Hagia sophia political and religious symbolism in stones and spolia

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June 2011

Hagia Sophia: Political and Religious Symbolism in Stones and Spolia

By Michele Stopera Freyhauf Wed, May 04, 2011

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There has not been “an incident in Byzantine history with which the church of St. Sophia is not associated.�[1] Hagia Sophia represents the very essence of the history of Turkey and the continuous transformation it has undergone throughout the ages and even today.[2] Turkey, and especially Istanbul, the former Constantinople, is a country of great importance, transition, and rich cultural history. Hagia Sophia encapsulates all of these traits and stands as a visual testimony to the history of the region. Once a great symbol of Christianity, it demonstrated superiority over pagan religions and political alliance with its use of spolia.

Through conquest, it became a representation of dominance and legitimization of Islam to the world. Upon the secularization of the country, Hagia Sophia became a Museum to both Christianity and Islam. As the country and museum try to interpret the balance of religion, both are converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

frozen in time, unable to complete their ultimate goal of balancing these faiths. In Hagia Sophia, the scaffolding stands as a symbol of stalled progress in the restoration of Hagia Sophia. For Turkey, this is represented by the continued passage of laws that restrict the very religious freedom that the country purports to have.

Hagia Sophia: Brief Historical Background Originally built by Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, Hagia Sophia was a grand symbol of Christianity to the world.

Constantine wanted to make Constantinople the New Rome with Hagia Sophia, known then as Megale Ekklesia (“Great Church”), the seat of Christianity. This dream would ultimately lay the groundwork that eventually divided the Western and Eastern Church; a division that still exists today.[3] Constantine’s Church was destroyed; it is unknown how. The original structure was either destroyed because of earthquakes or because it was deemed to be too small by Constantinius II, Constantine’s son.[4] What is known is that Constantinius and the Emperor Theodosius the Great rebuilt the church with more magnificence in 360 CE. It served as the cathedral or Bishop’s seat of the city. In approximately 430 CE, the name was officially changed to Hagia Sophia or Church of Divine Wisdom.[5] Constantinius’s church was pillaged and destroyed with fire during the Nika riots January 1314, 532 CE.[6] Several fragments of this second church survived and can be seen today in the garden (Image Right).[7] February 23, 532 CE, the Emperor Justinian started to rebuild the Church. It was to be larger and more converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

majestic then the previous

structures. Justinian hired Isidorus and Anthemius, who designed the SS Sergius and Bacchus.[8] Justinian succeeded in his quest and the Church was dedicated December 27, 537 CE. The same structure still stands today, next to the Hagia Irene, just across from the Blue Mosque in modern day Istanbul.

With the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmet II, Hagia Sophia Church became a Mosque. Minarets were added and all graven images were plastered over. It was the center of his Empire and the place where important ceremonies took place.

It stood as a monument and mosque for about five hundred years until 1935, when the first Turkish President and the founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal AtatĂźrk, secularized not only the nation, but also the Hagia Sophia.

Hagia Sophia contains artifacts that memorialize Turkey’s vast and rich history that date back before the time of Constantine. These artifacts and fragments came from all over the Empire and beyond.

Fragments and artifacts from pagan temples, allied countries, and conquered nations were incorporated into the building with purpose and intent. Historians call the artifacts and fragments incorporated into the structure spolia. The Ottomans used spolia in the construction of their buildings throughout the Empire.

Spolia relates meaning in the way the stones and artifacts are incorporated into the structure. It converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

was a way of telling a visual story.

Spolia: Stories in Stones Spolia is the fragments, columns, and stones from buildings, religious medallions, and statues taken from conquered or allied nations. It is not re-use or recycling in the way a person living in the twenty-first century would understand; the intentional reducing of one’s carbon footprint. This notion has no place in antiquity. While examples exist that show the reuse of stones in buildings because of convenience and fit, the use of stones and columns from foreign temples or churches were used with the intention of making a statement of domination or political legitimization.[9] Spolia is derived from the Latin word for “spoils” and is commonly associated with the traditional concept of “spoils of war” or “booty” that one would receive after conquest.[10] Art Historians use this term differently. They apply spolia to architecture and analyze how stones or other artifacts are reused and incorporated into new structures.[11] Six reasons have been identified for using spolia into newer structures:[12] 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Pragmatic Profanation Interpretatio Christiana Legitimatization of Power Admiration of Antiquity Aesthetical Appreciation

Interpretation of spolia can be fundamentally ambiguous and open to numerous interpretations.

The following questions could be asked: 1. Is the reuse simply out of convenience or is it a preservation and incorporation of past memories or identities of the cultures?

2. Is the use of spolia a sign of conquest and

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superiority?

