Door county comprehensive forestry plan

Door County Comprehensive Forest Plan

In conjunction with the Wisconsin Healthy Forest Pilot Project

NOTICE: In accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, this material is distributed without profit to those who have expressed a prior interest in receiving this information for research and educational purposes. The material is compiled from a number of sources as noted in the bibliography at the end of this document.

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Table of Contents Purpose and Overview………………………………………………………..3 Forest Management (Why Manage?)……………………………………….3 Early History of Door County and its People ……………………………..4 Early Forest History of Door County……………………………………...5 Regional Landscape Overview………………………………………………8 Door County Eco-Zones ……………………………………………………11 Forest Cover Types……………………. ……………………………………18 Forest Management Systems……………………………………………….28 Post Harvest Activities……………………………………………………...45 Wildlife Habitat Guidelines………………………………………………..47 Reforestation…………………………………………………………………58 Soils…………………………………………………………………………...68 Species Protection and Threatened/Endangered Species……………..73 Forest Management for the Protection of Cultural Resources……….86 Best Management Practices for Water Quality………………………..91 Invasive Species……………………………………………………………97 Forest Health and Pests………………………………………………….106 Natural Communities and Natural Areas……………………………..114 References…………………………………………………………………120 Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan

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PURPOSE & OVERVIEW The Comprehensive Forestry Plan for Door County is intended to supplement the individualized forestry plan/recommendations prepared for your property. Its ultimate goal is to provide you an understanding of sustainable forestry and help you meet your land stewardship goals. The comprehensive plan provides a broad overview of the regional history, landscape and ecology of the area as well as depth and detail on forestry topics & issues relevant to Door County. It also provides further background information on forest descriptions and management recommendations found in your forest management plan. In addition, the plan contains links to, and sources of, further information for your reference.

You are to be congratulated for taking an interest in forest land management. Wisconsin's forests are a tremendously valuable resource providing an array of ecological, social and economic benefits. Given the fact that a small percentage of Wisconsin's populous owns forestland, it is indeed a privilege that should not be taken for granted. In addition, landowners such as you, account for the majority (60+ %) of forest land in the state, reinforcing the importance of sound stewardship of privately owned forests.

While considerable time and thought has been put into the comprehensive and individual plan preparation, their success can best be measured by implementation. Whether your plan is simple or complex, following through with recommendations will send you down the path of sustainable forestry. Enjoy the journey!!!!

FOREST MANAGEMENT Forest landowners exercise many different levels of involvement with what happens in their forest. This involvement can vary in degree from active “hands on” forest management to passive “hands off” forest preservation.

Active forest management should be based on Sustainable Forestry principles. By definition, sustainable forestry is the management of dynamic forest ecosystems to provide ecological, economic, social and cultural benefits for present and future generations. It is a science based on a combined understanding of trees as individual species, the forest as a biological community & the effects of manipulating forest vegetation.

Forest preservation, on the other hand, involves stepping back from the forest and letting “nature takes its course”. In its purest form, preservation occurs without any intervention from man as natural processes take place.

Passionate arguments for both forest management and forest preservation have been made for ages, are ongoing today, and will likely continue into the future. What is important to recognize is regardless of degree of management activity, forests are dynamic communities that are continuously changing and adapting to external inputs and internal disturbances. Natural processes like forest succession, plant competition, wildlife and insect activity, tree aging and decay, windstorms, fires, and climate change will cause changes in forest composition, structure, and function over time. Forests cannot be maintained in a static, unchanging condition. Also, there are no forest ecosystems undisturbed by human activities. Disturbance has occurred through impacts on climate, atmospheric composition and inputs, fire control, management of wildlife populations (intentional and unintentional), introduction of exotics, recreational use, other human uses, etc. Preserved forests will continue

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to change and will be subjected to human impacts, however, these changes and impacts often will be different than in actively managed forests.

Understanding the effects of natural processes and the impacts of human activities (internal and external to the forest) on the development of the forest will help determine the level of management activity needed to meet your landowner objectives. Furthermore, it will minimize the chances of counterproductive results or unintended consequences. In some situations, a blend of passive & active management may most effectively achieve landowner goals.

EARLY HISTORY OF DOOR COUNTY & ITS PEOPLE The Door Peninsula has been inhabited by humans for more than 11,000 years. The first inhabitants were hunters and gatherers that were attracted to the peninsulas abundant fish and game. Tribes eventually settled in small villages throughout the peninsula. Villages of Pottawatomie, Chippewa, Winnebago, Menominee, Cape and a few other smaller tribes occupied the peninsula and its islands through the mid 1800s.

The first documented European to set foot on the peninsula was Jean Nicolet in August of 1634 when he landed at Pottawatomie Island (later named Rock island). From 1634-1763, the French flag flew high over the peninsula. In 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the British were awarded the peninsula among other lands east of the Mississippi river. This treaty would end the fight between the French and the British over territory in North America. The British held control of the peninsula until 1783 when a second Treaty of Paris was signed that would spell the end of the Revolutionary war. This signing changed ownership once again.

From 1783 until February 8th, 1831, a large area of the northeast part of the state including the peninsula became known as Indian Territory. Any white man who moved into this territory to settle was illegally on Indian land and could never obtain title to it. On February 8th, 1831, this changed when the United States government bought the land from the tribes occupying the peninsula, namely the Menominee and Pottawatomie tribes. Americans were free to purchase land in this area for $1.25 per acre. This spelled the beginning of the end for Native Americans on the peninsula, as they were certain to be displaced in the coming years with the new land deal.

In the spring of 1835, the Door Peninsula had its first American Settler when Increase Claflin purchased some land near what is today Little Sturgeon Bay and moved his family there. Claflin moved his family from Green Bay to Little Sturgeon using a huge sled pulled by two horses over the frozen waters of Green Bay. After Wisconsin was declared a state in 1848, it was divided into counties and on February 11th 1851 the Wisconsin Legislature gave the peninsula its county status at a time when more than 1000 people were living here. It was officially named Door County after the legislature heard the story of how the waters between Washington Island and the peninsula were known as “Deaths Door�.

The story goes that the Cape Indians occupied a large portion of the northern part of the peninsula and when the Pottawatomie arrived in far greater numbers, they drove the Cape Indians off the peninsula to Detroit Island.

The Capes were upset about this and plotted to retake their land on the peninsula. The Indians sent 2 scouts back to the mainland to find the enemies camp and assess their strength. When they completed this task they were to build a signal fire at night when it was time for the Cape Indian warriors to come across and surprise the mainland Indians. The plan failed when the two scouts were captured and tortured until they revealed their plan.

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Soon after this, the Pottawatomie built a fire high on the bluff on a night when a storm was building on the horizon. The cape Indians saw the signal fire and set out to reclaim their homeland. About halfway to the mainland, a squall overtook them and many of the warriors drowned. The few that did make it to the peninsula were so exhausted that they became easy victims of the waiting Pottawatomie. And so the waters between the mainland and the islands to the north became known as “Port Des Morts” or “Door of the Dead”.

EARLY FOREST HISTORY OF DOOR COUNTY The history of the Door peninsulas fragmented landscape of forest and fields and how it has shaped the landscape of today is due in large part to the land use that took place in the mid to late 19th century. The peninsula of the mid 1800’s was a landscape almost unbroken of hardwood and conifer forests composed of trees tall and straight. The county was largely pristine and still a wilderness with very little harvesting of trees or farming. There were no roads, just trails and only a few hubs of human activity. Washington Island, Rock Island and a few other small villages were active with fishing, Little Sturgeon was doing some ship building and Sturgeon Bay was just beginning to establish a few small sawmills. Anybody living on the peninsula during this period still had to get most of their goods and supplies in Green Bay or Marinette.

Even in the early to mid 1850’s, small villages were carved out of the tall trees that grew all around these settlements. The surrounding forests were still largely an untapped resource. Travel from one settlement to another was mainly by boat or over ice instead of by rough trails through the dense forest.

The first signs of commercial logging in the county began in the late 1850’s. Lumber was being produced for new houses being built not only in Wisconsin, but across the Midwest. Beams were being produced for bridge building and commercial buildings, cedar shingles for roofing, telephone poles for utility companies and ties for the railroad industry. The need for these resources went beyond the supply available to market and forests were being exhausted in the eastern United States at a rapid pace. The quest for more saw timber proceeded west and took off in Door county in the late 1860’s through the early 1880’s.

A sizable number of permanent sawmills were located on the peninsula with most of the larger sawmills located along the shoreline where they had direct access to loading docks.

Practically every bay or harbor had a settlement which included a sawmill and a large loading dock Here, ships would load the forest products and haul them to great lakes rail centers where they could be loaded on trains and shipped to the various markets across Wisconsin and the Midwest.

The other type of sawmill located in Door county was the portable sawmill that traveled to the saw timber that was more isolated from the areas that the permanent sawmills had easy access to.

These portable mills would move into an area for a month or so, cut all the saw timber in that area and move to another location when few trees were left in the area. It was these two types of sawmill operations, both permanent and portable that allowed for cutting across the entire county.

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The lumber business in Door County was highly competitive one. The trees seemed to provide an endless supply of logs to the mills that were located throughout the county. The profit margin for these mills was so small however that only the largest, straightest trees were cut. Anything smaller than 10 inches in diameter was left on the landscape. Some sawmills even rejected any logs less than 16 inches in diameter. Loggers took the best and left the rest. These wasteful practices were due to the economy of the times. The only lumber worth anything was the lumber free of knots. The industry was so competitive that either the sawmill produced what the market wanted or he went out of business.

By the mid 1880’s, the number of quality saw timber trees across the county had been greatly diminished. The population of the county was decreasing as people continued westward to find employment in the logging industry where the forests were yet to be cutover. A number of the smaller communities that flourished during the logging boom were abandoned. The remaining communities shifted their economics away from lumber into agriculture and cordwood.

Farming took off in areas that were cutover as a result of lumbering in the previous decade of which the best farmland is still being worked today. Most of southern and central Door County which was once a vast forest is today largely agriculture with smaller woodlots dotting the landscape. Many of the farms built in the 1800’s were built in areas that were still wooded and required lots of back breaking work of pulling stumps and picking rocks in order to have a field that grow a suitable crop. The wooded land also provided logs for building a house, cordwood to heat it and lumber and cedar shakes that could be made in the winter and sold for extra money to pay for goods.

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REGIONAL LANDSCAPE OVERVIEW Niagara Escarpment shown in pink (UWGB website)

Before exploring opportunities for land management on your own property it can be helpful to see how it fits into the larger landscape. Wisconsin has been divided into 17 major areas known as ecological landscapes. Each of these areas is characterized by their local ecology and opportunities for management.

Door County is part of the Northern Lake Michigan Coastal Ecological Landscape. This ecological landscape is located in northeastern Wisconsin, and includes Green Bay and the northern part of the Door Peninsula. Its landforms consist of the Niagara escarpment, a prominent dolomite rock outcropping along the east side of Green Bay, a glacial lake plain along the west side of Green Bay and glacial ground moraine elsewhere. This ecological landscape has an extensive shoreline along Green Bay, on the west coast of Lake Michigan.

