Memoire PFE - Hadrien Thiabaud by Hadrien Thiabaud

L.O.M.E

Logement Octogonal Mobile et Economique

Hadrien Thiabaud // ENSAPM // 2015

Remerciements Mes recherches ont reçus des appuis, des encouragements et échanges particulièrement généreux pour lesquels je tiens à remercier tout d’abord, le corps enseignant qui m’a suivi et guidé à travers l’élaboration de mes études : Loic Couton, Marc Benard, Caroline De Saint-Pierre et Christian Comiot. Je voudrais mentionner également les différents intervenants et contacts qui ont aidé ce projet à évoluer en échangeant des informations et expériences de terrain ainsi que pour leur présence, le temps qu’ils m’ont consacré et l’intérêt qu’ils ont porté à cette étude : Christophe Lalande, Leader Housing Unit UN-Habitat ; Julien Navier, Responsable relations extérieures, UNHCR ; Dennis Kanter, Design Manager, Ikea Foundation RHU; Françoise Puig-Inza, ministère des affaires étrangères et du développement international, Direction des Nations Unies et des Organisations Internationales, Sous-direction des Droits de l’Homme et des Affaires Humanitaires ; Craterre ; NRC. Finalement, je tiens à remercier tous spécialement mes proches et amis qui m’ont écouté, appuyé, encouragé, guidé, pour leur ouverture d’esprit, leurs échanges et leur aide durant le temps de ces recherches et notamment, Elizabeth Niedra, Wilfried Voué, mes parents et frère et soeurs, J.C. Thiabaud, Hippolyte R. ainsi que tous ceux que je n’ai pas cités mais qui ont également contribué à ce projet.

Sommaire dans le temporaire 2. Organisation et singularisation 3. Questionnement, rencontre et ouverture

Architecture mobile

II. Le logement humanitaire : Camp ou installation A.

Type d’installation Type d’infrastructure Type de construction

et sous-sols 5.

a) b) c) d)

Cartographie Planification Topographie Composition des sols

Occupation des sols

La sélection d’un site La stratégie de développe-

Temporalité

C. Le développement pologique d’un camp de réfugié

A. Expérience personnelle 1. Evolution permanente

a) b) c)

I. Influence de mon expérience personnelle

Les modes d’installations

4. ment d’un camp

Introduction

2. 3.

Les populations déplacées

B. L’hébergement des populations déplacées

Les situations d’urgence

namique du camp 2. communauté 3. banisme

L’installation Le

anthrola

dy-

développement

Naissance d’un nouvel ur-

D. Et après ? La fermeture d’un camp ou délocalisation ou installation.

Les camps demain

III.

Les besoins d’une structure

Adaptabilité culturelle

Economie

Transportabilité

D. Durabilité : temporelle et environnementale

Impacts sur l’environnement

IV.

Objectifs et conclusion A.

Objectifs

Une intention

Le pliable

Projet, objectifs et conclusion

Annexes :

-Charte des Nations Unies : Convention des Nations Unies relative au statut des réfugiés (28/07/1951) -Principes directeurs relatifs au déplacement de personnes à l’intérieur de leur propre pays.

Bibliographie et références

Introduction D

ésireux d’espace j’ai parcouru le Canada et l’Alaska en solitaire durant presque deux mois. Ce « road Trip » a évidemment été pour moi l’occasion de me retrouver et de vivre certainement la plus intense aventure de ma vie. Mais elle m’a également donné une expérience de vie dans un espace restreint. Vivre en solitaire dans une nature sauvage complète, à l’intérieur d’un Van, m’a effectivement permis de m’interroger sur les enjeux d’une unité de vie vouée au mouvement, limitée en taille mais devant pourtant répondre à tous mes besoins dans un pays où avoir plus que le temps de vider un réservoir entre deux stations-service n’est pas rare. A travers cette aventure, j’ai pu vivre l’espace, j’entends par “espace”, ces étendues sauvages a perte de vue à en voir la courbe terrestre, prendre un café au pied des montagnes, déjeuner sur un plateau dans la neige en été, dîner en contemplant le bleu des lacs ou encore s’endormir sur un coucher de soleil infini sur l’horizon du cercle polaire. Ici, mon espace de vie était devenu aussi explorateur que moi. Le paysage n’était plus figé. Cette sensation de liberté et l’expérience de l’espace ont été les initiateurs de mon développement cette année. Inspiré par ce voyage j’ai souhaité comprendre les enjeux d’un habitat mobile. A mon échelle tout d’abord, à travers ma propre expérience. Puis, je me suis interrogé sur le désir de chacun de mouvement et la nécessité contemporaine à la mobilité. Ces approfondissements m’ont finalement menés à constater que l’architecture mobile portait en réalité une étendue beaucoup plus vaste.

J’ai alors découvert un tout nouveau registre de circonstances où ce type d’architecture soulève d’importants questionnements mais pourtant très proche de mes centres d’intérêt. Chaque jour, les médias révèlent une nouvelle catastrophe à travers le monde. Chaque jour, un nouveau conflit démarre ou s’enlise un peu plus. Chaque jour, une nouvelle peur nait et des milliers de personnes se mettent en mouvement forcé ou non pour trouver un nouveau lieu de sérénité. Le monde est en crise, la société est en crise, l’économie est en crise… Les médias dépeignent ces situations sans cesse, mais sont-elles entendues ? Il est indéniable que le monde aujourd’hui est en plein changement et en pleine crise. Que ce soit le climat qui évolue, se dérègle de ce que nous connaissions jusqu’à maintenant, créant des destructions à travers le monde entier. Qu’il s’agisse de l’économie qui ruine des parties entières du monde ou encore les conflits qui en détruisent d’autres … Tout le monde n’est pas atteint par ces crises et tout le monde ne l’est pas au même degré, mais elles touchent chaque année un peu plus de personnes. Au début de l’année 2015, le nombre de personne désignées comme étant des « populations déplacées » à travers le monde est de 42 873 743.1 Ces crises apparaissent de plus en plus et ne cessent de s’étendre d’un point de vue géographique. Entrainant alors d’importants mouvements de population, mouvements forcés, non organisés et toujours d’une population plus nombreuse. Une dimension d’urgence apparait dans ces situations C’est alors que les organismes humanitaires prennent le contrôle des situations et tentent de répondre aux besoins et nécessitées des victimes de ces crises. Il est de leur ressort de mettre en œuvre les actions pour la survie de ces populations. Elles s’appliquent à mettre à dispositions les services de première nécessité et les apports vitaux : nourriture, abris, soins… Dans ce cadre, les différentes associations appliquent le même schéma de réponse à l’urgence. Une analyse de la situation, la mise en place d’un système. Celui-ci se constitue de trois phases principales : 2 1 2

http://www.unhcr.org/5461e5ec3c.html The emergency phase according to UNHCR

-La phase d’urgence : réponse immédiate à la crise (moins de 72 heures), apport de nourriture, soins et abris pour les réfugiés. Cette phase s’accorde à minimiser les pertes humaines et se développe de manière très rapide sans porter de considération à son environnement. Elle développe également des enquêtes, afin de déterminer qui est qui pour porter les aides appropriées mais surtout permettre de protéger la cellule familiale. -La phase de maintenance : Il s’agit de la partie la plus longue de l’ensemble de la crise. Cette étape se révèle lorsque l’urgence n’est plus urgence et que les associations humanitaires commencent à établir une organisation précise de la situation. Elle consiste en une mise en place plus pérenne de l’installation. Le développement, de ce qu’on peut appeler en général à ce stade, un camp. Ceci est donc l’installation des réfugiés de façon plus ou moins saine et pérenne et pour une durée indéterminée. Ce genre de situation varie cependant dans une moyenne de temps comprise entre 10 et 17 ans.1 Elle prend également en compte les facteurs politiques afin de déterminer si l’accueil dans le site occupé est faisable ou désiré, si des accords existent avec le pays d’origine ou tout autre lien ou opposition. A ce stade, se développe également une économie de camp. -La phase de solution (durable) : Cette dernière étape du processus de secours aux réfugiés correspond à la reconstruction de l’habitat ou à l’installation définitive dans la localité. Une action dont l’objectif est le long terme, la durabilité et l’intégration ou réintégration dans une communauté. Cependant, la mise en place de ces actions nécessite d’instaurer une rigueur et une organisation pour une gestion globale et durable. Le contrôle d’une telle situation se traduit souvent par le contrôle des populations forcées au déplacement : « l’intervention humanitaire côtoie la gestion policière. Pas de soins sans contrôle. ».2 Un confinement des personnes et l’établissement de règles strictes à la limite d’une gestion policière. C’est dans le cadre de cette gestion que le développement systématique de l’action en camp est une problématique importante à prendre en considération. Le contexte de tension dans lequel celui-ci apparait et l’urgence qui le construit en font un élément souvent indésirable pour les localités et les gouvernances en place. Il s’agit en effet au premier abord d’un important mouvement de population dans un environnement non préparé, éventuellement déjà occupé ou exploité. Cet ensemble, par ses fondements même, se porte comme destructeur de l’environnement dans lequel il s’implante (mouvement de masse d’une population démunie en un seul lieu pour une durée indéterminée et en un temps très court.) Par sa simple présence, il va affecter l’environnement, la 1 Selon le rapport annuelde l’Observatoire des situations de déplacement interne: Overview 2014 :People internally displaced by conflict and violence, IDMC,

culture, l’économie…. Une installation d’urgence ! C’est ce qui définit un camp de réfugié et c’est cette ambiguïté de l’échelle temporelle qui marque l’importance de cette recherche et de la place de l’architecte dans ce type d’action humanitaire. Le camp se définit comme un regroupement d’unités liées entre elles par des circulations. Il est donc difficile de ne pas faire le lien entre le camp et l’esquisse urbaine d’une ville. C’est sur cette similarité que l’ambiguïté se joue, le camp est établi dans l’urgence et se veut temporaire. Il n’est destiné qu’à une durée de vie restreinte. Cependant la réalité du contexte dans lequel il s’établit impose une organisation rigoureuse de celui-ci comme espace temporaire, intemporel dû à l’incertitude complète qui règne autour de la durée d’implantation de celui-ci. Il est donc concevable d’imaginer qu’il est important de choisir un site d’implantation adéquat et que l’aménagement de celui-ci se révèle de premier ordre. La simple idée d’évoquer des recherches ou des actions dans le cadre du développement d’installation humaine temporaire pourra créer auprès des différents acteurs la peur d’une pérennité. Cependant, les ONG ont pris conscience que l’organisation de l’espace joue un rôle majeur pour la qualité de vie, le confort physique et moral. Il est en effet, clef de considérer ces problématiques spatiales. L’expérience de l’espace, est en réalité très déterminante pour la qualité de vie et les comportements qu’elle implique.3 Une autre problématique à laquelle doit faire face l’action humanitaire, est la problématique des médias qui paradoxalement sont également l’une de ses forces. Il est vrai que la large couverture que les médias appliquent aujourd’hui autour de chaque sinistre, crise ou situation difficile, permet l’apport économique, matériel ou politique nécessaire aux organismes humanitaires dans leurs actions. Cependant, Il advient à ces mêmes services de prendre garde au sentimentalisme. Le relais permanent de ces drames par des images toujours plus touchantes et frappantes de groupe de milliers de personnes démunies de tout et à la recherches d’une aide, fuyant pour leur survie, leur lieu de domicile. Ce sont ces mêmes images qui, à la fois apportent/contribuent aux fonds nécessaires à l’action, mais aussi ceux-ci qui mènent à l’investissement pervers dans l’envoi de fournitures, denrées, matériels ou encore logements, par conteneur, nourrissant une image de pays outrageusement libres et vivant d’abondance aux jeunes populations dans ces régions dans le besoin. 4 La recherche ici présentée espère apporter un cadre de réflexion à ces problématiques d’actualité et dessiner des pistes de développement par une approche technique et spatiale avec des préoccupations humaines.

Genève, mai 2014. 2 Michel Agier, Gérer les indésirables des camps de réfugiés au gouvernement humanitaire, Flammarion, Paris, 2008, p.14

3 Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension, Doubleday & C, New York, 1966. 4 Les limites de l’aide humanitaire, Ph.Reymond, J.Margot, A.Margot, Ecole polytechnique de Lausanne, 2007

Influence de mon expĂŠrience personnelle

Expérience personnelle 1.

