SCOPE 2021 by Haberdashers' Boys' School

SCOPE The Scientific and Technical Journal of Haberdashers’ Boys’ School, Elstree

2021 I ssue 32

Control Commemorating 100 Years since the Discovery of Insulin Controlling Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin What Controls the Nucleus? Can we Control our own Genes?

Letter From Editors Dear Reader, The prolonged and sustained endeavours which led to the discovery of Insulin is one of a myriad of examples of the human need to control and enhance the quality of our lives. From simple inventions such as spectacles to satellites placed in orbit, the need to improve ourselves and gain a deeper understanding of Nature has been a feature of the human condition since the start of civilisation. It is this desire that led to the Discovery of Insulin which is a prime example of how scientists have found a cure for a condition which if untreated, will be fatal. Diabetes affects around 460 million people worldwide and around 9% of the adult population suffers from the illness. In both Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes, the production of Insulin by the pancreas is reduced, resulting in hyperglycaemia which subsequently leads to major life-threatening conditions such as heart disease renal failure, or in the most serious case, hyperglycaemic coma. As SCOPE commemorates the Discovery of Insulin, our talented student authors have also investigated other areas of Science and Technology, which range from methods used to control the weather, to engineering our own genetic make-up. We are very grateful for these interesting scholarly articles. Scientific and technological breakthroughs are symbiotically linked. As one area develops it accelerates advancement of the other. Insulin was first crystallised in 1925 and its complete amino acid sequence was determined in 1955. Finally, with the advances in x-ray crystallography its full crystal structure was deduced in 1969. Our front cover depicts the Insulin monomer.

Leandro Landolina (L6S2) Joban Mulcock (L6R1) Jitong Zhou (L6H2)

Haberdashers’ Boys’ School Butterfly Lane, Elstree, Hertfordshire WD6 3AF Telephone: 020 8266 1700 Registered charity no: 313996

Dr A. Perera Staff Editor

SC PE

2021 Issue 32

The Scientific and Technical Journal of Haberdashers’ Boys’ School, Elstree

Contents 2

Letter From Editors

By Leandro Landolina (L6S2) Joban Mulcock (L6R1) Jitong Zhou (L6H2) and Dr A. Perera

Featured in this issue

Controlling Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin By Leandro Landolina (L6S2)

Can we Control the Weather? By Shiv Gohil (8M2)

Automated Control Systems on the Mars Rover By Yash Shah (11R2)

Can we Control our own Genes?

By Sam Newman (L6M2)

How is Curiosity Controlled? By Aarav Rajput (7H)

What Controls the Nucleus? By Joban Mulcock (L6R1)

Controlling Myopia: The Global Disorder Slipping Under the Radar By Sohan Das (10S2)

The Ultimate Control Challenge: Taming Plasma in a Nuclear Fusion Reactor By Gianpaolo Ruju (L6S1)

Mind Control

Have we Lost Control Over the Weather? By Brandon Yong (10C2)

Surgical Work Experience During the COVID-19 Pandemic

By Adam Smith (9H1)

By Ved Joshi (L6R2)

Could Exercising in the Cold Burn more Calories? By Veylan Sebastian (L6J2)

Controlling the Virus of Misinformation

By Leandro Landolina (L6S2)

The 2020 Nobel Laureates

Citations

The Discoverers of Insulin

Our need

to Control

Controlling Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin Leandro Landolina (L6S2)

iabetes is a disease whose incidence can be

was excessively large and seemingly not proportional to

dated back to the Ancient Egyptians, first being

the amount of fluid they had drunk [2].

mentioned in the Ebers papyrus, a collection of

Further advances were later made across the globe in

Egyptian medical texts written around 1552 BC [1].

Classical India somewhere between 400-500 AD, when

The term ‘diabetes’ is said to have been coined by the

physician Sushruta and surgeon Charaka described a

Greek physician Aretaeus of Cappadocia who used the

disease called “madhumeha” (literally meaning ‘honey

word «διαβήτης» which meant ‘passing through’ after

urine’) which caused the urine of these patients to attract

noting that the volume of urine passed by diabetic patients

black ants, and to be sweet to taste [3].

Controlling Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin

Figure 1. Two insulin monomers form a dimer (left hand side) and three dimers form a hexamer (right hand side)[10]

Diabetes before insulin

These clusters of cells produce insulin and are thought to

In this so-called pre-insulin era (lasting until 1921), the

insulin from cells in the pancreas proved unsuccessful

prognosis of diabetes was very severe, and patients were

be destroyed in Type 1 diabetes [5]. Attempts to extract due to the destruction of the desired substance in the

very unlikely to survive more than a few months after the

process. At the time it was thought that other secretions,

onset of the disease. Any efforts to control diabetes were

such as digestive enzymes, produced by the pancreas

often radical and not without severe side effects [4]. A

would destroy insulin. Therefore, their method for

rather eccentric example is the Allen diet, introduced by

extracting high concentrations of insulin involved tying

the American physician Frederick Allen, which involved

the pancreatic duct, in order, to destroy any digestive

firstly removing fat from the patient’s diet, then protein,

enzymes whilst leaving the islets of Langerhans intact [5]

and finally carbohydrates in an attempt to reduce blood

It was observed that ductal ligation (blocking or tying the

glucose levels through under-nutrition. This treatment, although successful in prolonging the lives of patients by a few months, in fact caused more patients to die of starvation than of diabetes, and was nicknamed “the starvation diet” [4].

The discovery of insulin The discovery and purification of insulin in 1921 was a profound scientific breakthrough for the treatment of patients with diabetes, first conducted by Frederick Banting, Charles Best, James Collip and John Macleod [5]. Previously, many other scientists had been able to attribute the glucoregulatory effects of the pancreas to the secretions of the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas.

pancreatic duct) in dogs led to the death of their pancreata. Therefore, glycosuria (the presence of glucose in their urine) was expected [1]. However, after carrying out a Benedict’s test on the dogs’ urine samples the results showed that they did not contain glucose, suggesting that the sturdy islets of Langerhans were still functioning despite some of the (enzyme producing) cells of the pancreas having been destroyed [6][8]. As such, further examination was carried out and this was confirmed. It was thus concluded that the islets of Langerhans were separate from the surrounding pancreatic tissue, and that they were responsible for the secretion of the glucoregulatory metabolite.

Figure 2. Space filling model of the insulin (on the left) with carbon in green, hydrogen white, oxygen red and nitrogen blue. Ribbon diagram of insulin hexamer (on the right) with A chain (blue), B chain (cyan), disulfide bonds (yellow) and zinc ions (magenta) [11]

Controlling Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin

Figure 3. Protein Structure of Human Insulin Hexamer 3d Ribbons [12]

A further experiment was conducted on a ligated dog and

pancreas pieces in a saline solution and named it isletin,

one which had its pancreas removed. After a period of

for the active ingredient in the mixture was secreted by

three days, the degenerated pancreas was frozen, ground

the islets of Langerhans [8].

into a paste, filtered and warmed prior to injection into the

The first clinical success was achieved on 23 January

dog with no pancreas [7]. The drop in blood sugar levels, in the dog, was found to be significant (from 0.2% to.12%) and the anti-diabetic effect observed was attributed to the extract which they named (at the time) isletin, which

with diabetes was successfully treated with purified oxen and pork hybrid insulin extract [1][8].

would later become insulin [7].

How insulin works

The experiments of Banting and Best revealed that

Insulin is a protein (dimer) hormone made up of 51 amino

extraction of insulin was feasible from a whole, normal, un-ligated pancreas [6]. In addition, for the commercial use of insulin the pancreata of fetal cattle or pigs are equally effective as those of dogs [6]. Banting and his team used the knowledge gained from these discoveries, enabling them to overcome the difficulty encountered by all other scientists: separating the secretions of the islets of Langerhans from the rest of the pancreatic exocrine fluids, and purifying them so as not to be toxic to humans [6]. Initially, the team used a mixture of ground frozen

1922 when Leonard Thompson, a 14-year old seriously ill

Controlling Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin

acids from two peptide chains, A and B, linked by disulfide bridges (Figure 1)[9][10]. A peptide is a long chain of amino acids in a specific order, joined by peptide bonds and folded into a specific shape called a tertiary structure. The A chain peptide of insulin contains 21 amino acids and the B chain contains 30. The molecular formula of insulin is C257H383N65O77S6. Covalent bonds between sulfur atoms in the amino acid cysteine, found in both chains A and B, link the two together [9][11]. Although the active form is the dimer, insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer (Figure 2), where six monomers are bonded together as three dimeric units, with zinc ions

Figure 4. Insulin mode of action. Insulin (coloured red) and insulin receptor (coloured blue) complex formation results in a signalling cascade, for insulin function

in the centre [12]. As the hexamer is the more stable and

portion signals the cell for glucose transporters to receive

inactive form, the hexamer-dimer conversion is central

the glucose [13]. As such, the effects of insulin are that

to producing insulin formulations for injection. Due to

the liver and muscle cells absorb more glucose, as their

the inverse relationship between particle size and rate of

plasma membranes contain more glucose channels, and

diffusion, the dimer is the faster reacting drug [11].

so the concentration of glucose in the blood decreases

After the digestion of carbohydrates and the absorption of

[14]. The glucose transporters go back to the cell once the

the glucose into the blood, the resulting increase in blood glucose concentration is detected by glucose receptors which stimulate the β cells in the islets of Langerhans to release the peptide hormone insulin in two phases. The first-phase lasts about 10 minutes whilst the second phase peaks after two to three hours, after a sustained slow release. It is thought that reduced first-phase insulin release, due to beta-cell defect may signal the onset of Type 2 diabetes [11]. In order to clear glucose from the bloodstream, insulin binds to insulin receptors on the cell surface membranes of liver and muscle cells. Insulin receptors which are found on almost all cells in the body are composed of an exterior and interior portion, with respect to the cell membrane.

blood sugar and insulin levels decrease [13].