3. Was the architect or ruler making a statement of religious or political legitimatization?

Depending on the era, the background and influences of the architect or ruler, type of building, and type of spolia used, any of these questions could be answered and many different theories may evolve. To fully understand what was being said through re-use, an interdisciplinary approach of examining the information must be undertaken.

By taking into account religious, historical, rhetorical, and political elements, speculations of ambiguity may be cleared up.[13] For example, to acquire spolia from the imperial capital shows an alignment with imperial status and grandeur; a political legitimatization.[14] A different examination of spolia within a historical context may show that remnants from an imperial capital might be put on display as a show of conquest and superior power.

Yet, another may incorporate the ruins as a Temple to be a display of religious superiority.

The use of spolia began when ancient Rome declined and the reign of Constantine began. This practice continued throughout the Middle Ages.[15] Most Byzantine buildings are constructed mostly out of spolia.[16] Between 313 and 315 CE, Constantine was the first to create a great structure out of spolia; the Arch of Constantinople.[17] This arch has eight medallions that display scenes of hunting and sacrifice from the time of Hadrian that dates about 200 years prior to Constantine.[18] Eight panels display the victories of Marcus Aurelius from about 176 CE.[19] Another portion, partially restored, were statues of Dacian captives that came from the Forum of converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Trajan attributed to the time of Domitian.[20] This Arch also had old sculptures and roundels where the faces of old were removed and the likeness of Constantine with a halo around his head were carved in its place.[21] This incorporated Christian iconography into the Arch and gave the Emperor a sacredness that signified divinity.[22]

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The Arch of Constantinople

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The Arch of Constantine, showing the locations of spolia representing emperors of the Roman Empire's past.

___________________________________________________________ Applying the reasons for utilization of spolia in the Arch, two schools of thought exist. The first is the development of a “language of power” which displayed Ottoman domination.[23] The other is an expression of integration or a connection to the past.[24] Incorporating the sculptural adornments of the great second century emperors into “his own arch” served as a public affirmation and political validation that Constantine was the Empire’s embodiment of the past rulers and converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

legitimate successor.[25] The dedication of the Arch by the Senate in 315 CE, the tenth anniversary of the emperor's reign, commemorated “the victory of Constantine over Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge in AD 312 for sole control of the Roman Empire in the west.”[26] Constantine’s use of spolia in the Arch, along with the timing of the dedication, made a statement of political validation and might. It stood prominently as a monument and reminder for all who passed by. In this case and in the case of the Hagia Sophia, placement and use of spolia was done with purpose and intent; nothing was random. Every placement and every stone used had a meaning.

From Paganism to Christianity: A Story of Superiority and Grandeur When Emperor Justinian I rebuilt Hagia Sophia between 532 and 537 CE, it was built with the grandeur to make a statement to the world; Christianity trumps paganism.[27] To Justinian, the Great Church of Holy Wisdom “symbolized the place of the empire in the divine scheme of things” and it had to be rebuilt with great splendor.[28] This was so important that Justinian spent almost the entire treasury on its reconstruction. He wanted the Church to stand as a “symbol of glory for the Byzantine Empire and the largest Church of Christendom in the world.”[29] A Church that would be the greatest building erected to “the Glory of God,” even surpassing King Solomon.[30] The Church was also to become a testimonial to proclaim Justinian’s greatness to the world.[31] Justinian succeeded in his quest, at a tremendous cost. Hagia Sophia ultimately became Christendom’s converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

greatest and most celebrated church.[32] It stood in Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, for about a thousand years, as the seat of the Orthodox Patriarchy where Church councils met and imperial ceremonies were held.[33] While the building itself made a statement of grandeur, the material used in constructing Justinian’s Church made an assertion of Christian dominance over paganism and political legitimization. Remnants from temples, columns, and stone were used from all over the empire.

Columns were even imported from Rome, which became a visual affirmation of political legitimacy with the Empire.[34] Spolia and pillars of ancient temples were also incorporated into the walls of the structure.[35] Pillars and arches from the Temple of the Sun from Baalbek, famous Temple of Artemis from Ephesus, Delian Apollo of Minerva from Athens, and Temple of Cybele from Cyzicus were incorporated into the Church’s structure.[36] The pieces from pagan temples were incorporated into the Hagia Sophia as a means of incorporating cultural memory of its past and showing it now under the control and authority of the Christians; “a political statement of Christian hegemony.”[37] A statement of Christian domination over paganism was displayed with a medallion that had the face of Medusa embedded in its walls.[38] It was placed in a prominent placement where visitors would encounter the medallion when entering the church.[39] Another item of significance incorporated into the Church was a set of Bronze doors located at the exit to the south and partially embedded in the floor that converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

date back to the 2nd century BCE. The doors are believed to have been the doors that were on a pagan temple in Tarsus.[40] Four columns, distinct in nature, have matching monoliths with fluted bases and basket-style capitals made of proconnesian marble came from the imperial capital and from the Temple of the Sun itself (Image Right).[41] The incorporation of these columns into the structure of the Hagia Sophia became a strong political statement.[42] It expressed an alliance with Rome, and gave political legitimization to Constantinople.[43] Another column, known as the “weeping column� has many legends that surround it (Image Below).[44] This column is originally from the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus and stands in the northern corner of the church.