Evolution permanente dans le temporaire

J’ai déjà pu y faire référence plus tôt, mais j’ai eu la chance de pouvoir participer, durant l’année 2013-2014 à un échange universitaire à Carleton University à Ottawa au Canada. J’ai finalisé cet période particulière de mes études et de ma vie par un voyage en solitaire au travers du pays et de l’Alaska. Véritable expérience de vie, parcourant près de 17 000 km seul à bord d’un van aménagé par mes soins et à travers des espaces pratiquement désertiques, voir abandonnés. Il serait difficile ici, d’aborder tous les apports d’un tel voyage, je vais donc me concentrer sur les questions qu’ont été le logement et la mobilité. Le principe même de ce voyage induit une question de temporalité et de mobilité, comme on a pu le constater auparavant. Il me semble alors important d’interroger le contexte et ses implications. Ce voyage (qui fut plus qu’un simple voyage dans mon expérience personnelle) est un voyage, qui dans son déroulement, demande un investissement personnel important. Les conditions de vie qu’il implique et la durée sont sûrement les deux points forts de celui-ci. D’une durée déterminée de deux mois maximum (pour des raisons de visa), je me suis alors lancé à l’aventure, ne sachant ce qui se passerait et comment je le ressentirais. Mais désireux d’une telle expérience et étant libre de toutes contraintes (exceptées celles que je me fixais) pour une période donnée, j’ai acheté un véhicule et commencé cette traversée. La première forme de temporalité qui s’établit, est le temps qui m’est impartit : deux mois ! Samedi 26 Avril 2014, 7h30, je ferme la porte à ce qui fut une année unique et m’assois dans mon Van, met le contact et enclenche la première étape de ce voyage dont j’ignore tout, si ce n’est la date où celui-ci prendra fin le 1er Juillet 2014. C’est un détail qui peut apparaître insignifiant, il confère pourtant un sentiment de liberté unique et place le premier composant de cette aventure où tout est possible dans ce début et cette fin. La mobilité est la base qui a régie ce dont j’ai fait l’expérience: tout était envisageable dans les limites physiques imposées par le véhicule. Par la suite, on peut relever différentes temporalités toutes dépendantes de cette unité qu’est le Van. Par temporalité, j’entends les éléments, évènements ou étapes majeures de cette expérience qui ont formé, transformé, adapté ou appuyé le déroulement de ce voyage. Ce sont les instants de pause ayant

prêté à la réflexion. La première, on l’a vu, est globale et représente un impact majeur sur la manière d’appréhender cette période : elle est la ligne directrice de l’organisation qui va suivre. Les autres marques de temps étaient beaucoup plus centrées sur elles même. On retrouve alors les organisations de la journée, d’un jour à l’autre puis celle de l’instant. Ces différentes temporalités sont liées pour les deux premières à des questions de pratique, de volontés personnelles de découverte ou encore de besoin. La dernière est, elle, une situation plus aléatoire et dépendante d’un grand nombre de facteurs, commençant par mes sens et mes états d’esprit. Une temporalité presque impossible à prévoir, elle apparaît lorsque par inattention un chemin vous mène au centre d’une vallée entouré de montagne massive protégeant un lac si paisible que même le vent n’oserait le déranger ou encore lorsqu’au réveil, par la fenêtre, vous admirer un ours et son petit se désaltérer le long d’une rivière agité. C’est face à un coucher de soleil qui finalement ne descendra jamais derrière l’horizon ou encore après des heures de route sans signe de vie autre que les animaux du bord de la route, que vous vous stoppez pour simplement arrêter le temps et goûter ce calme finalement loin de tout. Ces instants sont ceux où le temps n’existe plus. Cette temporalité très différente est celle de la découverte. Les moments du quotidien, si on peut dire, sont eux, des marques du temps plus répétitives qui font le développement d’un tel voyage et l’importance de la compréhension de vivre dans un espace temporaire. Ce type d’expérience, dans ses fondements, vient perturber les repères que l’on a. L’environnement dans lequel on évolue est inconstant. Notre espace de vie est inconstant également. Il est en effet dépendant de son environnement, l’environnement changeant, il se transforme également. Il devient plus ou moins stable, plus ou moins lumineux, plus ou moins bruyant,… Bien qu’il soit constitué d’un élément constant, sa structure, le van, il se transforme et s’adapte en permanence. Il évolue au même rythme que nous. Lui-même dénué de repère. L’espace de vie devient alors une unité, une entité.

Organisation et singularisation

Je me rends compte aujourd’hui, notamment par l’apport des différentes lectures effectuées dans mes recherches, que le choix de mon espace de vie et son organisation a particulièrement été orientée par mon histoire et ma culture dans son sens large. Le choix du véhicule; c’est la première étape qui révèle cette déformation. En effet, j’aurais pu choisir un véhicule plus petit où il ne serait possible que de dormir et de transporter le minimum vital. Je me suis pourtant orienté vers un véhicule plus imposant dans lequel il m’était possible de créer différents espaces, de les définir et de les séparer. C’est dans l’organisation que ma culture de l’espace et ma culture de société s’est révélée. L’espace intérieur du van s’est alors décomposé en trois parties principales : le poste de conduite et de communication (électronique, administratif, social…), l’arrière du véhicule, comme espace repas/cuisine, de détente, social. Enfin, le cœur du van comme espace intime et de rangement. On y retrouvait alors le lit et les affaires personnelles. Chacune de ces zones redécoupées en sous parties. Leur définition, plus ou moins inconsciente, est également liée à leur situation. Le poste de conduite, espace étroit, aux vitres claires. Le cœur, zone dont le niveau est sus celui des fenêtres et dont celles-ci sont fortement teintées noir. Finalement, l’arrière, surélevé, plus étroit et égale-

ment composé de vitrage noirci. On remarque alors une prédisposition pour les zones et leurs activités. Ma culture de société ayant eu une grande influence dans l’organisation en protégeant l’espace intime entre les deux zones « sociales » et en administrant un certain degré d’intimité à l’accès de ces espaces, par des séparations physique ou visuelle. A travers cet espace, c’est un « chez soi », une singularisation qui s’est créée. Un refuge et un lieu de sérénité dans un environnement en mouvement, instable et inconnu. Au-delà d’une unité de vie c’est pratiquement un partenaire d’aventure qui est né avec cet espace, le van lui-même a pris une identité et s’est personnifié.

public

privé

semi public

Espace au vitrage teinté Schéma de zonage du véhicule

Cette expérience unique, a eu une très grande influence sur le développement de mes réflexions pour cette année. Il me semblait pertinent d’utiliser cette aventure pour conclure cinq années d’étude. Comme une sorte de finalité par une réflexion personnelle, inspirée par une expérience personnelle et non un cadre universitaire. Trouvant alors plus de sens à développer un diplôme comme un moment de liberté et d’expérimentation de nous-même en se détachant des cadres habituels. Durant les préparatifs de ce voyage et le déroulement de celui-ci, je me suis interrogé sur la manière dont j’allais vivre. Sur ce qu’est un logement, un chez soi et si cela a même sens d’être. Premier élément de cette étude finalement, est cette question de la mobilité et de la définition de l’architecture comme tel. Logement ou simple espace aménagé, structuré, l’architecture comme élément mobile est-elle existante et comment ? La suite logique de ces premières questions est plus liée à l’usage même que l’on en fait. Pourquoi celle-ci aurait-elle besoin d’être mobile ? Le voyage est certainement la première image que l’on perçoit d’une telle architecture, à travers les mobile-home, les caravanes, les tentes …. Logement temporaire et mobile. Cependant, ce n’est pas le seul usage, ni même la seule nécessité de mobilité. C’est alors, dans ce type de besoins que l’on regarde le monde où nous sommes et la société qui nous entoure. Basé sur ce que l’on connait déjà, on essaie d’anticiper le futur et on se questionne sur l’avenir de telles architectures. Aujourd’hui nous nous déplaçons effectivement plus vite et plus loin, plus souvent et pour une multitude de raisons. Les constructions mobiles sont-elles des solutions d’avenir ? Le mouvement est une chose que j’ai alors moi-même expérimenté, j’ai vécu partout et nulle part à la fois dans cette zone du globe l’espace de deux mois. J’y ai alors rencontré des voyageurs comme moi, des personnes loin de tous et tout le monde. Des personnes vivant dans des espaces le temps d’une saison pour des conditions évidentes et d’autre en déplacement le temps d’un contrat. Ces rencontres appuient mes différentes interrogations sur le besoin d’avoir la capacité de déplacer son « chez soi » avec soi. Vivre quelques semaines hors de repères fixes est une chose, mais vivre hors de ceux-ci le temps d’une saison, six mois ou plus encore représente immédiatement des enjeux plus importants. Ce sont ces enjeux qui ont attiré l’attention d’une personne proche de mon entourage. Personne issue d’une culture plus humaine, dans ses rapports directs à la personne en tant que médecin. A travers différentes conversations et l’échange d’expérience, je me suis sensibilisé à un nouveau registre du déplacement. Un déplacement de nécessité et forcé. C’est alors un long processus de réflexion que j’ai pu suivre jusqu’à maintenant. Une étude qui trouve ses fondements dans l’expérience et qui aujourd’hui me mène à interroger l’architecture mobile comme élément de réponse à de besoins vitaux, réponse temporelle et même humanitaire.

Architecture mobile L’architecture mobile, n’est pas une idée nouvelle et est utilisée depuis que l’homme construit. Elle s’est cependant développée jusqu’à nos jours où elle est devenue un objet de curiosité et de recherche pour les architectes, designers, industriels et politiques. En effet, les premières constructions étaient déjà des éléments bâtis sur place pour un besoin puis abandonnés ou démontés/remontés au lieu d’arrêt suivant comme les tentes nomades arabes, berbère, scythes, numides ou encore les yourtes de Mongolie. Les constructions « récentes » d’architecture mobile1, pensées comme telles, remonte aux années 1830 en Angleterre et Etats-Unis avec les premières maisons en kit destinées aux déplacements, en réponse aux circonstances de l’époque ; pour les émigrants en Australie et les chercheurs d’or en partance vers l’ouest des Etats-Unis. L’assemblage/désassemblage de la structure était déjà l’élément qui régissait le développement de ces abris. Ils se devaient d’être compréhensibles et facile à appliquer. Un des points importants pour l’architecture mobile est le développement des transports et notamment des transports individuels intimement liés à l’automobile. Dès le début du 20ième siècle. Les transports individuels se démocratisent avec le model de la Ford T2 d’Henry Ford3, première automobile construite en série. Ceci va révolutionner le monde automobile mais aussi le monde industriel en ouvrant une nouvelle voie à la production et donc indirectement ouvrir les portes de notre société consommatrice. Ce nouvel élément va aussi apporter aussi de nouvelles réflexions, notamment chez les artistes, comme Buster Keaton4 en 19205 avec son film « one week » (fig1) qui révèle une image d’une architecture objet, capable de se transformer, d’évoluer, d’interagir avec son environnement, de se déformer et de se déplacer. Walt Disney en 19386, réalise un court métrage de Mickey, Donald Duck et Goofy en camping (fig2) dont les premières images sont celles d’une maison et de son paysage complet qui, lorsque Mickey tire un levier, se replie entièrement en une simple caravane. Ils vont tous deux s’emparer via les écrans, de la question de l’industrialisation et de l’architecture mobile.

1 Portable architecture, design and technology, Robert kronenburg, birkhauser, 2008. 2 Ford model T : 1908-1927 « celle qui mit l’Amérique sur les roue », Ford Motor Company 3 Henry Ford, 1863-1947, Dr en ingénierie, industriel américain, créateur de la Ford Motor Company et initiateur du Fordisme, méthode de production industrielle en série par ligne d’assemblage. 4 Buster Keaton, acteur, réalisateur, scénariste et producteur, 1895-1966. 5 One Week, 1920, Buster Keaton et Edward F.Cline, Comique Film Corporation. 6 Mickey’s trailer, 1938, Walt Disney Production.

Fig.1: One week, Buster Keaton, 1920, extrait du film.

Fig.2: Mickeyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s trailer, Walt Disney, 1938, extrait du film.

Cependant, ces questionnements ont assez vite disparu, jusque dans les années soixante, où la mobilité a commencé à être porteuse d’intérêt. On verra alors la naissance de multiples projets très novateurs sur la question de la mobilité en architecture mais aussi sur la question de la mobilité en général du fait que ces questionnements toucheront alors à un grand nombre de domaines dû au développement des relations mondiales, des technologies et des transports. Les années 50-60 marqueront alors une période de recherche très importante auprès des architectes concernant ce concept : « L’éphémère est sans doute la vérité de l’habitat futur. Les structures mobiles, variables, rétractables, etc., s’inscrivent dans l’exigence formelle des architectes et dans l’exigence sociale et économique de la modernité.1» Apres la seconde guerre mondiale, les industries se sont énormément perfectionnées et les modes de vie ont évolué parallèlement à ces questions. Les transports particuliers sont en pleine explosion et la démocratisation de ceux-ci ainsi que des avions rendent les déplacements plus rapides et plus faciles. La France va particulièrement s’intéresser à ce sujet avec, dès 1962, la création du « groupe 1985 » par Georges Pompidou2, alors premier ministre, qui aura pour but d’esquisser l’hypothétique France projetée vingt ans dans le futur. Un chapitre de cet ouvrage se consacre à la mobilité et le progrès technique et annonce : « Le progrès technique, permet à l’homme de disposer de loisirs plus longs dont il profite pour voyager, mais il oblige le travailleur au déracinement (changement de domicile, changement de métier). La tendance récente permet d’observer un accroissement de la mobilité dans de nombreux domaines. On constate même une accélération de ce phénomène. Cette tendance paraît inéluctable dans l’avenir. L’homme de 1985 devra être formé en vue d’une mobilité professionnelle accrue. Le changement de métier ne devra plus être considéré comme un accident, mais comme une étape normale de la vie. La formation de l’homme devra donc être orientée vers la capacité d’adaptation plus que vers l’accumulation d’une masse de connaissances qui deviendront vite périmées. La mobilité professionnelle des individus devra déboucher sur une possibilité plus grande de promotion sociale facilitée par ces changements. La mobilité sociale aura tendance à se développer de ce fait. L’évolution vers une plus grande mobilité géographique et professionnelle des individus paraît caractériser la tendance récente. »3 On constate une anticipation de la France sur les vingt années suivantes assez réalistes. Aujourd’hui est bien un monde de mouvements, appuyés par les nouvelles technologies. Les frontières s’effacent de plus en plus, les distances se raccourcissent, les communications se simplifient, les supports de communications eux, se multiplient. Les marchés mondiaux sont de plus en plus ouverts et globaux, les travailleurs amenés à se déplacer de plus en plus et les contacts s’étendent sur la surface du globe mais sont joignables en direct et à tout moment. 1 Jean Baudrillard, Utopie, n°1, 1967 2 Premier ministre de 1962 à 1968 et président de la république de 1969 à 1974, année de sa mort. 3 Réflexions pour 1985, groupe 1985, 1962.

Le contexte actuel nous incite effectivement aux déplacements, faisant de lui un sujet d’une dimension contemporaine et dévoile une nécessité à considérer. La mobilité va en effet changer notre façon de vivre et d’interagir, mais pourquoi nous déplaçons nous ? Aujourd’hui, quelles sont les motivations au déplacement dans un monde qui communique instantanément et qui échange tout type de renseignements, marchandises, marchés, cultures… si facilement ? Comment la mobilité va-t-elle influencer la manière de penser l’architecture, le logement ? Les questionnements et recherches des années 50-60 vont très vite mener à un grand nombre de productions plus ou moins notables, mais toutes vont finalement avoir peu d’écho dans le temps et ce probablement dû au manque d’intérêt pour la société dans laquelle elles étaient alors réalisées mais qui aujourd’hui susciteraient beaucoup plus de répondant. Cette première étude interroge un certain nombre d’éléments et révèle un sujet important en architecture et vraiment actuel dans notre société. La question est alors de déterminer si cette architecture de toujours a encore un sens aujourd’hui. Bien que traitée et retraitée dans toutes ses formes, elle est un sujet de recherche, un laboratoire infini. En quoi peut-elle alors aujourd’hui constituer un futur? L’architecture modulaire, l’architecture humanitaire, l’architecture transportable, temporaire, démontable, dépliable, itinérante... autant de sujets déjà existants mais pas encore des sujets sans avenir. D’autant plus avec le développement des relations mondiales actuelles, les crises et conflits ainsi que le climat et les technologies qui évoluent.

