involve little modification in crop husbandry practices, such as ploughing, puddling, removal of wild vegetation and refuge of previous crops and reduction in bund size, etc. It helps in the migration of pest rodents from crop fields.

4. Several species of vertebrates, mainly birds and mammals, such as snakes, owls and mongoose are the predominant vertebrate predators of rodents.

5. Chemosterilants: Some of these are antiestrogen U–11, 11, diphenylindane derivatives, metepa, tepa, tetradifon, furadentin, colchicine, glyzophrol, etc.

6. Use of rodenticides is the most common, expedient and humane method to control pest rodents and therefore forms the basis of present day rodent management strategy in most parts of the world. Among acute rodent poisons, only zinc phosphide, barium carbonate and aluminium phosphide pho are registered by the Government of India for common use.

7. Non-anticoagulant anticoagulant rodenticides include Calciferol, cholecalciferol, bromethalin and flupropadine.

8. Anticoagulant rodenticides: rodenticides As the name indicates, this group of rodenticides interfere with the blood coagulation process, leading to internal bleeding and haemorrhage in the target animals. It includess chlorophacinone, diphacinone, pindone and hydroxycoumarins. The hydroxycoumarin rodenticides are further divided into (i) first generation (coumachlor, coumatetralyl and warfarin) and (ii) second generation (bromadiolone, brodifacoum, difencoum, flocoumafen, difethialone) rodenticides.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Chapter-3

Integrated Disease management of Field and Horticultural Crops Ashok Kumar Singh, S. K. Singh and Ranbir Singh Division of Plant Pathology, FOA, SKUAST-Jammu, Main Campus Chatha, Jammu-180009 ___________________________________________________________________________________ Crop disease is caused by environmental or physiological factors as well as living organisms and are responsible for causing crops losses across the world.

Major disease of wheat Rust Yellow or stripe rust (Puccinia striformis) Symptoms The uredosori appear as bright yellow pustules chiefly on the leaves. But in severe infections they may be seen on leaf sheaths also. The sori are elongated and are arranged in linear rows between the veins of the leaf and hence it is referred as stripe rust. The sori are mostly subepidermal and are remained covered by the epidermal layer and break only at the time of crop maturity.

Stripe rust Brown or orange rust Leaf, brown or orange rust Puccinia recondite Symptoms The first symptom of the disease is the appearance of minute, round, orange sori, irregularly distributed on the leaves, rarely on the leaf sheath and stem. The sori turn brown

with maturity. As the disease advances, the telial stage may be found in the same pustule.

Black or stem rust (Puccinia graminis tritici) Symptoms The first symptom of rust infection is flecking of leaves, leaf sheaths, culms and floral structures.

These flecks soon develop as oblong, reddish brown uredo-pustules, frequently merging into one another, finally bursting to expose a mass of brown uredospores. When large number of uredosori burst and release their spores, the entire leaf blade and other affected parts will have a brownish appearance even from a distance. Later in the season, teleutosori are produced. They are conspicuous, linear or oblong, dark brown to black, and often merging with one another, to cause linear patches of black lesions, which account for the name black rust.

Integrated Disease Management 1. Eradication of self sown wheat plants and weed hosts 2. Grow resistant varieties like DBW 505, VL 890, HD 2380, HS 490 and HS 295.

3. Avoid late sowing 4. Balanced application of nitrogenous fertilizers 5. Seed dressing with Tebuconazole@0.1% followed by two sprays with the same chemical.

6. Spray twice or thrice with Zineb@0.25% or Mancozeb@0.25% or Propiconazole@0.1%

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Integrrated Pest Managgement of Agri-Hoorticultural Cropps (15-16 Octoberr, 2020)

Loose sm mut (Ustilago nuda tritici) Symptom ms The sympptoms are ev vident only att the time off emergencce of the paniccle from boott leaf. All thee spikelets in a panicle transform innto a mass off black powdery sporees. The infeected paniclee t days earrlier than heaalthy and thee emerges two spores aree covered wiith the silverry membrane.

This thin membrane gets g ruptured exposing thee mass of black sporess. The sporees are easilyy blown by wind leaving g the bare rachhis.

Loose smuut Integrateed Disease Management M 1. Grow w resistant varieties like PV V 18, WG 3077 and HD H 450.

2. Soak the seed in cold c water forr 4 hours andd then immerse thee seed in hoot water at a tempeerature of 52 2oC for aboutt 10 minutes.

Dry thhe seed in shaade before sow wing.

3. Seed treatment witth systemic chemicals likee tebucoonazole@0.2%.

Karnal bunt Neovossia N i indica (form merly Tilleetia indica) Sym mptoms The infection is usually u confinned to a few grains g in thhe spike with irregular arraangement. In some cases the infectioon may spreadd to only a part p of g In sevvere cases, thhe grain is redduced the grains. to bllack shiny saac of teliospoores. As the grains g matuure the outerr glumes spreead and the inner glum mes expand, exposing e the bunted b grainss. The buntt balls are first enclosed by b the pericarrp but whenn it bursts thhe masses of o bunt sporees are expoosed. The bunt affected plants p emits a foul smelll.

Integrated Diseaase Managem ment 1. Grow G tolerannt varieties, viz., WL 15622, HD 2 2281, DBW 505 5 etc.

2. Use U disease free fr seed for sowing s 3. Judicious J a application of nitrogenous f fertilizers 4. Intercropping I g with Gram or o Lentil 5. Seed S treatmennt with Thiram m@3g/kg seeeds 6. Spray S witth Mancozeb@0.25% or e @ 0.1% P Propiconazol Major diseases of o pea Pow wdery mildew w Sym mptomsThis disease d first appears on leaves l as sllightly discolooured specks from which white powdery growthh of supeerficial mycelium deveelop, these sppecks later cooalesce each other and cover c entire aerial a parts off the plant.

Pow wdery mildew w on pea 25Â

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Downy Mildew Symptoms Initially symptoms appear as grayish white, fungal growth on the lower leaf surface, and a yellowish area appears on the opposite side of the leaf. Infected leaves can turn yellow and die if weather is cool and damp. Stems may be distorted and stunted.

Root –rot Symptoms Reddish brown to black streaks appear on primary and secondary roots, in later stage these streaks coalesce, red discolouration can seen on vascular system especially near the cotyledon attachment results plant show yellowing of leaves and stunted growth and drying.

Integrated Disease Management 1. Deep ploughing should be done during summer to expose resting bodies.

2. Collect and burn the infected plant before formation of oospore.

3. Apply crop rotation at least 3-4 years with leguminous crops.

4. Use resistant varieties like Rachna, HUP-9, DMR-9, PM-2, Jawahar Matar 10 and Pant pea.

5. Seed treatment with antagonists like Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum is effective in the management of soil borne disease.

6. Spray with metalaxyl @ 1ml/lL of water repeat at 15 days intervals.

7. Spraying karathane or calixine @ 0.1% for powdery mildew Diseases of tomato Early blight – Alternaria solani Symptoms First symptoms appear on lower leaves and the disease progresses upwards, as small, isolated, scattered pale brown spots on the leaf these spots a irregular in shape, brown to dark brown in colour at later stage develops concentric rings inside the spot.Spots coalesce to form large patches resulting in the leaf blight

Septoria leaf spot – Septoria lycopersici Symptoms Small, round to irregular spots with a grey center and dark margin on leaves. These spots usually start on lower leaves and gradually advance upwards direction. Less vigorous plant is usually affected.

Integrated Management 1. Apply crop rotation with cereal crops.

2. Removal and destruction of infected plants & weed hosts 3. Use resistant varieties.

4. Spraying of propiconazole or Topsin M @ 1ml/lit of water Diseases of chilli Damping off – Pythium aphanidermatum, P. debaryanum, P. ultimum, Fusarium and Rhizoctonia Symptoms Pre-emergence damping off: Seedlings disintegrate before they come out of soil surface.

This is known as pre-emergence damping-off which results in poor field emergence / poor seed germination.Post-emergence damping off is characterised by development of disease after seedlings have emerged out of soil surface but before the stems are lignified. Infected areas appear brown and water soaked, lesion formation become at collar region. Infected plants shrivel and collapse as a result of softening of tissues, stems become hard, thin (Wire stem symptoms) and infected seedlings topple. Disease appear in patches both in nursery and field beds.

Fruit Rot Symptoms First symptoms develop as small, circular, yellowish to pinkish sunken spots appear on fruits. On the surface of the lesions minute black dot like fruiting bodies called ‘acervuli’ develop in concentric rings and fruits appear straw coloured. Ripe fruits are more liable for attack than the green. Severe infection result in the shrivelling and drying of fruits.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Fruit Rot of chilli Integrated Management 1. Maintain proper spacing for adequate air circulation in plant canopy.

2. Select the seeds from healthy fruits and treat the seed with captan or thiram@3g/kg seed 3. Spray propiconazole @ 0.1 % or Copper oxychloride@0.3 %. Grow resistant varieties like Seoul hot, Liachi-2, AT-Good, etc.

Major diseases of fruit crops Fruit crops are produced on nearly 50 million hectares worldwide wherein, it comprises an essential part of our every day dietary schedule.

India is one of the largest fruit producers in the world. Fruit plants are susceptible to diseases at various growth stages in their production and distribution, with economic losses occurring at the nursery, in producers' fields, during storage after harvest, and in the marketplace.

Since most fruit plants are long-lived perennials, disease management presents unique challenges.

The roles of host resistance, pathogen exclusion,

cultural practices, and chemical and biological control in fruit disease management should be integrated to manage diseases.

Mango Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) Symptoms The disease appears on young leaves, stem, inflorescence and fruits. Leaves show oval or irregular, greyish-brown spots which may coalesce to cover larger area of the leaf. The affected leaf tissues usually dry and shred.

Leaves on infected petioles droop and fall. On young stem, grey-brown spots develop. These enlarge and cause girdling and drying of the affected area. The disease appears on young leaves, stem, inflorescence and fruits. Often, black necrotic areas develop on the twigs from the tip downwards causing a dieback. In humid weather, minute, black dots develop on the floral organs. The infected flower-parts ultimately shed resulting in partial or complete deblossoming. Latent infections of fruit are established before harvest. The ripening fruits show typical anthracnose. Black spots appearing on skin of the affected fruits gradually become sunken and coalesce.

Management 1. The diseased twigs should be pruned and burnt along with fallen leaves.

2. Spraying twice with Carbendazirn (Bavistin 0.1%) at 15 days interval during flowering controls blossom infection. Spraying of copper fungicides (0.3%) is recommended for the control of foliar infection.

3. Postharvest disease of mango caused by anthracnose could be controlled by dip treatment of fruits in Carbendazim (0.1%) in hot water at 520C for 15 minutes.