It is made of white marble with a bronze belt that circles the lower part of the column.[45] There is a hole in the column that water drops come out of. Because of this, people believe the column was weeping and it has been associated with miracles. Visitors today come for the sole reason of sticking their finger in that hole of the pillar and praying for a miracle.

The irony is that while this is a column in a Christian structure meant to provide miracles for the faithful who pilgrimage there in search of a miracle, the column is from a pagan temple.

As Justinian intended, Hagia converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Sophia sat as the seat of the orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople and principal setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies.[46] It sat as the largest Cathedral in Christendom for one thousand years.[47] It was a great statement and memorialized the grandeur and importance of Christianity; something that also made it a great target of conquest.

From Christian Church to Islamic Mosque: A Story of Conquest and Legacy May 29, 1453 CE, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople under Sultan Mehmet II. His first official act was to convert the Church of Hagia Sophia into a Mosque.[48] It stood as the principal mosque of Istanbul for five hundred years and became the model for many of the Ottoman Mosques built after the conquest.[49] He wanted to perform an act that would be a “symbolic refounding of the city” and would establish himself as a great and powerful Byzantine leader, like Constantine and Justinian.[50] Mehmet even tried to mimic Alexander the Great and took great pains to “compare symbolic acts in his history of conquest.”[51] With the conversion of the Hagia Sophia to a Mosque, the covering of Christian icons and the desecration of crosses, he made a statement to the world. Hagia Sophia became a “symbolic monument of conquest and domination.”[52] In Christian eyes, Hagia Sophia became a standing monument of “Christian defeat, the sense of which is perpetuated and embittered by the preservation of its ancient but desecrated name.”[53] With this conversion to a mosque, Muslim and Ottoman symbols, which can still be seen today, were converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

added. A wooden minaret was added as well as a mihrab that faced Mecca and minbar (See Images Below).[54] Also added were sacred relics and battle trophies.[55] Much of the Christian original was left in tact, which gave it a transitional appearance. Because of Islamic prohibition against graven images, the mosaics had to be removed.

Because of Mehmet’s sense of history and art, he did not want them destroyed so they were covered over with plaster.[56] Mehmet was intent on making a statement of conquest but he wanted to respect the history and culture associated with the structure. Besides imitating Alexander in his appreciation of culture and history, Mehmet too had a “scholar’s interest on historic authenticity.”[57] Something that could be seen in the city walls of Constantinople, after the Ottoman conquest, and preserved “even when the subject matter was overtly Christian.”[58]

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___________________________________________________________ Ascetic changes made and additions of furnishings and rugs helped give the appearance of a converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

mosque, however, in order for it to become a royal mosque, some event had to occur in the past that associated the structure with the Prophet of Islam.[59] Ottoman legend was created from historical texts that interwove historical facts and myths to satisfy this requirement.[60] Two such legends exist. The first legend is about the half-dome of the apse.

It is said that this collapsed on the night of the Prophet Mohammed’s birth and it could only be rebuilt from the sand of Mecca, water from the well of Zamzam,[61] and saliva from the prophet’s mouth.[62] The second legend attempted to strip Christian associations from the building of this structure by stating that the building was constructed from spolia of Solomon’s Temple on a site originally sanctified by him.[63] The final element to establish Hagia Sophia as a mosque was the handing over of the relic, the gold cased tibia and occiptal bones of John the Baptist, to the Empire (Image Below).[64] John the Baptist, a sacred prophet of Islam, validated Islam over Christianity in the Empire and helped to reinforce the proper conversion of Hagia Sophia as a Mosque; a grand mosque that stood for almost five hundred years.[65]

___________________________________________________________ From Islamic Mosque back to Museum: A Story of Stalled Secularism With the rise of secularism in converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Turkey, in 1935, Mustafa Kemal AtatĂźrk, the founder of modernday Turkey, made a symbolic statement by making Hagia Sophia a museum and restoring the Christian Murals that stood sideby-side with the Koranic verses (First Image Below).[66] The existence of the mosaics were known, thanks to the records the Fossati brothers who discovered them when recording and cleaning. Plaster stayed over the mosaics for quite sometime and the building was allowed to stand is disrepair (Second Image Below). The slowness of the restoration and the disrepair the structure has fallen into is controversial. Visitors today, some seventy-five years after its secularization, see a work in progress that seems almost frozen in time and incomplete.