Couverture du magazine Air & Cosmos n144, 1966

Archigram, 1967

II.

Logement humanitaire: camp ou installation

Les populations déplacées Un conflit éclate, un tremblement de terre ravage une région, une persécution s’installe, un cyclone souffle tout, une inondation…. Il existe de nombreuses raisons qui poussent les personnes à se déplacer. Des déplacements forcés par la peur, la crainte, le besoin ou encore parce que plus rien n’existe là où ils sont. Ces populations ont tout abandonné, elles n’ont plus rien ni même un futur vers lequel marcher. Chaque année, ce nombre de personnes augmente. Au premier semestre 2014 le nombre total de personnes déplacées dans le monde avoisine les 51 millions.1 Ces mouvements de population sont d’autant plus à considérer par la masse qu’ils représentent. Ce sont des déplacements de masse, par là j’entends que les mouvements sur un très court lapse de temps d’un nombre de personnes se calculant en milliers. En guise d’exemple, le camp de réfugiés de Al Za’Atari en Jordanie recevait en 2013 plus de 3000 réfugiés par jour.2 Des mouvements de masse mais également des accueils d’une dimension considérable. Dans une vidéo d’appel à l’aide internationale pour supporter le Liban dans l’aide que le pays apporte aux réfugiés Syriens, Jim Yong Kim, président de la banque mondiale, fait une analogie d’échelle afin de représenter l’ampleur de la situation. Il annonce alors que l’accueil de plus de 4 millions de réfugiés par le Liban est à valeur proportionnelle, comme si l’ensemble du Mexique migrait aux Etats-Unis.3 Cette image permet de bien comprendre l’ampleur de la situation et la nécessité d’agir. Ce type d’évènement n’est pas nouveau. Il n’est pas issu de la société moderne bien qu’elle s’aggrave par celle-ci. Aujourd’hui on remarque deux types de populations déplacées : les réfugiés et les IDP. Le terme de « réfugié » est établi dans la Convention des Nations Unies de 1951. Cet acte établit le concept de réfugié en droit international et désigne alors des personnes : « craignant avec raison d’être persécutée du fait de sa race, de sa religion, de sa nationalité, de son appartenance à un certain groupe social ou de ses opinions politique se trouvant hors du pays dont elle a la nationalité et qui ne peut, ou du fait de cette crainte, ne veut se réclamer de la protection de ce pays. » Le terme « IDP » (Internally Displaced Persons) désigne les populations en mouvement au sein même de leur pays. A la différence des « ré1 2 3

UNHCR Stat Al Za’Atari, Refugee Camp Shelter Assessment, June 2014, UNHCR. http://www.un.org/content/fr/_vidout/video1380.shtml

fugiés », les IDP ne traversent pas la frontière. Egalement reconnu sur un plan international selon les principes directeurs de l’Organisation des Nations Unies : « Les déplacés internes sont des personnes ou des groupes de personnes qui ont été forcés ou contraints de fuir ou de quitter leur foyer ou leur lieu de résidence habituel, notamment en raison d’un conflit armé, de situations de violence généralisée, de violations des droits de l’homme ou de catastrophes naturelles ou provoquées par l’homme ou pour en éviter les effets, et qui n’ont pas franchi les frontières internationalement reconnues d’un État»1 1 « Principes directeurs relatifs au déplacement de personnes à l’intérieur de leur propre pays », Haut Commissariat des Nations Unies pour les réfugiés (UNHCR),‎ février 1998

En 2014, Le nombre de réfugiés recensés est de 17 millions pour 33 millions d’IDP. Ces populations bénéficient autant que possible de support de la part d’un certain nombre d’acteurs. (local, international, gouvernemental ou humanitaire, public ou privé…) Le principal support aux populations déplacées est attribué à l’UNHCR, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (Haut-Commissariat des Nations Unies pour les Réfugiés). Cette organisme international est mandaté à la cause des réfugiés depuis 1950, afin d’assurer l’intégrité, le bien-être et la sauvegarde des droits de ces populations à travers le monde entier. Pour cela, elle se base sur différents Actes, Conventions, protocoles et notamment ceux de 1951 et 1967. Basé à Genève, il dispose de référents dans plus de 110 pays et d’un budget annuel de 6 milliards de Dollars, afin de répondre au mieux à trois points que sont la protection, l’assistance et l’anticipation aux populations déplacées.

PRINCIPAUX ACTEURS

FAO

Organismes et champs d’action

PRINCIPAUX ACTEURS

FAO

WFP

IDP CONFLITS DESASTRE NATUREL

GESTION CAMPS

IDP CONFLITS DESASTRE NATUREL

GESTION CAMPS

AGRICULUTURE

UNHCR

IOM

UNHCR

RELEVEMENT RAPIDE

EDUCATION

RELEVEMENT RAPIDE

IDP CONFLITS DESASTRE NATUREL

GESTION CAMPS

CHAMPS D’ACTION

AGRICULUTURE

CHAMPS D’ACTION

IOM

UNDP

IOM

EDUCATION

IDP CONFLITS DESASTRE NATUREL

UNDP

UNICEF

UNDP

IDP CONFLITS DESASTRE NATUREL

LOGISTIQUE

NUTRITION

UNICEF

SANTE

OCHA

SAVE THE CHILDREN

IFRC

NUTRITION

IFRC

WHO

IFRC

IDP C

NATURE, NO

PROT

NATURE, NO

PROT

OCHA

NUTRITION

EAU, SANITAIRE ET HYGIENE

LOGISTIQUE

NATURE, CONFLIT NON IDP

IDP CONFLITS

LOGISTIQUE

PROTECTION

SANTE

SAVE THE CHILDREN

TELECOMMUNICATION D’URGENCE

SAVE THE CHILDREN

LOGEMENT D’URGENCE

SANTE

TELECOMMUNICATION D’URGENCE

IDP CONFLITS DESASTRE NATUREL

LOGEMENT D’URGENCE

EDUCATION

Populations déplacées de 1989 à 2013, UNHCR Stat. 2013

2013

L’hébergement des populations déplacées 1.

Les situations d’urgence

Il existe différentes situations et différents contextes pour les déplacements de population. Ainsi les actions à apporter pour y répondre sont toutes aussi variées. Le premier critère est la situation elle-même. S’agit-il d’un conflit ou d’un sinistre. Ensuite il est important de déterminer le type de mouvement et le but. Les populations se dirigent-elles vers les aides humanitaires ou se déplacent-elles vers des systèmes annexes. Les mouvements sont-ils coordonnés, chaotiques, … L’ensemble de ces premières données va établir le type d’action et les acteurs.

Les modes d’installations

L’urgence se traduit le plus souvent par le déplacement de la population, un mouvement rapide et non organisé. On reconnait alors différentes manières d’appréhender le contexte par différentes réponses à celui-ci. Les situations varient selon les classes sociales, l’ampleur du problème, le type de crise, les cultures et les zones géographiques.

Type d’installation

Il existe quelques schémas courant de déplacement. On peut en énumérer certains : - Le changement de ville, pour les personnes ayant par exemple les moyens de payer des hôtels ou ayant déjà un autre logement.

- L’hébergement chez de la famille ou des amis.

- L’installation sauvage d’un camp de fortune, regroupé avec un certain nombre de personnes - L’installation dans les camps construits par les ONG, schéma qui est finalement le dernier recours.

Type d’infrastructure

A compter de l’instant où les déplacements de la population se font en groupe, ils mènent vers deux principaux types d’infrastructures : - « Les camps sauvages » : Il s’agit alors d’un groupe, d’une population donnée qui se rassemble et forme un campement. Ces camps posent un grand nombre de dangers. En effet, ils se forment de manière incontrôlée, souvent proche des conflits, ne respectant aucun code sécuritaire et exposant les populations aux conflits qu’elles fuient en faisant d’elles des cibles stratégiques. Ce type d’aménagement est le plus courant auprès de populations reculées et du fait que celles-ci tiennent à s’éloigner le moins possible de leur origines. - « Les camps de réfugiés » : Ceci sont des camps officiels, formés et supportés par des agences ou administrations compétentes en ce type d’infrastructure. On retrouve comme principal acteur dans le développement de camp de ce type, l’UNHCR. Ce sont alors des espaces clôturés, aménagés en service de soins et WASH (Water Sanitation and Hygiene promotion : Assainissement et promotion de l’hygiène de l’eau.). Ces espaces sont généralement sous un contrôle policier fort et régies par les organisations humanitaires. Souvent organisés à l’image d’une grille urbaine, ils ont pour but d’apporter les soins et la protection aux populations déplacées.

Camp de réfugiés Syriens Al Za’Atari, Jordanie, proche Mafrak, UNHCR, B. Sokol, 2013

Camp spontanĂŠ, Kosovo, proche Blace., UNHCR, H.J. Davies, Avril 1999

Type de construction

Les constructions qui se présentent dans ce type d’espaces dépendent là encore d’un grand nombre de facteurs. Cependant on relève quelques constructions récurrentes. Les infrastructures vernaculaires sont pour les camps sauvages, la seule solution mais peuvent également apparaitre dans les camps officiels lorsque le nombre d’arrivant excède ce qui a été anticipé par les organismes. Il s’agit de constructions locales, fondées sur une culture et des connaissances locales mais aussi par les capacités matérielles, économiques et énergétiques. L’habitation temporaire la plus courante reste cependant la tente. Logement de fortune apporté par les organismes humanitaires. Les tentes, bien que permettant une action rapide et étant les moins couteuses, sont des éléments à courte durée de vie (12 mois en moyenne). Au-delà de quelques semaines elles présentent déjà un important nombre de problèmes d’hygiène, de confort et de sécurité. Le développement de ces camps amène souvent de nouvelles structures. Plus résistantes, plus spacieuses et plus saines. Cependant, elles ne sont encore que très peu adaptées à la situation et peuvent parfois être particulièrement inadéquates voire exposer des risques de sécurité pour ses occupants. On relève dans ce type de structure : les Conteneurs, les caravanes, les Algeco et tout autre type de module de cette catégorie. Enfin deux types de constructions apparaissent et celles-ci conviennent beaucoup plus à la situation à laquelle elles sont consacrées : - Shelter : Construction temporaire ayant pour but de protéger et d’abriter. Ils sont souvent construits localement. Ils offrent ainsi une meilleure réponse aux besoins tout en restant des éléments temporaires et démontables. - Construction en dur : Ce type de construction a une valeur temporelle beaucoup plus assise. Il s’agit d’élément voué à rester. Leur établissement est le plus long mais leur capacité à répondre aux attentes du camp est nettement développée. Elles sont également les plus complexes à mettre en œuvre du fait qu’elles nécessitent connaissance, matériaux et matériels, énergie et une certaine assurance dans la condition du camp.

Tente UNHCR classique, John Ndiku/OCHA, Dadaab, Kenya

Tente UNHCR classique, UNHCR

Préfabriqué UNHCR, Kilis, Turquie, camp de réfugiés Syriens, Tobias Hutzler, NY Times, Fev. 13 2014

Abris en carton, Shigeru Ban, Kobé, Japon, 1995

Abris sac de sable, Nader Khalili, NASA

Abris en phase test, Ikea Foundation, Ethiopie, Jürgen Schrader, 2013

La sélection d’un site

La sélection du site de campement l’un des éléments primordial dans le bon développement de l’action humanitaire ou dans le simple fait de se déplacer dans le cas des camps sauvages. Un certain nombre de notions naissent de ces choix. Un camp spontané, c’est-à-dire un camp autonome, individuel, dispersé ou groupé fondé par les populations elles-mêmes, révèle par exemple la notion de zone de sécurité. Il s’agit de l’instant où les groupes de personnes en déplacement vont se considérer en sureté, assez éloignées du danger principal et vont donc choisir de s’installer. La notion de distance et d’éloignement entre également en considération pour le choix de ces camps particuliers. Souvent les installations individuelles dépendent en effet du fait que les populations tendent à vouloir rester le plus proche possible de leur provenance d’origine et vont donc choisir des lieux moins éloignés mais aussi parfois moins sécurisés jusqu’à l’arrivé des services humanitaires. Les camps organisés ont une toute autre manière d’appréhender la situation et ont des chartres à respecter dans un ordre précis. Il existe trois méthodes pour la sélection des sites de camps : La méthode organisationnelle, la méthode multicritères et la méthode dite SIG. (Système d’Information Géographique) Cette première forme de gestion d’établissement d’un camp est basé sur des supports de type guides comme celui rédigé par l’UNHCR, UNHCR Handbook for Emergency. 1 Celui-ci expose des étapes à suivre assez générales : - Se procurer : cartes et informations topographiques, géographiques, routières et relatant les occupations de sols et ressources. - Déterminer les caractéristiques de l’emplacement par des déplacements sur le terrain afin de le relever et de soulever tout point négatif à l’installation d’un camp. - Réaliser des estimations sommaires de la superficie par tous les moyens de mesure de distances, GPS, compteur kilométrique,… - Evaluer l’impact de différents types d’aménagements afin de conclure à celui qui est le plus approprié. Ce type d’organisation est repris par un certain nombre de publications sur ce sujet tel que Transitional shelter guidelines, IOM, ShelterCenter, Genève, 2012, dans lequel on retrouve : - Sécurité du site aux risques naturels ou humains (zone de conflit). - Zone appropriée pour le déplacement de population dans la culture, l’environnement et l’économie locale. - Offre la possibilité de subvenir de façon durable à ses propres besoins vitaux tel que l’eau. 1

UNHCR Handbook for Emergency, Third Edition, UNHCR, Genève, 2007

Est protégé d’un point de vue légal sur les questions d’occupation des sols.

La méthode d’analyse multicritères intègre un système de score aux critères du processus de sélection. Il s’agit plutôt d’un mode d’évaluation qui permet de comparer plus clairement différents sites répondants aux critères de base. Ainsi, la décision découle de la somme des points obtenue par tel ou tel site. Cette méthode est un véritable outil décisionnel et se compose de différents points qui sont :

- Identifier les objectifs

- Evaluer respectivement les catégories sociales, économiques et environnementales.

- Distinguer les types d’installation.