The future of diabetes treatment The research towards finding a cure for diabetes seems promising, with human pluripotent stem cells being studied closely for their potential to replace self-destroyed β cells in Type 1 diabetes [15]. A symbolic “Flame of Hope” has been lit in London, Ontario, Canada, where Banting worked for most of his life, paying tribute to him and his team for their vital work which revolutionised our ability to control the effects of diabetes. Thanks to their work, millions of lives have since been saved. The flame will only be extinguished when a cure for diabetes is found.

Insulin binds with the exterior portion which extends outside the cell membrane. Once bound, the interior

Controlling Diabetes: The Discovery of Insulin

Can we Control the Weather? Shiv Gohil (8M2)

t is no exaggeration to say that to control the weather is to control the world. Weather modification refers to any deliberate effort by humans to influence weather patterns for an advantageous purpose. China aims to use weather modification to induce 10 billion cubic meters of rainfall annually [1]. This must not be mistaken for climate control which is the long-term modification of weather with the end goal of managing accelerated warming.

modification [3].

Lives, homes and businesses have been destroyed due to adverse weather conditions on a mammoth scale. There have been forest fires burning through thousands of acres of forest in Washington and Oregon over a period of multiple weeks, a drought destroying crops in Montana and Dakota and hurricanes bringing flooding to Florida and Puerto Rico in September 2017 alone [2].

micrometres in diameter to the typical size of 20 micrometres

Although weather manipulation has been a fervently soughtafter fantasy since ancient times, expressed in primitive rain dancing to the planting of clouds to rain, are scientists any closer to being able to change the weather? An experiment conducted in 1946 spurred the interest in the science of weather. Scientists Schaefer and Langmuir discovered that by dropping pellets of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) into a cloud of water vapour inside a freezer box, the droplets quickly transformed into ice crystals which grew rapidly and fell to the bottom of the box. This discovery offered a scientific model which became the basis of cloud seeding, and hence was a pioneering discovery in the history of weather

Can we Control the Weather?

Cloud seeding is the method used to increase the amount of rainfall clouds produce and encourage them to precipitate. Clouds require a non-gaseous surface to condense from vapour to liquid, and so droplets form when water vapour from the atmosphere condenses onto microscopic particles called cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) [4]. Clouds are made up of spheres of water which can range in size from just a few [5], with a typical cloud having a density of roughly 200 droplets per cubic centimetre [6]. At high altitudes where temperatures fall well below 0oC the droplets remain in a liquid state as they do not freeze, due to the purity of the water there is no seed nucleus around which an ice crystal can form [7]. These are called supercooled clouds and can exist at ranges between -10oC to -20oC [7]. At colder temperatures, the water droplets are more likely to encounter CCN, causing them to freeze [8][12]. The ice crystals become heavy enough that they fall towards the earth, most commonly melting on their way down to precipitate as rain (or otherwise as hail or snow). Most clouds in nature are stable whether supercooled or not and will not precipitate for a long while. As supercooled clouds can sometimes be lacking naturally in ice nuclei, adding ice nuclei can cause the cloud stability to be disrupted, favouring the formation of ice crystals, which will grow and yield rain or snow [8][12].

Figure 1. Weather and climate disasters assessed to cause at least one billion dollars [2].

Most

cloud

modification

research

has

involved

frost prevention, fog and cloud dispersal, hurricane

supercooled clouds using ice nuclei for seeding, with dry

modification, hail suppression and lightning suppression

ice being most effective as it causes ice crystals to form

[12]. Currently, more than 50 nations have cloud-

spontaneously from water vapour, due to its temperature

seeding programs[13] However, there is considerable

of about -78oC [10]. However, Dry ice is no longer

doubt if cloud seeding produces a statistically significant

commonly used for cloud seeding, as it has the drawback

increase in precipitation, as contrasting results have

of having to be delivered into the supercooled part of the

been reported by various studies, with varying opinion

cloud, as well as the fact that once the dry ice pellet has

among experts [9][14]. In an attempt to address the

evaporated, it can no longer affect the cloud [10][12].

longstanding uncertainties regarding the effectiveness

Dust, smoke or salt can all become nuclei that naturally

of winter precipitation enhancement through cloud

allow a cloud’s liquid drops to freeze, and so are more

seeding, SNOWIE (Seeded Natural and Orographic

permanent viable alternatives [11].

Winter time Clouds-the Idaho Experiment) was set-up as

Commonly, now, supercooled clouds are seeded with tiny

a comprehensive observational and modelling research

particles of salts like silver iodide (AgI), sodium chloride (NaCl) or calcium chloride (CaCl2), which all act as CCN. The hexagonal crystalline ionic lattice structure of silver iodide is almost identical to the lattice that water molecules

program. The study was the first to report unambiguous observations of the physical chain of events following the introduction of cloud seeding aerosols into super cooled liquid clouds [15].

form in ice and snowflakes, making it an excellent nucleus for crystal formation [12]. The most common method in the US, Argentina and France is mixing silver iodide with flammable substances (such as acetone) and then burning in well ventilated chambers at 1100oC. Their nuclei are then carried into supercooled parts of clouds by convection currents produced by ground generators [12]. Alternatively, they can be placed into devices such as rockets which are fired into clouds to disperse the silver iodide particles. Countries such as Australia and Israel have employed generators suspended from the wings of aeroplanes to burn AgI in acetone [12]. The major types of weather modification that are currently in use or under study include cloud seeding,

Figure 2. How cloud seeding is supposed to work [13]

Can we Control the Weather?

Automated Control Systems on the Mars Rover Yash Shah (11R2)

asa’s Perseverance rover completed its seven-

Perseverance cannot be controlled by the mission team,

month journey on 18 February 2021, and

and therefore must complete the entire EDL process by

successfully landed on the Jezero Crater, a

itself [4]. With the help of several instruments and the

geologically rich area that could hold momentous biological

avant-garde Terrain-Relative Navigation system, the

clues for ancient life on this mysterious, red planet [1][2].

rover must avoid the innumerable hazards ready to strike

Landing on this rock-strewn body is not an easy feat.

Perseverance on the complex Martian terrain, such as

The Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) phase, commonly

steep cliffs, sand dunes, boulder fields and smaller impact

known as the “seven minutes of terror” [3] is by-far the most

craters [5].

demanding phase of the mission, where the spacecraft

With the aim of safely reaching and landing on Mars in the

enters the thin Martian atmosphere at nearly 20,000 km/h,

boundless universe, all solutions point to the autonomous

and in a mere seven minutes (compared to the previous

navigation technology that single-handedly controls the

6.5 months), it must decelerate to a standstill on the

EDL for the rover. This significant level of control taken

Martian surface, without imploding on impact [3][4]. Even

by the rover’s own intelligent systems is the only way to

if the rover manages to survive the myriad of complications

land on Mars, simply because the mission team cannot

of the complex EDL choreography and manages to be part

“joystick” the rover here. With the use of numerous sensors

of the 40% of successful missions to Mars; what is more

to visually perceive and represent the spatial locations

is that it must complete the entire mission autonomously,

of the aerospace prober, the rover must amalgamate

without any assistance from Mission Control [4]. The

many aerospace navigation techniques, namely satellite,

11-minute radio signal delay means that during landing,

integrated, visual, celestial and inertial into its descent [6].