Powdery Mildew (Oidium mangiferae) Symptoms The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalk of panicles, flowers and young fruits. The affected flowers and fruits crop pre27Â

Integrrated Pest Managgement of Agri-Hoorticultural Cropps (15-16 Octoberr, 2020)

maturely reducing the crop load coonsiderably orr might eveen prevent th he fruit set. Fog or mistt accompannied by cooleer nights duriing floweringg is congeniial for the dissease spread.

Managem ment 1. Alternaate spraying of Wettable sulphur s 0.2% % (2 g Sulfex/litre), Tridemorph O.1% (1 mll Calixiin / litre) an nd carbendaziim (Bavistin)) @ 0.1 % (1 g/litrre) at 15 dayys interval iss recom mmended for effective coontrol of thee diseasse.

2. The first f spray iss to be giveen at paniclee emerggence stage.

Mango Malforrmation (Fusarium m moniliforrme) Symptom ms Mango Malformation M Disease D is a fungal f diseasee of mangooes caused by b Fusarium moniliforme.

Mango iss the only kn nown host off the disease.

The diseaase spreads on n a tree very slowly, but iff left uncheecked, can seeverely reduce yields. Thee main methhod of spread ding MMD too new areas iss through infected i vegeetative planting material.

There is no n evidence that t the diseasse can spreadd on fruit or o the seeds, or that it affects humann health. It is usually asssociated with the bud mite,, Aceria mangiferae m bu ut the mitess have beenn shown to t spread the diseasee. Abnormall developm ment of infloreescence is knnown as florall malformaation. Floweers appear in clusters.

Witches broom b like growth of shooot is known ass bunchy toop or vegetaative malform mation. Thesee infected branches b do not bear fruits..

Man nagement 1. Remove R diseassed parts.

2. Sppray insecticcides. (3) Sprray Captan (00.2%) o Benlate (0.1%). or ( (4) Spray S naphthhalene a acetic acid (N NAA) 200 ppm p (1 ml /55 litre w water) duringg first week off October folllowed b de-blossom by ming January-February.

Grape Pow wdery Mildew w (Erysiphe necator n form merly Uncinu ula necator) Sym mptoms The disease is characterized c by production of whitte powdery or o dusty grow wth on the upper surfaaces of the leeaves and other green paarts of the vine. Severely affected leaves l turn brown b and fall. Later in i the seasonn it attacks berry clustters and younng berries juust after flowering.

As thhe berries enlarge fungus growth disapppears but infected i grappes become roough skinnedd, turn hardd, remain undeersized and may m drop.

Man nagement 1. Spray S wettabble sulphur 0.2% or 0.05% 0 d dinocap (Karathane) with first appearannce of s symptoms.

A Avoid sulphuur sprays or dusts w when day tem mperature is >35 > oC. 2. Triazole T fungicides suchh as penconnazole 0 0.05% or heexaconazole 0.1% 0 can alsso be u used but avoiid their repeatted spray.

3. Use U of 0.1% caarbendazim (B Bavistin) mayy also b used. be Dow wney Mildew (Plasmoparaa viticola) Sym mptoms It is a major diseaase of grape and a could be more damaging under prolonged huumid spell. Small, S pale yellow circuular lesions appear a first on o the uppeer surface of the t leaf. On thhe underside of the lesioon downy growth of the fungus appeear as whittish-greyish growth. g The fungus produces sporangia, whichh liberate zooospores into a film of water w and spread the infection during d proloonged rains or dew. Lateer, the leaf tissue dies in the area of the lesionn. Often num merous lesioons coalesce, causing large areas of the leaf 28Â

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

to turn dark brown or black. Badly damaged leaves fall prematurely.

Management 1. Apply fungicides Bordeaux Mixture/copper oxychloride/Ridomil MZ 0.25% with first appearance of symptoms or in the event of humid and wet weather as preventive spray or once before bloom and once after bloom.

2. Avoid repetition of spray of Ridomil MZ. Citrus Citrus canker (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri) Symptoms The disease can appear anywhere on the exposed surface of the plant. Lesions first appear as moist spots that enlarge and grow into raised white scabs that are a result of the bacterium stimulating cells to divide. The scabs darken and become cratered and surrounded by yellowed tissue or they may merge into large scabs.

Lesions on fruit do not actually enter the flesh of the fruit, but the cratered appearance makes the fruits unmarketable.

Management 1. Resistant varieties of many citrus crops are available and canker on them can be controlled by early spraying with copper compounds.

2. Windbreaks are also used to prevent winddriven spread. Immediate and rapid destruction of infected trees and strict quarantine are essential to controlling the spread.

3. Citrus canker is the most feared disease of citrus crops and when established it can take years to eradicate.

Melanose (Diaporthe citri) On the fruit, leaves and small twigs, small, dark

brown to black spots are produced which are raised and rough to touch. The incidence of melanose usually increases as trees age and the amount of dead wood in the canopy increases.

The melanose fungus also causes a wood rot which occurs when trees are stressed, such as by drought. It causes a cinnamon brown discolouration of bark with a well defined margin between healthy and diseased tissue, often with streaks of yellow gum. The melanose fungus also causes one form of stem end rot of fruit (Phomopsis stem-end rot). Leaf symptoms begin as tiny water-soaked specks that become depressed in the center and surrounded by a translucent yellow area that is not depressed.

Later, the leaf cuticle ruptures and a gummy substance is exuded which turns brown and hardens. Heavily infected leaves become pale green to yellow, can be distorted and may fall from the tree. On the summer growth flushes, melanose can be severe enough to cause defoliation, particularly in years following freeze-induced twig dieback.

Management 1. Several applications may be needed to protect the fruit from petal fall until it becomes resistant in late June or early July.

2. Melanose can be reduced by pruning and burning dead wood which will reduce inoculum (spore supply).

3. Melanose is usually most serious in older groves. Spray with carbendazim (0.1%) or copper oxychloride (o.3%).

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Gummosis/Foot Rot (Phytophthora spp.)

Symptoms An early symptom of Phytophthora gummosis is sap oozing from small cracks in the infected bark, giving the tree a bleeding appearance.

Lesions spread around the circumference of the trunk, slowly girdling the tree. Decline may occur rapidly within a year, especially under conditions favorable for disease development, or may occur over several years. Phytophthora fungi are present in almost all citrus orchards.

Under moist conditions, the fungi produce large numbers of motile zoospores, which are splashed onto the tree trunks. The Phytophthora species causing gummosis develop rapidly under moist, cool conditions. Hot summer weather slows disease spread and helps drying and healing of the lesions. Secondary infections often occur through lesions created by Phytophthora. These infections kill and discolor the wood, in contrast to Phytophthora infections, which do not discolor wood.

buffer strip of healthy, light brown to greenish bark around the margins of the infection. Allow the exposed area to dry out.

4. Cover the exposed area with Bordeaux paint.

5. Drench root zone of the diseased plant with 0.1% metalaxyl (Ridomil-MZ) 3-4 times until the tree shows the signs

Management 1. Management of Phytophthora gummosis focuses on preventing conditions favorable for infection and disease development.

2. Plant trees high enough so that the first lateral roots are just covered with soil.

Correcting any soil or water problems is essential for a recovery.

3. In addition to improving the growing conditions, you can halt disease spread by removing the dark, diseased bark and a 30Â

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Chapter-4

Integrated Pest Management of Pulse and Oilseed crops Amit K. Singh, Uma Shankar and Devinder Sharma Division of Entomology, FOA, SKUAST-Jammu-180009 ____________________________________________________________________________________ The trap catch is influenced by environment, Introduction crop, egg and larval population. The seasonal India is the largest producer and consumer of cycle of this pest varied in different parts of the pulses in the world accounting for 33 % of the country and also with cropping pattern. Traps world area and 22 % of world production of can be used as a monitoring device to design the pulses. The domestic demand and consumption, management strategies against H.armigera. however is much more than production mainly There is no resistant variety for pod borers. because pulses are a major source of protein for Planting date is having influence on the a large section of the vegetarian population in incidence of pod borers. For example, June the country. The cultivation of pulses also month sowing helps the crop to escape from the provides of large quantity of green fodder, attack of pod borers like H. armigera and which serves as the nutritious food for the requires lesser number of sprays. Though there livestock. Besides their high nutritional value, are several parasitoids and other biocontrol pulse crops have unique characteristics of agents have been recorded, only NPV and Bt are containing and restoring soil fertility through found to be promising under field conditions. biological nitrogen fixation.

India is one of the largest producer of pulses (13 million tonnes) but the average productivity is very low (614 kg/ha). The major pulse crops grown in Jammu region are chickpea, pigeonpea, urdbean, mungbean and cowpea.

Among the various constraints, insect pests and diseases are the major and important one affecting the productivity of pulses apart from ecological and biological constraints. Among the pulses, the redgram Cajanus cajan (L.) Mill sp.

Helicoverpa armigera is the most important dietary component of Seedling pests human beings. India is the largest producer If sucking pests are observed in seedling stage, contributing more than 90 % of the world’s spray methyl demeton 25 EC @1 ml/lit of water production of redgram. A variety of insect pests or dimethoate 30 EC @ 2ml /lit of water. infest pulses and the annual yield loss is Inflorescence and pod borers estimated to be 20 % in pigeonpea, 15 % in Spraying on inflorescence and pod setting stage chickpea and 30 % in urdbean and mungbean. can be taken up based on economic threshold On an average 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes of pulses level (ETL). The economic threshold level for are lost annually due to pests. different insect pest is as followsIntegrated Pest management Maruca vitrata: 03 larvae/plant, Monitoring of Helicoverpa armigera 31

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Exalastis atomosa: 05 larvae/plant.

When H. armigera is predominant in field condition, apply NPV @ 250 to 400LE/ha to control the pest in the early stage. Helicoverpa armigera: 01 to 1.5 larvae/m row length in pigeonpea, 01 larva per five plants in the pod initiation stage on gram.

Apply entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) such as Steinernema carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis indica following insecticides quinalphos 4% D @ 25 kg/ha; Spraying of NSKE 5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% has controlled the pod borers and increased the yield.

Recent studies have indicated that following IPM methods have controlled the pest and increased the yield.

1. Installation of bird perches @ 50/ha 2. H. armigera pheromone trap @ 10/ha 3. Collection and destruction of fully grown larvae 4. Spraying NSKE 5% at 50% flowering 5. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha at 15 days after first spray 6.

Application of the following insecticides at 15 days interval depending on the intensity of pest.