- Déterminer du site idéal en parallèle de site qui pourrait déjà être relevé.

- Confronter les sites aux critères techniques.

- Sélectionner un site.

- Planifier l’implantation.

- Dessiner le plan du camp à construire.

La dernière méthode, dite SIG, fait appel au principe de Photo-interprétation. Il s’agit de la collecte de données géographiques, photographiques et socio-économiques. L’analyse de ces données sur des plans macro et micro permet la comparaison rapide de différents sites et propose ainsi la réponse la plus pertinente à la démarche. 4.

La stratégie de développement d’un camp

Une fois la sélection du site effectué, c’est une organisation approfondie qui prend place afin de permettre un développement des plus durables au camp du fait qu’il se forme pour une durée toujours indéterminée. a)

Cartographie

Selon les méthodes de sélection du site, cette étape à déjà pu être réalisée. Elle est dans tous les cas une étape indispensable et peut se présenter par le biais de différents systèmes de cartographie. Rappelons qu’il s’agit principalement de systèmes de lecture spatiale. La cartographie peut alors se baser sur un système par critère/classification donnant une lecture abstraite du site mais la compréhension de celui de façon précise. Données météo, de distances, topographiques, géologiques, environnementales, économiques … ou encore militaires. (Ces dernières étant particulières et bien souvent intégrant une notion temporelle absente dans les autres critères mais due au fait qu’il prenne

en compte des mouvements de position et d’évènements divers.) D’autres systèmes sont notables et plus concrets. On notera par exemple les relevés cartographiques empiriques comme on a déjà peu les citer auparavant, par le biais de mesures et dessins de ces espaces. Ou encore celui qui aujourd’hui semble le plus évident qui est le relevé photographique de la zone et la mesure de celle-ci par satellite… afin de l’interpréter.

Th This bu d build Go e Gove he shelt upp supp n a initial No e Nove

Ana ys s w th Sate te Data Acqu red 15 November 2012 Analysis with Satellite Acquired 2012, 3 January 2013 2013, 26 February 2013 2013, and 4 May 2013

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Satellite Data (1): WorldView-1 Imagery Dates: 4 May 2013 Resolution: 50 cm Copyright: DigitalGlobe Source: European Space Imaging Satellite Data (2): WorldView-2 Imagery Dates: 26 February 2013 Resolution: 50 cm Copyright: DigitalGlobe Source: European Space Imaging Satellite Data (3): WorldView-2 Imagery Dates: 3 January 2013 Resolution: 50 cm Copyright: DigitalGlobe Source: European Space Imaging Satellite Data (4): WorldView-1 Imagery Dates: 15 November 2013 Resolution: 50 cm Copyright: DigitalGlobe Source: European Space Imaging Analysis : UNITAR / UNOSAT Production: UNITAR / UNOSAT Analysis conducted with ArcGIS v10.1 Coordinate System: WGS 1984 UTM Zone 37N Projection: Transverse Mercator Datum: WGS 1984 Units: Meter

W W EE SS TT BB AA N N KK

15 Novembe November 2012 She es 5 138 Shelters: 5,138 Adm n s a ve 499 Administrative: Hec a es 216 Hectares:

I SS RR AA EE LL

26 February 2013 2013, and 4 May 2013

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Co n tact ac In nfo on: unos or ma mat io 24 7 Ho ne 24/7 ot l in e: + 41 7 6 www u n i tar.o a org www.u g/ u

Planification

La planification du camp se doit d’être en association avec tous les acteurs, intervenants ou occupants ou occupés. Elle doit en effet permettre à chacun de participer et de se sentir concerné, afin d’éviter tous sentiment de rejet ou créer des troubles dans l’avenir du camp. L’implication de chacun dans la situation est un des éléments majeurs dans le bon développement de la communauté. Il est important de permettre à chacun d’avoir le sentiment d’être actif sur la situation et non passif. Principalement pour ce qui est des occupants pour permettre un climat psychologique viable et pour les pouvoirs occupés de conserver leurs droits et capacités décisionnelles. La planification se doit également de répondre aux attentes logistiques du site. C’est-à-dire, pour les questions d’accès à celui-ci, le positionnement des services WASH, l’organisation des îlots et espaces public ou commun ainsi que la sécurité du site. Dans ce cas il est impératif de considérer le contexte socio-culturel pour éviter toute méprise et ainsi impliquer des gênes sociales. c)

Topographie

Dans le cadre d’une analyse de site pour une occupation humaine temporaire, le critère topologique est le plus souvent classé sous l’appellation « pente ». Il prend en compte les points les plus importants à déterminer concernant la topographie. A savoir, le terrain lui-même, son relief, ce qui présente également des critères tel que l’inondabilité, le climat ou l’exposition. Il permet aussi définir l’état du terrain et ses risques éventuels. Comme pour le point suivant, il recoupe des éléments indispensables à la sécurité et la mise en place du camp. d)

Composition des sols et sous-sols

La composition géologique des sols est un critère à ne pas négliger dans le choix et le développement du site. Cette étude permet en effet de révéler les risques présents pour le camp. Ainsi que l’étude topographique ou encore cartographique, elle définit le site et en permet une lecture plus grande. Les principaux risques qu’elle tend à prévenir sont les risques d’inondation, d’érosion et de glissements de terrain. Mais aussi ceux tels que les tremblements de terre, les éruptions volcaniques… Dans cette analyse le point que l’on cherche principalement à dévoiler est la perméabilité ou non du sol. Dans le sens où un sol perméable permet une infiltration de l’eau, évitant ainsi les inondations et favorisant l’assainissement du camp.

Water Point

± ³

200

Meters 300

± ³ ³ ±

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WFP Vouchers Exchange Center

Mercy Corps Play Area

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6 K0

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Gendarmerie

± ³

Note: Data, designations and boundaries contained on this map are not warranted to be Syria Jordan error-free and do not Saudiimply acceptance by the Arabia Egypt REACH partners, associates or donors mentioned on this map.

± ³

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± ³

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Projection: 1984 UTMand Zoneboundaries 37N Note: Data,WGS designations contained on this map are not warranted to be File: REACH_JOR_Map_Zaatari_CCM_ error-free and do not imply acceptance EmergencyShelters_Feb2015_A1 by the REACH partners, associates or donors mentioned on this map. Contact: reach.mena@impact-initiatives.org

± ³

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Contact: Acquisition reach.mena@impact-initiatives.org Satellite Date: 11/11/2014 by Digitalglobe Provided by: UNOSAT

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3 4_

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± ³

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± ³

Projection: WGS 1984 UTM Zone 37N Data Source: File: REACH_JOR_Map_Zaatari_CCM_ Camp Facilities - REACH EmergencyShelters_Feb2015_A1 Emergency Shelters - UNHCR

± ³ ± ³

± ³

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Satellite Acquisition Date: 11/11/2014 by Digitalglobe Provided by: UNOSAT

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Occupation des sols

Ce chapitre a trait à tous ce qui relève de l’occupation humaine. Il couvre une vision territoriale afin de déterminer les dimensions nécessaires au camp et les droits légaux de celui-ci. Il est en effet de la responsabilité des gérances en place d’assurer la qualité des réfugiés comme ayant droits à la zone occupée via les organismes humanitaires. Cette partie se constitue autours de critères tels que :

- La densité de la population locale

- L’espace minimum requis

- L’espace attribuable à d’éventuelles extensions

- L’utilisation locale de ces espaces

- Proximité avec d’autres camps

- Espaces pouvant être octroyés à l’agriculture.

- Estimation d’une durée de l’installation

Les questions légales présentes dans cette catégorie sont principalement des droits fonciers, et d’usage des ressources du site. Il faut ici établir la situation de manière claire et précise afin d’éviter tout conflit, sachant qu’il est tout à fait exclu que l’organisme en charge du site, loue ou achète les terres.1 5.

Temporalité

La notion de temps est fortement présente autour de la question humanitaire. Elle est en premier lieu, liée à la réponse à la situation. En effet, les organisations humanitaires disposent de 72 heures pour agir sur les lieux d’un sinistre ou d’une crise. Dans les contextes d’urgence humanitaire c’est une véritable course contre la montre et la réactivité est primordiale. C’est également dans cette optique que l’UNHCR par exemple se tient toujours prêt à agir et anticipe les nécessités en ayant en permanence des stocks de logement afin de répondre au plus vite à ces urgences.2 Les autres notions qui apparaissent sont plus paradoxales et jouent sur cette notion de temps de façon plus abstraite. La situation elle-même tient du contre-sens. Il s’agit d’une période courte et temporaire le temps aux populations de pouvoir retourner chez elles. Pourtant, l’intervention est toujours indéterminée dans le temps et bien qu’elle soit éphémère, elle peut s’étaler sur des durées particulièrement longues d’une moyenne de 12 ans et parfois même plus de 60 ans comme les camps de Palestine établis après la guerre Israélo-Arabe de 1948-1949.3 1 The problem of access to land and ownership in repartition operations, inspection and evaluation service, may 1998, UNHCR. 2 Relations extérieures, UNHCR, entretiens avec J. Navier, 14 avril 2015. 3 UNRWA

Cette dernière remarque interroge évidemment la question du sol et de son occupation ainsi que celle de l’économie et de l’environnement. Ces éléments intègrent plus ou moins bien ce genre de situation pour de courtes durées. Cependant, à plus long terme et étant donné l’ampleur des déplacements, comme on a pu le constater plus tôt, il devient parfois problématique de répondre aux besoins des réfugiés tout en conservant l’intégrité de ces éléments. C’est sur ces points précis que les agences s’efforcent de travailler en plus de la situation même des réfugiés. Elles repensent et questionnent donc leurs actions en permanence à travers des collectes de données et l’usage du concept de gestion anglo-saxon, le « Best practice » dont on trouve l’équivalent en France et qui cherche à améliorer les techniques de réponse. Ces points ne sont pas les seuls à être mis à l’épreuve par la durée. Il est effectivement du ressort du UNHCR d’assurer la protection des réfugiés, mais pas seulement physique. La personne elle-même est éprouvée par le temps passé dans un camp. A travers l’expérience de plus de 50 ans dans ce type de situation et par les retours apportés grâce aux best practice, l’UNHCR aujourd’hui porte également un point d’honneur au développement de l’esprit de communauté au sein des camps ainsi qu’à l’amélioration de la qualité de vie. Ces sujets ne sont pas détachés de la question du logement et peuvent, sur certains thèmes, être centraux.

Camp de réfugiés Palestiniens, 1948, UNRWA

Camp de réfugiés Palestiniens de Shuafat, UNRWA, 2011

Le développement anthropologique d’un camp de réfugié 1.

L’installation et la dynamique du camp

L’installation est le moment où sont appliquées les différentes études de terrain qui ont pu être faites auparavant et mettre en pratique les programmes érigés ainsi que les plans dessinés. L’élément clef de cette phase est de s’assurer que les populations affectées reçoivent les réponses les plus appropriées à leur besoins. Il est important dès l’installation d’anticiper les risques que l’implantation ne soit pas à court terme, bien qu’il soit commun de viser les courtes échéances. C’est également l’opportunité de premiers contacts pratiques avec ces populations. L’aménagement du camp est alors clairement coordonné, avec la mise en place de groupe de définit avec des tâches définit précises. La mise en place de ces entités prend soin d’englober tous les acteurs et usagers de la situation et de leur donner à chacun un pouvoir d’action sur le développement de cet environnement. L’ensemble se déroule assez vite par la suite. Les chargés de camp, travail donc à répartir les tâches mais aussi à l’approvisionnement du site en matériels et matériaux, à déterminer chez qui et où s’approvisionner et si le site nécessite l’action de tierce pour son aménagement. La rapidité d’action qu’implique l’installation d’un camp est à double tranchant. Elle implique des risques sur la qualité de son implantation, les choix effectué sur la situation de la zone de développement, la qualité des matériaux ou de la sous-traitance… Mais elle permet également de créer une dynamique dans son développement à travers l’intégration des réfugiés au processus. A mesure que ces populations arrivent, le camp évolue, donc intègre les futurs usagers immédiatement dans le processus de mise en place de leur environnement.

Autre logement

Hotel et location

Crise

population reste sur place

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Famille

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Camp

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IOM Régionale

Agence de gestion

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Représen tants des résidents

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Comité de femmes Autres comités Comité de jeunes

Coordination d’un camp

Comité WASH

Officiels du gouvernement local

Représentants de la communauté hote

Le développement de communauté 1

Le réfugié est au centre de toutes les étapes et préoccupations, la mise en place du camp est donc une phase importante. C’est le moyen de lui permettre de développer un sens de communauté au sein de celui-ci, ce qui a un impact positif sur la santé, le bien-être et la sureté générale du camp et attribue un cadre bénéfique et de respect au personnel des organisations. L’implication des populations dans la construction du camp ou du logement implique alors pour eux le sentiment d’être actif sur la situation, de reprendre une position d’autorité sur leur vie et d’être supporté. Un support plus fort que celui que peuvent apporter les organisations humanitaires dans le sens où il est partagé par une communauté. C‘est une notion importante pour des populations déjà vulnérables, ayant été sujette, suite à des conflits ou sinistres à des privations et violations de leurs droits et repères. La participation étant un droit inscrit dans la déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme, il semble évident d’y apporter une attention particulière.2 A ce développement on retrouve donc des points clefs comme : - Le fait de s’assurer que tous les groupes peuvent participer au développement, même les groupes marginalisés, nécessitant des soins spécifiques ou encore les personnes ne participant pas aux prises de décision. - Les approches participatives doivent respecter les cultures locales. (la participation et la place de chacun n’est pas automatique ou la même dans toute les cultures) - La planification de la participation de chacun, l’engagement communautaire pouvant apparaitre sous de nombreuses formes. La participation et l’engagement sont fondamentaux pour le développement et le renforcement d’une communauté. Ils permettent d’établir une dynamique sociale à un groupe donné et d’y apporter une force, d’autant plus quand ceux-ci peuvent affecter directement les modes de vies. Les risques d’une mauvaise communauté au sein du camp peuvent engendrer des malaises entre les membres de la communauté, des frustrations importantes sur l’ensemble du groupe et avoir des répercussions bien pire pour le camp lui-même. La formation d’une communauté et la participation au développement du camp confère un sentiment de responsabilité aux usagers et permet ainsi de sécuriser les activités, les populations plus vulnérables, le camp mais également les structures. 3.