Some believe that restoration has stopped due to funding. The Ecumenical Patriarch of Greek Orthodox Church claimed that the Turkish government refused monetary assistance from them to complete the restoration of the Hagia Sophia.[67]

With the refusal of assistance from the church, speculation converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

further exists that restoration work has been purposely slowed or stalled because of its significance to the Greek Orthodox Church.[68] However if assistance is taken from the Church, then an obligation exists to restore Hagia Sophia to its original Christian form and thus destroying Islamic art and part of their heritage. The restorers have a difficult job in trying to balance the Christian and Muslim features in the Hagia Sophia so that it stands as a museum that testifies to its entire history. As Christian icons are uncovered and restored, it is done at the expense of destroying Islamic Art. There are two other issues that prevail in the restoration the process; the caliphs around the dome and the purported mosaic of Christ as Master of the World hidden under the Islamic calligraphy on the Home. The caliphs on the Dome are very controversial because of their over-bearing size (Image Below).

One reason for not removing the caliphs is because of their size and that they would have to be destroyed in order to be removed. While a balance is attempting to be made between Christian and Muslim art, the overbearing designs of the caliphs strikes a person as soon as they walk into the main part of the structure. Is this a balance or a statement of superiority? This is open to interpretation.

The second issue deals with the alleged mosaic of Christ as converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Master of the World under the Islamic calligraphy on the Dome (Image Below).[69] To restore this mosaic, if it exists, would once again destroy Islamic Art and it is unknown with any degree of certainty whether it exists. If restoration efforts were undertaken to restore this mosaic, and the Islamic art was destroyed, what would happen if the mosaic were not there?

When visiting Hagia Sophia today, the neglect due to the water damage and decay that exists in the building is apparent. You see the history of the area from pagan religions, to Christian dominance, to Islamic rule. You can even see graffiti from a Viking visitor (Image Below). Hagia Sophia is a testimony in its stones to its rich history and the diverse culture that dates back to Constantinople. It contains a rich history of diversity and the restorers are trying to maintain a balance that even the secular nation of Turkey is trying to uphold.

Conclusion: Hagia Sophia, Still the Storyteller As stated at the beginning, there converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

has not been an event in Byzantine history that Hagia Sophia has not been associated with. The same is true today. Though Turkey is a secularized nation that allows for the freedom of religion, laws restrict these freedoms.[70] For example, recently the Turkish Supreme Court held the ruling that women are not allowed to wear head-scarves in government buildings or universities. Because of this ban, governmental and university jobs are withheld to Muslim women because of their faith. Religious freedom is not as one would experience it in the United States. It is a theory that is well intentioned but because there is a struggle as to how to implement it, it has become restrictive and goes against the fundamental understanding of freedom.

The well-intentioned restoration of Hagia Sophia mirrors this.

Restoration to some means restoring Hagia Sophia to its Christian original. Richard Ibrahim stated, “the fact that Turkey conquered Constantinople more that five hundred years ago does not prevent the Turkish government from returning Hagia Sophia to Christendom today, which would undoubtedly be a great gesture…but of course that can never be.”[71] If this happened, it would cause an outcry in the Muslim world.

Because of the desire to represent all of Turkey’s past, the fundamental question should be, as a Museum should all Islamic Art be removed in favor restoring it to its Christian past? Or should it balance the Islamic Art that is not only sacred to the Muslims in Turkey, but also represents five hundred years of Ottoman history? As a Museum, this structure must remain a testimony to its past, Pagan, Christian and converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Muslim alike, standing to tell a story, in its structure and stones.

Bibliography Browning, Robert. Justinian and Theodora. Piscataway, NJ: First Gorgias , 2003.

Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. “International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Turkey.” Secretary for Democracy and Global Affairs. November 17, 2010. www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148991.htm (accessed November 17, 2010).

Davidson, Linda Kay, and David Martin Gitilitz. Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2002.

Earls, Zeren. City Across Continents: Turkey's Magical Hide-a-Ways Part 3: Istanbul.

September 18, 2009. www.berkshirefinearts.com/? page=article&article_id=1244&cat10=20 (accessed September 24, 2010).

Fant, Clyde E., and Mitchell G. Reddish. A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey.

Oxford: Oxford University, 2003.

Fletcher, Tom. Hagia Sophia. www.islamic-architecture.info/watu/instabul/wa-tu-ist-004.htm (accessed November 11, 2010).