Chlorpyriphos 0.05%,

Steinernema carpocapsae, An EPN strain Podfly, Melagromyza obtusa It is of economic importance only in the larval stages and is the major pest in medium and long duration redgram varieties causing 60–80% grain damage The infected seeds do not germinate. Partially matured pods are used for egg laying than the tender or fully matured pods.

Pod fly damage Monitoring All the immature stages remain within the developing pod and is very difficult to monitor without damaging the pod. Though several attractants and traps have been designed to monitor the adult flies, none of them are effective in the field.

Spotted pod borer, Maruca vitrata The larvae cause extensive damage to floral buds and flowers. The characteristic symptom is webbing together of flowers, pods, and leaves with frass often on pods and shoot tips. This is serious pest in early maturing varieties.

Monitoring The adults can be monitored through light traps though there are variations in the catches in different months at various regions of the country.

Plume moth (Exalastis atomosa) The pest is active throughout the year depending on the availability of the host plants. Apart from redgram, it is also recorded in horse gram and lab lab. The average pod and grain damage was 8.95 and 4.02 % respectively.

Blue butterfly (Lamides boeticus) It causes considerable damage to buds, flowers and tender pods compared to other pod borers.

Cowpea, pea, and beans are also important hosts for this pest.

Pod bug (Clavigralla gibbosa; Riptortus spp.)

This is the most important sucking pest of pods.

The adults mostly lay eggs on green pods or 32

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

leaves. At times floral buds, developing pods and dough pods were also preferred for oviposition.

Blister beetle (Mylabris spp) The beetles are found to occur throughout the year in redgram, cowpea, green gram and black gram. Peak incidence was observed during September causing a maximum flower damage of 95 %.

Integrated Management Host Plant Resistance (HPR) It is the most important and widely adopted components in IPM. Several short, medium and long duration maturity groups have shown resistance or tolerance to gram pod borer and pod fly. Ten redgram selections viz., ICRISAT 16, 166–2–1, ICP 7946–1–3–3, ICP 127, SL 12– 3–1, SL 41–3–3, PDA 88–2E–3–1, ICP 3401, ICP 7950 and ICP 12304 were found promising.

The short duration entries ICPL 4, ICPL 2 and ICPL 88034 were tolerant pod borer complex.

The cultivars with small pods, small dark coloured seeds and deep constrictions between seed locules were less preferred by pod fly. High level of trypsin inhibitors and linolool was recorded in resistant lines to gram pod borer.

Cultural Practices The effects of several cultural practices have been investigated on the incidence of pod borer complex. In north, the timely sowing saves the crop from the incidence of Helicoverpa.

Biological control Though several parasites and predators have been recorded against Helicoverpa, they are less effective under field conditions. The pathogens 12

like HaNPV @ 500 LE (3.0 × 10 POBs/ha) were effective under field conditions. There was high level (>80%) of parasitism by the larval pupal parasitoid Ormyrus spp. on pod fly.

Chemical control It offers immediate and effective solution to most of the problems. As the pod borer complex consists of more than one pest and their intensity

of attack differs depending on the maturity of crop and geographical distribution, the type of insecticide and time of use vary according to the pest situation. Generally, the lepidopteran borers and pod fly cause major damage and the control measure is decided based on the incidence of these two groups. The chemicals recommended for managing the pod borers are given below – Green gram and black gram There are nearly 200 insect pests belonging to 48 families in coleoptera, diptera, hemiptera, hymenoptera, isoptera, lepidoptera, orthoptera, thysanoptera, and 7 mites of the order Acarina are attacking the above crops. Under severe case stem fly alone causes more than 90 % damage resulting in an yield loss up to 20 %. Whiteflies, a potential vector of mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) causes losses ranging from 3070 %. Damage due to bruchids, Callosobruchus chinensis starts right from the field. Adults emerging from the stored seeds lay eggs on healthy grains. The field infestation ranges from 7.8 - 9.9 per cent and there was 100 per cent destruction of seeds when there was 9.9 per cent field infestation.

Adjusting the sowing dates, use of resistant varieties and growing inter or trap crops can be followed depending on the availability and effectiveness in a particular location. Use of biocontrol agents has not been successful in these crops although it is a viable alternative despite the record of several natural enemies in the field.

Early stage pests In order to protect from seedling stage pests like stem fly and sap feeders, application of carbofuron 3 G (30 kg) or cartap hydrochloride 4G @ 20 kg /ha in the soil at the time of sowing can be applied. If sucking pests are noticed on young plants, spray methyl demeton 25 EC @1 ml/lit or dimethoate 30 EC @2 ml/lit of water.

At inflorescence and pods setting stage, spraying of neem seed kernel extract 5 % twice, starting from 50 per cent flowering stage 33

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

followed by one spray of cypermethrin @ 1ml/lit is also effective.

Storage pests Seeds must be dried to reduce the moisture level to 8 per cent. To reduce further attack by bruchids seeds can be treated with 1 kg of activated clay or malathion 5 % D / 100 kg of seed. Neem seed kernel powder 3 % also protects the seeds from pests.

Pest management in cowpea The cowpea is an important pulse and vegetable crop attacked by variety of sap feeders like aphids in the early stage and flower feeders and borers at later stage of the crop.

Spray methyl demeton 25 EC @1 ml/lit or dimethoate 30 EC @2 ml/lit of water for sucking pests Stemfly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) Soil application of carbofuron 3G (30 kg/ha) or cartap hydrochloride 4G@ 20 kg/ha at the time of sowing.

Pest management in chickpea Helicoverpa is the key pest causing an average yield loss of 10 per cent for the entire country.

There was even 90 per cent damage under severe cases. According to an estimate, the annual loss due to this pest was reported to be Rs.20.30 crores.

Pod borer on chickpea Protection of pods and flowers Application of NPV 250 LE/ha; NSKE 5% or spraying of dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/lit of

water. Spraying (ETL 2 early instar larvae/10 plants) of cypermethrin in combination with neem oil 0.01%. or three sprays of NPV along with 10% aqueous extract of Vitex negundo is also effective against H. armigera. The application of Bt @ 1500 g/ha is effective against H. armigera.

Storage of seeds Seeds can be treated with 1.0 kg of malathion 5% D or Activated Kaolin clay/100 kg of seed to protect the seeds from storage pests. Store the seeds in polythene lined gunny bags.

Integrated Pest Management of Oilseed crops Oilseed crops play a prominent role in agricultural industries and trade throughout the world. There are about 40 different oilseeds crops in the world whose oil can be consumed but only a few are significant. Oilseed crops are of three distinct categories: the annual or biennial group which includes soybeans, sunflower, groundnuts and rapeseed; the perennial tree crops include coconuts and oil palms.

India is among the largest oil economies in the south East Asian region and occupies a distinct position in terms of diversity in annual oilseed crops. Oilseed crops are affected by a large magnitude of insect pests of which, about a dozen are of serious concern. These include leaf miner, thrips, and tobacco caterpillar; head borer in sunflower; aphids and H. armigera in safflower; leaf webber and capsule borer in sesame and, aphids, saw fly, cabbage butterfly, and painted bug in rapeseed-mustard, semilooper and Bihar hairy caterpillar in castor and bud fly and H. armigera in linseed. These crops are often attacked by polyphagous pests like red hairy caterpillar, Bihar hairy caterpillar, root grubs, termites, cutworms and serpentine leafminer. The yield losses due to these pests could range from 50-90% across oilseed growing areas.

Insect pests of Brassica 34

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Mustard sawfly, Athalia lungens Klug This pest preferably feeds on mustard plant in choice situation otherwise is a serious pest of all the cruciferous crops in seedling stage. The grub is the main damaging stage of this pest which feed on leaves and causes shot holes and sometime riddle whole leaf in severe damage situations. In case of less damage, the plant recovers quickly and the shot holes are of no economic importance. In some months this pest aestivates as grub/pupa and again become active when the temperature starts declining. It completes 3 overlapping generation from September to January.

Mustard saw fly larva Mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi Kalt.

This aphid is active throughout the year however, main activity period coincides with the growing period of cruciferous crops from September until March. A minimum temperature in the range of 4-13.8°C and a mean maximum temperature 14.0-30.0°C and 48-80% relative humidity, favor quick aphid multiplication.

Lipaphis erysimi Brevicoryne brassicae Flea beetle, Phyllotreta cruciferae Gorge

Flea beetles This pest sometimes becomes very serious causing economic damage to the crop and it has been reported to cause serious damage to the rapeseed and mustard crops. Adult beetles are present in the fields all the year round except from November to January, when these hibernate in the soil or plant debris.

Painted bug, Bagrada cruciferarum and B. hilaris This pest causes damage to rapeseed and mustard crops at seedling and maturity/harvesting stage of the crop. Both adults and nymphs suck the sap from the leaves, young plants or even for the seed and in earlier case it devitalize the plant completely. The seedling stage of the crop is the most sensitive which may even be killed, if heavy incidence of this pest occurs at this time. On full grown plants, the nymphs and adult congregates on the pods and suck the sap.

Bagrada cruciferarum Management Strategies Cultural control: Lesser nitrogen applications normally restrict fecundity, faster development and multiplication of aphids.

35

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Natural enemies: Mustard aphid is one of the most important pests of this crop wherein, many natural enemies which play role in the management of rapeseed and mustard insect pests at one or the other stage of the crop growth. The mustard aphid is known to be preyed upon by a large number a predators and parasites like coccinellids, syrphids, Chrysoperla carnea, Aphidius sp, etc. It is parasitized by Diaretiella rapae up to 90 %. The parasitization is quite high in January and February. Pea leafminer has been reported to be parasitized by Chrymotomyia formosa, Diglyphus isaea, Opius exigua and Sohegion sp.

Many coccinellids like C. septempunctata, M. sexmaculata, Brumoides suturalis, Hippodamia variegata, Scymnus nubilus and Verania viacta have been found to be active in the aphid infested fields. Syrphids, Ischiodon scutellaris is the only syrphid feeding on mustard aphid. In Punjab, Diaeretiella rapae parasitized only 8.2% aphids in February which increased to 100% in April. Bacteria, Serratia marcescens have been reported to cause disease to Athalia proxima larvae. On the other hand Entomophthora sp. and Cephalosporium sp. have been reported to cause disease in Aphid, Lipaphis erysimi. There are only a few reports on the biology and efficacy of syrphids and coccinellids in the laboratory and the population dynamics of the aphid in the field. In India, the rate of parasitism of mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi (Kaltenbach) on rape-seed mustard crop varied from 20% to 51%.

Mechanical Control: Mechanical removal of twigs and leaves harboring hairy caterpillar is very effective and is advised on community basis. In case of the mustard aphids too, heavily infested twigs removed without disturbing the whole plant can check the proliferation of the mustard aphid.