Naissance d’un nouvel urbanisme

Il va de soi que le développement d’un camp de l’envergure des camps de réfugié et la communauté qui s’y crée tendent à dessiner des motifs urbains. 1 NRC, projet de gestion de camp, 2008 2 Art. 27(1) Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme : « toute personne a le droit de prendre part librement à la vie culturelle de la communauté, de jouir des arts et de participer au progrès scientifique et aux bienfaits qui en résultent. »

Selon une définition énoncée par Michel AGIER, ethnologue et anthropologue français réputé pour un travail ciblé autours de la question des populations exilé, le camp de réfugié est un ensemble d’habitations temporaires érigés afin d’accueillir un nombre important de personnes démunie de tous en un très court lapse de temps. Il s’agit d’espaces enclavés aux accès réglementés. Etablit dans un contexte incertain, ils sont prévus pour être provisoires, ils demeurent pourtant et deviennent parfois de véritables villes. En premier lieux établit sur des schémas urbains de gestion/militaire par des motifs de grilles, ils se développent très vite au-delà du simple camp. Dans le meilleur des cas, leur développement reste contenu et organisé suivant alors des schémas de gestion, sécuritaire et l’épanouissement d’une communauté. On remarque rapidement, l’installation d’espaces communs ou publics, d’organisation d’îlots et d’aménagement des logements. Une appropriation du site se fait par les usagers. Un paysage urbain commence alors à apparaitre au-delà de ce qu’un plan permet de lire. Cependant, les conditions du contexte transforment très rapidement cette urbanité. La position d’entre deux issus d’un camp qui n’est ni une ville, ni un espace véritablement temporaire du fait de la durée de son établissement en font un monde complexe, inachevé et au développement incertain. Les camps sont des formes de villes, ils tendent et cherchent d’ailleurs à s’en approcher mais leur situation ambiguë les limites ainsi que les systèmes de gestion propres aux camps de réfugiés. Au sein du site, les populations se développent, construisent, établissent des commerces, … Alors construit et établit comme espace de refuge de courte durée mais qui finalement s’étendent sur plusieurs années voir décennies, l’évolution d’un camp en ville est une suite logique. Pourtant le problème auquel doivent faire face les agences humanitaires est lié à cette « ville en devenir »1 qui pour sa sécurité est clôturée, empêchant ainsi une ville au profit d’un ghetto. Terme que l’on définirait ici comme étant « un milieu renfermé sur lui-même, condition marginale dans laquelle vit une population ou un groupe.2 1 2

Michel Agier, Gérer les indésirables, Flammarion, paris, 2008. Ghetto, Larousse, 2015

Et après? La fermeture d’un camp ou délocalisation ou installation. 1

NRC.

Qu’est-ce que la fermeture d’un camp ? Sous quelles conditions est-il amené à disparaitre ou changer de situation ? Cette phase est très complexe et peut être liée à de multiples paramètres :

- Fermeture planifié

- Mouvement de retour de la part de la population

- Appuis des donateurs décroissants

- Fermeture soudaine due à des menaces de sécurité

- Contraintes gouvernementale

C’est pourquoi la fermeture doit être anticipée le plus tôt possible afin d’avoir lieu dans les meilleurs conditions et offrir aux réfugiés la possibilité de soi :

- Retourner dans leur région d’origine

- Intégrer la région de déplacement

- Installation dans une tierce partie.

Un dernier cas de figure est envisageable, celui où le camp reste mais change de statut et s’intègre alors comme ville ou communauté viable. Comme pour l’installation, l’ouverture des communications et l’intégration de tous les acteurs au processus est indispensable. Il est important d’établir des solutions durables pour chacun, c’est-à-dire quand la personne n’est plus considérée en déplacement. A noter que le droit international interdit toute pression sur les réfugiés ou renvois forcés. Chaque retour doit être volontaire et éclairé, d’où la nécessité de communication au sein du camp. En ce qui concerne les agences, ce processus est une décision complexe et fondé sur une étude approfondie de la situation. Il existe pour cela un certain nombre d’indicateurs de faisabilité :

- Des solutions durables ont été trouvées pour la population affectée.

- La protection de la population du camp ne nécessite plus la présence d’une organisation

- Un retour dans le pays d’origine est désormais envisageable

- Les résidents rejettent les solutions de l’organisation et pour des causes économiques ou éthiques, l’agence doit arrêter

- Il existe un risque de sécurité pour les membres de l’organi sation - La présence d’agence créer plus de risques que le risque d’origine

- L’accès aux populations est très difficile ou impossible

- Une autre solution d’installation temporaire doit être étudiée

La fermeture du camp est une phase qui doit être planifiée dès l’installation du camp et notamment au sujet des accords administratifs et les contextes politiques. Mais également auprès des populations, en communicant clairement à l’ouverture, qu’il s’agit de solutions temporaires. La population doit être consciente de cela et être active sur la recherche de solutions futures.

D’un point de vue environnemental, la fermeture d’un camp a également des répercussions importantes. Il va en effet causer un grand nombre de déchets, matériaux de construction d’abris, biens abimés ou abandonnés, produits chimiques… devant être pris en charge avant le retrait des organisations. L’occupation elle-même peut endommager l’environnement et ces risques doivent être endigués dès le début en collaboration avec les autorités locale, afin d’établir un schéma durable. A l’inverse, certain changements apporté par le camp peuvent s’avérer bénéfique et profiter localement après la fermeture.

Les camps demain. La question du futur des camps n’est probablement pas, aujourd’hui tourner vers une disparition de ceux-ci. Il est en effet très peu concevable de les voir disparaitre tant que les conflits ou les crises en tout genre existent. Il est cependant plus raisonnable de penser aux moyens de limiter leur ampleur. Dans cette optique, le véritable champ d’action serait de travailler sur la notion de droit d’asile et de repenser celle-ci afin de favoriser les déplacements. On note en effet, une fermeture quasi systématique des frontières des pays européens depuis la fin des années 1990. Ceci force donc les migrants à se regrouper aux abords de l’Europe dans des camps plus ou moins officiels, coincé entre leur pays d’origine qu’ils fuient et le pays où ils venaient chercher sécurité, qui leur ferme ses portes.

III.

Les besoins d’une structure

Dans le cadre d’actions humanitaires le logement et sa structure ne sont pas soumis aux mêmes conditions que ce dont on a l’habitude. Ils requièrent en effet une très grande versatilité, une endurance très importante et pour des coûts minimes. La partie suivante tend donc à développer quelques uns de ces critères.

Adaptibilité culturelle Le réfugié étant au centre de toutes les préoccupations dans ce type de situation, il semble logique de s’attarder sur l’aspect culturel et d’adaptibilité. Le but dans la conception d’abris est d’apporter une protection aux personnes nécessitantes mais le contexte particulier d’un camp de réfugiés implique non pas de seulement apporter une protection contre les éléments mais aussi contre l’environnement, le traumatisme et le temps en répondant à des attentes de l’ordre de la culture. La question temporelle est effectivement celle qui affecte le plus la question des réfugiés concernant la qualité de réponse aux besoins que leur offrent leurs abris. Sachant maintenant que l’arrivé dans un camp expose à un départ de celui-ci des plus incertain, compris dans une durée de 3 mois à plusieurs décennies. Ce point implique donc que les personnes qui entrent dans un camp doivent pouvoir reprendre une vie comme elles l’entendent. C’est-à-dire, que malgré le traumatisme et le déplacement au caractère plus ou moins temporaire, il doit leur être offert la possibilité de vivre dans le respect de leurs traditions et coutumes. Ainsi, si la culture dont ils proviennent influence le mode de vie ou le logement, l’abri doit leur permettre d’adapter leurs espaces personnels. Cela peut se traduire par la possibilité d’occultation ou ouverture d’espace et de vue, la séparation des membres et des sexes, une certaine qualité de vie lié à la ventilation et ou une capacité d’organiser ou modifier l’espace ou assemblage entre différentes unités. Les logiques de l’habiter sont en effet différentes d’une culture à l’autre, d’une société à l’autre et au sein même des familles. Il est important de pouvoir offrir aux usagers la possibilité de donner du sens, une symbolique à leur logement. Cela peut se retrouver dans la possibilité d’identifier celui ci, de se constituer des seuils, des espaces intermédiaires... Le marquage de l’espace dans chaque culture soutiens une importante symbolique et il est alors nécessaire de pouvoir le retranscrire dans toutes les conditions et notamment à travers une structure neutre mais adaptable pour permettre cette appropriation.

Economie Autre critère déterminant dans la conception d’un projet d’abri, l’économie de celui-ci peut établir ou non son usage. On sait que l’action humanitaire est une intervention rapide et de masse. En 72 heures, les organisations doivent être établies sur site

avec hommes et bagages, offrant déjà les protections vitales aux réfugiés. Dans les protections apportées on retrouve bien sur les abris, des milliers, arrivés par avion, par bateau ou par camion. Les organisations visent alors à avoir des abris qui sont les moins couteux possible afin d’être en mesure d’en offrir le plus grand nombre et le plus vite possible. Aujourd’hui, l’abri d’urgence est la tente de type UNHCR, d’une valeur unitaire de 400$. Le principe d’anticipation adopté par le UNHCR créer des stocks dans trois centres : Dubaï, Copenhague et Durban, chacun devant pouvoir offrir une réponse instantané pour loger 250 000 personnes, soit 50 000 tentes.1 1

UNHCR

Transportabilité Les principes de l’aide humanitaire implique des interventions variées, imprévues et sur des multitudes de site possibles. Il semble donc fondamental d’aborder la notion de transportabilité. Le déplacement des unités de vie proposer par les organismes est obligatoire et sous différentes formes. En bateau ou en avion, en camion ou en pick-up… Les transports varient selon les situations, l’urgence requise et l’accès. Le bateau étant, autant que possible privilégié à l’avion. Cependant, la compactibilité de l’unité afin de favoriser le transport en nombre n’est pas l’unique critère pour cette question. En effet, la situation implique souvent des sites difficiles d’accès, sans énergie ou support mécanique. Il est alors indispensable que ces logements apporté et mis à disposition par les services humanitaires, soient en mesure d’être déplacés et montés sans aucune aide mécanique… Il est également important de considérer que ce sont les populations ellesmêmes qui seront souvent amenés à réaliser l’installation du logement, des personnes fatigués et parfois avec des problèmes de santé. Il faut donc dans le cas de l’urgence ou de logement à installation rapide, indispensable que la proposition soit légère et mobile afin d’être une solution viable et non pas un ensemble de boîtes inutilisées.

Durabilité: temporelle et environnementale.

A mesure des recherches, entretiens et études que j’ai pu effectuer, la notion de temporalité est fréquemment revenue et toujours avec la même conclusion. « La durée est toujours plus longue que prévu »1, « pensez une durée d’usage pour le logement, ensuite doublez la, triplez la… »2, « La durée d’usage est toujours trop longue pour les structures ! »3… Il est évident à travers ces différents témoignages que les projets proposé sont plus temporaire que la situation elle-même et qu’il est donc important de travailler cette notion. L’étude de cette temporalité ne se résume pas juste à renforcer les structures pour améliorer leur résistance au temps. Ceci est évidement partie prenante du raisonnement, mais bien au-delà de cette question technique la question de durabilité doit intégrer les modes de vies, l’environnement, les risques liés aux usages et donc l’exposition au temps qui fatigue l’habitation. La durabilité du concept peut alors être traduite aux travers de ses capacités à être transformé et adapté. Ceci évitant alors que les usagers ne détériorent l’espace en essayant de le lier à leur culture. Il peut également être imaginé de rendre possible le remplacement de composants structurels, de façades… Ces points sont les plus courants dans l’altération du logement et sont donc désormais entrés comme critères non négligeables pour les nouveaux projets. La durabilité et par conséquent la viabilité du logement à travers ses qualités prennent une dimension humaine majeure dans le sens où ils répondent de la dignité des réfugiés. 1 2 3

UNHCR, Entretiens J. Navier, Représentant relation extérieures, paris, 14/04/15 UN-Habitat, Ch. Lalande, Leader housing units, échange mail. Ikea Foundation, D. Kanter, Ikea foundation-Design manager-RHU, échange mail.

Impacts sur l’environnement Comme il a pu être brièvement abordé auparavant, la mise en place d’an camp de réfugiés impact son environnement. L’installation d’un camp de réfugiés, par le principe même d’intégrer en un court lapse de temps un grand nombre de personnes, dans un environnement non préparé impacte celui-ci. Il va de soi que les abris et les constructions jouent un rôle dans cette pollution. On dénombre facilement les différents impacts qu’ils peuvent avoir. Tous d’abord, le transport de ceux-ci sur le site va engendrer de la pollution mais aussi des destructions sur le site. Les atteintes au site qui s’aggravent avec l’installation de ces logements qui selon les cas nécessitent des fondations, un nivelage du terrain ou des aménagements plus importants. Ensuite, sur la durée de l’usage de ce logement, sa conception va impliquer ou non des dépenses d’énergie supplémentaire. Ainsi un espace bien ventilé, bien éclairé, avec une isolation suffisante pour le cadre de son utilisation, ou encore l’exposition de ses éléments de conception aux intempéries ou non vont forcément être à prendre en considération. Les matériaux utilisés sont également à observer, leur besoins d’énergie pour leur fabrication est important mais il est indispensable d’être attentif à ce qu’ils soient appropriés au contexte afin de ne pas nécessiter des remplacement trop fréquents ou bien des transports sur de longs trajets du fait qu’ils soient importés, ce qui en plus de l’environnement, augmente les conditions économiques. L’objectif étant toujours de favoriser au maximum l’usage ou la production locale de matériaux et technique de construction de ces abris. Ce type d’investissement étant toujours une meilleure solution sur le long terme.1 1

Ikea Foundation, D. Kanter, Ikea Foundation-Design manager RHU, échange mail.

IV.

Objectifs et conclusion

Objectifs L’ action des organismes humanitaires, œuvre à offrir un meilleur cadre de vie, une plus grande sécurité et la perspective d’un futur aux personnes réfugiées. Leur mission dans le cadre du logement est de promouvoir des solutions, des économies, un développement durable, tout en prenant soin de l’environnement d’accueil. Dans ce cadre, les critères abordés auparavant, sont les principaux secteurs de recherche et d’étude sur lesquels les organisations développent leurs solutions. Les objectifs sont d’apporter des réponses durables sur un point de vue, économique, environnemental et temporel. Ainsi sans jamais s’éloigner de l’élément central qu’est la personne. Les études visent avant tout à être protectrices, efficaces et capables de répondre à des besoins culturels et communautaires, offrant ainsi une dignité minimum au cadre de vie des populations réfugiées.