Automated Control Systems on the Mars Rover

Figure 1. Illustration depicting the Mars 2020 spacecraft, carrying the Perseverance rover, approaching Mars [14]

Not only is this spacecraft armed with the knowledge of its

threatening terrain found on Mars [9].

velocity, speed, position and course; but it must also change

This ‘autopilot’ system can quickly figure out the spacecraft’s

these conditions with the use of control devices, such as the reaction control system thrusters, which are vital to change the speed of the spacecraft’s rotational motion in space. They are designed to make swift turns as well as adapt to the new orientations rapidly, reducing the possibility of a crash. Additionally, the thrusters come in pairs, which means that the spacecraft can be spun around without being given any lateral velocity [7][8]. During the EDL phase, the spacecraft descends on a supersonic parachute, as well as firing small thrusters on its backshell and then lowers the rover down onto the surface using strong tethers, similar to a sky crane. These features work in collaboration with a new EDL technology system called Range Trigger, which can calculate the rover’s distance to the landing point and open the 22-metre wide parachute at the ideal opportunity to enable a slow, safe landing [4].

location over the surface and then it uses a radar to continuously ping the ground [10]. This radar works with a component of the TRN called the Lander Vision System (LVS), which coordinates the landing at high speeds. The LVS uses downward-facing cameras to take multiple photos of the ground below, and then sends these signals to the onboard computer to process the photos and determine the potential hazards at the specific location of the rover [11][12]. Once successfully landed on the planet, to ensure that the rover does not inadvertently crash into obstacles while driving, NASA engineers have developed an innovative software to enable the rover to control its own safety and ultimately be able to “think for itself”, similar to a human’s capabilities. By means of Hazcam images (abbreviation for Hazard avoidance cameras), taken by cameras directly mounted to the rover’s body, it is able to map out the rocky terrain three metres ahead of it. The rover hazard avoidance

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

software self-assesses the rover’s position, by stopping

has developed another autonomous, vision-based control

approximately every 10 seconds, re-evaluating the situation

system for obstacle avoidance and spacecraft position

and subsequently computing the following manoeuvre for

estimation – called Terrain Relative Navigation (TRN).

the next 45 seconds, before beginning its journey once

During the Apollo moon landings, astronauts identified

again. Although seeming to be a tedious process, this

landmarks and looked out of their windows for boulders and

software controls the rover, enabling it to travel safely at

craters in order to land safely [9]. Technology has advanced

an average of 30 centimetres before re-examining its ever-

since then, and the revolutionary TRN control system uses

changing surroundings [13].

sensors, algorithms, and onboard computing (the Vision

Altogether, these control systems work together, without

Compute Element), in order, to outshine human intelligence to enable safe, autonomous landings. The TRN will provide a map-relative position to precisely locate a landing point and mitigate any potential landing hazards on the rough and

any input from humans, to pick the safest reachable landing site, land safely and explore the surface on Mars, aiding the rover’s search for life on Mars.

Automated Control Systems on the Mars Rover

Figure 2. Example Landmark match results on map of Jezero Crater [9]

Figure 3. Perseverance Rover landing on Mars [9]

Figure 4. Entry-descent landing diagram [4]

Automated Control Systems on the Mars Rover

Can we Control our own Genes? Sam Newman (L6M2)

hen Yoshizumi Ishino and his colleagues

bases [2][3]. The five repeat sequences were separated

at Osaka University in Japan discovered

from one another by 32-base blocks of DNA, now known

CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced

as spacers [3]. Each spacer had a unique sequence. The

Short Palindromic Repeats) in 1987, there was no way of

genetic structure was unlike anything biologists had found

knowing the impact it would have in the field of biochemistry

before and hence their significance was unknown. As

[1]. The researchers were sequencing the iap gene found

genetic sequencing technologies improved, these unusual

in E.coli, which is responsible for the isozyme conversion

genetic structures were revealed to be found in a vast array

of alkaline phosphatase by removing one by one the two

of microbial species. Researchers at Utrecht University

amino-terminal argines from the alkaline residues [1]. When

in the Netherlands dubbed these genetic structures

studying this gene, they discovered five identical segments

“clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats”

of DNA, in close proximity, each composed of the same 29

or CRISPR for short [3].

Can we Control our own Genes?

Figure 1. Diagram showing the bacterial CRISPR sequence (including DNA coding for tracrRNA and cas9 - as well as other cas genes), and the transcription process of the spacer regions to be conjugated with tracrRNA and a cas9 protein.[11] In the acquisition phase, foreign DNA is incorporated into the bacterial genome at the CRISPR loci. CRISPR loci is then transcribed and processed into crRNA during crRNA biogenesis. During interference, Cas9 endonuclease complexed with a crRNA and separate tracrRNA cleaves foreign DNA containing a 20-nucleotide crRNA complementary sequence adjacent to the PAM sequence

Among these Utrecht University researchers were Ruud

sequence [10]. This region within the virus’s DNA/RNA is

Jansen and his team, who noticed something else about the

known as the protospacer. Once bonded together, the cas9

CRISPR sequences; they were nearly always found with

endonuclease is then able to cleave the virus’ DNA/RNA

another collection of genes nearby, CRISPR-associated

sequence at a very specific point, since they are bonded

genes or cas genes for short [4]. These coded for enzymes

together in a fixed position. This prevents the viral DNA/

with the capability of cutting DNA. Jansen also found a

RNA from being transcribed and translated to proteins and

number of DNA sequences within the spacer regions of

therefore preventing the virus from self-replicating within the

the CRISPR sequences which seemed very similar to

bacterial cell [10].

the DNA of viruses. It was this discovery which led to the

A team of scientists led by Jennifer Doudna in the USA

understanding of the purpose of the CRISPR and cas genes system as bacteria’s defense against viruses [5][6].

in collaboration with another team of scientists led by Emmanuelle Charpentier in Europe researched the

When a virus (most likely a bacteriophage) attacks a

biochemical mechanism of the CRISPR-cas bacterial

bacterial cell containing a CRISPR sequence, a section of

immune system in 2011. CRISPR at the time was known

the virus’s DNA is stored (or ‘remembered’) in the spacer

to be simply able to cleave a certain section of viral DNA/

region of the CRISPR sequence. From this spacer region a

RNA which is complementary to the crRNA within the

complementary base chain of CRISPR RNA (crRNA) may

CRISPR-cas9 complex. However, Doudna and Charpentier

be transcribed and conjugated with a cas9 protein to form

realised that if pure cas9 proteins, not in a complex with any

a CRISPR-cas9 complex [7][8]. The cas9 protein, coded

crRNA, are combined with lab-created crRNA sequences

for by one of the cas genes, is an endonuclease enzyme

complementary to a specific section of DNA where the

that is able to cleave the phosphodiester bond within a

cleavage is desired the CRISPR-cas9 complex can be used

polynucleotide chain [9]. When a virus injects its DNA or

to cut DNA at any point [12]. A “handle” of tracrRNA, a small

RNA into the bacterial cell, a corresponding CRISPR-cas9

trans-encoded RNA, is required to join the cas9 protein

complex (containing the spacer crRNA sequence) will bind

to the crRNA sequence. The section of DNA to which the

to a specific section of the virus’ DNA/RNA sequence made

CRISPR-cas9 complex binds, is called the protospacer

up of complementary nucleotide bases to the spacer crRNA

adjacent motif (PAM). PAM is a 2-6 base pair DNA sequence

Can we Control our own Genes?

Figure 2. Diagram showing the mechanism of the CRISPR-cas9 complex. The blue section of RNA known as crRNA, is the section which is modified for specific DNA cleavage, matching the complementary section of DNA which is to be cleaved. The light blue ‘spacer’ region of crRNA is the variable region which binds to the complementary protospacer region. The dark blue region of crRNA is a constant sequence of bases which binds to tracrRNA [13]

that immediately follows the protospacer section to which

inserting the gene coding for the production of insulin into

the guide RNA - the lab-manufactured combination of crRNa

bacterial cells, which can then be grown in large quantities

and tracrRNA – binds [12] [10].

in bioreactors. This process can also be accomplished in

The ability to cut DNA at a specific point has many

another way, by inserting the gene for insulin production

implications for genetic research and gene editing. Once a section of DNA is cleaved by the cas9’s nuclease domains, the cell will attempt to repair the DNA sequence (using

into the plasmids of only a few bacteria. These modified bacteria can then share the insulin-coding gene with the rest of the bacterial population by a process known as

DNA damage repair mechanisms). However, this fixing

horizontal gene transfer [15].

process is extremely error prone, and can often introduce

Genetic engineering is also used in agriculture to create

mutations that disable the gene [12]. This allows CRISPR

genetically modified livestock or crops. An example of this

to be used as a tool to ‘turn off’ specific genes, a process

would be golden rice, into which the gene coding for beta-

commonly known as epigenetics [14]. Studying the effects

carotene has been inserted. Beta-carotene is a necessary

of turning off a gene can reveal its function. Scientists can

provitamin A carotenoid, and thus golden rice could be

also use the CRISPR-cas9 complex to remove mutated

an extremely cheap and effective solution to vitamin A

sequences of DNA and replace it with a correct copy. Once

deficiencies common in the diets of many people below

a cut has been made, the new correct gene is able to bond

the poverty line in Southern and Eastern Asia, whose diets

with the cut ends, thereby replacing the mutated gene with

are already rice-heavy [16].

a correct version. This gene editing process can be used

The future of genetic engineering is evidently very bright.

in lab-cultured stem cells, as well as in fertilised ova, to develop of transgenic organisms with targeted mutations.

Enabling or disabling genes linked to genetic diseases may one day allow scientists to cure them, or conversely to

Genetic engineering involving CRISPR has a plethora of

give healthy humans ‘superhuman’ abilities. CRISPR will

possible applications in fields such as medicine, research,

no doubt be humanity’s tool to control the future of life on

industry and agriculture. In medicine, genetic engineering

Earth - be it for better or for worse.

has been used to mass-produce insulin [15]. This is done by

Can we Control our own Genes?