Insect Pests of sesame The main insect pests include sesame shoot webber and pod borer, Antigastra

catalaunalis; sesame gall fly, Asphondylia sesame; sphingid moth, Acherontia styx, and hairy caterpillar, Spilosoma obliqua.

Sesame shoot webber and pod borer, Antigastis catalaunalis This pest is distributed throughout the sesame growing area of India. It causes terminal destortion of plants through rolling and webbing of a few top leaves. Early stage infestation (1015 days old plants) results in plant death without producing any branches or shoots. Sometime larva enters into the shoot and the pods. One larva can destroy 2-3 young plants and 4-6 flower buds. It leads to 10-70 per cent plant infestation, 1-43.5% pod infestation and 8.8671.53 per cent yield lose. - It completes 14 generation in a year. This pest is active from March-December.

Sesame shoot webber and pod borer Sesame gallfly, Asphondylia sesami Female lays its eggs in flower buds. Incubation period is 2-4 days. Maggots feed on floral parts, especially gynaeceum. The plant transforms into malformed gall like buds which fail to turn into seed capsules and infested buds wither and fall into ground. The pest is active from flower initiation stage of the plant. Intensity of the pest is 1- 21 per cent.

Sphingid moth, Acherontia styx This is massive caterpillar (7.5-10 cm) feeds voraciously on foliage. Robust moths are known as honey robbers as they rob honey from the bee hives. The pest is active from mid March - early December but maximum infestation is in 36

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

September. Full grown larva is green with oblique yellow streak along the sides. Larva can be recognized by presence of curved horn on dorsal side. Three colors of larvae are there which are green, yellow and brown.

Hairy caterpillars, Diacrisia obliqua, Amsacta moorei This pest is highly polyphagous and defoliate a number of kharif crops. The larvae have long hairs throughout their body. Young caterpillars are gregarious. The insect feed on all parts except stem. There is only one generation of A. moorei and 3-8 in D. obliqua in a year.

Diacrisia obliqua Thrips The infestation of this pest results in malformation of stamens, injury to the ovary and development of a dark pigment on fruit wall instead of usual green color.

Management strategies Cultural control: Sowing the crop during June and July will escape from leaf webber damage and delayed sowing resulted in a significantly higher level of damage to leaves, flowers and pods and poor yield. Intercropping with pigeon pea and black gram, green gram, cluster bean,

sorghum and pearl millet was found to significantly reduce the leaf webber damage.

Mechanical control: Collection and destruction of infested parts of plants further minimize the damage of caterpillar. If possible manual collection and destruction of larvae will reduce the population build up.

Resistance to sesame leaf-roller: It has been reported that the branching pattern and maturity of the plants are positively correlated with their resistance to leaf-roller. Profuse branching and early maturing varieties provide conditions which are more conducive to pest development.

The late maturing varieties NP 29, C 1036 and Chanda 3 have been reported to the less susceptible to the pest.

Biological control: Conservation of existing natural enemies (spiders, coccinellid beetles, predatory stink bugs, preying mantids, black ant) and parasitoids (Braconids and Ichneumonids) through ETL based (2 webbed leaves/sq. m or 10% damage) application of botanical insecticides and safer chemicals. Augmented release of parasitoids viz., Trathala flavoorbitalis and Apanteles sp and the predators like Chrysoperla carnea also would reduce the population build up. Sesame leaf webber and pod borer, Antigastra catalaunalis is parasitized by five different parasitoids.

Bio-pesticides: Spray of neem oil 1% or Neem Seed Kernel Extract 5% at the early stage of infestation.

Application of bio-inoculants (Azospirillum) induces the insect resistance among the treated plants and recorded the minimum leaf damage by increasing levels of phosphorus and potassium level in the plants.

Chemical control Spray of carbaryl 0.1% or dusting carbary l 5% reduces the damage. Two sprays of quinalphos 0.05% at 30 and 45 days after sowing will control the pest effectively.

Insect pests of Sunflower A large number of insect pests have been reported causing extensive damage to sunflower.

In India, more than fifty insect species have 37

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

been found feeding on sunflower of which seedling pests, cutworm (Agrotis spp) and grasshopper (Atractomorpha crenulata), soil insects (termites and white grubs), sucking pests such as leaf hopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula), whitefly (Bemesia tabaci), thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis), defoliators like Bihar hairy caterpillar (Spilosoma obliqua), tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura), green semilooper (Plusia orichalcea), cabbage semilooper (Trichoplusia sppi) and capitulum borer (Helicoverpa armigera) are of economic importance.

Besides, non insect pests such as rabbits, parakeets, doves, house sparrows, crows, rats etc. have been reported to cause severe damage on sunflower.

Management Strategies Cultural practices Mixed cropping of sunflower with red gram reduced the population of H. armigera on sunflower to some extent. In BSH-I or Modern variety of sunflower at 4:2 or 2:4 ratio, the number of borers were comparatively lower than that in solo crop of hybrid (Singh et al., 2003). For control of cutworms, growing of sunflower on ridges reduced the damage to seedlings to a very significant extent. In case of sucking pests, increased spacing encouraged the jassid build-up, while increased dosage of N fertilization favored heavy multiplication of jassids.

Resistance sources More than 100-germplasm lines and several cultivars have been evaluated in the field against H. armigera. The lines were categorized on the basis of egg or larval counts and damage to the capitulum.

Biological control Various biological control agents attack these pests. Spilosoma obliqua larvae have been reported to be parasitized by Charops sp. Up to 38 per cent and up to 15.12% by Apanteles obliquaei and A. ruides). H. armigera, a dreaded

pest of sunflower is parasitized by two species of tachinid viz. Carcelia illata and Exorista xanthaspis up to 24.54%. Timely spray of HaNPV @ 400LE/ha twice can protect sunflower crop from head borer.

Botanicals Many plant products like neem, sweet flag etc. have been found effective against S. litura and H. armigera.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Chapter-5

IPM of Post Harvest Grain Pests Devinder Sharma, Uma Shankar, Amit K. Singh and Hafeez Ahmad Division of Entomology, FOA, SKUAST-Jammu-180009 _____________________________________________________________________________________ produced on a seasonal basis, and in many Introduction places there is only one harvest a year, which The introduction of high yielding varieties in the itself may be subject to failure. This means that early sixties which has ultimately blossomed in order to feed the world's population, most of into Green Revolution has helped India, to the global production of maize, wheat, rice, emerge as one of the leading developing sorghum and millet must be held in storage for countries in the front of agricultural economy periods varying from one month up to more than resulting in increased food grain production, a year. Protection of food grains through sound touching more than 230 million metric scientific storage practices occupies a vital place tonnes/year. The sustained increase in in the economies of developed and developing production brought within the problems of countries alike is thus, a matter warranting storage. Millions of tonnes of valuable grains urgent attention. worth more than 2000-3000 crores of rupees are either damaged or last for want of knowledge of Why identify stored grain insects? scientific methods of storage every year due to Farmers are generally aware that an infestation various agencies like insects, rats, moisture and of weevils and lesser grain borers can cause birds. Insects are responsible for enormous significant quality and monetary loss if left spoilage in storage. Nearly one thousand species uncontrolled. These insects often are classified of insects have been found associated with as “primary grain pests” because they attack and stored products in various parts of the world. destroy whole, undamaged grain. The immature The majority of insects pests belong to order stages occur inside the kernels, thus a “hidden” Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, which accounts for infestation may develop. “Secondary grain about 60 per cent and 10 per cent respectively of pests,” the so-called “bran bug groups,” include the total number of species of stored insect pests. most other grain-attacking beetles (Table 1).

They feeding grain bore the kernel; destroy the These insects frequently cause more serious germ portion, cause heating and deterioration losses where some type of kernel damage in stored produce, and loss in both qualitative precedes their establishment. and quantitative. Nutritional depletion, reduction Significance of infestations depends on the in market value besides contaminating losses, species, density, and ultimate plans for the grain. mixing with their excretory products are Proper sampling and identification during hazardous to health of human beings who handle storage help the manager recognize problems and eat infested grains. The loss is not merely in early and thereby prevent further damage (Table terms of quantity but also in quality 2 & 3). Selecting the most appropriate curative of foodgrains. The qualitative loss is attributed or preventative action from among available to chemical changes in protein, carbohydrates, alternatives is not easily accomplished, amino acids, fatty acids and vitamins which especially when the type of insect present is not affect the nutritive value of the grains known. For example, if insects that feed inside In most countries grains are among the most the kernels are already present in significant important staple foods. However they are numbers, a surface protectant applied as a dust 39

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

or spray would not be the best management provide the most reliable protection. option. Usually a combination of tactics will Table 1. stored grains pests Primary pest Secondary pest These attack sound foodgrains These attack the broken or grains already damaged by primary stored pest Rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae Red rust flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Lesser grain borer, Rhizopertha dominica Long headed flour beetle, Latheticus oryzae Khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium Saw toothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis Pulse beetle, Callosobruchus spp.

Red rust grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus Grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella Flat grain beetle, Cryptolestes pusillus Rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica Indian meal moth, Plodia interpunctella Almond moth, Ephestia cautella Table 2. Detection of infestation Methods Physical methods Visual inspection Floatation method Berlese method Sampling and sieving X-ray technique NMR and Near Infra Red Spectroscopy Chemical method ELISA test Uric acid analysis Analysis for CO2 Specific gravity method Fragment count Staining technique 1. Egg plugs 2. Ninhydrin method

Applicability Whole grains, processed foods Whole grains Whole grains Whole grains, milled products Whole grains Whole grains Whole grains, milled products, processed foods Whole grains, milled products and spices Whole grains Whole grains except oats and maize Whole grains, milled products, processed foods Whole grains Whole grains

Table 3. Indicators of insect infestation in stored product commodities Indication Commodities Insect Exit holes Wheat, rice, maize R. dominica Sitophilus spp.

Paddy S. cerelella Pulses (whole) Callosobruchus spp.

Whole spices Stegobium paniceum 40

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Eggs on grain surface Webbing or silken present

Pulses (whole) strands Cereals, whole and milled Oilseeds/oilcakes/meals

Dry fruits tree nuts Pupal cases sticking to shells and Peanut in shell gunny bags Damage caused by insects Worldwide annual loss 8-10% (13 mt of grains lost due to insect and 100 mt due to failure to store properly). Insects damage stored grain in many ways leading to:  Reduction in grain weight due to consumption by adults and immature stages.  Contamination of grains by dead bodies, fragments of insects, moulting, excreta, excretions etc.  Effect on chemical composition  Change in nutritional quality  Effect on end use products  Health hazards o Inhalant allergy o Ulcerative colitis o Carcinogenic quinones o Carrier of toxicogenic fungi  Change in humidity by o Re-distribution of water in the bulk as a result of heating o Production of water by the insects as a result of oxidation of hydrogen in their food and the composition of the inertgranular atmosphere is changed by production of CO2 and consumption of O2.  Damage to receptacles (storage) and mills.  Loss due to screening  Loss of goodwill

Callosobrucus spp.