Low sand dunes and beach ridges that support native Great Lakes vegetation including many rare species are found along the Great Lakes shoreline. High quality areas of exposed alkaline bedrock beach occur on the northern Door Peninsula, providing habitat for many rare plants. Several islands lie off the Door Peninsula and these also provide critical habitat for rare species and colonially nesting birds. Past glaciations formed numerous long narrow drainages on the Door Peninsula oriented in a north/southerly direction. In northern Door County, these wetlands are drained by small rivers and creeks, most of which empty into Lake Michigan. In southern Door County, wetland drainages flow into Green Bay as well as Lake Michigan. A total of 25 inland lakes are located within Door County. They vary in size from small ponds to larger inland lakes and support a variety of native aquatic species. The predominant water feature of the area is Lake Michigan. The influence of Lake Michigan moderates extreme temperatures resulting in cool spring and mild fall temperatures. Precipitation averages 27 inches per year. Soil types vary across Door County depending on location and drainage. They include sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam and muck. Shallow soil depth to underlying dolomite bedrock is a characteristic feature of much of the county. Cliffs, sinkholes, caves and dolomite ledges are associated with the Niagara Escarpment.

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Historic vegetation of this area included maple-basswood-beech forest, hemlock-hardwood forest, northern white cedar swamp, hardwood-conifer swamp, wet meadows, and coastal marshes. Conifer dominated upland forests that resemble the boreal forest were present along Lake Michigan.

Population for Door County in 2004 was 29,114 with a population density of 62 people per square mile: about two thirds of the statewide average. Recent population growth has averaged approximately 1% per year which is similar to the rest of Wisconsin but trails the national average. The majority of land in Door County is in private ownership (92%). Absentee landowners account for 45% of property ownership in Door County. Five State Parks, 18 County Parks & 2 Wildlife Areas comprise the bulk of the public land ownership. Currently 37% (approximately 116,400 acres) of Door County is forested, 44% is in agriculture & the balance is in grassland, wetland, shrub land, and urbanized areas. Today's woodlands are dominated by the maplebasswood-beech forest type, with smaller amounts of lowland hardwoods, aspen-birch, and lowland conifers.

Recreation is a major economic contributor to the Northern Lake Michigan Coastal Region, especially in Door County. Area businesses are supported by the continued popularity of Door Co. as a premier tourist destination.

In addition to tourism, agriculture, manufacturing, marine, retail, service, education, government, transportation & construction sectors round out a diversified local economy.

Northern Lake Michigan Coastal Ecological Management Opportunities This Ecological Landscape has many rare and endemic natural communities along Lake Michigan. · Protection of key stretches of the Niagara Escarpment that are important for rare species. · Protection and management of coastal ridge and swale forest, and the beaches, dunes, and boreal forest in Door County, which are unique to the Great Lakes shoreline. · Reforestation of marginal lands on the Door Peninsula is desirable to reduce adverse edge effects and accommodate rare area-sensitive animals. · Forest interior species management is possible in the northern part of the Ecological Landscape. · Within the interior of this Ecological Landscape there are opportunities for management of large conifer and hardwood swamps. · There are opportunities for the restoration and management of lakeshore marshes, sedge meadows, and wet forests along the west shore of Green Bay. · Lake Michigan shoreline endemic species require protection of alkaline rock shores, coastal estuaries, boreal forests, and alvar, beach and dune communities. · Most of the coastline in this Ecological Landscape is important for migratory birds. · Protection of islands off the coast of this Ecological Landscape, which are important for colonial nesting birds and are not significantly impacted by deer or human development.

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· Colonial water bird island rookeries occur along the Lake Michigan coast in Green Bay and the Grand Traverse Islands. These rookeries will need protection, monitoring, and management. Improving the water quality in lower Green Bay will reduce the negative impacts of pollutants. · Maintenance of migratory corridors, resting, and feeding areas for migratory birds, including raptors, songbirds, and waterfowl is important throughout the Ecological Landscape. · The Menominee River corridor is located in this Ecological Landscape, affording management opportunities for floodplain forests. · Protection of the Wolf, Oconto, and Peshtigo rivers should be considered. · Green Bay and reefs in the Bailey's Harbor area of Door County are significant fish spawning areas.

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Within the Northern Lake Michigan Coastal Ecological Landscape, Door County can be broken down into general ecozones based on natural features, local culture and land use. These zones are described as follows and locations identified on the map.

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Southern/Central Door Interior LAND USE This area is characterized by Belgian, German & Irish heritage, "rural" quality and a farming community. It is the agricultural land base of the county. Although livestock operations have declined over the years, active dairy & beef farms remain as do cash cropping operations. Several large scale mega farms are located within this area. The area is well suited to agricultural use with the deepest and most productive soil types in the county, particularly in the south of Sturgeon Bay. Some rural development has occurred in portions of the area as well as commercial development along highway 42/57, the major thoroughfare in the county. Current expansion of Hwy 42/57 to 4 lanes is underway and set for completion in 2008 to Sturgeon Bay. The highway project is expected to be a catalyst for further land fragmentation & development with potential to change the "rural" character of the area over time.

Town zoning controls land use in most of the area with the exception of Clay Banks Township which Section 33. Gardner adopted County Zoning ordinances.

FORESTS Interspersed with the farmland are various sized woodlots most of which range from 5 to 80 acres.

These forests are second growth that regenerated after turn of the century logging and land clearing. Although many woodlots occur on the more marginally productive land, forest productivity for most part is high. Most of the uplands are dominated by northern hardwoods (maple, beech, ash, basswood and red oak). Portions of this area (Town of Union) have sandy soils (unusual for most of the county) and are dominated by oak, cherry, aspen & red maple on these drier sites. A few species of trees typically associated with southern Wisconsin occur only in this portion of the county (shagbark hickory, white oak & bur oak). Swamp hardwoods & conifer forests occupy some of the wetland drainages in this area & contain various mixtures of green ash, silver maple, red maple, elm, cottonwood & balsam poplar. Cedar & tamarack stands can also be found in some of the low lying wetlands. This ecoregion has experienced the most reforestation activity in the county since the 1980's.

Incentive programs to retire marginal cropland from production have been the major driving force behind this.

This area has also harbored the highest deer density in Door County since 1990. Negative impacts on reforestation efforts and natural forest reproduction are a direct result.

WATER Natural water features in this ecoregion are limited to numerous named & unnamed creeks and the Ahnapee River. Some of these are relatively short and narrow and do not maintain year- round flow. These waterways drain both to Lake Michigan as well as Green Bay. Many serve as important spawning areas and habitat for native fish & other aquatic species as well as valuable riparian and wetland habitat . A dam at Forestville creates an impoundment on the Ahnapee River known as the Forestville Millpond. Numerous manmade ponds and shallow wetland restorations dot the area as well.

ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS This area has the least amount of state Natural Areas and documented threatened & endangered species in the county. Part of this is a function of land use and another part due to less inventory & study than in other parts of the county. Links to detailed information on ecologically important areas are as follows:

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COUNTY LOCATER MAP Ahnapee River Corridor Black Ash Swamp Sand Hill Pinery & Fabry Creek complex Renard Swamp Stoney Creek Wetlands Brussels Hill/Kayes Creek/Gardner Swamp Hungry Settlement Marsh Sawyer Harbor, Lost Creek, Larson Creek Watershed

Northern Door Interior LAND USE This area is characterized by Scandinavian heritage, tourism, orchards, and rural residential land use on former agricultural land. Due to favorable soils & climate, this area contains most of the fruit industry in the county. Although only a fraction of the acreage it once was, active cherry and apple orchards are scattered through out the area. Some active cropland occurs in the southern part of this region but, the shallow and droughty soils have lead to a significant amount of fallow remnant farmland. Development and parcelization of old farmland has occurred and despite its low agricultural productivity, land in the area commands a premium price. A significant part of this area is under absentee ownership. All northern Door county townships have adopted the Door County Zoning ordinances with the exception of Egg Harbor Township.

FORESTS Woodlots are interspersed throughout the region. Productivity of these second growth forests is variable and heavily influenced by soil depth & drainage. The primary upland timber type is northern hardwoods dominated by sugar maple, beech and ash. White pine, hemlock and white spruce are often commingled with the hardwood forests especially nearer the tip of the peninsula. Birch was common throughout much of the forest but has experienced significant decline due to age. Aspen is prevalent in some stands based on past disturbance, much of it is over mature and also on the decline. White cedar is found throughout the area. It occupies many of the lowland areas, sometimes in pure stands and also mixed with black spruce, tamarack, balsam fir, ash, birch and balsam poplar. Cedar is well adapted to alkaline soils in the area and occurs on dryer sites forming unique stands of upland cedar. Swamp hardwoods (black ash, green ash, birch) can be found in low lying areas and occasionally red & silver maple as well. This area had the most reforestation activity of anywhere in the county prior to the mid 1980's. Plantations of pine, spruce and cedar were established in old fields and orchards scattered throughout the region. Growth and development of these plantations is variable. Some exhibit average to good growth while others either entirely or in pockets, have done poorly on the shallow alkaline soils. Other fallow fields and orchards have slowly seeded naturally to trees dependent on nearby seed sources. Vacant fields and orchards have also converted to a variety of grasses and/or forbs while others are vegetated with upland brush or dense stands of juniper.

WATER Natural water features in this ecoregion include headwaters of numerous named creeks & the Mink River all of which flow to Lake Michigan. Most of these are important spawning areas and habitat for native fish species as well as other aquatic & riparian wildlife. A number of inland lakes are also located within this area. The larger lakes have varying degrees of developed shoreline with both year-round & seasonal residences

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as well as public access. Most of the smaller lakes are more isolated and undeveloped. These inland lakes have viable fisheries and provide locals and visitors water sport recreation opportunity where access is available.

ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS A number of unique habitats and associated rare species occur in this ecoregion. Links to information on ecologically important areas are as follows:

COUNTY LOCATER MAP Whitefish Bay Creek Logan Creek Lost Lake Corridor Bay to Lake Wildlife Corridor Ephraim, Bailey's Harbor, North Bay Corridor Mink River Rowley's Bay System

Lake Michigan Shore LAND USE This area is characterized by a combination of highly developed and relatively pristine expanses of the Lake Michigan shoreline as it exists today as well as remnant dunes and ancient shoreline found inland.

Next to the cobble, sand & exposed bedrock shoreline lays a wooded corridor that varies in width from a quarter mile to a couple miles and runs the full length of the peninsula. Due to its scenic beauty and proximity to water, this area has been for some time very valuable property. Shoreline development ranges from older modest cottages to lavish permanent & seasonal homes. The villages of Jacksonport & Baileys Harbor are situated on the shoreline as well. Protected areas of the shoreline include town, county & state owned parks and natural areas as well as private ownerships by conservancy/sanctuary organizations. All townships in the Lake Michigan shoreline area have adopted the Door County Zoning ordinance.