How is Curiosity Controlled? Aarav Rajput (7H)

uriosity is a car sized mobile rover that is exploring

as they are closer to the Deep Space Network antennas and

the Gale Crater in Mars. It landed on 6 August

Earth is in their field of view for much longer than the rover

2012 and was originally set out for a two year

and allows information to be relayed to Earth much quicker

mission or 668 Sols (Mars Days) to study the Martian

than if done directly by the rover [4][5].

climate and geology. Curiosity’s life has lasted for much

The X-band High-Gain Antenna is used by Curiosity to send

longer than expected and it continues to explore the Gale Crater. By studying the crater, it discovered that it once had environmental conditions that were favourable for microbial life [1].

team back on Earth [6]. A great advantage of it is that it is steerable. This means that the whole rover does not have to steer around to communicate with Earth. This antenna

Curiosity has three antennas which help it communicate with

both receives and transmits data and is about 0.3 metres

Earth. The Ultra-High Frequency Antenna sends radio waves

in diameter. The transmission rate varies from 160 bits per

to NASA’s (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

second or faster to 800 bits per second depending on which

Mars Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance orbiters [2] [3]. It is

antenna of the Deep Space Network is receiving the signal [6].

better for the rover to send these waves through the orbiters

information and, in turn, receive commands from the mission

How is Curiosity Controlled?

Figure 2. Mars and Earth’s orbit around the sun[10]

signals and radio waves for transmission back to Earth a few hours later. In fact the Mars Odyssey orbiter had to perform a special manoeuvre which had never been attempted before [11]. The Deep Space Network (DSN) is NASA’s international array of giant radio antennas that support interplanetary spacecraft

missions.

DSN

uses

radio

waves

communicate with the Curiosity rover [4]. The three DSN antennas are placed 120 degrees in longitude from each other around the world [4]. The three sites of antenna placement are California (USA), Madrid (Spain) and Canberra (Australia). The positioning of the antennas allows any object beyond the Earth’s gravitational field to be seen by one of the three antennas. This is very important as in the Curiosity rover mission, we are always able to see Mars from at least one of the ground stations. Figure 1. A self-portrait picture of Curiosity after drilling holes to collect samples in the ground[1]

However, as Mars orbits the Sun at a different rate and speed to Earth, when Mars is on the opposite side of the Sun to Earth, the sun’s gravitational force can alter the

The X-Band Low-Gain antenna is mainly used for receiving signals. Although not steerable, it is “omni-directional” and receives signals from all directions. The antenna can also

messages sent from either Earth or Mars. Figure 3. The DSN antenna based in California [12]

transmit waves, but at a lower rate compared to other antennas, but are also sent to the Deep Space Network [7]. When engineers and scientists are planning the rover’s next actions, they must do so in advance. The distance from Earth to Mars varies from 55 to 378 million kilometres and therefore the time delay in communication can vary from three to 21 minutes [8]. This is of real concern to the Curiosity rover team if the rover were to crash. There will then be a time delay which will hinder the prevention of the rover malfunctioning.

Therefore, it is vital that

Curiosity and other rovers require significant navigational and autonomous control [9]. Curiosity’s landing was complicated, due to the difficulty of communicating with the rover during its descent. Direct communication with Earth was only possible during the first half of its landing. However, with the aid of NASA’s two low flying orbiters the rover was able to transmit

How is Curiosity Controlled?

What Controls the Nucleus? Joban Mulcock (L6R1)

here are four fundamental known forces that act

focusing [2][3].

in our universe (although one more may soon be

Everything tangible is made up of atoms. Atoms are made up

confirmed) [1]. Two are very familiar to most people:

gravity (the force that has all massive objects attracted to one another) and the electromagnetic force (as shown in the interaction between magnets: like charges repel, and opposite attract) [1]. Gravity is ignored at the subatomic level, due to the minute masses of the constituent particles and the subsequent miniscule gravitational force generated. The next two are less obvious, as their actions are only seen on a much smaller scale. The weak nuclear force is responsible for all interactions between subatomic particles that are not covered by the strong force and the electromagnetic force (the interactions wherein any of the particles involved are electrically neutral or colourless). The strong nuclear force is responsible for all interactions between hadrons (which include protons and neutrons) [2]. This strong force’s roles range from holding the nucleus of every atom in the universe together to the creation of elements in stars’ cores through fusion, and it is on the theory that describes this force, known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD), that this article will be

What Controls the Nucleus?

of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. However, these are a very small part of the subatomic world. There are two large groups, fermions and bosons, the latter of which will be ignored for now [4]. Fermions are split further into two groups: leptons and hadrons [4].The strong force only mitigates interactions between hadrons, and so leptons can largely be ignored. Hadrons are all made up of something smaller, an elementary particle known as a quark [2]. The two groups of particles that belong to hadrons are called baryons and mesons, and they are differentiated due to the number of quarks that they are made up of. Baryons consist of three quarks, and mesons of two. Quarks have various attributes, and these attributes combine to give the traits of their hadron when they are combined [2]. Each quark has a different amount of charge, spin, strangeness, charm and many other properties, and the way in which they combine determines the particle they produce. Additionally, no quark exists alone – they are always found in pairs or threes in the form of a baryon or a meson [5].

One of the more recently discovered properties of quarks is

The eccentricities of the strong force’s exchange particle have

something called colour. This has nothing to do with visual

extremely important ramifications. As mentioned earlier, the

colours but is a metaphor for a type of charge [3]. Just like

strong force is completely responsible for holding every atom’s

the electromagnetic force is linked to positive and negative

nucleus in the universe together. This is necessary because

electric charges (as seen in magnets), the strong force

the nucleus is composed of solely protons and neutrons.

is linked to colour. There are three colours: red, blue and

Every proton has an electromagnetic charge of +1, and every

green, and each has an anti-colour with the original names

neutron is electrically neutral, so if there were no strong force

of antired, antiblue and antigreen [6].

then the nucleus simply could not exist: the repulsion of every

The mechanism of the strong force can be understood more

proton would lead to every atom being ripped apart. However,

easily when compared with the electromagnetic: when two particles that have the same electric charge come close to one another, they cause a ripple in the electromagnetic field known as a virtual photon, and the exchange of this leads to the force generated (in this case a repulsion). To apply

at distances of less than 10 fm (0.00000000000001 metres), the strong force is approximately 100 times stronger than the electromagnetic. The attraction and mechanics of the strong force leads to something known as asymptotic freedom: the fact that the further out a quark moves from its pair or triplet,

this template to QCD, the colour of the quark is just like the

the less freely it can act.

negativity of the electron – it determines how it will interact

Asymptotic freedom is most easily understood if quarks in

with other quarks. The other difference in the theories is that

a hadron are likened to beads on a circular string [8]. When

in a strong force interaction, the exchange particle is a gluon

you pull a bead, the string gets more and more taut, until it

rather than a photon [7].

reaches a point where it cannot move anywhere anymore.

The primary difference between a gluon and a photon is

This asymptotic freedom works because when a particle

something known as self-interaction. Whereas photons cannot interact with the force they produce, and gluons can, a fundamental difference between the theories is that “electrodynamics describes the interactions of charged particles with the electromagnetic field, whereas QCD describes the interaction between quarks and gluons”

strikes a quark, and begins to move it away, the gluons in the hadron utilise the momentum of the moving quark to create more gluons. As mentioned earlier, gluons are selfinteracting, and so the more of them there are, the stronger the attractive force generated, and so the less easily the quark moves away. Evidently, then, no hadron can be taken

[7]. This essentially means that the interactions of the

apart, and the reasoning for this is asymptotic freedom [8].

electromagnetic force are mitigated by photons, and

Ultimately, the strong force is utterly vital to our universe, as

the photons themselves have no interaction with the

without it literally nothing we can see on this earth could

electromagnetic field that they aid charged particles in

exist. This was a brief introduction to its most important role,

interacting with, whereas strong interactions have exchange

but QCD acts in a vastly complex manner, and there is far

particles that are affected by the force that they carry.

more to discover if any reader is curious.

Figure 1. Strong and weak nuclear force [9]

Figure 2. The particles and antiparticles of the Standard Model [5]

What Controls the Nucleus?