C. cephalonica P. interpunctella E. cautella P. interpunctella E. cautella E. cadidella Caryedon serratus

Sources of infestation  Field infestation (Hidden infestation): e.g. pulse beetle and Paddy moth infest crop in the field  Cracks and crevices : Insects from old stock infest fresh stock (Cross infestation)  Left over seed from bins/stores or spilled seeds under the stacks  Old Containers and bags  Trucks, trollies and bullock carts  Entry of insects from neighboring stores  Carry over of field infestation  Old infested stores  Cleanings of the processing plants  Human beings Requirement for successful storage The following points should be considered for safe storage of food grains:  Selection of site (location)  Selection of storage structure  Cleaning of storage structures  Cleaning and Drying of grains  Cleaning of Bags  Separate storage of new and old stock  Cleaning of vehicles  Use of dunnage  Proper aeration  Regular Inspection

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Indoor bins Domestic metal bins Gharelu theka Pucca kothi Welded mesh wire bin Reinforced cement ring bin Paddy straw mud bin

Outdoor bins Flat and hopper metal bin Partly above ground and underground bin Ferro-cement bins Pusa bin Vaccum process storage Improved go-downs Seed storage bins successful because of the application of Traditional farm/village storage methods scientific principles, though unawares. Most of Traditional methods of storing grain are the the traditional methods, at least unawares, product of decades, if not centuries of minimize economic loss and damage to the development, perhaps by trial and error, but environment. People of J&K follow time-tested certainly as a result of experience of the users customs and practices in various areas like food, and their ancestors. Farm folk of the tropics and medicines and agriculture. In recent years, subtropics mainly follow Indigenous traditional documenting of traditional wisdom gained (ITK) storage methods. Resource poor farmers significant attention world over, because of its in developing countries use different importance in developing high potential, Physicochemical and biological methods to environment friendly and sustainable protect stored grains against pest infestation by management. Identification and utilization of mixing grains with protectant made up of plant such indigenous knowledge from the elderly products. Though these methods have a strong people from rural and tribal belts will surely scientific basis, it is seldom known to the users. bridge the gap between the current scientific and The traditional methods have been used for age-old practices many years with little or no modification and are Table 4. Ethnic practices followed by farmers for managing stored pests Methods Effective against Biological methods Rice stored pests  Neem and pongamia leaves 

Neem, Vitex negundo leaves

Maize stored pests



Leaves of Annona squamosa, Cymbopogon citratus, C. Pulse pests nardus, Erythrina indica Physiochemical methods Most of the food grains  sun drying 

Fly ashes and diatomaceous soil

Pulses, maize



Different coloured polyethene bags

Pulse pest



Match boxes (Match sticks have phosphorus, which is anti Wheat stored pests repellent in nature Garlic, Turmeric powder has pesticidal insecticidal, and Rice pestss antifungal properties.

Clove The strong flavour and bitterness of cloves protects the Rice pests grain from spoilage.

 

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)





Edible oil and salt (Oil is anti-feedent or feeding repellent Pulse pests and lubricating. Salt is hygroscopic and insecticidal and thus protects the pulses from spoilage.

Rice pests Red chillies (repellent)

 Soil top uping and mixing Management Guidelines for Stored-Product Insects Pest management measures, in general, have to be integrated into an operational system, be it large or small in scale, if they are to be effectively applied. This is a basic principle, not a novel concept, but it connects well with the modern idea of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Integrated pest control can be defined as the acceptable use of practicable measures to minimize, cost-effectively. The losses caused by pests in a particular management system. For the measures to be cost-effective they must be appropriate to and acceptable into that system.

They may be simple or complex but they must suit the system objectives and its technical capabilities. Furthermore, in this context, costeffectiveness requires that all costs and benefits, including sociological and environmental effects, should have been taken into account.

Surveillance, Inspection and Detection Inspection and detection are necessary parts of a stored-product pest management program. They provide information that allows to evaluate control methods and to monitor for reinfestation. A complete and thorough inspection of the premises helps to locate potential infestation sources. Use pheromone traps inside a building or structure to monitor pest activity; pheromones are available for most of the insects that damage stored food. When using pheromones or food attractants for monitoring, place one trap per 250 to 500 square feet of storage space. For monitoring flying insects, locate traps near storage containers. Put traps inside containers for insects that do not normally fly. Pheromones or attractants can sometimes be used in traps for control of stored-product insects. Trapping may be preferable to

Many stored pests insecticides because foods are not exposed to insecticide residues. Put traps close to the infestation source for maximum control, and increase the density of traps to about 1 to each 25 to 50 square feet of storage space. For storedbulk grains, use pheromones with specially designed probes positioned at different levels inside storage bins. Check probes periodically for insect pests. Use this monitoring also to evaluate the effectiveness of other control measures.

Legal method Entry of insect which is not found in the particular area can be prevented by the imposition of Destructive Insect pest Act (DIPA) of 1914 Exclusion Prevent insect entry into the storage facility by inspecting grains, cereals, flour, and other bulk and packaged products as they arrive. Check packages for holes, webbing, insect frass, eggs, living insects, and insect parts. Even new, unused packaging material, may be an insect source. Immediately dis- infest or destroy them.

Prevent contamination of flour, grains, cereals, and dried fruit by keeping them in insect-proof containers. Promptly remove empty boxes and bags from the building or store them separately.

Keep insects out of buildings by using screens over doors and windows. Close off all other openings with wire screening or caulking. If it is not possible to exclude pests from the entire building, at least make sure the storage area is protected. Locate and close rodent holes where stored product insects can enter. If rodent baits are in the area, check them for infestation; even stored or unused bait may harbour insects. To keep from attracting insects into buildings, 43

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

locate outdoor lighting away from doorways.

Use sodium vapour lights rather than mercury vapour lights for outdoor lighting around warehouses and grocery stores, because insects are less attracted to yellow lights.

Sanitation Sanitation is a critical part of controlling storedproduct insects in homes, stores, warehouses, and processing facilities. Clean up spilled materials to eliminate food sources for pests.

The cracks should be sealed to eliminate places where pests can hide and to keep grains, flour, or other food from accumulating. Raise shelving in warehouse and other storage areas off the floor to make cleaning underneath possible. The storage areas should be well lighted for ease in cleaning and spotting pest infestations. Moths may be detected more easily during evening hours when they are active. Clean conveyors, augers and food-processing machinery thoroughly and regularly to prevent them from harboring pests.

Drying of food grains of moisture content of below 10% is recommended. Dry the grains thoroughly and stored them in rat and moisture proof new gunny bags. Clean threshing floor/yard, machines, trucks/trollies/storage structures/go downs. All cracks, crevices, rat burrows be plugged. All dirt, rubbish, sweepings, webbings etc should be dumped/destroyed. Use improved storage structures. Disinfest stores/receptacles by malathion 0.5%, primiphos methyl 0.5% or pyrethrin 0.02% @ 3litre/100m2 with frequency treatment of 15 days. The old gunny bags should be treated by dipping in cypermethrin 0.01% or malathion 0.10% for 10 minutes and dry in shade before filling the grains.

Environmental Modification Heat treatment kills some pests outright; cold usually blocks their development. For adequate control, it may be necessary to subject products to a prescribed period of high temperatures followed by cold, after which they should be

stored at a constant, lowered temperature. In general, a temperature of 60 ºF prevents insect feeding; 40 ºF kills insects over a period of time.

Some products can be frozen to protect them from insect damage. i) Cold treatment Temperature below 14oC result in death particularly immature stages of almost all insect pests. Death rapidly occurs at freezing point (-10 to 20oC). Tribloium castaneum and O. Mercator are most cold susceptible whereas Trogoderma spp., Ephestia spp. and Plodia interpunctella are most cold tolerant species. In most field applications of cold temperature to control insect pests, the insects are exposed to 10 to 20oC for some days before being exposed to lethal cold temperature. ii) High temperature Most of the stored grain insects die at 50-60oC with in a period of 10-20 minutes. Exposure to temperature only about 5oC above the optimum for population will stop the development. The exposure of 2 hours at 50oC eliminated most of the insect pests. Grain heating is done by hot air fluidized bed, infra red, high frequency dielectric and microwave heating for achieving uniform grain temperature throughout the storage structure. iii) Controlled atmosphere (CAS)/ Hermetic storage The CAS involves the use of high CO2 (9.0 to 9.5% ) and low O2 (2-4%) in storage which is lethal to all insects. This technology for control of stored pests has been extensively used in the field.

Desiccants Dusts, such as earth, silica gel, non silica and diatomaceous earth, can be combined with certain stored grains to provide protection against insect damage. These dusts kill target insects by desiccation. Dusts are removed from grain and other stored food before processing by a cleaning operation that also removes other debris. Because sorptive dusts are inert, they do 44

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

not leave any potentially harmful residues on the food if traces of the desiccant remain. The rate for bulk grain is 100-300g/ton, depending on the insect species and the grain moisture content.

The rate for surface treatment is 0.3 mg/g to the top 45.7 cm of the grain mass (300 ppm, 0.6 lb/ton to the top 1.5 ft).

Alternative dusting preparations includes ash, laterite dust clay dust or very fine sand. The quantites commonly applied vary considerably, and can reach up to 50 percent by volume.

Depending on the type of dust however, it is also possible to achieve an acceptable protective effect with considerably smaller quantities.

Sorting The food grains displaying insect infestation, mould, mechanical damage or any other inferior qualities, must be removed and processed as soon as possible. This will prevent contamination of the healthy grains, and maintain overall quality of the produce Dividing the harvest The harvest should be divided into two parts.

The first is for short-term daily requirements, whilst the other is for long-term storage. Studies have shown that, during the first three to four months after storage, as a rule no high losses are caused by insects, and hence no special protective measures are necessary during this period. Food grains intended for consumption during this period therefore need not be treated.