Une intention Ces crises qui mènent des milliers de personnes à se déplacer pour finalement se regrouper dans les camps de réfugiés où la sécurité, le soin et le confort minimal sont généralement présent. Ils sont alors des milliers à vivre dans des abris « temporaire », des tentes ou autres abris construits. Comme on a pu le constater auparavant, il existe aujourd’hui un grand nombre d’étude et de recherche autour de ces situations et les abris afin d’offrir les réponses les plus adéquates. Ils doivent alors répondre à d’importants critères et être durables.

Au travers d’un grand nombre de recherches, l’étude approfondie du contexte humanitaire et la prise de contact auprès d’acteurs majeurs de cette scène, le projet développé pour le diplôme s’est concentré sur l’apport d’une recherche dans cette voie et éventuellement les prémisses d’une solution. Suivant différentes études puis hypothèses, la recherche s’est vite orientée sur le pli.

Le pliable Le contexte du logement humanitaire et ses besoins techniques ont conduit assez vite à la notion de pli et les bénéfices qu’elle apporte. Le pli, issu de l’origami, qui est un art populaire originaire de chine probablement entre -202/-9 Av. JC. Il s’est développé durant le VIe siècle en chine pour ensuite être importé au Japon où il gagnera toute sa popularité. Cette technique de pli s’est, plus récemment, particulièrement répandue au sein du design et de l’industrie aéronautique où elle offre des possibilités de résistance et de compactibilité importante. Mais aujourd’hui les systèmes pliables/dépliables sont visibles dans pratiquement tous les domaines et notamment en architecture où depuis le siècle dernier les architectes ont réalisé un grand nombre d’études sur le sujet. On notera notamment l’ouvrage Le pli de J.M. Delarue ou encore les études réalisées par R. Buckminster Fuller et Kenneth Snelson ainsi que D. Georges Emmerich autour du principe de la « tenségrité ». La tenségrité (dénomination inventée par B.Fuller, qui est en réalité la contraction des mots tensile et integrity caractérisant ainsi le système par ses qualités principales.) est une structure composée essentiellement de deux éléments : barre et câble. La structure est auto stable et travaille par autocontrainte. Les barres y sont discontinues et les câbles eux forment un graphe continu, conférant au système une grande stabilité une fois déployé. Ce principe n’est cependant pas le seul issu du pliage qui soit appliqué en architecture. En quoi la notion de pli est-elle intéressante en architecture ? Comment le pli pourrait être une réponse viable pour la condition des réfugiés ? Les systèmes pliables ne sont pas des solutions récentes. On peut effectivement noter un grand nombre de structures dans l’histoire qui utilisaient ce type de systèmes. Ils se sont en fait très vite avérés avantageux. Les qualités offertes par les structures rétractables sont nombreuses.

La plus évidente étant le changement d’état qui en fait un composant très compact alors que sa fonction définitive, lorsque le système a été déployé offre au contraire des dimensions spatiales généreuses. Ils permettent alors un stockage minimum pour une surface maximum. En raison de leur transformabilité, ils se sont très vite démocratisés auprès des populations nomades puis plus récemment dans le secteur de la construction temporaire et de l’industrie. Ils ont en effet, des caractéristiques s’accordant parfaitement avec ce type de besoins. Compacts en position replié, ils sont facilement transportables. Le système est généralement allégé, permettant une fois encore des déplacements plus aisés. Leur mise en œuvre est généralement rapide et l’ensemble est réutilisable. Ces critères faisant partie intégrantes des systèmes pliables/dépliables, l’étude de ceux-ci dans le cadre de l’action humanitaire semble être parfaitement justifié.

Edison Price, Shoji Sadao, Buckminster Fuller avec élément de tenségrité pour le MoMA , 1959. Courtesy of Fuller and Sadao PC

Projet, objectifs et conclusion

Inspiré par un voyage et l’expérience de la mobilité dans un « module de vie » restreint, j’ai choisi d’étudier la mobilité en architecture. Par mobilité j’entends l’étude de structures aptes à être déplacées à plusieurs reprises. Cette étude est vraiment tirée de mon expérience, durant laquelle je m’imaginais à l’image de certains Cartoons, pouvoir arrêter de rouler pour sortir « une maison » comme l’on déploierait une tente instantanée, et ainsi transposer un « chez soi » ou bon me semble. Les études réalisées par la suite m’ont guidé vers un domaine qui m’était alors inconnu, me dévoilant des problématiques où l’idée évoquée d’établir un chez soi, partout où la structure serait dépliée, prendrait tout son sens. M’imprégnant de plus en plus de ce domaine qu’est l’humanitaire, j’ai pris conscience du besoin de travailler sur l’apport de réponse pour les populations déplacées. Les besoins auxquels elles sont exposés voire même les dangers que la perte de repères stables peut établir. Une perte initiée par le traumatisme de la situation et le déplacement qui a suivi celle-ci, mais surtout le fait de s’installer dans un mode de vie qui n’est pas le sien. Un mode de vie qui est incertain voir parfois très peu prometteur, et ce pour une période temporaire qui ne l’ai pas tant que ça. Cette temporalité est pour moi l’élément fondateur de cette étude. Au-delà d’un toit pour se protéger, elle est le véritable objet du besoin. L’état des lieux effectué afin de comprendre ce domaine m’a permis de

confronter les différentes réponse aujourd’hui proposer dans l’habitation temporaire des camps de réfugiés. A travers ces observations, j’ai développé l’intime conviction que les solutions actuelles, bien qu’offrant des réponses aux besoins de première nécessité, ne présentent pas assez de flexibilité et peuvent finalement s’avérer très peu efficace sur de longs termes. Leur manque d’adaptabilité étant souvent le point faible de ces logements, menant les usagers à faire des transformations hasardeuses, voir dangereuses sur de plus longs termes et impliquant alors des risques de dignité à travers des logements insalubres. Le dessin d’une liste de critères minimums requis pour offrir des logements viables et durables, établis selon la confrontation des solutions actuelles et des besoins des réfugiés, a dirigé le projet de ce diplôme vers l’étude du pli et de structure rétractables. Les structures pliables offrant des possibilités proches des besoins auxquels il faut répondre pour ce contexte, sont alors apparues très pertinentes. Le projet final se fonde alors sur une logique de structure pliable afin de pouvoir proposer ou guider des réflexions nouvelles pour la situation

des réfugiés. Il sera notamment attentif à interroger l’adaptabilité permise par son système. Ce dernier point étant, me semble-t-il, presque aussi important que le besoin d’un toit pour se protéger à partir du moment où cette situation, bien qu’ambiguëe, ne projette plus le réfugié dans un climat de déplacement temporaire mais plutôt d’installation à long terme.

Annexes

Chartre des Nations Unies Chapitre I

NOTE LIMINAIRE La Charte des Nations Unies a été signée à San Francisco le 26 juin 1945, à la fin de la Conférence des Nations Unies pour l’Organisation internationale, et est entrée en vigueur le 24 octobre 1945. Le Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice fait partie intégrante de la Charte. Des amendements aux articles 23, 27 et 61 de la Charte ont été adoptés par l’Assemblée générale le 17 décembre 1963 et sont entrés en vigueur le 31 août 1965. Un autre amendement à l’article 61 a été adopté par l’Assemblée générale le 20 décembre 1971 et est entré en vigueur le 24 septembre 1973. Un amendement à l’article 109, adopté par l’Assemblée générale le 20 décembre 1965, est entré en vigueur le 12 juin 1968. L’amendement à l’article 23 porte de onze à quinze le nombre des membres du Conseil de sécurité. L’amendement à l’article 27 dispose que les décisions du Conseil de sécurité sur des questions de procédure sont prises par un vote affirmatif de neuf membres (précédemment sept) et que ses décisions sur toutes autres questions sont prises par un vote affirmatif de neuf de ses membres (précédemment sept) dans lequel sont comprises les voix des cinq membres permanents du Conseil. L’amendement à l’article 61, qui est entré en vigueur le 31 août 1965, portait de dix-huit à vingt-sept le nombre des membres du Conseil économique et social. L’amendement suivant à cet article, qui est entré en vigueur le 24 septembre 1973, a porté de vingt-sept à cinquante-quatre le nombre des membres du Conseil. L’amendement à l’article 109, qui concerne le paragraphe 1 de cet article, dispose qu’une conférence générale des Membres des Nations Unies, aux fins d’une révision de la Charte, pourra être réunie aux lieu et date qui seront fixés par un vote de l’Assemblée générale à la majorité des deux tiers et par un vote de neuf (précédemment sept) quelconques des membres du Conseil de sécurité. Le paragraphe 3 de l’Article 109, aux termes duquel l’Assemblée générale devait, à sa dixième session ordinaire, examiner la question de la convocation d’une conférence de révision de la Charte, a été maintenu sous sa forme originale, bien qu’il dispose « par un vote de sept quelconques des membres du Conseil de sécurité

», l’Assemblée et le Conseil de sécurité ayant donné suite à ce paragraphe à la dixième session ordinaire de l’Assemblée, en 1955. PRÉAMBULE NOUS, PEUPLES DES NATIONS UNIES, RÉSOLUS • à préserver les générations futures du fléau de la guerre qui deux fois en l’espace d’une vie humaine a infligé à l’humanité d’indicibles souffrances, • à proclamer à nouveau notre foi dans les droits fondamentaux de l’homme, dans la dignité et la valeur de la personne humaine, dans l’égalité de droits des hommes et des femmes, ainsi que des nations, grandes et petites, • à créer les conditions nécessaires au maintien de la justice et du respect des obligations nées des traités et autres sources du droit international, • à favoriser le progrès social et instaurer de meilleures conditions de vie dans une liberté plus grande, ET À CES FINS • à pratiquer la tolérance, à vivre en paix l’un avec l’autre dans un esprit de bon voisinage, • à unir nos forces pour maintenir la paix et la sécurité internationales, • à accepter des principes et instituer des méthodes garantissant qu’il ne sera pas fait usage de la force des armes, sauf dans l’intérêt commun, • à recourir aux institutions internationales pour favoriser le progrès économique et social de tous les peuples, AVONS DÉCIDÉ D’ASSOCIER NOS EFFORTS POUR RÉALISER CES DESSEINS • En conséquence, nos gouvernements respectifs, par l’intermédiaire de leurs représentants, réunis en la ville de San Francisco, et munis de pleins pouvoirs reconnus en bonne et due forme, ont adopté la présente Charte des Nations Unies et établissent par les présentes une organisation internationale qui prendra le nom de Nations Unies.

CHAPITRE I : BUTS ET PRINCIPES Article 1 Les buts des Nations Unies sont les suivants : 1. Maintenir la paix et la sécurité internationales et à cette fin : prendre des mesures collectives efficaces en vue de prévenir et d’écarter les menaces à la paix et de réprimer tout acte d’agression ou autre rupture de la paix, et réaliser, par des moyens pacifiques, conformément aux principes de la justice et du droit international, l’ajustement ou le règlement de différends ou de situations, de caractère international, susceptibles de mener à une rupture de la paix; 2. Développer entre les nations des relations amicales fondées sur le respect du principe de l’égalité de droits des peuples et de leur droit à disposer d’eux-mêmes, et prendre toutes autres mesures propres à consolider la paix du monde; 3. Réaliser la coopération internationale en résolvant les problèmes internationaux d’ordre économique, social, intellectuel ou humanitaire, en développant et en encourageant le respect des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales pour tous, sans distinctions de race, de sexe, de langue ou de religion; 4. Etre un centre où s’harmonisent les efforts des nations vers ces fins communes. Article 2 L’Organisation des Nations Unies et ses Membres, dans la poursuite des buts énoncés à l’Article 1, doivent agir conformément aux principes suivants : 1. L’Organisation est fondée sur le principe de l’égalité souveraine de tous ses Membres. 2. Les Membres de l’Organisation, afin d’assurer à tous la jouissance des droits et avantages résultant de leur qualité de Membre, doivent remplir de bonne foi les obligations qu’ils ont assumées aux termes de la présente Charte. 3. Les Membres de l’Organisation règlent leurs différends internationaux par des moyens pacifiques, de telle manière que la paix et la sécurité internationales ainsi que la justice ne soient pas mises en danger. 4. Les Membres de l’Organisation s’abstiennent, dans leurs relations internationales, de recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi de la force, soit contre l’intégrité territoriale ou l’indépendance politique de tout Etat, soit de toute autre manière incompatible avec les buts des Nations Unies. 5. Les Membres de l’Organisation donnent à celle-ci pleine assistance dans toute action entreprise par elle conformément aux dispositions de la présente Charte et

s’abstiennent de prêter assistance à un Etat contre lequel l’Organisation entreprend une action préventive ou coercitive. 6. L’Organisation fait en sorte que les Etats qui ne sont pas Membres des Nations Unies agissent conformément à ces principes dans la mesure nécessaire au maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales. 7. Aucune disposition de la présente Charte n’autorise les Nations Unies à intervenir dans des affaires qui relèvent essentiellement de la compétence nationale d’un Etat ni n’oblige les Membres à soumettre des affaires de ce genre à une procédure de règlement aux termes de la présente Charte; toutefois, ce principe ne porte en rien atteinte à l’application des mesures de coercition prévues au Chapitre VII.