Controlling Myopia: The Global Disorder Slipping Under the Radar Sohan Das (10S2)

yopia is one of the most widespread conditions

Myopia, more commonly known as short-sightedness or

in the world, with the World Health Organisation

near-sightedness, is an extremely common eye condition,

(WHO) estimating the condition to have affected

affecting 1 in 3 people in the UK [4]. It causes distant objects

over 2.5 billion people in 2020 alone, with that number set

to appear blurred and out of focus, while close objects

to increase to around five billion by 2050 [1][2][3]. Although

appear clear. This is usually caused by the eye being too

myopia can be easily resolved using glasses, controlling the

long, resulting in the convergence point of the light rays

progression of the defect in patients, and limiting the number

entering the eye being in front of the retina, rather than on

of people who develop it is a different story.

it. It has varying levels of severity and can get progressively worse. Myopia typically develops in children between the

Controlling Myopia - The Global Disorder Slipping Under the Radar

Figure 1. Comparison of Myopia with normal sight

ages of six and 13, and as the child starts to grow in their

wear any corrective device during the day - a freedom

teenage years, its severity increases [4]. It can also develop

that many people like. The use of Ortho-K lenses also

in adults, meaning no-one is guaranteed to be safe from

slows down the progression of myopia, which is why it is

its effects. The disorder is typically caused by hereditary

recommended to growing children, as it can prevent their

genetics, although looking at nearby objects for extended

eyesight getting worse [7][8][9][10]

periods of time, and limited exposure to natural sunlight

Furthermore, a study in 2015 found that 0.01% atropine

have been confirmed as risk factors of myopia [2][4].

eyedrops at bedtime reduced the progression of myopia in

The most common way of correcting myopia is by using

children, leading to low dose atropine drops being highly

eyeglasses or contact lenses, which refract light before it

recommended by ophthalmologists for growing children

enters the eye. Hence the eye’s own lens now correctly

starting to develop myopia [11]. Despite these promising

refracts the light rays, causing them to focus on the retina,

findings, wearing either glasses or contact lenses is still

as opposed to in front of it. A simple eye test can determine

recommended, as the eyedrops cannot reverse myopia,

whether an individual has myopia or not, as well as being

but rather slow down its progression.

able to inform the refractive strength of glasses or contact

Another solution to myopia is laser eye surgery [4]. It

lenses needed [4].

involves burning away small sections of the cornea,

Despite the efficacy of both glasses and contact lenses,

so light refracts better onto the retina. There are three

some patients seek out stress-free options to treat their

different

myopia, which do not involve wearing glasses or contact

epithelial keratomileusis and laser in-situ keratectomy, all

lenses throughout the day. One new technique that

of which are permanent solutions for myopia, meaning

is growing in popularity is orthokeratology, or Ortho-K

that the patient will never need corrective devices again.

lenses. These lenses are gas-permeable hard contact

However, though statistically safe, laser eye surgery,

lenses which are worn at night [5]. The lenses flatten

like any other surgery, comes with risks. These include

the cornea so that light is refracted on to the retina at

corneal thinning and chronic dry eyes [4][12][13].

the correct angle, temporarily fixing the vision, up to

One final solution to myopia is the implantation of artificial

the point where the corrected vision lasts a day, often longer. While wearing contact lenses overnight is slightly riskier than daily throw-away lenses, if the lenses are cleaned in a hygienic manner, the risk of infection is very low [5][6].The treatment leaves you without the need to

types:

photorefractive

keratectomy,

laser

lenses into the eye [4]. There are two types of this surgery, one where the natural lens is removed, and another where it isn’t [14][15]. This process is not as popular due to its novel introduction into the ophthalmology market, as

Controlling Myopia - The Global Disorder Slipping Under the Radar

Figure 2. Myopia and methods of correction

well as associated risks of surgery, such as an increase

Focusing on objects very close to the eye, also known as

in the probability of developing cataracts and glaucoma

“near work”, significantly influences the development of

later on. Furthermore, there is the serious risk of retinal

myopia [4]. Near work includes reading, studying, writing,

detachment, which can cause blindness [4].

doing homework, using a handheld device, watching

These solutions, whether temporary or permanent, cannot

TV and playing video games [19][24][25]. In countries

prevent the development of myopia in the first place. If we are to manage the global progression of myopia, some simple but significant actions need to be taken. These preventative measures, mostly influenced by environmental factors such as exposure to natural sunlight, could reduce the onset of myopia[16,17,18,19,20]. Studies have found that a child with two myopic parents can, perhaps, delay the onset of myopia by being outdoors for just two hours per day, even if they continued to focus for extended periods of time on very close objects [2]. While scientists are still unsure whether it is the production of vitamin D, the bright sunlight or the increased range of optical focus that halts the progression of myopia, it is clear that spending time outdoors has a very positive influence on myopia especially since myopia is far more common in those living in an urban area than those that live in a rural environments [17][ 22][23].

where educational success is highly regarded, children and teenagers spend long periods studying, and very little time outdoors [25]. Spending excessive amounts of time utilising your near vision is dangerous and increases the chance of myopia developing and progressing. This is not to say that education is not important, but rather that novel approaches to reduce the amount of near work done in schools should be taken. Furthermore, children should be encouraged to consider high quality physical health as of equal importance to academic achievements. As

humans

are

becoming

dependent

technology, it is likely that myopia will get worse with every generation. Especially given the current climate of the global COVID-19 pandemic, which is causing people in lockdown to spend more time on electronic devices and less time outdoors, for fear of catching the virus, the problem of myopia is bound to multiply. This leaves us wondering, will being myopic become the norm?[26].

Controlling Myopia - The Global Disorder Slipping Under the Radar

The Ultimate Control Challenge: Taming Plasma in a Nuclear Fusion Reactor

…

Gianpaolo Ruju (L6S1)

uclear fusion of elements such as Hydrogen and

cheap, abundant and accessible enough on Earth that

Helium is a highly exothermic interaction [1]. This

they would be inexhaustible for tens of thousands of years

occurs when two or more atomic nuclei fuse together

[3]. Therefore, it has been the dream of researchers, since

and, by a very slight change in net product mass, release

Rutherford’s discovery of this phenomenon, to replicate an

extremely high amounts of energy. This is the process from

energy-gain nuclear fusion reaction, one that generates more

which stars derive their light and heat and is responsible

energy than is required to initiate it, to meet the commercial

for the hottest temperatures in the known universe [1][2].

energy demands [4]. However, this has proven to be a near-

As a theoretical energy source, no radioactive elements

inaccessible dream, because replicating conditions such as

or hydrocarbons are required for fuel, no greenhouse

those of the Sun’s core is a logistical problem that remains

gases are produced, the reaction is self-sustaining under

unsolved [4].

requisite conditions. In addition, the possible fuels are

The Ultimate Control Challenge: Taming Plasma in a Nuclear Fusion Reactor

Image of the JET (Joint European Torus) reactor [16]

Of the many different methods of nuclear fusion under

relatively low at about 1020m-3 and the resulting pressure in

development, by far the most heavily researched and

the plasma is therefore only about one atmosphere [6].

advanced is magnetic confinement fusion [5]. This method

However, scientists have learned from a failed attempt

of controlled fusion uses magnetic fields to confine a hightemperature fuel plasma of deuterium and tritium (isotopes of hydrogen containing one and two neutrons, respectively) within a tokamak–a torus-shaped vessel in which a powerful helical magnetic field guides charged particles around it via a complex phenomenon called “zeta-pinch”, where the magnetic field results in the toroidal compression of fuel plasma [5] [6]. Under this steady state of compression, the nuclei in the plasma readily undergo fusion reactions that convert a small fraction of their rest mass into a high output of energy via alpha radiation, the emission of a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons) as given by E=mc2. However, both the fuel nuclei are positively charged and thus create a strong mutual electrostatic force of repulsion when in close proximity. In order to overcome this repulsion between the nuclei, the plasma temperature, T, must be extremely high. With current research this is typically around 10 keV, which corresponds to almost 108K (as a result, the interior of a working tokamak is one of the hottest places in the universe) [7]. The reward of this method is that the density of the plasma, n, can be

at energy-gain fusion, a trial of the UK’s ZETA reactor in 1958, that the fuel plasma quickly becomes unstable through turbulence even under extremely strong magnetic confinement [8]. This instability results in a much lower duration during which the reaction can occur, such that all tokamak fusion reactors are only able to sustain the process for up to one to two minutes. This is currently the greatest challenge by far concerning magnetic confinement fusion; a very short period of reaction means that the energy produced is not enough to equal that required to initiate it, meaning that there is no net energy gain. Together with the aforementioned temperature and plasma density, this time period is the third factor that determines what is called the triple product of the reaction—where a triple product of 1 signifies enough energy to match what is put into the initiation [9]. In stars, fusion occurs readily and completely because of the immense gravitational pressure present and the selfsustaining nature of fusion [10]. No reactor has achieved

The Ultimate Control Challenge: Taming Plasma in a Nuclear Fusion Reactor

Figure 2. An illustration of a stellarator [17]

this, with the current record held by the UK’s JET reactor at a

too complex and intricate to be feasible for a commercially

triple product value of 0.67 [11]. This is the reason research

viable domestic energy reactor [12]. However, its wake,

has continued for more than 60 years. The problems due to

many start-up projects have been inspired to circumvent the

the nature of turbulent flow, the extremely complex science

difficulties common to tokamaks. For example, the First Light

behind plasma hydrodynamics and the difficulty of maintaining

Fusion company which is affiliated with Oxford University,

stability whilst simultaneously providing enormous heat; to

aims to use the turbulent flow of plasma to their advantage

date remains unresolved. Given that the energy from fusion

by firing a specially made projectile at extremely high speeds

would easily provide enough heat to be self-sustaining it

into the plasma and harnessing the resulting energy from

would be a perfect solution to the planet’s energy and climate

the colliding fuels [13][14]. The surest hope for energy-gain

issues, if only the right conditions could be found.

fusion is the ITER reactor under construction near Marseilles,

However, huge strides have been made since the 1950s, when there was little hope that even the triple product achieved by modern tokamaks could ever be reached [11]. In addition, many methods of fusion, although overall currently further away from achieving a break-even triple point have come closer to solving the issue of stability. For example, the first stellarator, a different type of confinement reactor that stabilises the plasma mechanically, constructed in 1951, was able to keep the plasma steady for a much longer time than other tokamaks at the time [12]. Although the design and construction of a stellarator was a remarkable achievement, the machine ultimately proved

an international collaboration with a current deadline of completion by 2025 [15]. ITER is by far the most heavily funded and meticulously researched fusion programme to date and aims to build on all of the most promising features of reactors before it, using newer technology. This makes the same promise to provide energy gain as the old ZETA reactor, but adds decades of intensive knowledge and research to overcome the flaws and shortcomings of the tokamaks before it. There is therefore a substantial chance that it will eventually deliver. Perhaps this will prove to tame fusion fuel plasma for just long enough to provide the ever-elusive solution to control this powerful and primordial force of nature, and to achieve the so far-unachievable goal of an energy-gain fusion reaction.