Only those grains intended for longer-term storage need to be treated. This should be performed in a separate store or in a suitable storage area. In this way the farmer can save working time and money. This aspect is also of significance to market-oriented farmers Treatment With lime dust A proven and inexpensive dusting preparation for foodgrains stored in their husks is quicklime which is distributed evenly in a fine coat over the stored products. This lime dust has a dehydrating effect on insects, blocks their respiratory orifices and renders

The integrated stored-food protection package It has proved to be the case that individual measures of stored-food protection often do not lead to the desired result, as storage constitutes merely one element of the complex post-harvest system Each stage of this system influences the subsequent stages in the simplest case (subsistence farming), the post-harvest system of food grains is characterized by the following stages: Sowing - harvest - transport - drying - sorting measures of traditional stored-food protection storage - processing or consumption The package of integrated measures to protect food grains against stored-food pests comprises the following components: i) Selection of varieties The storage properties of different varieties should already be taken into account when panning cultivation. For e.g. in Maize, local varieties with long husks tightly enclosing the cob are more suitable for traditional storage than high-yielding varieties with short husks Stored product pests infesting maize m the store have very great difficulty penetrating the protecting enclosing leaves. ii) Harvest date It is important to harmonize the framing calendar such that the required labour is available on the best date for harvest. If the harvest is brought forward, there is a risk that the crop will be too moist, and later mouldy in the store. On the other hand, the longer "the crop remains on the field, the greater the risk that stored-food pests might already infest the crop in the field, and continue to feed on the crop in the store.

Botanicals Botanicals such as neem possess repellent, anti feedant and feeding deterrent properties against storage insect pests. Neem seed Kernel powder @ 4.0%, neem seed oil@ 1.0% and mahua oil @ 1% proved repulsive, potent oviposition 45

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

inhibitor in checking damage by pulse beetle, C. chinensis up to 8 months in pigeonpea. Wheat grains mixed with neem and dharek (Melia azederach) leaves @ 4% (w/w) were found to be less damaged by insects. The rice grains treated with turmeric powder @ 3.25% (w/w) were found to be least infested by rice weevil (Singal, 2005). Kirubal et al. (2008) have reported that 0.2 percent (v/w) ginger grass oil on red gram prevented oviposition and F1 emergence of Callosobruchus chinensis (L) for a long period after initial release of adults.

Microbial pesticides Spinosad is a commercial bacterial insecticide derived from metabolites of the actinomycete bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa Mertz and Yao. It is highly effective in controlling insects associated with stored wheat (Flinn et al., 2004). In field crops, spinosad loses activity after a week due to breakdown caused by UV radiation from sunlight. In farm bins, where most of the wheat is not exposed to sunlight, spinosad degraded very little during 12 month of storage without appreciable loss of insecticidal activity against the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), and red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Spinosad applied to wheat at 0.1 and 1.0mg kg−1 was effective in killing all adults and preventing population growth of the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F). A rate of 1.0mg kg−1 was necessary for complete control and progeny suppression of the rusty grain beetle, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens), flat grain beetle, Cryptolestes pusillus (Sch¨onherr) and confused flour beetle, Tribolium confusum (Toews and Subramanyam, 2003). Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a registered protectant for use in stored grains in USA. The larva of P. interpunctella and E. cautella shows high susceptibility to Bt. NPV, GV and CPV isolated mainly from lepidopterous insects have demonstrated in several cases and may be included to provide long term protection.

Biological control Controlling insect pests in stored grain and grain products can be very difficult because of the variety of species that can infest grain. Insect parasitoids have been shown to be effective in suppressing a limited number of pest species both in bulk grain storages and in food processing facilities and warehouses. One of the more effective parasitoids is Theocolax elegans (Westwood), a small pteromalid wasp (1–2mm) that attacks primary grain pests, whose immature stages develop inside the grain kernels, including the weevils, Sitophilus spp., lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.), drugstore beetle, Stegobium paniceum (L.), cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus spp., and Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella (Flinn et al., 2006). Trichogramma spp. also have been evaluated against a variety of stored product moths in bulk peanut storage, bulk wheat storage and bakeries as well as in warehouses and retail stores in Europe (Grieshop et al., 2007). Stored-product moths commonly oviposit on packages, and on shelves holding stored-product packages. Trichogramma spp. are especially promising as biological control agents on finished products because they attack the egg stage of the pests, thereby preventing the invasion of products by first instars. Dinarmus spp. is a larval pupal parasitiod of Callosobruchus spp., Bruchus spp., Bruchidius atrolineatus and Acanthoscelides obtectus in legume seed. Biological control has a limited scope in the stored pests’ management but is becoming an increasingly important part of IPM approach.

Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) have a low toxicity to humans as compared with organophosphate, carbamate, and synthetic pyrethroid insecticides. Several IGRs, including hydroprene (1.9 3 1023 mg(a.i)/per cm2), have been evaluated for efficacy toward storedproduct beetle species (Oberlander et al., 46

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

1997).Because of the low toxicity of IGRs, they are usually safe to spray directly onto raw products. Use an IGR where fumigation is not possible or desirable. An IGR is only effective if it contacts the targeted insect pest; therefore, thorough coverage is necessary. Apply a spray of a labelled IGR to grains, nuts, or other foodstuffs during the filling of storage bins. Use enough spray to protect the entire stored product. Spray when insects are at the correct stage of development as described on the IGR label. Occasionally, the application of an IGR extends the larval period, and, therefore, larvae may feed more before they are destroyed.

Fumigants Fumigants are used to control stored product insects in bulk containers, truck trailers, railroad cars, warehouses, and other large storage areas.

Fumigants are effective because they penetrate areas where pests occur or might become problems. To be effective, fumigation must take place in a well-sealed area. This allows the fumigant to reach a lethal concentration of gas, and once this concentration is reached, it must be maintained for a specified period of time.

Small quantities of cereals and similar products can be fumigated in containers such as plastic pails or glass jars using dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide); however, if containers are tightly closed immediately after treatment, a vacuum will form that may cause them to implode.

Tighten down the lid after the container warms to room temperature.

Residual Insecticides Short-term residual insecticides, such as pyrethrins can be used for rapid knockdown of some types of stored-product insects. These materials can be applied to bulk containers before adding foodstuffs. They are also used in cupboards and on shelves and areas close to

where products are stored, but if infestations are high, frequent re-applications are usually necessary. Selectively use residual insecticides, including some persistent pyrethroids. Residuals are generally applied to surfaces of empty containers to prevent infestation, but rarely applied directly to foodstuffs.

The desirable properties of a grain fumigant, notably efficient penetration of the commodity, toxicity to target insects and lack of harmful residues, make it unlikely that new chemical compounds will become available as fumigants.

Carbon dioxide can be used as a conventional fumigant but low toxicity to insects and the consequent high degree of gas tightness necessary for effective insect control makes it unlikely that this gas will find widespread use except in controlled atmosphere (CA) storage systems. Where Trogoderma spp. are present, dosage should be increased by 50 percent.

If a 48hr exposure period is reduced to 24 hours the dosage rate should be increased by 50 per cent. If a 24hr exposure period is increased to 48 hours the dosage rate should be reduced by not more than 30 per cent. Where stacks of less than 30m3 (approximately 20 tonnes) are treated under sheets, dosages should be calculated as if the volume were 30m3 (20 tonnes). Phosphine, because of its availability in solid formulations of metal phosphides which are relatively easy to apply, compared with the pressurized gas fumigant methyl bromide, has become the most popular and widely used fumigant in most tropical countries. Methyl bromide, which is in some ways more versatile, retains its place as the fumigant of choice wherever circumstances do not easily accommodate the protracted fumigation period, of several days duration, that is required for the effective use of phosphine.

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Table 5. Methods for managing stored grain insect pests Ecological Temperature control Temperature below 15 oC and above 42 oC retards growth method and development. Heating of grains to 50-60 oC for 10-20 minutes kill almost all the pests.

Moisture control Grains stored at around 10% moisture content escape from the attack of insect-pests except Khapra beetle Oxygen control Oxygen level > 1% is lethal to all insect-pests.

Mechanical method Physical method

Screening of grains Heat treatment Controlled atmosphere Inert dust Edible oils

Biological method Cultural method

Bio-agents Air tight storage

Regular screening and destruction of screening and infested bags Infra red heating of grains Use of Low O2 (2-4%) and high CO2 (9-9.50%) is lethal to all insects Mixing of sand, clay, ash, silica aerosols, activated charcoal with food grains Coconut, groundnut or mustard oil @ 0.25-0.50% for pulses Use of Bt, parasitoids, predators etc.

Use of air tight sealed structure do not allow insects to survive

Drying of grains Chemical method

Splitting of pulses

Split pulses escape attack of pulse beetle

Prophylactic treatment

Malathion 0.50%, Pyrethrum with 2% pyrethrin EC, Primiphos methyl 0.50% in 1:100 ratio @ 3litre/100m3 at 15 days interval

Curative treatment a. Knockdown chemicals b. Grain protectants

Pyrethrum sprays, lindane smoke generators or fumigation stripes against flying insects

c. Fumigants

Aluminium phosphide@2 tablets (3g each)/tonne

Pyrethrum dust or malathion 5%@250g/q of seed.

EDB @ 3ml/q for wheat and pulses and3ml/q for rice and paddy EDCT @ 55 ml/q stored grains

Conclusions It is high time that both the Centre and state governments should think about the severity of the problem of storage losses as it is estimated that the country might be losing every year Rs. 5000 crores to 7000 crores worth of food grains

due to defective storage. As a beginning the farm level storage practices. One strategy could also be that the FCI can keep the stocks with the farmers instead of purchasing the grain from them. As per the present categorization in vogue that if a farmer stores the grain without 48

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infestation then he should be given some incentive apart from normal government price.

This would encourage the farmers to store the grains properly and ultimately it would lead to zero loss level and the pressure on storage space with FCI can also be reduced. Systems approach rather than piece meal must be adopted. The existing post harvest system has to be improved to cut post harvest losses at farm level where about 70% grains are stored and consumed as food, feed & seed.

References Arthur, F. H. 2001. Immediate and delayed mortality of Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) exposed on wheat treated with diatomaceous earth: effects of temperature, relative humidity, and exposure interval. J. Stored Prod. Res. 37: 13-21 Fang, L., Subramanyam, B. and Dolder, S. 2002.

Persistence and efficacy of spinosad residues in farm stored wheat. J. Econ. Entomol. 95: 11021109.

Flinn, P. W., Kramer, K. J., Throne, J. E. and Morgan, T. D. 2006. Protection of stored maize from insect pests using a two-component biological control method consisting of a hymenopteran parasitoid, Theocolax elegans, and transgenic avidin maize powder. J. Stored Prod. Res. 42: 218–225 Flinn, P. W., Subramanyam, B. and Arthur, F. H. 2004. Comparison of Aeration and Spinosad for Suppressing Insects in Stored Wheat. J. Econ. Entomol. 97(4): 1465Grieshop, M. J., Flinn, P. W., Nechols, J. R. and Schoeller, M. 2007. Foraging Success of Three Species of Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in a Simulated Retail Environment. J. Econ. Entomol. 100(2): 591-598 Kirubal, S., Jeeva, S., Kanagappan1, M., Stalin, S. I. and Das, S. S. M. 2008. Ethnic storage strategies adopted by farmers of Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu, Southern Peninsular India. J. Agricult. Tech. 4(1): 1-10.