Convention des Nations Unies relative des réfugiés Article premier

DÉFINITION DU TERME “RÉFUGIÉ” A. Aux fins de la présente Convention, le terme “réfugié” s’appliquera à toute personne : (1) Qui a été considérée comme réfugiée en application des Arrangements du 12 mai 1926 et du 30 juin 1928, ou en application des Conventions du 28 octobre 1933 et du 10 février 1938 et du Protocole du 14 septembre 1939, ou encore en application de la Constitution de l’Organisation internationale pour les réfugiés ; Les décisions de non-éligibilité prises par l’Organisation internationale pour les réfugiés pendant la durée de son mandat ne font pas obstacle à ce que la qualité de réfugié soit accordée à des personnes qui remplissent les conditions prévues au paragraphe 2 de la présente section ; (2) Qui, par suite d’événements survenus avant le 1er janvier 1951 et craignant avec raison d’être persécutée du fait de sa race, de sa religion, de sa nationalité, de son appartenance à un certain groupe social ou de ses opinions politiques, se trouve hors du pays dont elle a la nationalité et qui ne peut ou, du fait de cette crainte, ne veut se réclamer de la protection de ce pays ; ou qui, si elle n’a pas de nationalité et se trouve hors du pays dans lequel elle avait sa résidence habituelle à la suite de tels événements, ne peut ou, en raison de ladite crainte, ne veut y retourner. Dans le cas d’une personne qui a plus d’une nationalité, l’expression “du pays dont elle a la nationalité” vise chacun des pays dont cette personne a la nationalité. Ne sera pas considérée comme privée de la protection du pays dont elle a la nationalité, toute personne qui, sans raison valable fondée sur une crainte justifiée, ne s’est pas réclamée de la protection de l’un des pays dont elle a la nationalité. B.(1) Aux fins de la présente Convention les mots “événements survenus avant le 1er janvier 1951” figurant à l’article 1, section A, pourront être compris dans le sens de soit a) “événements survenus avant le 1er janvier 1951 en Europe” ; soit

b) “événements survenus avant le 1er janvier 1951 en Europe ou ailleurs” ; et chaque Etat Contractant fera, au moment de la signature, de la ratification ou de l’adhésion, une déclaration précisant la portée qu’il entend donner à cette expression au point de vue des obligations assumées par lui en vertu de la présente Convention. (2) Tout Etat Contractant qui a adopté la formule a) pourra à tout moment étendre ses obligations en adoptant la formule b) par notification adressée au Secrétaire général des Nations Unies. C. Cette Convention cessera, dans les cas ci-après, d’être applicable à toute personne visée par les dispositions de la section A ci-dessus : 1) Si elle s’est volontairement réclamée à nouveau de la protection du pays dont elle a la nationalité ; ou 2) Si, ayant perdu sa nationalité, elle l’a volontairement recouvrée ; ou 3) Si elle a acquis une nouvelle nationalité et jouit de la protection du pays dont elle a acquis la nationalité ; ou 4) Si elle est retournée volontairement s’établir dans le pays qu’elle a quitté ou hors duquel elle est demeurée de crainte d’être persécutée; ou 5) Si, les circonstances à la suite desquelles elle a été reconnue comme réfugiée ayant cessé d’exister, elle ne peut plus continuer à refuser de se réclamer de la protection du pays dont elle a la nationalité ; Etant entendu, toutefois, que les dispositions du présent paragraphe ne s’appliqueront pas à tout réfugié visé au paragraphe 1 de la section A du présent article qui peut invoquer, pour refuser de se réclamer de la protection du pays dont il a la nationalité, des raisons impérieuses tenant à des persécutions antérieures. 6) S’agissant d’une personne qui n’a pas de nationalité, si, les circonstances à la suite desquelles elle a été reconnue comme réfugiée ayant cessé d’exister, elle est en mesure de retourner dans le pays dans lequel elle avait sa résidence habituelle ; Etant entendu, toutefois, que les dispositions du présent

paragraphe ne s’appliqueront pas à tout réfugié visé au paragraphe 1 de la section A du présent article qui peut invoquer, pour refuser de retourner dans le pays dans lequel il avait sa résidence habituelle, des raisons impérieuses tenant à des persécutions antérieures. D. Cette Convention ne sera pas applicable aux personnes qui bénéficient actuellement d’une protection ou d’une assistance de la part d’un organisme ou d’une institution des Nations Unies autre que le Haut Commissaire des Nations Unies pour les réfugiés. Lorsque cette protection ou cette assistance aura cessé pour une raison quelconque, sans que le sort de ces personnes ait été définitivement réglé, conformément aux résolutions y relatives adoptées par l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, ces personnes bénéficieront de plein droit du régime de cette Convention. E. Cette Convention ne sera pas applicable à une personne considérée par les autorités compétentes du pays dans lequel cette personne a établi sa résidence comme ayant les droits et les obligations attachés à la possession de la nationalité de ce pays. F. Les dispositions de cette Convention ne seront pas applicables aux personnes dont on aura des raisons sérieuses de penser : a) qu’elles ont commis un crime contre la paix, un crime de guerre ou un crime contre l’humanité, au sens des instruments internationaux élaborés pour prévoir des dispositions relatives à ces crimes; b) qu’elles ont commis un crime grave de droit commun en dehors du pays d’accueil avant d’y être admises comme réfugiées ; c) qu’elles se sont rendues coupables d’agissements contraires aux buts et aux principes des Nations Unies.

Principes directeurs relatifs au déplacement de personnes à l’intérieur de leur propre pays. TITRE PREMIER - PRINCIPES GENERAUX

Principe 4

Principe 1

1. Les présents Principes sont appliqués sans discrimination aucune fondée notamment sur la race, la couleur, le sexe, la langue, la religion ou la croyance, l’opinion politique ou autre, l’origine nationale, ethnique ou sociale, le statut juridique ou social, l’âge, l’incapacité, la propriété, la naissance ou tout autre critère similaire.

1. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays jouissent, sur un pied d’égalité, en vertu du droit international et du droit interne, des mêmes droits et libertés que le reste de la population du pays. Elles ne font l’objet, dans l’exercice des différents droits et libertés, d’aucune discrimination fondée sur leur situation en tant que personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays. 2. Les présents Principes ne préjugent en rien de la responsabilité pénale des personnes en vertu du droit international, notamment en cas de génocide, de crime contre l’humanité et de crime de guerre. Principe 2 1. Indépendamment de leur statut juridique, tous les groupes, autorités et personnes observent les présents Principes directeurs et les appliquent sans discrimination. L’observation des présents Principes n’a aucune incidence juridique sur le statut des autorités, des groupes ou des personnes concernées. 2. Les présents Principes ne seront pas interprétés comme restreignant, modifiant ou affaiblissant les dispositions d’un des instruments internationaux relatifs aux droits de l’homme ou au droit international humanitaire, ou les droits accordés aux personnes en vertu de la législation interne. En particulier, les présents Principes ne préjugent en rien du droit de demander l’asile et d’en bénéficier dans d’autres pays. Principe 3 1. C’est aux autorités nationales qu’incombent en premier lieu le devoir et la responsabilité de fournir une protection et une aide aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays qui relèvent de leur juridiction. 2. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ont le droit de demander et de recevoir une protection et une aide humanitaire desdites autorités. Elles ne seront soumises à aucune persécution ou punition pour avoir formulé une telle demande.

2. Certaines personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, telles que les enfants, en particulier les mineurs non accompagnés, les femmes enceintes, les mères d’enfants en bas âge, les femmes chef de famille, les personnes souffrant d’incapacités et les personnes âgées ont droit à la protection et à l’aide que nécessite leur condition et à un traitement qui tienne compte de leurs besoins particuliers. TITRE II - PRINCIPES RELATIFS A LA PROTECTION CONTRE LE DEPLACEMENT Principe 5 Toutes les autorités et tous les membres concernés de la communauté internationale respectent les obligations qui leur incombent en vertu du droit international, notamment les droits de l’homme et le droit humanitaire, et assurent leur respect en toutes circonstances de façon à prévenir et éviter les situations de nature à entraîner des déplacements de personnes. Principe 6 1. Chaque être humain a le droit d’être protégé contre un déplacement arbitraire de son foyer ou de son lieu de résidence habituel. 2. L’interdiction des déplacements arbitraires s’applique aux déplacements : a) qui sont la conséquence de politiques d’apartheid, de politiques de «nettoyage ethnique», ou de pratiques similaires dont l’objectif ou la résultante est la modification de la composition ethnique, religieuse ou raciale de la population touchée; b) qui interviennent dans des situations de conflit armé, à moins que la sécurité des personnes civiles concernées ou des raisons militaires impérieuses ne les aient rendus

nécessaires; c) qui se produisent dans le contexte de projets de développement de vaste envergure qui ne sont pas justifiés par des considérations impérieuses liées à l’intérêt supérieur du public; d) qui sont opérés, en cas de catastrophe, à moins que la sécurité et la santé des personnes concernées n’exigent leur évacuation; et e) qui sont utilisés comme un moyen de châtiment collectif. 3. Le déplacement ne doit pas durer plus longtemps que ne l’exigent les circonstances. Principe 7 1. Avant toute décision tendant à déplacer des personnes, les autorités concernées font en sorte que toutes les autres possibilités soient étudiées afin d’éviter le recours à une telle mesure. Lorsqu’il n’y a pas d’autre choix, tout doit être fait pour que le nombre des personnes déplacées soit aussi restreint que possible et que les effets néfastes de l’opération soient limités. 2. Les autorités qui procèdent à un tel déplacement de population veillent, dans toute la mesure possible, à ce que les personnes déplacées soient convenablement logées, que le processus de déplacement se fasse dans des conditions satisfaisantes sur le plan de la sécurité, de l’alimentation, de la santé et de l’hygiène et que les membres d’une même famille ne soient pas séparés. 3. Lorsque le déplacement a lieu dans d’autres circonstances que la phase d’urgence d’un conflit armé ou d’une catastrophe, les garanties suivantes doivent être observées : a) Toute décision sera prise par l’autorité étatique habilitée par la loi;

Il ne sera procédé à aucun déplacement de population en violation des droits à la vie, à la dignité, à la liberté et à la sécurité des personnes concernées. Principe 9 Les Etats ont l’obligation particulière de protéger contre le déplacement les populations indigènes, les minorités, les paysans, les éleveurs et autres groupes qui ont vis-àvis de leurs terres un lien de dépendance et un attachement particuliers. TITRE III - PRINCIPES RELATIFS A LA PROTECTION AU COURS DU DEPLACEMENT Principe 10 1. Chaque être humain a un droit inhérent à la vie qui est protégé par la loi. Nul ne peut être arbitrairement privé de la vie. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays seront protégées en particulier contre : a) le génocide; b) l’assassinat; c) les exécutions sommaires ou arbitraires; et d) les disparitions forcées, y compris l’enlèvement ou la détention non reconnue, quand il y a menace de mort ou mort d’homme. La menace du recours ou l’incitation à un des actes susmentionnés sont interdites. 2. Les attaques ou d’autres actes de violence contre des personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays qui ne participent plus aux hostilités sont interdits en toutes circonstances. Les personnes déplacées sont protégées, en particulier contre : a) les attaques directes ou aveugles ou d’autres actes de violence, y compris la délimitation de zones dans lesquelles les attaques contre les civils sont autorisées; b) l’utilisation de la faim comme méthode de combat;

b) Les dispositions nécessaires seront prises pour que les personnes déplacées soient pleinement informées des raisons et des modalités de leur déplacement et, le cas échéant, des mesures d’indemnisation et de réinstallation;

c) l’utilisation des personnes déplacées comme bouclier pour protéger des objectifs militaires contre des attaques ou pour couvrir, favoriser ou empêcher des opérations militaires;

c) On s’efforcera d’obtenir le consentement libre et en connaissance de cause des personnes déplacées;

d) les attaques visant les camps ou les zones d’installation des personnes déplacées; et

d) Les autorités compétentes s’efforceront d’associer les personnes concernées, en particulier les femmes, à la planification et à la gestion de leur réinstallation;

e) l’utilisation de mines terrestres antipersonnel.

e) Des mesures de maintien de l’ordre seront, au besoin, prises par les autorités judiciaires compétentes; et f ) Le droit à un recours utile, y compris à un réexamen des décisions prises par les autorités judiciaires compétentes, sera respecté. Principe 8

Principe 11 1. Chacun a droit à la dignité et à l’intégrité physique, mentale et morale. 2. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, que leur liberté ait fait l’objet de restrictions ou non, seront protégées en particulier contre : a) le viol, la mutilation, la torture, les traitements ou peines cruels, inhumains ou dégradants et d’autres at-

teintes à leur dignité tels que les actes de violence visant spécifiquement les femmes, la prostitution forcée et toute forme d’attentat à la pudeur; b) l’esclavage ou toute forme contemporaine d’esclavage (vente à des fins de mariage, exploitation sexuelle, travail forcé des enfants, etc.); et c) les actes de violence visant à semer la terreur parmi les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays. La menace du recours ou l’incitation à un des actes susmentionnés sont interdites. Principe 12 1. Tout individu a droit à la liberté et à la sécurité de sa personne. Nul ne peut faire l’objet d’une arrestation ou d’une détention arbitraire. 2. Pour donner effet à ce droit reconnu aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, il est interdit de les enfermer ou de les confiner dans un camp. Si dans des circonstances exceptionnelles de telles mesures s’avèrent absolument nécessaires, elles ne doivent pas durer plus longtemps que ne l’exigent ces circonstances. 3. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays seront protégées contre toute arrestation et détention discriminatoire du fait de leur déplacement. 4. En aucun cas, les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ne seront prises comme otages. Principe 13 1. En aucune circonstance les enfants déplacés ne seront enrôlés dans une force armée ou obligés ou autorisés à participer à des combats. 2. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays seront protégées contre les pratiques discriminatoires consistant à tirer parti de leur situation pour les enrôler dans des forces ou des groupes armés. En particulier, toute pratique cruelle, inhumaine ou dégradante visant à contraindre une personne déplacée à accepter d’être enrôlée dans un groupe armé ou à la punir en cas de refus est interdite quelles que soient les circonstances. Principe 14 1. Chaque personne déplacée à l’intérieur de son propre pays a le droit de circuler librement et de choisir librement son lieu de résidence. 2. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ont, en particulier, le droit d’entrer et de sortir librement des camps ou d’autres zones d’installation. Principe 15 Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ont : a) le droit de rechercher la sécurité dans une autre par-

tie du pays; b) le droit de quitter leur pays; c) le droit de demander l’asile dans un autre pays; et d) le droit d’être protégées contre le retour ou la réinstallation forcés dans tout lieu où leur vie, leur sécurité, leur liberté et/ou leur santé seraient en danger. Principe 16 1. Toutes les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ont le droit d’être informées du sort de leurs proches portés disparus et du lieu où ils se trouvent. 2. Les autorités concernées s’efforceront de déterminer le sort et le lieu où se trouvent les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays portées disparues et coopèrent avec les organisations internationales qui se consacrent à cette tâche. Elles tiennent les proches au courant des progrès de leurs recherches et les informent de tout élément nouveau. 3. Les autorités concernées s’efforcent de récupérer et d’identifier les restes des personnes décédées, d’empêcher leur profanation ou mutilation, de faciliter leur restitution aux proches ou d’en disposer d’une manière respectueuse. 4. Les sépultures des personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays sont protégées en toutes circonstances. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ont le droit d’accéder aux sépultures de leurs proches décédés. Principe 17 1. Chacun a droit au respect de sa vie familiale. 2. Afin de donner effet à ce droit reconnu aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, les membres d’une famille qui souhaitent rester ensemble seront autorisés à le faire. 3. Les familles séparées par suite de leur déplacement doivent être réunifiées aussi rapidement que possible. Toutes les mesures requises seront prises pour accélérer la réunification de ces familles, notamment lorsqu’il y a des enfants. Les autorités responsables faciliteront les recherches faites par les membres d’une famille, encourageront l’action des organisations humanitaires qui oeuvrent pour la réunification des familles et coopéreront avec elles. 4. Les membres des familles déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, dont on a restreint la liberté en les enfermant ou en les confinant dans des camps ont le droit de rester ensemble. Principe 18 1. Toutes les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ont droit à un niveau de vie suffisant.