The Ultimate Control Challenge: Taming Plasma in a Nuclear Fusion Reactor

Mind Control Adam Smith (9H1) “No man can visualize four dimensions, except mathematically … I think in four dimensions, but only abstractly. The human mind can picture these dimensions no more than it can envisage electricity. Nevertheless, they are no less real than electro-magnetism, the force which controls our universe, within, and by which we have our being.” Albert Einstein [1]

The mind has consciousness, an abstract concept, which differentiates humans from animals of lower intelligence, such as worms. Consciousness can be defined as the ‘thought’ inside the brain [2]. The brain, on the other hand, is an organ and a very physical entity. It makes life possible and is generally the seat of instinct and lower functions. The mind is thought to be the result of electrical activity across the brain [3]. The brain is like a biological machine, a supercomputer but made up of water and tissues, meaning that it can

There are many ways to control people’s minds including

be controlled. Brainwaves can be measured to provide

psychological, physical and therapeutic ways. However,

insight into the actions and thoughts of an individual. The

before we get into the depths of this enigma, we need

way in which the brain controls the body involves electrical

to understand how the human brain works, and how the

impulses between neurons (nerve cells), meaning that the

brain is different from the mind.

control of the impulses leads to the control of the body.

Mind Control

Figure 1 Brainwaves [4]

Brainwaves are electrical signals in the brain that can be

an electrooculogram is graphically shown in Figure 2[7].

detected by sensors on the scalp [4]. There are six known

Beta waves occur when we are thinking and doing other

types of brainwave: Infra-Low, Delta Waves, Theta Waves, Alpha Waves, Beta Waves and Gamma Waves. They are characterised by different frequencies and shapes as shown in Figure 1.

cognitive tasks including learning. The Chances are such that reading this article right now is causing your brain to produce Beta waves. Finally, Gamma waves (not the gamma waves of electromagnetic radiation) can be recorded in moments of

Infra-low waves (not shown in Figure 1) are very mysterious

intense emotion, such as love and anger [8].

and are almost like the “heartbeat of the brain” and

Let us say that you are an ordinary person and want to control

underline higher brain functions such as abstract thought [5][6]. Delta waves are involved in deep, dreamless sleep and meditation, while Theta waves also occur in sleep and meditation. Alpha waves occur during the resting state of the brain, when we are relaxing, happy or just resting. An alpha brainwave caused by a joyful emotion measured by

someone psychologically, then how could you do it? Initially, you could pressure someone into doing something for you. This is probably the most basic form of psychological control there is, as it pulls on primal urges and base emotions. Let us say you ask your friend to go shopping for you and he initially refuses. You can then say that he is not being a good friend, making him feel guilty, or threaten him, making him fearful, or even pretend to act sad. Another, far more long-term and less direct, process is brainwashing [9]. Subjects are isolated from those who are not brainwashed; their talents, beliefs and hobbies are attacked, and they are mentally abused, until they finally give into the brainwasher and believe what they are forced to believe. Even though they still have some degree of free will, their beliefs and opinions are controlled, and consequently, so too are their actions. In some rare cases, a hostage falls in love with their captor no matter what they do to them. This

Figure 2 α brainwave of Joyful emotion [2]

is called Stockholm syndrome [10].

Mind Control

Human thoughts, actions and beliefs can be controlled by

As the magnetic and electrical forces are linked, when a

mastering the electrical impulses of the brain. With modern

magnetic field passes through a part of the brain, then the

day technology, the electrical impulses in the brain can be

part of the body that it controls will twitch as the field creates

measured and recorded using external electrodes like in the

an electrical current within the brain. The same can be done

electroencephalogram [EEG], Figure 3, or using the brain’s

with electrodes placed on the scalp, effectively delivering

magnetic field, the Magnetoencephalogram [MEG] [11].

electric shocks to the brain, affecting the Brainwaves and electrically inducing seizures, so that the body twitches and moves. This is the principle of electroconvulsive therapy [ECT] also known as electroshock therapy, used to relieve some of the symptoms of mental disorders such as major depressive disorder [MDD], especially when the disorder is unresponsive to other treatment [12] [15]. Although many of the uses of mind control have negative impacts, some can be positive. For example, controlling the minds of criminals could drastically reduce the amount of crime in the world, and by modifying the brain function and thoughts by applying positive emotions and inducing Alpha waves, it may be possible to help people fight depression and other mental health conditions. However, the question of whether mind control is ethical or not still stands: is it morally acceptable to try and influence the thoughts of others for our own benefit? [13][14] In conclusion, there are many ways to control the mind. However, most of the ways used nowadays are psychological or pharmaceutical. You do not need computer chips, electrodes, or machines to control someone, you just need to drug them, persuade them, and pressure them. Mind control is used between us to control and use

Figure 3. Some EEG traces showing different brainwaves

each other on a day-to-day basis, just by subtly pressuring the person you want to control. Good or bad, this is the way of the world.

Figure 4. Electroconvulsive Therapy [15]

Mind Control

Could Exercising in the Cold Burn more Calories? Veylan Sebastian (L6J2)

hen the ambient temperature decreases, the

organ involved in the process of thermoregulation.

body must maintain its temperature, in order,

Thermogenesis is defined as the dissipation of energy by

to ensure the continuation of the metabolic

the production of heat in specialised biological tissue [6].

processes for life, which require enzymes to catalyse

In response to cold exposure the sympathetic nervous

biochemical reactions at an optimum (370C) temperature [1].

system activates BAT which in turn converts the chemical

Shivering is one mechanism by which the body generates

energy from triglycerides (in lipid droplets) to heat [6].

heat. This is a reflex, which causes nerve impulses to be

BAT is one of two types of fat cells found in the body.

sent by the hypothalamus to skeletal muscles, resulting in rapid contractions, leading to thermoregulation [1].

Brown and white adipocytes (fat cells), also known as ‘brown fat’ and ‘white fat’ are found in different parts of

However, unknown to most, there is another mechanism

the body (Figure 1)[3][12]. Brown fat mainly accumulates

by which the body generates heat, in order, to maintain

in the neck region and white fat is stored around the waist

its normal temperature, and this is the burning of brown

and thighs. White adipose tissue (WAT) forms as a result

fat or brown adipose tissue (BAT) [2][3][4]. Brown fat is

of the deficit in activity compared to calorie intake and

increasingly targeted as a therapeutic solution to obesity

the excess is stored as an energy reserve. In contrast

and metabolic diseases [5]. Together with skeletal

BAT specialises in the dissipation of energy by calorie

muscle, brown fat is considered a major thermogenic

consumption [7].

Could Exercising in the Cold Burn more Calories?

Figure 1. Location of white and brown fat [12]

mitochondria in brown fat do not produce ATP. Instead, UCP1 uncouples the mitochondrial membrane and this results in heat being generated [8]. This brings about the theory that exercising in colder temperatures can increase the effectiveness of weight loss and the burning of calories. It is reported that cold temperatures can trigger more brown fat cells to be produced from stem cells [9] [10]. The enhanced burning of brown fat under cold conditions has been reported in a study carried out in 2014, where the participants, Figure 2. Composition of white and brown fat cells [11]

after having a month of exposure to mild cold, had a 42% increase in BAT volume, and 10% increase in fat metabolic activity, meaning that more BAT was made

On a cellular level BAT contains higher numbers of ironcontaining mitochondria, which gives the tissue its colour (Figure 2) [11] [3]. When activated by the sympathetic nervous system BAT converts energy stored in the form of fat to heat in a process known as non-shivering thermogenesis, which occurs in the mitochondria. It is also known that the uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) plays a major role in this process [7]. Brown fat also has more capillaries than white fat, and this is due to higher oxygen consumption, which is due to the increased amount of mitochondrion, which require oxygen for aerobic respiration which produces ATP [3]. However, while this is what usually happens, the 32

Could Exercising in the Cold Burn more Calories?

and was subsequently burned at a higher rate [10]. For individuals who are already obese, or find it hard to exercise because of certain physical conditions, such as asthma or arthritis, exercising in cold conditions would help them to lose more weight more easily. In addition, the presence of BAT decreases the need to shiver. However, it has been proven that shivering causes more energy to be released by fat cells. The contracting of skeletal muscles results in a hormone called irisin to be released into the body. Irisin has the ability to influence white fat to undertake BAT characteristics, resulting in more fat being used as a heat source, and even more calories being burned, proving that cold temperatures are likely to burn more calories [10].