FORESTS The second growth forest type of this corridor is variable and can change dramatically within as little as 50 feet. This is especially true in the well defined ridge/swale topography that parallels the shoreline. Ridges can support a variety of forest types; pure hemlock, mixtures of (beech, red & sugar maple, hemlock, pine & birch) and birch/aspen mixed with balsam fir. Swales will typically be forested by white cedar, balsam poplar or green and black ash. In some areas, the cool & moist conditions of the "Lake Effect" support growth of species associated with Boreal (far northern) forests dominated by spruce, cedar & Section 35. Jacksonport balsam fir. Both yellow and white birches are common in this area but due to advanced age, have suffered significant mortality and decline. Unique to this area is the occasional occurrence of mountain ash found nowhere else naturally on the peninsula.

WATER The rivers and creeks referenced in the Northern Door Interior empty into Lake Michigan in this corridor. Within some portions of the corridor are spring-fed seeps and small streams that are direct tributaries

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of the larger creeks flowing to the lake. Other spring-fed streams may feed small lakes or, in some cases, drain directly into the ground through cracks in the bedrock.

ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The Lake Michigan shore corridor contains an assemblage of unique communities and threatened and endangered species. Local & national conservation organizations as well as local, state & federal government agencies have taken an active role in protection measures of remaining undeveloped areas along the shoreline corridor. Links to information on ecologically important areas are as follows:

COUNTY LOCATER MAP Southern Lake Michigan Shoreline Logan Creek Lost Lake Corridor Bay to Lake Wildlife Corridor Ephraim, Bailey's Harbor, North Bay Corridor Mink River Rowley's Bay System Europe Lake Forest Area

Escarpment/ Green Bay Shore LAND USE This area is characterized by the high bluff and cliff face of the Niagara escarpment and the cobble & sand beach of Green Bay. Like the Lake Michigan Shoreline, a wooded corridor of varying width extends from the beach to the top of the bluff for the full length of the peninsula. Extensive shoreline development has occurred on beachfront property with permanent and seasonal residences. In addition, development of condominiums and single family residences continues along the bluff base as well as sites on the top of the bluff offering a water view. Real estate in this area is very valuable.

The city of Sturgeon Bay and villages of Egg Harbor, Ephraim, Fish Creek, Sister Bay, Ellison Bay and Gills Rock are all located along this shoreline. Protected areas of the shoreline include county & state owned parks and natural areas as well as private ownerships by conservancy/sanctuary organizations. The townships in the southern half of this corridor are governed by local town zoning. The northern townships have adopted the Door County zoning Section 33. Gardner ordinance with the exception of Egg Harbor.

FORESTS A unique feature of the Green Bay shoreline area is an old growth forest occurring on the escarpment face. Researchers have discovered a relatively undisturbed forest of small diameter, very slow growing cedar that are centuries old. Small size trees and poor access kept this forest free from man's influence.

This forest in Door County is composed of white cedar with the oldest specimen discovered to date exceeding 600 years. Elsewhere, second growth forests are found. At the base of the bluff, a variety of forest stands occur

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including oak/northern hardwoods, cedar, balsam fir, birch and aspen. In lowland and seepage areas, balsam poplar, green & black ash, silver maple, cottonwood & swamp white oak can be found with their occurrence dependent on drainage. The predominant forest type at the top of the escarpment is a mixed forest of red oak, birch, red maple, white pine and aspen.

Nowhere else in the county is oak as prevalent and widespread. Another peculiar feature of this area is the presence of small pockets of red pine. They occur sporadically on loam soils that are shallow to bedrock. which is very unusual for a species typically associated with sandy soils.

WATER There are relatively few creeks in the northern Green Bay shoreline. Most notable is Fish Creek. Creeks draining into Green Bay are more numerous in the southern portion of the county & like Fish creek provide spawning areas for native fish species of the bay. Valuable habitat for Section 3. Egg Harbor aquatic & terrestrial wildlife species occurs within these creek corridors. Seeps can also be found in the face or base of the escarpment that support wetland vegetation & wildlife habitat.

ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The remaining undeveloped Green Bay shoreline as well as portions of the Niagara escarpment supports a variety of unique communities, threatened and endangered species as well as state designated "Natural Areas". Local conservation organizations as well as al government agencies have played a role in protection measures of portions of this corridor. Links to information on ecologically important areas are as follows:

COUNTY LOCATER MAP Bay to Lake Wildlife Corridor Ephraim, Bailey's Harbor Bayshore Blufflands Sawyer Harbor, Lost Creek, Larson Creek Watershed Brussels Hill/Kayes Creek/Gardner Swamp Renard Swamp

Grand Traverse Islands Washington Island In 2003, a Forest Resource Assessment and Management plan was prepared for Washington Island by Clark Forestry Consulting Services. This comprehensive reference should be consulted for information regarding the culture, land use, forest resources & unique ecology of the island. This document is available from your local DNR Forester.

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Chambers Island LAND USE Chambers Island is located in Green Bay five miles off the Door Peninsula. The island is approximately five square miles in size. The shoreline consists of cobble and sand beaches dotted with seasonal cottages while the interior is mostly undeveloped. An airstrip & lighthouse are located on the island's north end and a Catholic retreat facility on the east shore. The majority of the island is in forest cover. One main unimproved town road transects the island with several logging/woods roads connecting to it. Permanent docks are located on the north & east side of the island with the main island access being private boats. Nearly the entire island is under private ownerships. The primary use of the island is seasonal recreation (vacation homes, hiking, boating, swimming and fishing). Periodic timber harvesting has occurred on 15 year intervals since the mid 1900's. Chambers Island falls under the Door County zoning ordinance adopted by the town of Gibraltar.

FORESTS Most of the island is covered by second growth hardwood forest with scattered pine and hemlock.

The island's forests grow in deep sandy soil with no exposed bedrock. As a result, the vegetation is more typical of Marinette Co. than mainland Door Co. Mixed northern hardwood forests are the predominant forest type. Sugar maple, red maple & birch occur in mixtures with beech on the south end of the island, hemlock in the central portions and oak to the north. Periodic selection harvesting (every 15 years) has occurred for over 50 years with the logs transported by barge to the mainland. A unique feature of Chambers Island is the absence of deer for over a decade. It provides a rare opportunity to observe a sizable area of natural vegetation unaffected by deer browsing. A well developed layer of understory woody and herbaceous vegetation has established itself. This is a stark contrast to the island in the 1940's to 1980's, when a prolific deer herd decimated understory vegetation.

WATER Two lakes (Mud - 4 acres & Mackaysee - 347 acres) are located on the north side of the island with little shoreline development. Both provide aquatic and riparian wildlife habitat with Mackaysee Lake supporting a viable population of native fish species.

ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The shoreline areas of Chambers Island include unique communities of the most ecological significance. Chambers Island was part of an ecological study of the Grand Traverse Islands conducted in the late 1990's. Further interest in the unique island ecology is ongoing with by local conservation organizations as well as WDNR- Bureau of Endangered Resources.

Links to information on ecologically important areas are as follows: Grand Traverse Islands Detroit Island LAND USE Detroit Island is located off the tip of Door Co. and very near Washington Island. It is approximately 2 miles long and varies from .1 to .8 mile wide. The north end of the island has seasonal residences and unimproved roads. The south half of the island is relatively undeveloped.

The island is primarily in forest cover with rock outcrops. Bedrock & cobble beach make up the island shoreline. Seasonal summer recreation associated with island residences is the primary land use. Detroit Island falls under the Door County zoning ordinance adopted by the Town of Washington.

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FORESTS Most of the island consists of a mixed hardwood forest. Primary species include sugar maple, red maple, white birch, basswood & red oak. Some stands have a significant amount of ironwood present.

Associated species include beech and balsam fir. White cedar is also present in shoreline areas. Timber quality is poor to average. Selective harvesting of portions of the island took place in the late 1940's & 1980's. Deer are prevalent on the island exhibiting high density in recent years.

WATER No inland streams or lakes occur on the island.

ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT LAND & WATER AREAS The most notable ecological feature of the island is the Great Lakes alkaline rock shoreline on the island's south side. Detroit Island was also part of the ecological study of the Grand Traverse Islands.

Links to more information on ecologically important areas are as follows: Grand Traverse Islands

FOREST COVER TYPES OF DOOR COUNTY Door county is home to a number of different forest cover types. Forest trees in nature may be aggregated into certain groupings or associations or may be pure stands consisting of only one species. These groupings or pure stands are called forest cover types. Some forest cover types have occupied the area they are growing on for long periods. Others are temporary occupants of disturbed sites and through ecological succession, gradually give way to a more stable cover and ultimately, under stable conditions, to climax forest.

An example of this would be stand of pure aspen. Aspen is a short lived species (100 year old aspen is very old) that requires full sunlight in order to become established and is considered a pioneer species. A pioneer species is one that is first to occupy a site after a disturbance (i.e. a large fire or major wind storm). A recently disturbed site that is initially occupied by aspen is usually pure aspen with very few other species represented on the site.

Over time, as ecological succession is progressing, the aspen are aging and approaching the end of their natural life cycle. As individual aspen begin to die out, other longer lived species such as sugar maple and American beech( can live 200 years or more) begin to take their place. These species can grow beneath the aspen tree canopy in the dense shade and as the aspen die, the shade tolerant maple and beech fill in the holes left in the tree canopy by the dying aspen. Over time, as all of the aspen die in the stand they are replaced with a more stable cover of long lived tree species. The forest cover type that was once aspen is now northern hardwoods.

There are ten main forest cover types that are found in Door county that will be described in the following pages. Other forest cover types may be found in the county but are not described in this plan due to them being a very minor component in the overall landscape.

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Northern Hardwoods The northern hardwood forest type is made up of any combination of sugar maple (Acer saccharum), beech (Fagus grandifolia), basswood (Tilia americana), white ash (Fraxinus americana), and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis) that comprises more than 50% of the basal area (a measure of stocking) in sawtimber and poletimber stands or more than 50% of the stems in sapling and seedling stands.

Sugar maple typically is the dominant species in northern hardwood stands throughout Wisconsin and Door county. Beech is the most common associate species in Door county whereas Basswood is the most common associate in other parts of the state. White ash and yellow birch are common minor associates, but only rarely dominate stands.

Within the northern hardwood cover type, the predominant associates in Wisconsin (including Door County) currently are (1996 FIA): red maple (Acer rubrum), red oak (Quercus rubra), hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), white pine (Pinus strobus), and balsam fir (Abies balsamea). Many other tree species occurring in Wisconsin can be found as occasional associates in northern hardwood stands.

The northern hardwood cover type develops and grows best on nutrient rich sites with well drained to moderately well drained loamy soils; the very best soils are deep, well drained, silt loams.

Section 4. Nasewaupee However, it occurs on a wide range of soil conditions, from well drained to somewhat poorly drained and from sands to clays. Dry, excessively drained sands and wet, poorly drained soils generally do not support the development of northern hardwood stands.

Extent in Door County This forest type is the most common found in the county making up approximately 43% of the forests on the peninsula. Southern doors northern hardwood stands are generally smaller in size due to the “patchwork� layout of forests and agricultural fields, with the largest block being located on the Brussels hill. Northern door county does have some larger blocks of this type due to less agricultural activity taking place.