Grout, James. Arch of Constantinople. September 19, 2010. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/romanurbs/archc (accessed November 3, 2010).

Hansen, Maria Fabricius. The Eloquence of Appropriation: Prolegomena to an Understanding of Spolia in Early Christian Rome. Rome: Accademia di D'Animarca, 2003.

Hawting, G. R. “The converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Disappearance and Rediscovery of the Zamzam and the 'Well of Ka'ba'.” Bulletin of the School or Oriental and African Studies, University of London 43, no. 1 (1980): 44-54.

Hayes, Holly. Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. September 19, 2009. http://www.sacreddestinations.com/turkey/istanbulhagia-sophia (accessed November 3, 2010).

Hiller, Kalli. Hagia Sophia, A Must See Religious Monument.

February 28, 2009. http://www.suite101.com/content/hagiasophia-a-mustsee-religiousmonument-a100106 (accessed November 3, 2010).

Hoogheem, K. "Photos." Flickr. www.flickr.com/photos/khoogheem (accessed November 3, 2010).

Hulsen, T. “Our Travel Pics.”

Flickr. April 1, 2010. www.flikr/com/photos/thulsen/page147 (accessed November 15, 2010).

Ibrahim, Richard. “Islam gets Concessions; Infidels get Conquered.” Middle East Forum.

December, 2006. www.meforum.org/254/islam-getsconcessions-infidels-getconquered (accessed November 3, 2010).

Kehoe, Lawrence. “The Church and Mosque of St. Sophia from the Edinburgh Review.” The Catholic World: Monthly Eclectic Magazine of General Literature and Science (Lawrence Kehoe) 1 (April - Sept 1865): 641-657.

Kinney, Dale. “Roman Architectural Spolia.” Proccedings of the American Philosophical Society 145, no. 2 (June 2001): 138-161.

Lendering, Jona. Constantinople (Istanbul): Hagia Sophia. October converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

28, 2010. www.livius.org/cncs/constantinople/constantinople_hagia_sophia.html (accessed November 3, 2010).

Ma, John. “The Epigraphy of Hellenistic Asia Minor: A Survey of Recent Research (1992-1999).”

American Journal of Archaeology 104, no. 1 (January 2000): 95121.

Necipoglu, Gulra, ed. Mugarnas: An Annual on th Visual Culture of the Islamic World. Vol. XXIV. Leiden: Brill, 2007.

Ousterhout, Robert. “Ethnic Identity and Cultural Appropriation in Early Ottoman Architecture.”

Magarnas 12 (1995): 48-62. ______. “The East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture.”

Gesta 43, no. 2 (2004): 165-176.

Peter, Eric. "Our First Trip to Istanbul." Eric Peters Travel Blog.

April 5, 2010. www.photos.travelblog.org/photos.147013/487842/t/4927003bones_of_john_the_baptist_0.jpg (accessed November 15, 2010).

Rummel, Stan. Hagia Sophia.

Edited by Carl Smeller. July 2, 2007. http://faculty.txwes.edu/csmeller/HumanExperience/ExpData09/03Biee/BieePICs/1ByzPICs/HaggiaSophia537/HagS (accessed November 3, 2010 ).

Sansai, Burak. Istanbul: Hagia Sophia. 2010. www.greatistanbul.com/hagia_sophia.htm (accessed September 24, 2010).

Seindal, Rene'. "Arch of Constantine." August 6, 2003. http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/299_arch_of_constantine.html (accessed November 17, 2010).

Shaw, Wendy M. K. Possessors and Possessed: Museums, Archaeology, and the Visualization of History in the Late Ottoman Empire. Berkeley: University of California, 2003.

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[1] Lawrence Kehoe, “The Church and Mosque of St. Sophia from the Edinburgh Review,” The Catholic World: Monthly Eclectic Magazine of General Literature and Science (Lawrence Kehoe) 1 (April - Sept 1865): 641-657.

Hagia Sophia is also known as Aya Sofya or Ayasofya in Turkish.

For consistency purposes, I will be using the term “Hagia Sophia” throughout this essay.

[2] Helen Betts, Photographer, See Holly Hayes, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, September 19, 2009, http://www.sacreddestinations.com/turkey/istanbulhagia-sophia (accessed November 3, 2010).

[3] In 381 CE, the fifth canon that assigned the Bishop of Constantinople “the primacy of honor, next after the Bishop of Rome” and laid the foundation for making Constantinople “the New Rome” started the rivalry between the Eastern and Western Church.