2. Au minimum quelles que soient les circonstances et sans discrimination aucune, les autorités compétentes assurent aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays les services suivants et leur permettent d’y accéder en toute sécurité : a) aliments de base et eau potable; b) abri et logement; c) vêtements décents; et d) services médicaux et installations sanitaires essentiels. 3. Des efforts particuliers seront faits pour assurer la pleine participation des femmes à la planification et à la distribution des fournitures de première nécessité. Principe 19 1. Toutes les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays qui sont blessées ou malades, ainsi que celles qui sont handicapées, recevront, dans toute la mesure possible et dans les meilleurs délais, les soins médicaux et l’attention dont elles ont besoin sans distinction aucune fondée sur des motifs extramédicaux. Au besoin, les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays auront accès à des services d’assistance psychologique et sociale. 2. Une attention particulière doit être accordée aux besoins des femmes dans le domaine de la santé, notamment à leur accès aux prestataires et aux services de soins de santé, tels que les soins de santé en matière de reproduction, ainsi qu’aux services de consultation requis dans le cas des victimes de sévices sexuels et autres.

Principe 21 1. Nul ne peut être arbitrairement privé de sa propriété et de ses possessions. 2. La propriété et les possessions des personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays seront en toutes circonstances protégées, en particulier contre les actes suivants : fondée sur des motifs extramédicaux. Au besoin, les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays auront accès à des services d’assistance psychologique et sociale. 2. Une attention particulière doit être accordée aux besoins des femmes dans le domaine de la santé, notamment à leur accès aux prestataires et aux services de soins de santé, tels que les soins de santé en matière de reproduction, ainsi qu’aux services de consultation requis dans le cas des victimes de sévices sexuels et autres. 3. Une attention particulière doit être accordée en outre à la prévention des maladies contagieuses et infectieuses, y compris le SIDA, parmi les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays au moment de leur départ doivent être protégées contre la destruction, ainsi que l’appropriation, l’occupation ou l’utilisation arbitraires et illégales. Principe 22 1. L’exercice des droits suivants par les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, qu’elles vivent dans des camps ou ailleurs, ne doit faire l’objet d’aucune discrimination fondée sur leur situation en tant que personnes déplacées :

3. Une attention particulière doit être accordée en outre à la prévention des maladies contagieuses et infectieuses, y compris le SIDA, parmi les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays.

a) droits à la liberté de pensée, de conscience, de religion ou de conviction, d’opinion et d’expression;

Principe 20

c) droit à la liberté d’association et de participation sur un pied d’égalité aux affaires de la communauté;

1. Chacun a le droit à la reconnaissance en tous lieux de sa personnalité juridique. 2. Pour donner effet à ce droit reconnu aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, les autorités concernées leur délivreront les documents dont elles ont besoin (passeport, papiers d’identité, attestation de naissance, attestation de mariage, etc.) pour qu’elles puissent jouir de leurs droits. Elles leur faciliteront en particulier l’obtention de nouveaux documents ou le remplacement des documents perdus durant le processus de déplacement sans leur imposer des conditions excessives, telles que le retour dans le lieu de résidence habituel pour se faire délivrer ces documents ou d’autres papiers nécessaires. 3. Les femmes et les hommes pourront demander de tels documents sur un pied d’égalité et auront le droit de se les faire délivrer à leur propre nom.

b) droit de rechercher librement un emploi et de participer aux activités économiques;

d) droit de voter et de prendre part aux affaires gouvernementales et publiques, y compris le droit d’accéder aux moyens nécessaires pour exercer ce droit; et e) droit de communiquer dans une langue qu’elles comprennent. Principe 23 1. Toute personne a droit à l’éducation. 2. Pour donner effet à ce droit, les autorités concernées veilleront à ce que les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, en particulier les enfants déplacés, reçoivent gratuitement un enseignement qui revêtira un caractère obligatoire au niveau primaire. Cet enseignement respectera leur identité culturelle, leur langue et leur religion.

3. Des efforts particuliers seront faits pour assurer la pleine et égale participation des femmes et des filles dans le cadre des programmes d’enseignement. 4. Des services d’enseignement et de formation seront offerts, dès que les conditions le permettront, aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays, en particulier aux adolescents et aux femmes, qu’ils vivent dans un camp ou ailleurs. TITRE IV - PRINCIPES RELATIFS A L’AIDE HUMANITAIRE

de conduite internationaux. 2. Le précédent paragraphe ne préjuge en rien des responsabilités en matière de protection des organisations internationales mandatées dont les services peuvent être offerts ou demandés par les Etats. TITRE V - PRINCIPES RELATIFS AU RETOUR, A LA REINSTALLATION ET A LA REINTEGRATION Principe 28

Principe 25

1. C’est aux autorités compétentes qu’incombent en premier lieu le devoir et la responsabilité de créer des conditions propices au retour librement consenti, dans la sécurité et la dignité, des personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays dans leur foyer ou leur lieu de résidence habituel ou à leur réinstallation volontaire dans une autre partie du pays, ou de leur fournir les moyens nécessaires à cet effet. Lesdites autorités s’efforceront de faciliter la réintégration des personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays qui sont retournées dans leur lieu d’origine ou qui ont été réinstallées.

1. C’est en premier lieu aux autorités nationales qu’incombent le devoir et la responsabilité d’apporter une aide humanitaire aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays.

2. Des efforts particuliers seront faits pour assurer la pleine participation des personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays à la planification et à la gestion de leur retour ou réinstallation et de leur réintégration.

2. Les organisations humanitaires internationales et d’autres parties concernées ont le droit de proposer leurs services pour venir en aide aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays. Une telle proposition ne doit pas être considérée comme inamicale ou comme un acte d’ingérence dans les affaires intérieures de l’Etat et sera accueillie de bonne foi. Ces services ne seront pas refusés arbitrairement, surtout si les autorités concernées ne sont pas en mesure de fournir l’aide humanitaire requise ou ne sont pas disposées à le faire.

Principe 29

Principe 24 1. Toute aide humanitaire sera fournie dans le respect des principes d’humanité et d’impartialité et à l’abri de toute discrimination. 2. L’aide humanitaire aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays ne sera pas détournée, notamment pour des raisons politiques ou militaires.

3. Toutes les autorités concernées autoriseront et faciliteront le libre passage de l’aide humanitaire et permettront aux personnes chargées de la distribuer d’accéder rapidement et librement aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays. Principe 26 Les personnes chargées de l’aide humanitaire, leurs moyens de transport et leurs stocks seront protégés. Ils ne feront l’objet d’aucune attaque ou autre acte de violence. Principe 27 1. Les organisations internationales humanitaires et les autres parties concernées accorderont, dans le cadre de l’aide qu’ils apportent, l’attention voulue au besoin de protection et aux droits fondamentaux des personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays et prendront les mesures nécessaires à cet effet. Ce faisant, ces organisations et parties respecteront les normes et les codes

1. Les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays qui ont regagné leur foyer ou leur lieu de résidence habituel ou se sont réinstallées dans d’autres régions du pays ne feront l’objet d’aucune discrimination en raison de leur déplacement. Elles ont le droit de participer pleinement et sur un pied d’égalité aux affaires publiques à tous les niveaux et d’accéder dans des conditions d’égalité aux services publics. 2. Les autorités compétentes ont le devoir et la responsabilité d’aider les personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays qui ont regagné leur lieu d’origine ou ont été réinstallées à recouvrer, dans la mesure du possible, la propriété et les possessions qu’elles avaient laissées ou dont elles avaient été dépossédées au moment de leur départ. Lorsque leur recouvrement n’est pas possible, les autorités compétentes accorderont à ces personnes une indemnisation équitable ou une autre forme de dédommagement ou les aideront à les obtenir. Principe 30 Toutes les autorités concernées autoriseront et aideront les organisations humanitaires internationales et les autres parties concernées à accéder librement et rapidement, dans l’exercice de leurs mandats respectifs, aux personnes déplacées à l’intérieur de leur propre pays pour les aider dans le cadre de leur retour ou réinstallation et de leur réintégration.

Bibliographie et références

Bibliographie -Michel Agier, Gérer les indésirables des camps de réfugiés au gouvernement humanitaire, Flammarion, Paris, 2008 -Michel Agier, De nouvelles villes : les camps de réfugiés, élément d’ethnologie urbaine, les annales de la recherche urbaine n 91, 2002 -Le toolkit de gestion de camp, NRC, projet de gestion de camp, 2008 - Andrew Chalinder, Revue 6, la planification des installations temporaires pour les populations déplacées lors des situations d’urgence, 1998 -Sultan Barakat, Network paper, n43, Housing, reconstruction after conflict and disaster, Humanitarian policy group, 2003

-Robert Kronenburg, portable architecture, Birkhauser, 2008.

-Robert Kronenburg, transportable environnements, E & FN SPON, 1998

-Claude Vergnot-Triegel, maisons en kit.

-Jean Louis Cohen, l’architecture en uniforme.

2012

-Hojo-an, Shimogamo Izumigawa-ch, Kyoto, Kengo Kuma,

-War’s Human Cost, UNHCR Global Trends 2013

2012

-Shelter center, IOM, Transitional shelter guidelines, Genève,

-Edward T. Hall, The hidden dimension, Doubleday & Co, New York, 1966. -Johan Van Lengen, The barefoot architect, Shelter publications, Inc., Bolinas, Californie, 2008. -Paul Jackson, Folding techniques for designers from sheet to forme, Laurence King Publishing Ltd, Londres, 2011. -REACH, Al Za’Atari Refugee Camp Shelter Assessment, UNHCR, 2014.

-UN, Shelter after disaster, Genève, 1982.

2011.

-Sphere project, Sphere project handbook, Hampshire, UK,

-Université de Cambridge Shelterproject, Transitional settlement displaced populations, University of Cambridge publications, Cambridge, UK, 2005. -Humanitarian Practice Network, Humanitarian Exchange, Num. 34, 2006.

-Andre M. James, Deployable Architecture, Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008. -J.M. Delarue, Plis règles géométriques et principes structurants, Ecole d’Architecture Paris-Villemin, Paris, 1997. -Structural Analysis and Design of Deployable Structures, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Ma, USA, 1989.

-NRC, No escape Syria report, NRC, 2014.

-NRC, A precarious existence: the shelter situation of refugees from Syria in neighbouring countrues, NRC, 2014. -Ghiyas Aljundi, L’architecture traditionnelle en Syrie, établissements humains et environnement socio-culturel, UNESCO, 1984.

-UNHabitat, Going green, Nairobi, 2012.

-UNHCR, Handbook for emergencies, Third Ed., UNHCR Headquarter, Genève, 2007.

-Ikea Foundation, Refugee Housing Unit, 2012.

-Le Monde, L’errance des migrants, dix ans après Sangatte, Elise Vincent, 05.11.2012. -Robert Snyder, Buckminster Fuller, Scénario pour une autobiographie, Ed. Images modernes, 2004. -Marion Segaud, Anthropologie de l’espace, Armand Colin, Paris, 2007. -Perla Serfaty-Garzon, Chez soi les territoires de l’intimité, Armand Colin, Paris, 2003.

Webographie

- https://www.liv.ac.uk/architecture/research/new-architectures-and-typologies/portable - http://architectureforhumanity.org (Aujourd’hui fermé) - http://www.asffrance.org - http://www.unhcr.org - http://www.cma-cgm.fr/le-groupe/fondation/conteneurs-espoir - http://www.shelterbox.org/about.php - http://www.utilis-international.com/ - http://www.internal-displacement.org/ - http://www.insee.fr/fr/ - http://www.croix-rouge.fr/ - http://www.un.org/fr/ - http://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/research - http://www.forcedmigration.org/research-resources/thematic/refugee-camps-and-settlements - https://www.icrc.org/en - http://www.refugees.org/our-work/refugee-resettlement/

-http://www.nationaltenthouse.com/ -http://www.nrc.no/?aid=9137056 -http://www.shigerubanarchitects.com/SBA_NEWS/SBA_van. htm#contact -http://www.esa.int/spaceinvideos/Videos/2014/01/Sentinel-1A_radar_deployment -http://innovation.unhcr.org/labs_post/refugee-housing-unit/ -http://mobile.nytimes.com/2014/02/16/magazine/how-tobuild-a-perfect-refugee-camp.html?smid=fb-share&_r=1&referrer= -http://sheltercentre.org/ - http://millionsoulsaware.org/ - http://www.unhcr.org/statistics/RefScout/refscout.html#

- http://www.vacarme.org/article1620.html

-The lost boys of Sudan, Megan Mylan et Jon Shenk, 2003.

-A well-founded fear, Bentley Dean, Anne Delaney, 2008.

-Shelter, Brandon Birtell, 2009.

VidĂŠo

-http://www.un.org/fr/events/refugeeday/videos.shtml

-Searching for shelter in Jordan, NRC, 2014.

-Arte, Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;architecture climatique, construire pour demain, 2015.

-Designing a better home for refugee children, Ikea Foundation, 2013.