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Aspen The Aspen forest type is any forest stand that has more than 50% of the basal area (a measure of stocking) in sawtimber and poletimber stands or more than 50% of the stems in sapling and seedling stands. Principal species are bigtooth aspen (Populus grandidentata) and trembling aspen (P. tremuloides). Aspen will refer to both trembling and bigtooth species. Balsam poplar (P. balsamifera) will also be discussed in this section.

Aspen grows with a variety of trees and shrubs over its extensive range, either as a dominant or an associate.

Within the aspen cover type, the predominant associates in Wisconsin currently are (1996 FIA): red maple (Acer rubrum), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), red oak (Quercus rubra), and white pine (Pinus strobus). Most other major tree species occurring in Wisconsin can be found as occasional associates in aspen stands. In Wisconsin, balsam poplar is found mainly in mixed stands where other species dominate.

The aspen type occurs on a wide range of soil conditions, from sand to clay and from dry to wet. Best growth is demonstrated on dry-mesic and mesic sites with well-drained loamy soils, but growth potential is good for all sites, except dry, excessively drained sands, poorly drained wet sites, and heavy clays. Although both species can be found across the full range of site conditions, bigtooth aspen occurs predominantly on very dry to dry-mesic sites, whereas trembling aspen occurs predominantly on dry-mesic to wet sites. Balsam poplar generally occurs on wet sites, such as river floodplains, stream and lake shores, moist depressions, and swamps, but will also grow on drier sites.

Section 9 Clay Banks

Extent in Door County Aspen stands are a minor component in the county making up less than 10% of the wooded land. Stand size is typically 10 acres or less, with occasional larger stands.

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White Cedar This forest cover type consists of any stand with more that 50% basal area in swamp conifers with northern white cedar as the predominant species. Associated species may include black ash, red maple, green ash, balsam fir, hemlock, white spruce, paper birch and yellow birch as a minor component. White cedar typically grows on poorly drained lands where the water table is close to the surface, but in Door county it also grows well on upland sites that are well drained.

Extent in Door County The white cedar forest type makes up approximately 14% of the forests of Door county. This type can be found throughout the county from north to south.

Section 2. Forestville

White Cedar Variants This forest cover type is one that is unique to Door County and not found statewide. This is most likely due to our alkaline (high ph) soils of the county that allow the white cedar to thrive in upland stands that would not otherwise support this species. These stands are typically composed of northern white cedar and aspen but may have any number of associate species including balsam fir, red maple and paper birch mainly. This cover type can be found on a number of different sites ranging from poorly drained low ground to well drained uplands.

Typically, these stands are associated with a ridge and swale complex that are found along the Lake Michigan shoreline but also may be found well inland.

Extent in Door County This unique forest type is limited in its extent in the county. Most stands of this type are located in association with the Niagara Escarpment along the bay shore or in a narrow band that follows the Lake Michigan shoreline. A few stands of this type are located throughout the county that are not associated with the shoreline or escarpment.

Section 9. Clay Banks

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Paper Birch Paper birch (Betula papyrifera) also called white birch) is a forest cover type comprising more than 50 percent of the basal area in sawtimber and pole timber stands, or more than 50 percent of the stems in sapling and seedling stands. Mainly found where the climate has short, cool summers and long cold winters and where one-third to one-half of total precipitation falls as snow. Large pure stands are uncommon.

Birch grows best on deep well-drained soils with good fertility, especially sandy loams, glacial tills and outwash. In Door county, this species is most commonly found in association with aspen (Populus spp.), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), white cedar, red oak (Quercus rubra), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), white spruce (Picea glauca), yellow birch (B. allegheniensis), and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). Paper birch in Door County has been on the decline in recent years due in large part to trees dying of old age with very few birch to take their place. Paper birch is a species that did well in Door County after it was cut over in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. It requires full sunlight in order to grow and conditions were ideal as a result of the cutting.

Section 21. Egg Harbor Today, most forests that once had a significant component of paper birch are losing that species due to the age of the birch. Other species in these forest stands are longer lived species that fill in the gaps that the birch leave when they die. Without full sunlight hitting the forest floor, the birch has no chance for regeneration in these stands.

Extent in Door County Pure stands of paper birch are very rare in the county today. Mixed stands that include paper birch are found throughout the county but are better represented in northern door county. This type will become increasingly rare as the birch of Door County near the end of their life cycle.

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Swamp Conifers This forest type is made up of more than 50 percent swamp conifers with balsam fir (Abies balsamea) predominant. Other species that are typically associated with type include northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis), black spruce (Picea mariana), white spruce (P. glauca), tamarack (Larix laricina), hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), white pine (Pinus strobus), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), yellow birch (B. allegheniensis), red maple (Acer rubrum), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) and balsam poplar (P. balsamifera). This forest type is found exclusively on wet, poorly drained sites.

Section 10 Jacksonport

Extent in Door County This forest type is not common on the peninsula and only makes up 3% of the forested cover in the county. The largest contiguous block of this type in the county occurs north of Baileys Harbor in the Mud Lake Wildlife Area, owned by the Wisconsin DNR.

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Swamp Hardwoods The major components of this type include black ash (Fraxinus nigra), American elm (Ulmus americana), and red maple (Acer rubrum). Sites are typically wet and subject to fluctuations in water table. When evaluating site potential, the drainage system within the stand should be evaluated when site index measurements are made. Swamp hardwood species can tolerate semistagnant drainage conditions, but for best growth it is important that the water be moving so that the soil is aerated even if saturated. Door county swamp hardwood stands lack the growth and vigor that this type exhibits in other parts of the state. A large number of the stands of this Section 9 Clay Banks cover type are showing signs of dieback in the crowns. In contained systems with little or no water movement, partial or complete removal of the overstory without advance regeneration often results in a lack of reproduction and loss of site. A rise in the water table from decreased transpiration inhibits stump sprouting and seedling establishment.

Extent in Door County This forest type makes up approximately 20% of the forests of Door County. This cover type is more common in southern door but is still a common type north of Sturgeon Bay. The largest block of this type is located in southeast door county, west of Forestville.

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Bottomland Hardwoods The bottomland hardwood type is associated with flood plains and stream/river bottoms, primarily in the southern two-thirds of Wisconsin. When the bottomland hardwood community is found further north, it can be regionally significant and may provide important habitat for uncommon or rare species.

The major commercial tree species are eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), river birch (Betula nigra), swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor), and silver maple (Acer saccharinum). Unfortunately, Dutch elm disease has precluded management of American elm (Ulmus americana).

Cottonwood is commonly found along streams and bottomlands in the southern two-thirds of Wisconsin. An excellent pioneer of recently disturbed sites, cottonwood requires a continuous supply of moisture throughout the growing season.

Cottonwood grows best on medium textured soils with good internal drainage; growth is poor on excessively wet sites and areas of impeded drainage.

Green ash is usually confined to bottomland sites. However, it will grow well when planted on moist upland sites. In Wisconsin, it is most commonly found on wet, rich alluvial soils in the southern half of the state.

Section 36. Brussels

Swamp white oak commonly occurs on wet sites characterized by hardpan or areas subject to flooding. In Wisconsin, it is most commonly found as a component of bottomland hardwoods.

Silver maple is characteristically a bottomland species, common within alluvial flood plains. It occurs on all major soil types, but is more common on medium to fine textured soils.

American elm was an important component of bottomland forests, but Dutch elm disease has killed most large elm. Elm seedlings and saplings may be locally abundant but are not generally favored by foresters due to continuing disease problems.

Other tree species that commonly occur with bottomland hardwoods include: hackberry (Celtis occidentals), bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), black willow (Salix nigra), basswood (Tilia americana), black ash (Fraxinus nigra), red maple (Acer rubrum), and red oak (Quercus rubra).

Soil Preference

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Bottomland hardwood forests are intricate and variable ecosystems due to species richness, flooding, ice movement, internal drainage patterns and the pattern of deposition and development of soils is complex. Being associated with waterways that periodically flood, the soils are stratified. Typical soil profiles have horizons of distinctly different textural classes deposited by the stream. Soil textures are often a mixture of organic material, sands, silts, and clays developing complex micro sites. The interaction of these variables precludes the development of any single regeneration prescription which will function adequately on most bottomland sites.

Extent in Door County This type is almost exclusively found in southern door, with very few stands of this type located north of Sturgeon Bay.

Oak The oak forest cover type includes upland sites with sandy loam to silt loam soils where red oak, white pine (Pinus strobus), aspen, paper birch, and red maple dominate. White oak and many of the northern hardwood species (basswood, ash, sugar maple, etc.) are also found on these sites.

The oak type also includes upland sites with loamy sands to silt loams where red oak and most northern hardwood species, especially sugar maple, dominate. White oak, American elm (Ulmus americana), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) are also common on many of these sites.

Extent in Door County The oak forest type is found in a few areas of the county.

Southern door county has the largest concentration of oak on the landscape. The other area where oak is common is along the Green Bay shoreline and the associated Niagara Escarpment.

Section 32. Gardner

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Plantations The plantation cover type consists of all forest plantings that are occupying in most cases, retired agricultural fields and orchards. Plantations range from a single species to any number of different species mixed together. The most common tree plantations are either all conifers consisting of white pine, red pine, white spruce or Norway spruce and white cedar, or mixed plantations of hardwoods and conifers. Common hardwood species used are ash (green and white), oak (red and white) and maple. Species recommendations for a given site are based on soil types and what tree species grow best on that soil type.

Section 7. Clay Banks

Extent in Door County Plantations are widespread throughout the county with southern Door County having the most acreage in tree plantings.

Section 27 Gardner

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Generally Accepted Silvicultural Methods by Forest Cover Type Forest Cover Type Northern Hardwood

Species Removal

Intermediate Thinning

X

X

Aspen

Coppice

Clearcut

Shelterwood

Single-tree selection

Group Selection

X

X

X

X

White Cedar

X

X

XX

X

White Cedar Variants

X

X

X

X

X

XX

X

XX

Paper Birch Swamp Conifer

X

X

Swamp Hardwoods

X

X

Bottomland Hardwoods

X

X

Oak Plantations X ÆIndicates acceptable method.

X XXX

X X XXÆStrip clearcutting generally recommended.

X X

X

X

X

X

XXXÆWhen silver maple predominates.

FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Even-aged management systems are normally used to harvest, regenerate and tend sun-loving forest cover types that grow poorly or will not regenerate in their own shade. The forest cover types adapted to these systems are generally those accustomed to regeneration and rapid domination of a site following a catastrophic disturbance, such as a fire or major windstorm. Stands normally consist of trees at or near the same age. Evenaged systems are also applied to cover types dominated by shade-tolerant species when the intent is to focus on the less-tolerant component of the stand. Portions of even-aged management systems, specifically the intermediate thinning regimes, may also be used in the early stages of young northern hardwood stands to facilitate a long-term conversion to the uneven-aged system.

Uneven-aged management systems are normally used to harvest, regenerate and tend forest cover types that will regenerate and grow under their own shade. Stands managed under uneven-aged systems are normally comprised of three or more age classes. These cover types are adapted to regenerate under partial canopies following minor disturbances like individual tree mortality, or a moderate disturbance such as a wind storm that would damage up to one third of the stand. Uneven-aged systems are designed to mimic such disturbances.