Controlling the Virus of Misinformation Leandro Landolina (L6S2) The web of beliefs Vast online spaces and social media platforms provide the perfect conditions for the virus of misinformation to spread, reproduce and hijack unknowing readers into believing false claims. Let’s take for example a post about using homeopathy to treat the common cold. Whilst it may seem relatively harmless and well-meaning on the surface, the implications of putting trust in posts such as these are not. Given that homeopathy is viewed as an alternative to contemporary evidence-based medicine, it follows that to hold on to the belief that homeopathy works, one must believe that science

and medicine is, to a degree, wrong. This becomes a major issue when we consider the idea that our minds are a huge web of interconnected beliefs, in which no one belief is held in isolation. Instead, a change in one belief pulls on the threads that go on to alter other thoughts and ideas. Therefore, despite the superficial innocence in the post, it has the potential to be extremely dangerous by slightly altering our perceptions and beliefs: by believing in a homeopathic treatment for the common cold, one has to disregard what science and medicine says about treating the common cold, then making it much easier for someone to believe that science and medicine are wrong about a lot of other things.

Controlling the Virus of Misinformation

Figure 1. Homeopathy

A more serious example of the effect of misinformation on

discussing things that are simply not matters of opinion, and

our web of beliefs is seen in the anti-lockdown protests,

instead are fact. False balance stems from democratic good-

which clearly clash with the scientifically-based advice from

will, after all, it’s only fair to give people with opposing viewpoints

governments. By breaking social distancing measures, the

freedom to voice their views. However, false balance occurs

notion that they are useless and unnecessary is implied.

when there is no debate to be had, such as fact vs opinion,

This is not only false, but also builds mistrust in the scientific

like a ‘debate’ between a contrarian anti-vaxxer and a credible

community and influences the minds of passers-by, making

scientist, for example. Another example of false balance is the

them more likely to consider faults in other public health

issue of climate change, when global warming is presented

advice to be true. What’s more interesting is that one of the

as a ‘debate’. This unfairly amplifies the less scientifically

organisers of the anti-lockdown protesters, ex-nurse Kate

robust viewpoint – that climate change is not happening – and

Shemirani, is actually an anti-vax campaigner. By organising

inflates its importance to make it seem of equal validity to the

and preaching at rallies against lockdown measures,

essentially unanimous belief within the scientific community

she manipulates vulnerable or less informed citizens into

that global warming does exist and is affecting us right now.

mistrusting the scientific evidence, which modifies their web

It is therefore philosophically and intellectually a mistake to

of beliefs, and makes them more likely to consider science

give equal time and weighing to both viewpoints, when that is

and medicine to be wrong about other things. This means

not representative of the current scientific consensus, which

they are more likely to be successfully fooled into believing

leans much more heavily towards one side. As such, false

extremist anti-vax theories. Through this example, we are

balance gives a platform to misinformation and legitimises a

warned of the power of misinformation to indirectly negatively

viewpoint that doesn’t deserve the limelight.

influence someone’s rational thinking, by exploiting the fact

Is the writer/source credible?

that no one belief is held in isolation from others.

The issue of false balance

Words like expert, professional and specialist are nebulous, but that doesn’t mean that the writer’s work is disreputable.

The belief that opposing views should be treated as equal

What makes their post or article credible is how well they have

(political equality) is a basic principle of democracy and

reflected the evidence, and not necessarily any qualifications

preserves the basic human right of freedom of expression

or expertise they may have. Furthermore, as a general rule of

and speech. However, this only becomes an issue when

thumb, scientific and medical advice on social media should

Controlling the Virus of Misinformation

Information hygiene: protect yourself The availability heuristic theorises that the more simplistic a narrative, the more likely we are to believe it. Misinformation seen to take advantage of this often presents a simple argument with a simple enemy and a simple cause, when in reality, most situations cannot be painted with the dichotomous brush of fact or fiction, and in truth are the centre of a much more complicated and multifactorial debate. To protect ourselves from misinformation, we also need to be Figure 2. Climate change

aware of the negativity bias; how humans are more likely to remember a more alarming or direct message. An example

be avoided; websites made by the NHS and the WHO, for example are much more credible than a random Facebook page. We should also remember that expertise is domain specific, and that the more of an expert somebody is in one field, the less they know about everything else. A stark example of this is seen in the infamous ‘Ask The Experts’ anti-vaxx conspiracy video which contains disinformation from so-called doctors. However, some of these ‘doctors’ are either not doctors at all, or are doctors in non-medical, non-immunological and non-epidemiological subjects such as engineering, using their professional title to mask their disinformation with supposed authority. From this example, we learn the importance of checking registered professional bodies, such as the General Medical Council (GMC) registry to confirm that an author is qualified in the field they claim themselves to be, especially if what they’re saying tends to be contrarian – going against

of this is that parabens – a class of preservatives in everyday cosmetics – cause breast cancer. Even though this has been disproved, people still tend to err on the side of caution because of the negativity bias. With social distancing measures in place to reduce the transmission of COVID-19, the virus of misinformation has still been able to spread exponentially on the internet and social media. To combat this, we should all practice information hygiene. We should treat information as a pathogenic agent since we know that it can do harm to us or someone else. Furthermore, we should be sceptical of simple narratives and shocking stories, because science and medicine is complicated, and the truth is often a lot more complex. And finally, just like you wouldn’t meet up with friends if you were still awaiting a COVID-19 test, you shouldn’t share information with anybody until you can verify that it’s legitimate.

common medical knowledge or popular belief.

Figure 3. Technology Trends

Controlling the Virus of Misinformation

Have we Lost Control Over the Weather? Brandon Yong (10C2)

t is late August 2005, a Louisiana fisherman in the Gulf

of hailstones, to religious practices [2]. In the Summer of

of Mexico glances up in the sunshine and notices a dark

2008, Chinese authorities fired 1,100 rockets containing

cloud on the horizon. The wind picks up, and, suspecting a

silver iodide into the sky surrounding Beijing in an attempt

hurricane, he calls the port master. A thousand miles above in

to prevent storms during the opening of the 2008 Beijing

space, a geo-centric satellite ejects small pods that re-enter

Olympics. On the night of the ceremony, over 100mm of rain

the earth’s atmosphere. Millions of specially seeded grains

fell in the nearby city of Baoding. In contrast, the skies above

are dispersed in the clouds. Soon, the hurricane dissipates,

Beijing were dry[3][4][5].Last October, this was repeated in

and the sky clears.

time for the 70th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, resulting in exactly the same conditions[6]. The technique used by the Chinese authorities in order to prevent rain clouds from forming is known as “cloud seeding”. Whilst even small-scale weather modification may seem novel, cloud seeding is already an established technology which was first discovered in 1946 when General Electric chemist Vincent Schaefer, working on research into creating artificial clouds in a chamber containing a supercooled liquid cloud, released dry ice into the chamber to cool it down upon deciding it was too warm. He observed that water vapour formed a cloud around the dry ice, there by discovering

Figure 1. satellites orbiting the Earth [13]

cloud seeding [7] [8].

This could have been the reality of hurricane Katrina, a category 5 beast that caused 1800 deaths and $125 billion worth of damages in New Orleans, in August 2005 [1]. The ability to control the weather has always been explored in sci-fi movies and novels, regarded as the peak of humankind’s technological advancements. Indeed, the applications of such an ability would be seemingly endless – for example, preventing icy conditions from causing disruption to travel, ending droughts and calming floods. However, most attempts to control the weather have been futile, from “hail cannons” in the early 20th century that used shockwaves in an attempt to disrupt the formation

Have we Lost Control Over the Weather?