Oberlander, H., Silhacek, D. L., Shaaya, E. and Ishaaya, I. 1997. Current status and future perspectives of the use of insect growth regulators for the control of stored product insects. J. Stored Prod. Res. 33: 1-6.

Paranagama, P., Abeysekera, T., Nugaliyadde, L. and Abeywickrama, K. (2003). Effect of the essential oils of Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon nardus and Cinnomomum zeylanicum on pest incidence and grain quality of rough rice (paddy) stored in an enclosed seed box. J. Food, Agric. Environ. 1(2): 139.

Toews, M. D. and Subramanyam, B. 2003.

Contribution of contact toxicity and wheat condition to mortality of stored-product insects exposed to spinosad. Pest Manag Sci. 59:538– 544 Zayas, I. Y., and Flinn, P. W.1998. Detection of insects in bulk wheat samples with machine vision. Trans. ASAE. 41(3):883-888

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Chapter-6

IPM of Ornamentals and Floriculture crops Uma Shankar, Ranbir Singh, S. K. Singh, A. K. Singh and Hafeez Ahmad Division of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University of agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Chatha, Jammu-180009, J&K, India.

Introduction Since time immemorial, the colour and natural beauty of flowers and ornamentals has always been the matter of fascination for human being. It is the fascinating, dynamic and emerging science. After independence, our country has made a tremendous progress in the field of agriculture, and seen a record increase in the cultivation of flowers. The demand for flowers in our country remains throughout the year, so that farmers can increase their income by cultivating different types of flowers throughout the year. Traditional flowers such as marigold, rose, lily, bela etc. are used to make puja, torana, gajra and garlands, while new types of flowers such as hybrid rose, gerbera, carnation, and anthurium are used as cut-flowers, table decorations, for bouquets and ornamental baskets etc.

In modern days, flowers and ornamentals keep a prominent position in urban as well as rural societies. The growing urbanization, shrinkage of land holding and depletion of resources also fuelled this venture to flourish well in urban and peri-urban areas. The mounting stress in people dwelling in urban areas compelled them for different methods of growing flowers and ornamentals in the less available space under balcony and lawns as the stress releaser.

In last few decades, many young farmers are getting attracted to growing floriculture crops in rural areas for boosting their income for subsistence and livelihood.

The recent shift in Government policies for doubling the income of farmers and creation of job opportunities especially among the rural youths have enabled these crops to be important ones for starting the entrepreneurship for livelihood as well as for income generation. Some of the other factors

like religious importance of places and growing culture of Banquet halls also plays crucial role to take this venture for entrepreneurship development. The growing demands of flowers (cut and loose) in domestic as well as in exotic market lured the flower growers to this new and lucrative venture. Insect pests is the major constraints in impairing the quality of the flowers which resulted into little market price. In this situation, there is an urgent need for effective integrated pest management in flowers and ornamentals to safe guard the quality of market produce.

Prospects in UT of Jammu & Kashmir The UT of Jammu & Kashmir is known for its aesthetic beauty on earth and bestowed with the diverse type of climatic conditions for different types of natural as well as the cultivable varieties of flowers and ornamental crops. Floriculture has recently assumed the commercial dimensions in state and is a emerging field of providing ample opportunities of employment in the state.

According to latest figure for area under floriculture is 330 ha (NHB, 2008) with about 400 ha area in Jammu region. A further boost to acreage is expected to occur due to consistent efforts taken by Department of Agriculture and Floriculture through the Horticulture Technology Mission and technological back-up provided by the SKUAST-Jammu.

There is tremendous scope of floriculture under open and in protected condition under various agro climates ranging from subtropical plains to intermediate low and high hill ranges in Jammu region. Subtropical regions of Jammu can be utilized for the production of loose flowers / cut flowers during main season 50

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while intermediate and temperate zone for off season flower production to fetch higher returns. Subtropical Zone constitute entire Jammu district, lower parts of Kathua, Udhampur and Rajouri district. These areas are suitable for the cultivation of marigold, gladiolus, tuberose in open and lilium and gerbera can be grown under shade net or protected conditions. Intermediate zone ranges between more than 800 meters above sea level to 1500 meters in mid altitude. It encompasses major parts of the Kathua, Udhampur and Rajouri and known for off season production of flowers like marigold, gladiolus, lilium, rose, carnation and gerbera. The temperate zone essentially covers the hilly area of Bhaderwah, Kishtwar, Poonch, Doda and Kathua which comprises off- season production of flowers like marigold, gladiolus, lilium, rose, carnation, tulip and gerbera. High altitude pockets of sub- division like; Kishtwar, adjoining to Zanskar region of Kargil district where gladiolus under protected condition, hollyhock, pansy etc. can be grown.

The current area under different agro climates is around 400 hectares. The potential crops of commercial importance are marigold and bulbous plants (including gladiolus and lilium) and rose. The Jammu region has a huge potential for seed production of temperate varieties of different types of annuals. It is evident that floriculture industry can take lead from current annual turnover of around 5 to 50 crores in short span of 5 to10 years through concerted efforts of various stake holders including scientists, field functionaries and farmers.

Our country is also in transition phase in growing of different types of cut flowers and loose flowers to grab the export market as well as to fulfill the needs of local demands. Apart from these, the ornamentals are also proved to a boon for the youths to start the nursery business. In the recent past, floriculture has been considered as a viable option of diversification in agriculture. Although rapid technological interventions in agri-business, international economic integration, saturated

markets and free market mechanism have ameliorated the scope of floriculture and provided a lot of opportunity, but still challenges persists. A government policy should be framed out to strengthen the infrastructural development, market management with viable networking options, and quality assurance for growers. The flower growers, co-operative societies in the state need to be strengthened both financially as well as functionally so that these could operate in the remote and far flung areas to expand flower cultivation and to safe guard the interest of flower growers. The floriculture business has been found to be highly capital intensive and risky. It may not be possible for an ordinary farmer to bear the risk of crop failure that may resulted into compete economic disaster. To warrant such type of situations, the floriculture and ornamental business needs to be insured.

Apart from these, floriculture and ornamental crops have often been stressed by a magnitude of biotic factors such as insect-pests, mites, snail and slugs, nematodes rodents and diseases. According to an estimate, aesthetics, essence and quality of flowers have been destroyed up to the tune of 15 to 40 per cent by the ravages of insect pests and other weather factors. Effective Integrated Pest Management (EIPM) of Floriculture and Ornamental crops have lagged far behind in terms of the development strategies in other agricultural crops (Parrella and Jones, 1987). It is evident that short term solutions to immediate arthropod pest problems through application of pesticides (Abrol and Shankar, 2014) has still been continues as a major focus in floriculture and ornamental entomology.

Now the time has come to adopt the integrated technology for the commercial floriculture and ornamental business to safe guard the environment. That’s why, in modern agriculture, the role of ecological pest management (EPM) has been enhanced to address environmental and human health issues while improving farms’ productivity and profitability in a sustainable way.

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Perspective of floriculture and ornamentals Due to shirking of land area and rapidly developing urbanization, the biggest perspective in floriculture and ornamentals is the entrepreneurship development. Efforts should be made in the direction to encourage the small stakeholders and rural youths to patronize flower cultivation for enhancing their income and employment generation for farm family. For this cause, some of the pre requisites like, location and approach of farm, distribution of quality planting material, easy term loans from institutions and assured\market outlets, need to be expedited, stream lined and strengthened. Vocational Training courses and experiential learning should be set up for training the personnel in floriculture like training pattern of ITI. Both NGOs and Government Institution should act as facilitators to bring farmers and industries together for the skill development of rural and educated youths who are unemployed.

Uses of flowers Flowering crops have been employed for the following purposes1. Aesthetic value 2. Adornment and beautification 3. Habitat manipulation and ecological engineering 4. Encourages the beneficial insects and supports pest management and agriculture diversification 5. Advocates the pollination services and conservation of pollinators Integrated management of insect pests in flower nursery: 1. Flower nurseries are prone to the attack of sucking insect pests like aphid, thrips, mealy bugs, mites and white flies which can be monitored through the installation of yellow and blue coloured sticky traps.

2. In case of severe infestation of aphid, thrips, mealy bugs, mites and whiteflies, spraying of 30-40 ml of neem oil in 10 liters of water on infested nurseries.

3. For effective control of the leaf eating caterpillars, 5 per cent NSKE or lantana leaf extracts should be sprayed.

4. Light-trap and pheromone traps should be used to attract nocturnal insect like Spodoptera and Helicoverpa in the nursery.

5. NPV solutions and Bt powder should also be used to mitigate the larval infestation in nursery.

6. The egg masses of caterpillars should be collected and destroyed by hand. Snails and slugs should also be removed and destroyed.

7. In case of termite attack, chloropyriphos 20 EC @ 2 ml/lit can be used to reduce the termite infestation.

Insect pests of Rose Everyone wonders and fond of the beauty and fragrance of rose flower. It is available in many colours and simultaneously attracts a large number of insect pests. Among them some are beneficial while many are harmful.

Some cultivars of roses like climber rose, Rosa floribunda, white rose and damask rose are the potential sources in providing the pollen rewards for pollinators. Apart from this, rose has been infested with the large magnitude of insect pests. Among which Rose aphids, Rose mites, Rose scales, Rose chaffer beetle, Leaf miner, Rose saw fly, Helicoverpa armigera and Megachilid bees are prominent ones which causes considerable losses.

Rose aphids

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Mummified aphids

Rose saw fly grubs

Closed buds of rose due to thrips attack

Termite infestation on rose Insect pests of Gerbera Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) belongs to family compositae and grown as important commercial flower crops throughout the world. It is grown on wide range of climatic conditions and suitable for beds, borders, pots, rock gardens and greenhouse. It is good source for developing entrepreneurship for rural and educated youths seeking job. Gerbera is attacked by many insect pests in open or greenhouses such as Aphids, Thrips, whiteflies, mites, Leaf miner, spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera. Amongst the sucking insect pests, Aphids, whiteflies, red mites, Cyclamine mites and Cyclamine mites are responsible to cause deformed leaves and also excrete large quantity of honey dew like substance which leads to development of black sooty moulds on the leaves. Red Mites causing development of brown spots on lower surface of leaves resulting in marginal drying of leaves and webbing on the flower petals. Cyclamine mites are responsible to curled up the older

Rose thrips

Rose mites

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leaves. Younger ones being deformed and leathery, deformed flowers or petals are missing. Inward curling and discolouration of petals. Thrips causes white specks or stripes on ray florets; flower heads may be deformed.