Even shade-tolerant species grow most vigorously in relatively free-to-grow conditions with full sunlight, assuming other growth requirements like soil moisture, are met. As a result, regeneration and most vigorous growth typically occur in small- to medium-sized gaps (small openings). The number and size of gaps created through uneven-aged management are dependent upon species composition, acreage regulation, and tree

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rotation age or size. Normally, these systems are used to manage stands containing mixed trees of all ages, from seedlings to mature trees. They are also used to convert even-aged stands into an uneven-aged structure.

Even-Aged Silvicultural Systems Light requirements, growth rates and reproductive characteristics of the species to be regenerated govern the degree of overstory removal at the time of harvest. Competing vegetation and site characteristics are additional factors. The following are the generally accepted even-aged regeneration methods used in Wisconsin.

EVEN-AGED REGENERATION METHODS USED TO PARTIALLY SIMULATE THE DEGREE OF STAND MORTALITY THAT WOULD NORMALLY FOLLOW A MAJOR NATURAL DISTURBANCE SUCH AS A FIRE OR MAJOR WINDSTORM These methods are primarily used with intolerant species such as aspen, red pine or jack pine that require full sunlight to ensure complete regeneration and optimum development. • Coppice: A method designed to naturally regenerate a stand using vegetative reproduction. The overstory is completely removed. Generally, there is no residual stand left as the residual can interfere with the regeneration, and is not necessary to shelter the regenerated stand. This method differs from the other even-aged regeneration systems (clearcut, seed-tree and shelterwood) in that the regenerated stand is derived from vegetative reproduction rather than a seed source.

Aspen two years following coppice harvest. Section 11 Brussels

Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan

Aspen eight years following coppice harvest. Section 15 Brussels

Page 29

• Clearcut: A method used to regenerate a stand by the removal of most or all woody vegetation during the harvest creating a completely open area leading to the establishment of an even-aged stand.

Regeneration can be from natural seed produced by adjacent stands, trees cut in the harvesting operation, direct seeding, or replanting.

This method differs from the seed-tree and shelterwood methods in that no trees are left in the cut area for seeding purposes. Rather, the seed source is from outside the cut area or from felled tops of harvested trees.

Clearcut seven years following cutting with oak,

• Seed-tree: A method designed to bring about cherry, maple and aspen regeneration. Section 27 Union natural reproduction on clearcut harvest areas by leaving enough trees singly or in groups to naturally seed the area with adequate stocking of desired species in a reasonable period of time before the site is captured by undesirable vegetation. In this method, only a few trees (typically three to 10 per acre) are left and the residual stocking is not enough to sufficiently protect, modify or shelter the site in any significant way. Seed-trees may be removed after establishment or left indefinitely. This method differs from the coppice method in that regeneration comes primarily from seed rather than sprouts. It differs from a clearcut in that the seed source for regeneration is from residual trees within the harvest area rather than outside the cut area, or relying on seed existing on or in the ground. It differs from a shelterwood in that the residual stocking is too sparse to modify the understory environment for seedling protection.

EVEN-AGED REGENERATION METHODS USED TO PARTIALLY MIMIC NATURAL DETERIORATION OF THE OVERSTORY OVER TIME These methods are tailored to more tolerant species that require partial shade and/or a seed source for optimum regeneration, but once established need full sunlight for survival and full development (such as white pine and oak).

• Shelterwood: A method used to regenerate a stand by manipulating the overstory and understory to create conditions favorable for the establishment and survival of desirable tree species. This method normally involves gradual removal (usually in two or three cuts) of the overstory. The overstory serves to modify understory conditions to create a favorable environment for reproduction and provide a seed source. A secondary function of the overstory is to allow further development of quality overstory stems during seedling establishment. The most vigorous trees are normally left as the overstory, and the less vigorous trees removed.

A successful shelterwood harvest often requires the removal of intermediate or suppressed saplings and poles (often of less desirable species such as elm, ironwood or red maple) because the smaller understory trees will suppress development of vigorous seedlings of the preferred species. Initial shelterwood cuttings resemble heavy thinnings. Natural reproduction starts under the protection of the older stand, and is finally released when it becomes desirable to give the new stand full use of the growing space. At that point, the remaining overstory is completely removed.

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This method differs from clearcutting and coppice methods in that the next stand is established on the site before overstory removal. It differs from a seed-tree cutting in that the overstory serves to protect the understory as well as distribute seed. Finally, an even-aged shelterwood harvest differs from uneven-aged selection methods in that it promotes an even-aged stand structure.

• Overstory Removal: A method used to mimic the natural deterioration of the overstory but at an accelerated rate in situations where adequate regeneration is already established. The entire stand overstory is removed in one cut to provide the release of established seedlings and saplings. This method has been referred to as a natural shelterwood or a one-cut shelterwood.

Overstory removal results in an even-aged stand structure as opposed to uneven-aged structure. It differs from the clearcut and the coppice regeneration methods in that seedling and sapling regeneration is established prior to the overstory removal. It differs from the shelterwood and seed-tree methods in that no manipulation of the overstory is needed to establish regeneration.

Overstory removal can be applied to all forest stands being managed on an even-aged basis if desirable advance regeneration is well-established. General considerations in the application of the overstory removal method are: - Overstory health, condition and composition - Potential risk of raising the water table on wet sites - Adequate stocking, distribution, vigor and desirability of established, advanced regeneration - Site capability - Existing and potential competition, including exotic species All the even-aged methods have variants with reserves involving scattered trees left throughout the harvest area or in groups or clumps. Individual trees or groups of trees left uncut on a long-term basis will hamper the growth of seedlings adjacent to them, but regeneration should be adequate as long as the reserves do not exceed approximately 20 percent crown density. With such reserves, even-aged systems can be managed as two-aged systems on a long-term basis. In most cases, the goal of an even-aged silvicultural system is to naturally regenerate a species already present in the stand. Depending on the species involved, additional activities may be required to ensure that its germination and growth requirements are met. These may involve the use of prescribed fire, disking and other forms of scarification to expose a mineral soil seedbed to enhance seed germination and survival. Where natural regeneration is insufficient or in cases where the desired species was not present in the harvested stand, tree planting or direct seeding may be required.

Silvicultural Principles Even-aged Harvest Considerations Under even-aged silvicultural systems, entire stands are harvested all at once or over a relatively short period when they reach a given age. The term rotation is used for the period of years required to grow timber stands to a specified condition of maturity. The age of the stand at the end of the rotation period when it is normally harvested is called the rotation age.

Traditional rotation ages are set at a point in time when average annual growth reaches its maximum. Beyond that age, stands grow more slowly. Decay and tree mortality may begin to increase. This rotation age varies by

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species and site, and is normally established for each individual species reflecting prevailing regional or local conditions. Eventually a stand will reach its pathological rotation age, at which time insect and disease activity result in such extensive decay and mortality that harvesting of the stand is no longer economically viable. At the stand level, natural mortality of the overstory becomes significant. Regeneration of the current overstory may also become difficult due to natural succession and loss of seed sources. Rotation length will vary with a number of factors: • The average growth rate and life span of the species involved. A typical rotation age for a stand of aspen, for example, is 45 to 60 years. A typical rotation age for an oak stand may be two to three times as long.

• The type and quality of product desired. Pulpwood takes a shorter time to produce than sawlogs, which must be larger in diameter. High quality sawlogs and veneer logs require more time since they are typically grown to still larger diameters and at higher density levels.

• Economic considerations. Changes in supply and demand in general, specific customer requirements, market values, and internal infrastructure demands can all result in modified rotation ages.

• Site productivity. More productive sites support increased growth rates for a longer period of time. As a result, the period of positive mean annual growth is also extended, increasing the optimum rotation age.

Different rotation lengths are typically employed across the range of site productivity.

• Insect and disease concerns. The level of mortality and decay caused by insects and disease is a prime factor in net growth. Insect and disease outbreaks can significantly reduce stand growth, and in extreme cases, cause such extensive mortality that they determine rotations. As stands age, the risk of sudden, extensive mortality increases.

• Landowner goals. Rotation ages can be extended to enhance non-timber resources if a landowner is willing to accept reduced growth rates and potentially forgo some timber revenues. In some cases, these extended rotations can enhance the supply and value of some high quality timber products such as sawtimber and veneer.

Just as stands can be held for some time after the normal rotation age, they can also be harvested for a period prior to the normal rotation age. This harvest period can be used to space harvests over time, divide or combine stands to meet other landowner goals, manage the flow of timber income, or deal with other supply and demand economic constraints.

Principles

Uneven-Aged Silvicultural Systems Stand regeneration is achieved by periodically manipulating the overstory and understory to create conditions favorable for the establishment and survival of desirable tree species capable of reproducing & growing in partial shade. Thinning, regeneration and harvesting usually occurs simultaneously. The harvested trees are essentially replaced by growth on the younger trees left in the stand. These silvicultural systems are designed to maintain an uneven-aged stand condition, while manipulating the multi-age and multi-size structure of the overstory to facilitate continual recruitment and development of quality growing stock.

With the uneven-aged silvicultural system, the tree selection decision (to cut or leave) considers a number of factors including: • Desired Age and Size Class Distribution

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• •

Tree Quality Species Desirability

Chapter 2 — Generally Accepted Silvicultural Principles

The following are generally accepted uneven-aged natural regeneration systems used in Wisconsin: • Single-tree Selection: Individual trees of various size and age classes are periodically removed to provide space for regeneration, and promote the growth of remaining trees. Each regeneration opening (gap) covers an area equivalent to the crown spread of a single large tree that has been removed. Individual trees are selected for removal from all size classes (to achieve desired residual density levels) following recognized order of removal criteria based on tree risk, vigor, quality, and spacing. The goal, particularly in the northern hardwood cover type, is to achieve an optimum distribution of size and age classes so each contains a sufficient number of quality trees to replace those harvested in the next larger size class. Specific selection criteria vary slightly with the particular species makeup of the stand involved.

• Group Selection: Trees are periodically removed in small groups to create conditions favorable for the regeneration and establishment of new age classes. In general, the openings created may range in size from fairly small 0.02 acre (30’ diameter circle) up to one-half acre (166’ diameter circle or approximately two tree lengths). In northern hardwood management, An un-even aged northern hardwood stand which has not been harvested in 15 years. gaps are generally less than one-tenth acre. Smaller openings favor regeneration of more-tolerant species, while larger openings favor midtolerant species. In general, stands dominated by large crowned tolerant species (such as sugar maple, beech and hemlock) do not require the creation of large openings to provide sunlight for regeneration, and individual trees are harvested as they mature using the single-tree selection The same stand following a single-tree selection harvest. Trees have been removed method. However, some of the lessacross the range of age and size classes to maintain an uneven age structure. tolerant species commonly associated with sugar maple (such as basswood, yellow birch and ash) benefit from the use of the group selection method to enhance recruitment and growth of new seedlings. One-quarter to one-half acre gaps may also have potential application in the management of uneven-aged stands of mid-tolerants like red oak and white pine on some sites. Potentially, most-tolerant to mid-tolerant species can be managed by applying variations of the selection regeneration method, if appropriate steps are taken to control competition. In general, stands managed under uneven-aged systems regenerate as a result of manipulation of light levels during the harvest process. In some cases, non-commercial removal of

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additional cull trees or poorly formed saplings may be needed to further enhance regeneration in specific areas which are not opened up through the normal selection process.