See Lawrence Kehoe, 643. In 553 CE during the Fifth Ecumenical Council that discussed winning back the Monophysites caused a further rift. This would never occur. The chapters written during this Council would ultimately be condemned. Ultimately during this discussion, the Church of Constantinople would become estranged from the Church of Rome. See Jona Lendering, Constantinople (Istanbul): Hagia Sophia, October 28, 2010, www.livius.org/cncs/constantinople/constantinople_hagia_sophia.html (accessed November 3, 2010).

[4] This area is prone to earthquakes. In fact, Hagia Sophia was built on a fault line and has suffered damage and destruction over the years converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

because of earthquakes. While it is unknown if an earthquake caused the destruction of the first structure, earthquakes did damage and crack the main dome and eastern half dome in 553 CE and 577 CE. Another earthquake caused the dome to collapse completely during May 7, 558 CE. Rebuilt by Isidorus the Younger, the dome was completed in 562 CE. Once again, October 25, 989 CE, the great dome was ruined by another earthquake. This time, Armenian architect Trdat repaired the dome, which took six years. It was strengthened with additional structural supports by Ottoman architect Sinan, who was one of the first earthquake engineers of the world. Swiss-Italian architect brothers, Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati, performed the final work on the dome between 1847 and 1849 CE. See Stan Rummel, Hagia Sophia, ed. Carl Smeller, July 2. 2007, http://faculty.txwes.edu/csmeller/HumanExperience/ExpData09/03Biee/BieeP (accessed November 3, 2010).

[5] Stan Rummel.

[6] Ibid. The Nika Riots occurred because of the hatred Empress Eudoxia I had against John Chrysostom, the Patriarch of the Church of Constantinople. In 399 CE, Chrysostom offered asylum to Eutropius, the right hand person to Emperor Arcadius, when he was attacked by Eudoxia.

Because of this act and his support of several Origenist monks, Chrysostom was exiled by Eudoxia at the Synod of Oak to Bithynia. Riots broke out, and Chrysostom returned to Constantinople. In 404 CE she had a silver statue of herself installed near the Hagia Sophia in Augusteôn Square. Chrysostom protested against this act calling it “pagan excess” and a display of “Eudoxia’s vanity.” Because of this he was exiled again to converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Armenia. On the night of his departure the Nika riots broke out and the Hagia Sophia was burned to the ground. See Jona Lendering.

[7] Dick Osseman, Photographer.

See Holly Hayes.

[8] These architects were influenced by the mathematical theories of Archimedes (287-212 BCE) and the writings about vaults and arch supports by Heron of Alexandria. See Stan Rummel.

They reused the floor plan from the SS Sergius and Bacchus for the new Hagia Sophia. See Jona Lendering.

[9] Ancient stones have used to build buildings and houses in modern villages in the former Byzantine Empire. See John Ma, “The Epigraphy of Hellenistic Asia Minor: A Survey of Recent Research (1992-1999),�

American Journal of Archaeology 104, no. 1 (January 2000): 101.

When it comes to marble, sometimes it was a matter of practicality where the dimensions were already the same cut and size, or the same material used in the building being constructed or repaired. See Wendy M. K. Shaw, Possessors and Possessed: Museums, Archaeology, and the Visualization of History in the Late Ottoman Empire (Berkeley: University of California, 2003), 43.

[10] Wendy M. K. Shaw, 32.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Maria Fabricius Hansen, The Eloquence of Appropriation: Prolegomena to an Understanding of Spolia in Early Christian Rome (Rome: Accademia di D'Animarca, 2003) 42-58.

[13] Maria Fabricius Hansen, 37.

Hanson goes on to describe converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

interpretation and rhetoric like the modern interpretation of biblical texts today. There is a misunderstanding if an interdisciplinary approach is not taken when intepreting biblical texts; something seen in fundamentalist interpretations today. If one just looks at the buildings that contain remnants from ancient buildings as reycled material, then the meaning the architect was trying to convey gets lost. Papers and papyrus decompose, but stones and marble tell us stories that transcend centuries, even millenia. To study these stones can even, in some respects, recover some parts of history not recorded in books.

[14] Dale Kinney, “Roman Architectural Spolia,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 145, no. 2 (June 2001): 147.

[15] Ibid, 139.

[16] Robert Ousterhout, “Ethnic Identity and Cultural Appropriation in Early Ottoman Architecture,” Magarnas 12 (1995): 54.

[17] Dale Kinney, 143. Image 3, James Grout, Arch of Constantinople, September 19, 2010 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/romanurbs/archc (accessed November 3, 2010).

Image 4, Rene' Seindal, “Arch of Constantine,” August 6, 2003, http://sights.seindal.dk/sight/299_arch_of_constantine.html (accessed November 17, 2010).

[18] James Grout.

[19] Ibid.