Figure 2. A diagram portraying the process of cloud seeding [14]

In 2016, as many as 56 countries had cloud seeding

is therefore not very cost-efficient and has not been able to

operations in place [7]. Cloud seeding works because

produce visible results in the real environment yet.

supercooled water (water that exists below 0oC) requires

However, proposed methods to control the weather are

particles with an ice-crystal like structure so that they can condense and subsequently fall as precipitation. However, such particles are usually lacking in the atmosphere.

still in their infancy and it is uncertain what the future holds. An attempt by China in 2009 to end a drought using cloud seeding resulted in an unexpected temperature drop and the

Cloud seeding aims to provide these particles, usually in the

precipitation falling as snow instead of rain, which caused

form of silver iodide, magnesium iodide, sodium chloride or

significant travel disruption [11]. We know that only some

potassium chloride. Dry ice was initially used as the seeding

types of clouds can be seeded, however the reason for this

agent, which supercooled water condensed on, making ice

still remains unclear. With this in mind, it is clear that more

crystals which are too heavy to remain in such clouds and

research needs to be done on technologies such as cloud

fall to the ground as rain or snow [8].

seeding in order to fully understand the science behind

The rockets fired before the opening of the Beijing Olympics

such methods, and to recognise any unforeseen flaws in

were intended to induce clouds near Beijing to release precipitation before reaching the city instead of during the ceremony. The Texas department of Licensing and Regulation claimed that seeded thunderstorms in the state lasted 20 minutes longer than unseeded ones and produced one and a half more times rain [7]. A study called SNOWIE (Seeded Natural and Orographic Wintertime clouds – the Idaho Experiment) found clear evidence of snowfall produced by seeded clouds, with an estimated 340,000 cubic metres of water from the clouds after 24 minutes of cloud seeding on the most successful day [9]. Novel but untested ideas to control the weather have also been proposed. One such proposal is the use of lasers [10]. As seen in Figure 3, a laser pulse (red) ionises air and triggers the condensation of water droplets to create a cloud, which is illuminated by a second, green laser.

the process that may otherwise undermine its safety and reliability. Without this extra research, there is the potential for the process to go catastrophically wrong for example, diverting a hurricane towards a major city. This should also apply to new methods before they are allowed to be used on an industrial scale. It is impossible to determine how efficient proposed methods to control the weather will be, because the unpredictable conditions of our complex climate system cannot be replicated in laboratory conditions [8]. Furthermore, the prospect of weather control is likely to face a strong opposition from conspiracy theorists who believe that condensation trails from planes are governmental attempts to modify the weather for malicious purposes [8]. Though weather modification techniques are still in their infancies, the question regarding the ethics of weather control still stands: should we attempt to influence or alter nature, especially without being able to predict with full certainty the consequences of our actions. Additionally, when journalist Seymour Hersh revealed the details of Operation Popeye in 1972, an attempt by the USA to cause a monsoon in Burma to disrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail (the main supply route for the National Liberation Front in the Vietnam War), an international uproar followed. This resulted in US House and Senate resolutions to ban environmental warfare, with the passing of the 1977 Environmental Modification Convention by the United Nations, which prohibits the use of weather modification for military or hostile purposes [12]. We still need to decide whether the right to control and modify the weather should

Figure 3. A cloud of water droplets illuminated by a green laser [10]

be given to the government or independent organizations, and under what circumstances it is acceptable to use

It has been suggested that lasers would be able to ionize

weather modification, if any.

the air, encouraging the formation of hydroxyl radicals and

In conclusion, it is too early to tell whether humanity will

converting gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen

ever gain full control over the weather since the technology

dioxide into larger particles, called “seeds” which provide a

of weather control is still in its early days, and its accuracy

larger surface area for water vapour to precipitate, resulting

and safety needs to be more thoroughly assessed. It is

in quicker precipitation. Such a technology would potentially

unlikely that we will see viable technologies utilized in the

be able to be used on satellites, which would gain energy

near future, especially not until they have been subjected

for the laser from solar panels. Whilst success has been

to thorough and rigorous regulatory testing in order to

reported in the lab, it requires vast amounts of energy and

address unforeseen flaws.

Have we Lost Control Over the Weather?

Surgical Work Experience During the COVID-19 Pandemic Ved Joshi (L6R2) Name of Organisation: Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham in coordination with Medic Mentor The COVID-19 pandemic has meant that in person work experience in healthcare has mostly been cancelled. However, innovation in technology has provided a solution to this issue, as many hospitals shift their focus from inperson work experience to virtual opportunities. One such opportunity was offered by the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Birmingham in coordination with Medic Mentor. The day started with an introduction into the role of surgeons which highlighted the clinical aspects of surgery, including operating and seeing post-operative patients in the form of ward rounds. The patients seen on ward rounds were usually not operated upon by the doctor on the rounds, hence reading their notes was vital. This form of communication is crucial to each ward, as doctors may not have time to examine each patient thoroughly at handover. However, despite its unpopularity amongst junior doctors, a large part of the day is taken up by admin. Due to the inaccurate depiction of healthcare by television drama programmes, as action-packed scenes in A&E, in reality a large part of a junior doctor’s day is taken up by admin. This includes getting consent from patients or

writing discharge letters, a dull yet necessary task. Due to COVID-19, a lot of the paperwork has transitioned online onto a large database. The benefits of this can be considered on both a productive and an environmental level: paper is saved while accessing patient records is faster. Hence, a surgeon on ward rounds can easily type in a patient’s NHS number or name and learn about their condition, thereby reducing time taken at handover. On the other hand, the main barrier to operating on a patient remains the availability of beds. The demand for beds caused a bottleneck in the rate of routine operations even prior to the pandemic. With the majority of beds, at present, being used for vulnerable COVID-19 patients, the availability of beds for surgery has reduced drastically. This was a key reason why all elective (non-life threatening) operations were cancelled in the first lockdown. An orthopaedic surgeon talked about the protocols prior to an operation. Firstly, a bed was required for the preoperative tests to be conducted, which included taking blood pressure and blood oxygen readings, as well as recording the patient’s weight so the correct dose of anaesthetic could be used. Informed consent was then sought from the patient, which included the surgeon outlining the procedure for the operation and any risks which could occur due to the surgery.

Figure 1. A bed in the Intensive Care Unit

Surgical Work Experience During the COVID-19 Pandemic

He mentioned that a bed in the ICU (intensive care unit) is

The renal surgeon outlined the skills required for keyhole

usually required to be empty for the patient after surgery,

surgery and likened it to playing a video game. He mentioned

an example of which is shown in figure 1 above. After the

that training for robotic surgery is often done on an online

operation, a bed in a ward was required to be free. Only

system similar to playing a game and that the skill, he

after all these hurdles were cleared could a patient then be

thought, to be the most important for keyhole surgery was

operated upon. As you can imagine, this protocol caused

manual dexterity. The surgeon commented that in theatre,

many cancellations and unnecessary stress upon medical

the scalpel is like an extension of the arm, and the same

teams. The orthopaedic surgeon highlighted the importance

was true for the da Vinci robot’s arms. To ensure precision,

of “keeping cool” in surgery, as it can be frustrating to see an

good manual dexterity is vital. In fact, the robot can be more

operation be cancelled for a patient you wished to operate

precise than humans. Our wrists have a limited range of

on. Furthermore, the surgeon mentioned a case where a

motion, due to the ligaments in the wrist, but for the robot,

patient’s condition deteriorated as their surgery was cancelled

its “wrists” are like a ball and socket joint. This ensures that it

twice in a row, being delayed for two additional weeks. He

has a full range of motion, so even the most hidden areas in

highlighted how demoralising it was to see patients’ health

the body can be reached.

worsen knowing that he would not be allowed to operate on

The day ended with the surgeon talking about current

them when he wanted to.

research in surgery; through the rise of the da Vinci system,

In the afternoon, the focus shifted from the effects of the

remote surgery has become a viable option. This means

pandemic to the improvements in technology within surgery,

that a surgeon in London could carry out an operation in

which was outlined by a renal oncological surgeon. Within

Scotland. This would improve patient outcomes, as a more

the past decade, the main advancement has been in robotic

qualified surgeon could handle complicated operations in

surgery via the da Vinci surgical system.

other parts of the country. However, this heavily relies on a

In abdominal operations like renal surgery, there has been

good internet connection to occur. Lastly, it was said that the

a shift away from open surgery and towards laparoscopic (keyhole) surgery. This reduces the size of incision required during the operation and in turn reduces trauma translating

quality of care in the NHS could greatly improve if more of these robots were introduced, but due to underfunding and COVID-19, it has become hard to justify spending close to

to accelerated recovery times. As mentioned above, surgery

two million pounds on one machine [1].

depends on the availability of beds, and shorter stays in

To conclude, the online work experience outlined the

hospital means more beds becomes available for other

complex procedures and protocols involved in surgery and

patients. Prior to the introduction of keyhole surgery, after

how COVID-19 has affected them. It also highlighted the

most abdominal operations, patients would have to spend

importance of technology in the future of surgery, showing the

many days in care, but now there are cases where the patient

need for biomedical engineers and researchers. It brought to

can leave on the same day as their operation.

life a distinct career with practical patient applications, and was ultimately an enjoyable and insightful experience.

Figure. 2 The da Vinci robot system

Surgical Work Experience During the COVID-19 Pandemic

The 2020 Nobel Laureates The Nobel Prize in Physics 2020 The Nobel Prize in Physics 2020 was divided, one half

These discoveries are major milestones in our understanding

awarded to Roger Penrose “for the discovery that black

of the universe, and they point to new directions that will

hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of

enable us to understand the universe with unprecedented

relativity”, the other half jointly to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea

ideas and depth.

Ghez “for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy.” [1]

Figure 1: Roger Penrose (Left), Reinhard Genzel (Centre), Andrea Ghez (Right)

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020 The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020 was awarded jointly to

This new development has revolutionised molecular life

Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna “for the

sciences, by giving scientists unprecedented levels of

development of a method for genome editing.” [2]

precision and flexibility in genome editing.

Figure 2: Emmanuelle Charpentier (Left), Jennifer A. Doudna (Right)

The Nobel Laureates

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