Silvery, greyish spots on the leaves; Brown spots on leaf petioles/midvein. Leaf Miner flies causes white specks on leaves. White serpentine tunnels in leaves caused by larvae, which in turn reduces the chlorophyll content of leaves and ultimately dries. Caterpillar of Spodoptera and Helicoverpa eat leaves voraciously making circular holes in the leaf lamina and also damaging the growing buds and flowers. Root knot Nematode causes yellowing of leaves, stunted growth of the plant with reduced leaves size and knots on roots. Water logged condition in the greenhouse and muddy water during rainy season are favourable conditions for nematode growth.

Cutworm in Gladiolus Insect pests of Carnations, Dianthus caryophyllus Carnations are perennial plants grown as borders for shrubs or in containers and in small gardens. They have double flowers that may be white, pink, purple, red, yellow, or orange.

Flowers bloom in spring through early summer and attract butterflies along with many pests like Thrips, aphids, whiteflies, mites, leaf miner.

Insect pests of Marigold, Tagetus sp.

Marigold, tuberose and chrysanthemum are used as the loose flowers for worship or outside the temple, Mosque and Gurudwara.

Mites, aphids, whiteflies, Spodoptera, Helicoverpa, semilooper

Helicoverpa on Marigold and on calendula

Insect pests of Gladiolus Gladiolus is generally affected more by diseases than the insect pests. Aphids, Thrips, whiteflies, semilooper, cut worm are the major insect pests recorded and found damaging the flowers and crop.

Semilooper attack on marigold

Infestation of mealybugs

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categorized in to two i.e., Sucking Insects and Chewing Insects 1. Sucking Insects These include numerous species of aphids, leaf hoppers, mealy bugs, tarnished plant bugs, thrips, and whiteflies.

Parasitized mealybugs on chinarose

Red mites infestation on marigold Tuberose The fragrance of tuberose lured many sucking insect pests. Thrips, aphids, mites are the major constraints in successful cultivation of tuberose.

Chrysanthemum aphids They suck plant juices and may distort leaves and flowers. Spider Mites also suck the plant juices, reducing leaf color and plant vigor.

Mites were about the first pests to exhibit resistance to pesticides, and no one group of miticides can be relied on to give adequate control.

2. Chewing Insects Beet army worms, cabbage loopers, chrysanthemum gall midge, corn-ear worms, cutworms, garden millipedes, serpentine leaf miner, and spotted cucumber beetles are among the chewing insects that can be troublesome in chrysanthemum production.

There are various species of Slugs and Snails that chew flowers and leaves. These pests are nocturnal so either the damage they cause or the slime trails they leave behind them will indicate their presence during the day.

Tuberose infested with thrips Insect pests of Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) can broadly be 55

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Helicoverpa bored into nicotina flower bud & flower IPM of caterpillars 1. Pheromone trap should be installed at the rate of 4 to 6 per hectare for early detection of adults of borer insect pests. to monitor the presence of infestation of this insect and their lures should always be changed in 30-35 days.

2. By plowing the heat, the outbreak of this insect can be reduced somewhat.

3. Vegetable insecticides should be used as soon as the information of this insect infestation is known. Or neem based medicine 30 ml Spraying should be done per 10 liters. Sprinkle 5% solution of Neemboli powder of neem i.e. 500 gm of neemboli solution in 10 liters of water.

4. NPV for biological control of green Sundi 450 l E. Spraying should be done in the evening time at the rate of per hectare.

5. Sprinkle the Bt powder mixed with 15 grams per 10 liters of water.

6. Large size Sundries should be collected and destroyed by hand.

7. Chloropyriphos 25 E.C. 4 ml Or indoxacarb 14.5 s.c. 5 ml Or ryanoxapire 20 EC 3-4 ml Any one of the medicines should be sprinkled.

IPM of leaf miners 1. The insect infested leaves should be broken and burnt 2. Neem-based medicine 30 ml. At the beginning of insect infestation. Or Nimboli oil 50 ml. For every 10 liters of water or a mixture of 5 percent solution of

Neemboli powder ie 500 grams of Neemboli, spray it in 10 liters of water.

3. In the event of extreme outbreak, sprinkle any systemic pesticides.

IPM of Thrips 1. In the case of more outbreaks of this insect, buds should be cut from the plant with two to three inches of cast.

2. Vegetable insecticide Niboli oil 50 ml. Or spraying neem based medicine in 30 ml / 10 liters. Sprinkle 5% solution of neem powder of neem powder ie 500 g of neemboli in 10 liters of water.

3. Make a spray of any one of the following pesticides in 10 liters of water and spray it: - Profenophos 50 EC 20-25 ml Or methylO-dimetone 25 E.C. 10 ml Or dimethoate 30 E.C. 10 ml IPM of whiteflies 1. The infestation of this pest usually starts from the limited plants, so you can control this pest by continuously monitoring and spraying the medicine only on the insectinfested plants.

2. Trizophos 40 E.C. 20-25 ml Or ACFET 75 W.P. 10 grams or thiomethoxam 25 w.p.

4-5g or acetamiprid 20 s.p. Sprinkle should be mixed with 3 to 4 grams per 10 liters of water.

IPM of Aphids 1. You can control this pest by spraying Dimethoate @ 2ml/lit of water or metasystox @ 1ml/lit of water at evening times.

IPM of Mealybugs 1. Branches with most outbreaks should be cut from the plants and burnt. If the entire plant suffers from this insect then it should be uprooted and burnt.

2. After completion of the crop, collecting and burning its residue reduces the pest infestation in the next year's crop.

3. In fields where this pest has been infested in the past, such plants should be mixed with 2 percent methyl parathion powder in the ground before deep plowing.

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

4. To keep this pest under control, Profenophos 50 EC 10 ML, Carbaryl 50 WP 40 grams, methyl-O-dimetone 25 E.C. 10 ML, Trizophos 40 EC 20-25 ml Should be mixed with 10 grams of soap powder per 10 liters of water and sprayed on the stem and leaves.

IPM of Red mites 1. Dicofol 17.5 E.C. 10 ml Or Ethion 50 EC 10 ml Or spinosade 45 s.c. 3 ml. Or propriate 50 E.C. 5 ml Mixing one of these medicines in every 10 liters of water reduces the infestation of the stem by spraying it on the stem and leaves.

Insects and Mites A known vector of CRSV and CMV, the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, can be the most serious insect pest on carnations. Aphids also reduce plant vigor and secrete honeydew, which reduces quality. A number of species of thrips are common on carnations. Thrips nymphs and adults suck plant sap and cause distortion, streaking, and spotting of flowers, foliage, and stems. Leaf miner maggots (Liriomyza) tunnel inside the leaves, leaving serpentine mines. Two-spotted spider mites, Tetranychus urticae, cause speckling of leaf undersides as they remove plant sap. Severely infested carnations can succumb to spider mites. /Acer/a paradianthi, the carnation bud or shoot mite, causes distorted and stunted new growth. These Eriophyidae mites are extremely small and live at the bases of leaves and stems and under the calyxes. In field production or ground beds, nematodes, especially Meloidogyne species, can cause root injury and enhance the transmission of wilt pathogens. Integrating chemicals with cultural and biological controls is an economical and environmentally sound pest control strategy.

Reduced temperatures inhibit pest population increases. Destroying all weeds and plant debris in and around the production area, which can harbor mites, aphids, and thrips, will also decrease pest populations.

Ornamental Plants/Avenues trees

There are several ornamentals and bushy plants which have been grown in kitchen garden and smaller parks in residential areas.

Plants suitable for kitchen garden and smaller parks There are many bushy plants like china rose, different types of Crotons, Ficus bushes, Parijat, lagerstromia, Lawsonia, Tecoma grandis etc. and avenues trees like kachnar, Magnolia, Kanak Champa, semal, Kagelia, Pongamia pinnata, Bombyx ceiba, Delonix regia, Jakaranda, Vitex negundo, Chinese tallow, Dalbergia sisoo, Salix, Alstonia, Grewia sp., Emblica officinalis are grown along the roadside or in parks for aesthetic purposes. They have also been infested with different types of insect pests which needs time to time management for better aesthetics.

Whiteflies on Croton Kachnar Psyllids are the major problem on many avenue trees like Kachnar, semal and alstonia.

Psylla, jassids and Bark eating caterpillar are the major problems in kachnar.

Psyllids 57

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Semal leaves secretion

covered

with

honeydew

Yellow leaves symptoms on kachnar

Bark eating caterpillar on kachnar Alstonia Gall maker dipteran flies, Leaf folder, Sylepta derogata are the major constraints on Alstonia.

Severity of infestation leads to complete withering of plant.

Alstonia

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Thrips infestation on Ficus

Complete withering and drying of alstonia plant Ficus benzamina Ornamental shrub used for fencing and adornment of gardens. Thrips infestation on Ficus benzamina was recorded in Jammu region which folded and sticked the leaves.

The leaves finally turned pale and withers.

Whiteflies also infest Ficus plant and if not regulated on time, the entire plants may die.

Whiteflies on Ficus

Ficus panda Parijat It is well known ornamentals often seen in gardens and kitchen garden for aesthetics.

Jassids & other sucking pests are the major problems on Parijaat.

Typical symptoms of thrips infestation

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Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Magnolia gladuliflora Thick leaved plants often observed in gardens for beautification. Flatidae as sucking pest and Spodoptera litura as leaf defoliator were recorded infesting the magnolia plants.

Bark eating caterpillar on Kagelia, Bauhinia varigata, Bombyx ceiba and other ornamentals

Arjuna, Terminalia arjuna It is well known medicinal plants. The bark have been used in various preparations of medicine. They have been found severely infested with leaf gall psylla. They forms galls on leaves of arjuna. The entire leaves were curled, thickened, puckered and turned yellowish to purplish in colour.

Psylla on arjuna leaves

Gall symptoms on leaves Apart from this, the leaves of arjun was also found infested with lef miners.

Bombyx ceiba 60

Integrated Pest Management of Agri-Horticultural Crops (15-16 October, 2020)

Leaf mines on arjun leaves Kurry Patta, Murraya paniculata This plant also bears medicinal properties and its leaves are used in various culinary purposes. The plant is attached by citrus psylla and citrus caterpillar. The larvae of citrus caterpillar completely defoliated the leaves while psylla used this plant as a secondary host for multiplication. Not much damage have been recorded by psylla on kurry patta.

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A farmer showing termitorium in his field

Huge termitorim in forest plantation