[20] Ibid.

[21] Ibid.

[22] Ibid.

[23] Robert Ousterhout, “The East, The West, and the converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture,” Gesta 43, no. 2 (2004): 168.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Ibid.

[26] James Grout.

[27] Wendy M. K. Shaw, 39.

[28] Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora (Piscataway, NJ: First Gorgias , 2003), 73.

[29] Burak Sansai, Istanbul: Hagia Sophia, 2010, www.greatistanbul.com/hagia_sophia.htm (accessed September 24, 2010).

[30] Robert Browning, 73. After the completion of the Hagia Sophia, it is said that Justinian stood back and exclaimed “Glory to God, who hath accounted one worthy of such a work! I have conquered thee O Solomon!”

See Lawrence Kehoe, 641.

[31] Ibid. Justinian believed that the desctruction of Hagia Sophia was predestined so that he would have the opportunity to become the “new Constantine” and outdue his predecessor.

[32] Richard Ibrahim, “Islam gets Concessions; Infidels get Conquered,” Middle East Forum, December 2006, www.meforum.org/254/islam-getsconcessions-infidels-getconquered (accessed November 3, 2010).

[33] Burak Sansai. See also Zeren Earls, City Across Continents: Turkey's Magical Hide-a-Ways Part 3: Istanbul, September 18, 2009, www.berkshirefinearts.com/? page=article&article_id=1244&cat10=20 (accessed September 24, 2010).

[34] To take spolia from the capital provided a link to the Imperial City.

See Linda Kay Davidson and converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

David Martin Gitilitz, Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2002), 44.

[35] Wendy M. K. Shaw, 39.

[36]Burak Sansai. When Christianity became the official religion of the empire, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus was abandoned and eventually used as a stone quarry. See Clyde E. Fant and Mitchell G. Reddish, A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University, 2003), 179. See also Lawrence Kehoe, 648.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Medusa was an important symbol in the pagan world whose eyes deflected evil. This is where the notion of the “evil eye” derived from, that is still a prevalent symbol throughout Turkey.

[39] This stone was removed in 1871 CE from the exterior walls of the Hagia Sophia, when it was converted into a Mosque. The medallion was placed in the Ottoman Imperial Museum due to fears that this would be taken to a European Museum. In 1204 CE, Hagia Sophia was stripped and plundered of its gold and marble during the crusades. See Wendy M. K. Shaw, 39. See also Kalli Hiller, Hagia Sophia, A Must See Religious Monument, February 28, 2009, http://www.suite101.com/content/hagiasophia-a-mustsee-religiousmonument-a100106 (accessed November 3, 2010). Most of the riches that once were in the Hagia Sophia can be seen in the treasury of St. Mark’s Basilica in Venice Italy. See Holly Hayes.

[40] Burak Sansai. Image 5, See T. Hulsen, Our Travel Pics, 1 April 2010, www.flikr/com/photos/thulsen/page147 converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

(accessed November 15, 2010).

[41] Linda Kay Davidson, 44. See also Maria Fabricius Hansen, 54.

Image 6, Dick Osseman, Photographer, See Holly Hayes.

[42] Ibid.

[43] Ibid.

[44] Image 7, K. Hoogheem, “Photos,” Flickr, www.flickr.com/photos/khoogheem (accessed November 3, 2010).

[45] Burak Sansai.

[46] Tom Fletcher, Hagia Sophia, www.islamic-architecture.info/watu/instabul/wa-tu-ist-004.htm (accessed November 11, 2010).

[47] Ibid.

[48] Robert Ousterhout, “The East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture,”170. See also Burak Sansai. As a mosque, Hagia Sophia was known as Ayasofya Camii. See Kalli Hiller.

[49] Tom Fletcher. The Mosques that were built and designed after Hagia Sopha were the Shehzade Mosque, Sulieman Mosque, Rüstem Pasha Mosque, and the Blue Mosque [50] Robert Ousterhout, “The East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture,”170.

[51] Ibid.

[52] Ibid, 170.

[53] Lawrence Kehoe, 641.

[54] Additional minarets and the sultan’s loge were added by Mimar Sinan during the reign of Selim II. Mahmud I ordered a restoration of the mosque in 1739 and added an ablution fountain.

Between 1847-1849, Abdülmecid II had Gaspare and Guiseppe converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Fossati further renovated the Mosque, which saw the addition of the medallions or “calligraphic roundels” that is still visible today.

See Holly Hayes. The images in this photograph represent the mihrab or prayer niche and minbar or pulpit that is in the Church today. These are not original to Mehmet’s installation. Image 8, Holy Land Photos, Photographer.