Chapter 2 — Generally Accepted Silvicultural Principles Uneven-aged Harvest Considerations Harvests in uneven-aged stands occur regularly. The normal cutting cycles range from eight to 20 years. The interval is based on site quality, growth rates, removable volumes, and landowner goals relative to each stand.

Individual trees are removed from each size (or age) class as needed to achieve the desired level of stocking.

When selecting which trees to remove within each diameter class, the primary factors considered are risk, vigor, quality, and spacing. In addition, an optimum maximum diameter class is determined for each stand based on the following considerations: • Site Productivity: Higher quality sites normally allow trees to be carried to a larger diameter before growth rates decline significantly and degrade/decay becomes a major factor in tree value.

• Average Growth Rates and Life Spans of the Species Involved: Stands managed under uneven-aged silvicultural systems normally contain a variety of different species, each having a different optimum maximum diameter class.

• Type and Quality of Products Desired: A decision to focus on sawtimber, veneer or both will influence the selection of an optimum maximum diameter class.

• Balancing Risk and Economic Value: As a particular high quality crop tree gets larger, it becomes more economically valuable. The value increase is due to more than just the additional volume accumulated as the tree grows. As a tree passes though a number of threshold diameters, it increases in grade and value dramatically. The values of sawlogs depend more on grade than volume. Larger diameters are required for the higher grades, which can bring two to three times the value of lower grade logs. Attaining veneer size can result in another major increase in tree value. The decision to leave a particular large valuable tree uncut must be weighed against the uncertainty of it still being alive and healthy 10 to 15 years later, when the next periodic harvest will be done. If it survives, it may increase significantly in timber value; if it is damaged or dies, that value could be lost. The evaluation of tree risk and vigor is critical to the determination of individual tree rotation.

When the uneven-age management system is used, an optimum maximum tree diameter class (target diameter) is used for each stand.

• Landowner Goals: Maximum diameter classes can be increased/decreased depending on specific landowner goals. They can be extended to enhance non-timber resources (e.g., aesthetics, wildlife food and shelter, and old growth characteristics) if the landowner is willing to accept reduced growth rates and forgo some timber revenues. In the case of low risk, vigorous, high quality trees, the extended rotations can increase the supply of sawtimber and veneer, therefore, the total value. Just as trees can be held longer, they can also be harvested

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earlier to respond to variable market conditions (supply and demand economics), manage the flow of certain timber products or income, or divide/combine stands to meet other goals.

Reaching the optimum maximum diameter class is not the only criterion for tree selection. Other marking criteria (risk, vigor, spacing, quality, and basal area stocking levels) take precedence, and may result in a specific tree being retained longer. Vigorous, low risk, high quality trees may be retained well beyond the target diameter, for example, if stocking in the maximum diameter class is too low or other poorer quality trees are removed instead. Flexibility exists in the selection of an optimum maximum diameter class. The diameter class chosen, however, is a key factor in the determination of the optimum number of trees needed in each of the other various diameter classes – from the smallest to the largest – to ensure that quality trees are available to replace those harvested.

Tending Methods in Even-age & Uneven-age Stands Intermediate treatments including release, pruning, thinning and improvement cutting may be applicable in tending both even and uneven age stands. Specific applications of intermediate treatments depend on landowner goals and objectives, economic constraints and opportunities, site capability, stand development, and the silvics/ecology of the desired species and their competitors. These treatments are discussed in detail in the Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments chapter.

In most even-aged stands, intermediate treatments are generally applied relatively consistently across the stand.

These thinning practices can be modified (spatially) and temporarily applied in even-aged stands where the long-term management objective is conversion to uneven-aged management. For example, in even-aged small sawtimber-sized northern hardwood stands, even-aged thinning guides can be applied to most of the stand, however, some regeneration gaps can be created to initiate the development of an uneven-aged structure.

Following one or more of these modified even-aged thinnings with canopy gaps, later operations are then based on uneven-aged selection management guidelines (simultaneous thinning, harvest and regeneration).

In uneven-aged silvicultural systems, tending operations are not as clearly distinguished from harvest and regeneration operations as in even-aged systems. Harvest and regeneration are perpetual operations, rather than occurring once during a stand’s rotation, so tending and harvest operations occurs simultaneously. Thinning release and improvement cutting may all occur in conjunction with periodic entries into the stand for selection harvests.

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INTERMEDIATE SILVICULTURAL TREATMENTS Intermediate treatments are forestry practices applied to forest stands that have not reached maturity. They can begin as early as the establishment of young seedlings and continue to a point prior to final harvest. Primary goals include improvement of stand composition, structure, growth, quality, health, and the production of specific benefits desired by the landowner. Some intermediate treatments, often called timber stand improvement (TSI), are non-commercial, requiring outright investment by the landowner. Other intermediate treatments can generate revenue from forest products.

Release Release is a treatment designed to free young trees (saplings and seedlings) from undesirable, usually overtopping, competing vegetation. The purpose is to regulate species composition and to improve growth and quality. Release treatments are designed to provide potential crop trees (trees you wish to favor long term) with sufficient light and growing space, by freeing their crowns and controlling competition. The need for release treatments are based on a number of considerations: • An assessment of the relative growth rates (height growth in particular) of the competing and desired species.

• The degree of impact the competing species has on the health and vigor of the desired species.

• The relative cost/effectiveness of a partial versus complete release versus no action.

Complete release involves the release of an entire layer of vegetation. Examples would be the control of aspen suckers and brush in a new pine plantation, or the control of competing red maple stump sprouts after the establishment of red oak seedlings following a shelterwood harvest. In these situations, essentially all of a particular species in the stand are considered crop trees. The objective is not necessarily to kill the competing species, but to set back and/or retard their growth so as to allow the desired species to gain dominance. A complete release normally occurs soon after a new stand is established, when competing vegetation begins to interfere with the free growth of the desired species and/or individuals.

Partial release involves the release of only selected crop trees. A partial release is usually done before the main stand is 15 years of age, and involves the following criteria: • Crop trees are selected based on landowner objectives, species, tree vigor, and tree quality. The maximum number of well-spaced crop trees per acre generally ranges from 50 to 200, depending on landowner objectives and stand condition.

• Only the direct competitors are cut. Any plant that is not going to suppress, endanger, or hamper the growth of desired individuals is left to grow. All trees with crowns that touch or interfere with each crop tree are removed.

• When sprout clumps are involved, all but the best one or two stems are cut. Healthy, low sprouts originating less than six inches above the ground with a u-shaped stem attachment, of a relatively large size, well-shaped and with a well-developed crown, are selected for retention.

There are three types of release treatments: weeding, cleaning, and liberation. They are differentiated based on the type, age, and size of vegetation eliminated. Within a stand, they can be applied individually or in concert, once or multiple times. Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments

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Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments Release Methods Physically Tear the Plant Out of the Soil • A very effective but expensive method.

Cutting • Effective against species that do not sprout, e.g., most conifers.

• Species that sprout may require repeated treatments to effectively control. Cutting in late spring and summer is most effective.

• Relatively expensive, unless a product can be harvested.

Girdling • Effective against species that do not sprout.

• Most effective when done in late-spring and summer.

• Generally applied only to trees greater than 4" in diameter at chest height.

Fire • Usually kills trees by girdling.

• Generally not used to release young trees.

Herbicides • Very effective and often the most cost-effective.

• Methods of application for release operations include: aerial spraying, ground-level foliar spraying, basal spraying, stump spraying, and bark incisions.

Girdling can be an effective way to eliminate competition from large poor quality trees without damaging reproduction.

Operational Considerations Some general operational considerations relative to release treatments that remove large, overtopping trees are: • Cutting may allow the realization of income, but protection of the young stand from felling and harvesting operations is critical.

• Care should be taken that following the elimination of high shade, intense crown competition from sprouts or the release of fast growing weed species does not develop.

• Reserve trees can provide benefits related to wildlife, aesthetics, water and soil quality, protection of special or sensitive sites, landmarks, and, in certain cases, timber production. Where objectives include the retention of reserve trees, residual crown closures of less than 20 percent generally will not significantly impair the development of the young stand.

• In most cases, nearly full sunlight is preferred to promote optimum growth of young, established stands.

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Thinning Thinning is done in stands past the sapling stage to reduce the stand density of trees primarily to improve growth, enhance forest health, or recover potential mortality. Typically, it entails the removal of trees to temporarily reduce stocking (density levels) to concentrate growth on the more desirable trees. Normal thinning does not significantly alter the gross production of wood volume. Thinning impacts stand growth, structure and development, and increases economic yields. Individual thinnings can be commercial or noncommercial (TSI), depending on landowner objectives and local markets for materials cut in the thinning operation. How and when thinnings are applied depends on landowner objectives and the desired benefits. A schedule of thinning for a stand should identify the thinning methods to be used, the intensity of application, and when thinnings will occur. Ideally, a thinning schedule should be systematic, flexible, and consistently followed throughout the life of the stand. In selecting trees for thinning, primary focus should be on the trees that will remain, as opposed to those to be cut. There are five basic methods of thinning. Stand conditions and thinning needs vary over time, often resulting in the application of more than one method over a stand’s life cycle. The five methods of thinning are: low thinning, crown thinning, mechanical thinning, dominant thinning, and free thinning TChapte6 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments

Crown Classes Trees will occupy different levels of dominance in their position in the forest relative to other trees. These crown classes are identified as follows and useful in describing the different thinning methods.

Dominant (D) Dominant trees have crowns extending above the general level of the crown cover, and receive full light from above and partly from the side. Dominant trees are larger than the average trees in the stand, and have welldeveloped crowns that may be somewhat crowded from the sides.

This illustration shows the relative positions of trees in the different crown classes

Codominant (C) Codominant trees have crowns forming the general level of the crown cover, and receive full light from above but comparatively little from the sides. These trees usually have medium-sized crowns that are often crowded on the sides.

Intermediate (I) Intermediate trees are shorter than dominant and codominant, but have crowns extending into the crown cover formed by codominant and dominant trees. Intermediate trees receive a little direct light from above, but none from the sides. They usually have small crowns that are considerably crowded on the sides.

Overtopped (O) Overtopped, also called suppressed, are trees with crowns entirely below the general level of the crown cover.

Overtopped trees receive no direct light either from above or from the sides.

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Thinning Methods Low Thinning, or thinning from below, involves removal of trees from the lower crown classes to favor those in the upper crown classes. This strategy of removing the smallest trees and retaining the largest trees accelerates and simulates somewhat the natural elimination of the lower crown classes through competition.

• This type of thinning generally removes smaller diameter trees, and marketability can sometimes be difficult.

• Light- to medium-intensity low thinnings (removing suppressed and intermediate trees) are not recommended except in specific cases. They facilitate utilization of trees that would otherwise die due to suppression (competition), but the release of the remaining trees from competition is minimal.

• Heavy low thinnings are generally recommended. They involve the removal of some codominants in order to create canopy openings and release the crowns of crop trees to stimulate their growth. Stocking guides are used to help determine residual density levels.

Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments

How a stand might look before (A), and after (B), a low thinning. The letters on the trees denote crown classification.

Crown Thinning, or thinning from above, involves removal of trees from the dominant and codominant crown classes in order to favor the best trees of those same crown classes. Large intermediates that interfere with crop trees also can be removed. The method stimulates the growth of selected, preferred trees (quality) without sacrificing the production of quantity.

• Crown thinnings are normally used to develop quality sawtimber. They are usually commercial operations and the trees removed are relatively large.

• Crop trees are selected based on landowner objectives, species, vigor, quality, strength, and health • Crown thinnings are recommended as the primary method to develop and manage quality hardwood stands for the production of high value sawtimber and veneer logs.

• 20 to 150 well-spaced dominant and codominant crop trees per acre are released. In fast growing young stands with small crowned competitors, crop trees are released on four sides. In slower growing older stands with larger crowned competitors, crop trees are released on one to three sides.

• To optimize growth, the remaining stand should also be thinned. Release the best dominant and codominant trees by removing high risk, low vigor competitors. Stocking guides are used to determine residual stand density.

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• To be most effective, crown thinning requires considerable skill in tree selection and density management.

The timing and intensity of a particular thinning is important in managing stem form and natural pruning.

Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments

The upper sketch (A) shows a coniferous stand immediately before a crown thinning.

The crop trees are indicated by blue circles marked "CT." The lower sketch (B) shows the same stand about 20 years later, which has reclosed to the point where a low thinning would be desirable.

This crop tree, released on two to three sides by cutting competing trees, is now free to grow.

Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments

Mechanical Thinning is the removal of trees in rows, strips, or by using fixed spacing intervals.

Frequently, these are the first thinnings in young stands that are densely crowded and/or relatively uniform with little differentiation into crown classes. This method becomes less suitable as variation in the size and quality of the trees increases.

• Row thinnings cut all trees in rows or strips at fixed intervals throughout the stand.

They are often utilized for the first thinning(s) in plantations where the rows are readily

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A mechanical thinning in a pine plantation in which every third row of trees has been removed. The opening in the canopy should close in Page 40 a few years. Sec. 8 Sevastopol

apparent. The removal of every third row is the most common practice. They are also used to provide access for harvesting equipment in dense, unthinned stands.

• Spacing thinnings involve selection of trees at fixed intervals for retention and cutting the rest. This strategy is most applicable as the first thinning in very overcrowded young stands developed from dense natural reproduction.

Dominant Thinning, or selection thinning, involves the removal of trees in the dominant crown class in order to favor the lower crown classes. This method is suitable only for limited purposes.

• The most common dominant thinning applications are in the management of shade tolerant conifers, where the objective is to grow as many trees as possible to medium-size for the production of pulpwood, poles, or other small diameter wood products.

• This thinning system is not applicable to quality hardwood management.

Free Thinning is the removal of trees to control stand spacing (density) and favor desired crop trees, using a combination of thinning criteria without strict regard to crown position. In application, this method is a free combination of selected concepts and techniques garnered from any of the other four thinning methods.

Thinnings of this type are sometimes applied as the initial thinning in previously untreated natural stands in preparation for a more systematic future program. Skillful employment of this system can be used to manage and maintain stands of mixed composition, density, or age.

Operational Considerations • The timing and intensity of each thinning depends on landowner objectives, stand composition and structure, stand condition and health, and other past and planned management activities. A tentative schedule should be developed, indicating the projected timing and intensity of each thinning.

• The intensity of thinning refers to the proportion of the stand removed in a particular thinning.

• As intensity increases, frequency usually decreases.

• Target stocking levels are determined based on optimizing stand growth and yield for a specific forest cover type. Stocking guides developed for specific forest types are normally used to guide thinning applications.

• Initial thinnings normally begin when crowns begin to touch each other. Precommercial thinning (TSI) requires an investment, but can increase net returns over the rotation. It is typical, however, to postpone the initial thinning until an immediate profit can be produced.

• Normally, a thinning is indicated when: 1) the live crown ratios of crop trees begin to decline 2) the diameter growth of crop trees begins to decline 3) stand density increases to near or above specified upper limits delineated in stocking charts, and/or 4) sufficient timber volume accumulates to support a commercially viable thinning.

• The effects of thinning are temporary. After each thinning, the remaining trees grow taller, diameters increase, crowns expand, and canopy gaps close.

• Thinning every 10 to 15 years, is a recommended general guideline for commercial thinnings.

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It is important to control logging damage when thinning.

Logging wounds can predispose the remaining trees to disease and decay. Thinnings are meant to increase resistance to damage (insects, disease, wind, etc.); however, they can also temporarily predispose stands to damage, especially where trees are not particularly vigorous or strong.

Chapter 16 — Intermediate Silvicultural Treatments

Improvement Cutting Improvement cutting is the removal of less desirable trees of any species in a stand of poles or larger trees, primarily to improve composition and quality. Trees are removed to encourage the growth of more desirable trees within or below the main canopy. Trees considered for removal include inferior species, poorly formed trees, over mature individuals, and injured or unhealthy trees.

Potential crop trees should be a preferred species and relatively well-formed, vigorous, and healthy. Improvement cuttings are widely needed and commonly An improvement cut in this upland hardwood stand removed poor quality practiced. They usually are applied to poletimber and sawtimber. Section 27 Gardner stands that have been unmanaged, neglected, or poorly managed. The intent is to remove undesirable material, and set the stage for productive management to accomplish landowner objectives. In most cases, stand improvement can be completed in one to three operations. In cases where the current stand is of such poor quality that rehabilitation is questionable, the preferred choice is to initiate regeneration to develop a vigorous, new stand.

Salvage cutting Salvage cutting is done to remove dead, damaged, or dying trees resulting from injurious agents other than competition. The goal is to recover economic value that would otherwise be lost. Salvage operations are done for profit, with the intent of utilizing damaged trees and minimizing financial losses. Salvage should be conducted as soon as possible following a damaging event. Dead trees deteriorate rapidly during the first growing season after death. Severe stand damage will require the implementation of regeneration methods.

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Presalvage cutting Presalvage cutting involves removal of valuable trees at high risk of injury or mortality from damaging agents.

The method attempts to anticipate damage by removing vulnerable trees that are in imminent danger of being damaged or killed.

Sanitation cutting Sanitation cutting removes trees that are a threat to stand health by stopping or reducing the actual or anticipated spread of insects or disease. It is precautionary protection implemented to reduce the spread of damaging organisms, or in anticipation of attacks to prevent or delay the establishment of damaging organisms. Sanitation cuttings eliminate trees that are present or prospective sources of infection for insects or fungi that might attack other trees. The removal of trees must actually interrupt the life cycle of the organisms sufficiently to reduce their spread to other trees.

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Pruning Pruning trees can be a beneficial forest management practice for a number of reasons including; improving wood quality, encouraging good tree form, reducing potential disease, fire hazard reduction and improving accessibility.

In simple terms, pruning is the removal of branches from the crown of the tree. It is a natural process that occurs throughout the tree’s life cycle. Natural pruning occurs when a lack of sunlight causes a branch to die and eventually fall off the tree. It normally occurs on bottom most branches and works its way up the tree as it grows and ages. The amount of shade has the most influence on natural pruning.

Open grown trees will retain lower branches longer since more light is available to produce foliage, keeping the branch alive and growing.

Trees grown in closer proximity to each other will tend to naturally self-prune, eventually losing lower branches. Mechanical pruning is achieved by physically cutting branches from the tree to enhance or accelerate natural pruning process to meet specific goals.

Improving Wood Quality. As long as a branch is present on the trunk of a tree, the trunk will grow in diameter outward along the branch. If the tree is harvested to produce lumber, the boards cut from the trunk will contain

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knots where the branch occurred. Knots are categorized as defects in lumber. Knot-free lumber is considered better quality and has higher value. Lateral pruning of side branches is done to start the production of knot-free wood at an earlier age in the tree’s life. Realistically, lateral pruning for wood quality does not need to occur until the tree approaches 6-8 inches in diameter. This allows time for the pruning wounds to close and start creating clear wood at a diameter where boards would be cut from the logs. Another factor to keep in mind is the smaller the diameter of the pruned branch; the sooner it will heal. Ideally, you want to lateral prune limbs that are an inch or smaller in diameter. This may influence the time you begin lateral pruning. Pruning live branches will produce sound knots while waiting until branches are dead will produce unsound knots that may fall out of lumber that contains them. Since a large percentage of the tree’s value for lumber lies in the first log, it is recommended to lateral prune at least 17 feet in height. This may need to be done in stages, spread out over time, particularly on younger trees. You want to try and keep half of the trees total height in live branches and time your pruning efforts accordingly. If dead branches have already appeared beyond half of the trees height it is acceptable to prune to the level of live branches. Lateral pruning is time consuming and should concentrate on trees with the best potential for producing logs. The number of trees to prune will be dictated by the availability of time/money to spend pruning and the quality of your stand of trees. The most trees you would prune per acre would likely be in a pine plantation and could total 150 trees per acre. In other stands there may be as few as 10 to 20. Remember to only prune trees you intend to grow to sawtimber size. Pruning trees for wood quality that will be thinned for pulpwood or firewood is a waste of time. Work with a qualified forester in choosing trees to prune for best results.

Encouraging Good Tree Form. This form of pruning is known as corrective pruning and is applied to misshapen, forked or multi-stemmed trees to develop a straight main trunk for eventual timber production.

Corrective pruning is most often done in hardwood plantings or natural stands. Hardwoods grow toward available sunlight while evergreens grow against the force of gravity. Because of this, few evergreens will ever need corrective pruning. Corrective pruning of hardwoods is as much art as it is science. It is best to get on site advice from a professional forester for recommendations.

Reducing Potential Disease. The primary species in this area that can benefit from pruning for disease control is white pine. A disease known as white pine blister rust alternates its life cycle between gooseberry and white pine trees. The fungus usually infects lower branches of white pines and works its way to the main trunk eventually killing the tree. Pruning lower branches of white pine can help reduce the risk of infection. In addition, pruning out branches that are infected before the disease reaches the trunk can prevent mortality. The most common incidences of blister rust occur in white pine plantations. There is no guarantee that pruned white pine will not be infected, but the chances are less. Following the lateral pruning guidelines for wood quality are applicable here with a couple exceptions. Pruning for blister rust prevention/control may be one of a few cases where pruning every tree in a plantation may be justified. In addition, any branch infected with blister rust should be pruned no matter where it occurs on the tree. If you are concerned about blister rust or suspect your white pine may be infected, contact a professional forester.

Fire Hazard Reduction. Pruning to reduce the hazard of wildfire occurs primarily in pine or spruce plantations.

Since our local area is dominated by hardwood forests that are broken up by old fields, orchards and farmland, it is less of a concern here than in other areas of the state. What pruning does in evergreen plantations is reduce the potential for a ground fire to work its way up into the live crowns of evergreen trees. Crown fires can occur in times of high fire danger and can be extremely volatile and dangerous to control. Pruning live lower limbs eliminates a fuel ladder for fire to move vertically from ground level into the main tree canopy.