See Holly Hayes. Image 9, Helen Betts, Photographer. See Holly Hayes.

[55] Robert Ousterhout, “The East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Achitecture,” 170. The relics were the gold encased tibia and occipatal bones of St. John the Baptist, which came to be a signficance of heirarchical religious power of the Empire and continuity of legitimatziation of Islam in the Empire. See Wendy M. K. Shaw, 32.

[56] Some have speculated that periodically the Sultans would have the plaster removed, the mosaics repaired or restored, and then plastered over again. See Tom Fletcher.

[57] Robert Ousterhout, “The East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture,”170.

[58] Wendy M. K. Shaw, 41. It is also said that during the Ottoman period, there was a certain amount of superstition that surrounded spolia in walls. Often times, supernatural powers were ascribed to antiquities that were embedded in the city walls. It is also interesting to note that prior to the Ottoman period, if a statue or a pagan god was defaced, removed, or otherwise compromise, that the person doing that act would be struck down. Having this in their memory, may have contributed to their converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

superstitutious behavior.

[59] Robert Ousterhout, “The East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture,” 170.

[60] Ibid.

[61] The well of Zamzam is important in Islam because it is believed to be the spring that gave life-saving water to Hagar and Ishmael after their expulsion into the wild by Abraham. The well or spring disappeared due to the sins of the tribe of Jurham and did not reappear until the tribe was driven out of Mecca. The rediscovery of the well was by the grandfather of the Prophet, ‘Abd al-Muttalib, through a dream.

From this time, the well is said to run continuously and is in the Meccan sanctuary. See G. R. Hawting, “The Disappearance and Rediscovery of the Zamzam and the 'Well of Ka'ba',” Bulletin of the School or Oriental and African Studies, University of London 43, no. 1 (1980): 44.

[62] Robert Ousterhout, “The East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture,” 170.

[63] Wendy M. K. Shaw, 39.

Solomon is one of the most revered prophets in Islamic tradition. Ironically when Constantine originally built Hagia Sophia, it was said that he built in on top of the ruins of a Pagan Temple.

[64] Image 10, Eric Peter, Photographer, “Our First Trip to Istanbul,” Eric Peters Travel Blog, April 5, 2010, www.photos.travelblog.org/photos.147013/487842/t/4927003bones_of_john_the_baptist_0.jpg (accessed November 15, 2010).

[65] Burak Sansai.

[66] Robert Ousterhout, “The converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

East, The West, and the Appropriation of the Past in Early Ottoman Architecture,”170. See also Kalli Hiller. Image 11, Helen Butts, See Holly Hayes.

[67] Tom Fletcher.

[68] Ibid.

[69] Ibid.

[70] Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, “International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Turkey,” Secretary for Democracy and Global Affairs, 17 November 2010, www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148991.htm (accessed November 17, 2010).

[71] Richard Ibrahim.

By Michele Stopera Freyhauf Michele is a graduate student at John Carroll University as a Religious Studies major. She is the student representative on the Board for Eastern Great Lakes Biblical Society (EGLBS) and a member of Sigma Alpha Nu. She is also a student member of SBL, AAR, AIA, ASOR, SSSR, and CTS. Michele hopes to earn a Ph.D. in Religious Studies/Middle Eastern History where she will focus her research on Religious Syncretism, Anthropology of Religion, and the Old Testament, specifically with J source material.

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Comments(3): 1. Images in Hagia Sophia were not

covered over until after 1740 Monday, November 21, 2016 Robert

We have drawings showing them exposed by multiple visitors. The only mosaic in question was that of the Pantokrator in the dome. It seems to have been covered up. It is an interesting question why muslim worshipers prayed for hundreds of years under them, including Mehmet II. 2. Al-Chidr converted by W eb2PDFConvert.com

Wednesday, March 12, 2014 Brahma

* I'm Still alive * purpose introduce myself on Facebook as The Real (¯`*•.¸ Prophet Khid'r ¸.•*´¯) actually just for tell the truth ..

That people are not easily fooled anymore by people who claim as Prophet Khid'r Since it has been know for sure who The Real Prophet Khid'rThere's no other purpose than that. About believe it or not I return it to the owner EGO and the owner ratio was thorough https://www.facebook.com/brahmakumbara1111 .

3. Al-Chidr Wednesday, March 12, 2014 Brahma

* I'm Still alive * purpose introduce myself on Facebook as The Real (¯`*•.¸ Prophet Khid'r ¸.•*´¯) actually just for tell the truth ..

That people are not easily fooled anymore by people who claim as Prophet Khid'r Since it has been know for sure who The Real Prophet Khid'rThere's no other purpose than that. About believe it or not I return it to the owner EGO and the owner ratio was thorough

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