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Improving Accessibility. One of the most common places that pruning can benefit access is in evergreen plantations, particularly spruce. These plantings usually have tightly spaced trees with dense branches that can be almost impenetrable. Pruning out trails or woods roads for recreation or forestry work will make access available to areas that most often are avoided.

Pruning can be done with a number of different tools including hand shears, lopping shears, pruning saws, pole pruners and telescoping chainsaws. No matter what the tool used, keep it sharp, and prune branches at the right spot to promote healing and avoid decay.

There is a natural growth collar around the base of branches where they meet the trunk. This collar can be used as a cutting guide for pruning. Leave as little branch stub as possible but do not cut into the branch collar. If you are pruning a large branch its sheer weight will often times peel bark from the tree before you can finish your pruning cut. To avoid this, cut the branch off a foot from the tree to remove most of the weight and prune the stub that’s left as you normally would. Another technique to avoid peeling bark is to undercut the branch first and then make your normal pruning cut (see illustrations).

Timing of pruning can be summed up as follows: Prune hardwoods when they are dormant (fall & winter).

Prune evergreens in the dormant season if possible. Prune dead branches anytime.

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Post-Treatment Activities • Rehabilitate landings, skid trails, and access roads to mitigate soil erosion, rutting, and compaction.

• Monitor and control any new infestations of non-native invasive species. Clean equipment before moving from any infested site to an area that is free of invasives.

• Careful records should be kept of intermediate treatments in order to assess the growth response, economic viability, and the need to refine future thinning schedules.

Seeding can be as easy as spreading grass seed by hand as the landowner is doing on his freshly-graded woods road. Retaining slash on skid trails is an effective way of reducing soil compaction and rutting from use of heavy logging equipment.

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WHAT NOT TO DO - UNSUSTAINABLE CUTTING MEHTODS A healthy well cared for forest can easily be mistreated and left in a poor condition that will take generations to recover from. Unfortunately there are examples of this across Wisconsin and it has happened in Door County as well. Sound sustainable forestry includes a planned program of treatments over the life of a forest stand to attain desired objectives. Other cutting methods exist primarily to maximize short-term economic gain, and are not part of a long-term plan to ensure regeneration of a healthy, vigorous stand on a sustainable basis. To add insult to injury, you may be taken advantage of economically in the process of degrading your forest.

The following examples of unsustainable cutting methods are not an all-inclusive list, but are some of the most common. These methods may result in a new stand of trees, but due to the lack of consideration of specific species requirements, they often lead to stand degradation and are not considered generally accepted silvicultural practices that result in sustainable forestry. Beware of any contacts by timber buyers proposing these methods. A follow up check with your local DNR or qualified consulting forester for advice is a good idea prior to signing any timber sale agreement.

Diameter limit cutting is cutting all trees above a set diameter regardless of the impact on stand structure, stand quality, tree quality, species composition, or regeneration needs. At times referred to as a “selective cut,” the only consideration is diameter as opposed to specific criteria employed in a true single-tree selection harvest under the uneven-aged silvicultural system.

Economic clearcutting, where any tree of economic value is cut with no consideration for site, silvics of the species involved or regeneration needs. This practice differs from a clearcut in the even-aged silvicultural system where all trees are harvested, regardless of value, in order to ensure residual shade and competition does not hamper the regeneration and development of a new stand.

Before and after depiction of a typical "high grade.

Trees with the greatest economic value have been removed leaving poor quality trees behind. No consideration was given to the condition of the residual stand or its future.

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High grading, also referred to as “selective logging,” is the practice of cutting only the largest, most valuable trees in a stand and leaving low value and poor quality trees to dominate. This practice is NOT the same as a single-tree selection regeneration harvest described in the silvicultural systems section. High grading is not designed to enhance the quality and reproductive potential of the residual stand, but maximize immediate revenue. The term “selective logging” is sometimes used intentionally by unscrupulous loggers to create false expectations on the part of landowners. It is emphasized that economic gain and sustainability ARE compatible. Using creativity and imagination in the application of sound silviculture will best achieve both goals in the long-run.

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WILDLIFE HABITAT GUIDELINES Wisconsin contains a diverse natural heritage with more than 1,800 plant species and 650 vertebrate species identified to date (WDNR 1995). In addition, thousands of fungi, invertebrates, and non-vascular plant species also contribute to healthy ecosystem functioning. Wisconsin is located at the junction of three of North America’s six biotic provinces thus generating a number of different habitats and niches for species to occupy.

Wisconsin’s forests lie within all three of these provinces and therefore are also quite diverse. The Society of American Foresters (SAF) lists 19 forest types that occur within the state. Each forest type occurs along a gradient of moisture, temperature, soil type, and climate, creating hundreds of different habitats and niches for species to occupy. All told a significant percentage of Wisconsin’s native flora and fauna is associated with forested habitats.

Each species associated with a forested habitat or niche contributes to ecosystem functioning and in turn larger ecosystem processes. For example, studies have shown that insect eating birds reduce overall levels of foliage loss from insect populations. As a result, bird populations can affect larger ecosystem processes such as carbon storage or primary productivity. Therefore, loss of organisms or groups of organisms from an ecosystem can have much larger consequences on forest health and larger ecological processes. The challenge is to conserve all the working parts within a particular ecosystem in order to maintain ecosystem resilience when disturbances occur. Simplified forest ecosystems suffer more damage from forest pests and are more likely to have problems regenerating effectively.

The primary focus of this chapter is on forest-dependent terrestrial and amphibious forms of wildlife. The intent is to provide practical, science-based guidelines to address a number of specific issues and projected impacts relating to forestry and wildlife. The resource directory contains DNR and non-DNR contacts that can provide additional information on management of all wildlife species.

Certainly, much more can be done to enhance wildlife habitat or individual species than the steps recommended in these guidelines. Furthermore, each management practice, including the option to do nothing, will favor some species and hinder other species. As a result, it’s not practical to provide a comprehensive set of guidelines covering all possibilities for improving habitat in Wisconsin forests. Instead, these guidelines cover the essentials for addressing site-level issues related to forestry practices. Those interested in pursuing objectives that focus primarily on wildlife management are encouraged to consult a professional wildlife manager for more information.

It should be remembered that it’s difficult to separate site-level and landscape-level issues. For wildlife, more than for other forest resources, what occurs on a site influences the surrounding landscape and vice versa. While the guidelines focus on the site level as much as possible, some of the more important “landscape implications” will also be discussed. Landscape-level wildlife needs can best be addressed through professional planning for individual properties and cooperation among landowners and agencies within a landscape.

Finally, many wildlife habitat guidelines can be applied simultaneously. For example, leave tree clumps in clearcuts might also serve as rare species buffers, provide mast production and enhance vertical structure. These overlapping benefits may extend to other forest resources as well, such as for cultural resource protection and visual quality. In other cases, retention of various structural habitat components may create safety issues like the reduction of visual quality or increase the potential for pest damage. Other chapters of the guide will address some of the trade-offs that need to be considered relative to other resources.

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Specific Wildlife Habitat Guidelines Leave Trees and Snags Purpose The purpose of this habitat aspect is to provide for wildlife requiring perches, tree cavities and bark-foraging sites through retention of suitable leave trees and snags on a site during forest harvesting and timber stand improvement. This guideline will also contribute to the continued presence of coarse woody debris on a site.

Rationale, Background and Benefits In Wisconsin, up to 30 breeding birds, nearly 30 mammals, and several reptiles and amphibians use snags as breeding sites. Different species have adapted to different ecological conditions. Saw-whet Owls utilize cavities in and around lowland conifer swamps, while Red-headed Woodpeckers nest in cavities in open or semi-forested conditions. The major issue for cavity-dependent wildlife and timber harvesting is whether suitable trees and nest cavities remain for these species following logging or timber stand improvement.

Retention of leave trees and snags during timber harvesting provides habitat for wildlife that require perches, tree cavities or bark-foraging sites as the surrounding forest regenerates. Leave trees and snags may also provide unique niches and microsites for a variety of plants, especially within retained clumps. Leave trees or snags that fall over and decay will also benefit soil conditions as well as wildlife that utilize coarse woody debris.

The fundamental idea is to retain some structure for snag- and cavity-dependent species on a site or maintain the potential to produce such structure as a stand grows and develops (see Chapter 11: Timber Harvesting, pages 142 and 143, for specific recommendations on leave tree and snag selection and distribution).

Eco-Region Applicability Cavity and snag trees are important statewide. Wildlife species that use cavities range in size from small mammals such as bats and mice up to black bears. A range of tree sizes is necessary on a landscape scale to provide for the full use of this habitat feature.

Openland or brushland management may require felling of all stems to reproduce open conditions needed in these habitats. However, some openland species also require cavities. For example, Eastern Bluebirds will nest in single, scattered snags in an open landscape. Generally, dead standing stems do not detract from the establishment or maintenance of openland/brushland habitat. However, they may provide structure for some undesirable wildlife species in some situations. European Starlings will nest in cavity trees in open or semiforested landscapes if the site is adjacent or near to an agricultural or urban/suburban setting. Starlings will out-compete other cavity nesting birds for this limited resource. In addition, if managing for openland species that are under severe predation pressure from raptors, consider removing all standing stems.

Cavity/snag trees are equally important in forested stands. There are a number of cavity-dependent species that require a larger forested acreage with sufficient canopy cover. Small mammals, bats and breeding birds that live in heavily forested areas also nest in cavities and use snags for foraging sites. Black-capped Chickadees and Tufted Titmice are only two of a number of charismatic forest bird species that nest in cavities. When conducting a single-tree selection harvest consider leaving snag and cavity trees of varying diameters. Barred Owls and Pileated Woodpeckers utilize large cavities and snag trees, while Downy Woodpeckers and Chickadees utilize smaller trees. In addition, these trees will also eventually topple and contribute to coarse woody debris on the forest floor.

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Landscape Implications Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for snags and leave trees, the contribution of an individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. Many of the cavity-dependent species being addressed have home ranges larger than the typical harvest unit; so planning for their needs requires a broader look, both spatially and temporally, at the larger forest community. Many other species have smaller home ranges than the typical harvest unit.

If suitable habitat exists surrounding a given harvest site, then leave trees may not be as critical on that site.

However, if harvests are likely in the adjacent habitats, then the trees left on the initially harvested sites become more important as the surrounding forest regenerates. Consideration must be given to the time it takes for a regenerating stand to produce trees of adequate size and degree of decay to provide suitable structure.

Coordination among neighboring landowners may result in varying numbers of leave trees on a site if adjacent lands exceed or fall short of the recommendations. Managers of larger land-holdings may be able to plan for sufficient cavity-dependent wildlife habitat on portions of their property (such as riparian reserves) and reduce leave tree/snag requirements on other portions.

Coarse Woody Debris and Slash Purpose The purpose of coarse woody debris and slash is to provide cover, food or growing sites for a diverse group of organisms through the retention or creation of coarse woody debris and slash during forest management.

Rationale, Background and Benefits A wide variety of organisms benefit directly or indirectly from retention of coarse woody debris and slash.

Small mammals dependent on slash and coarse woody debris in turn provide food for mammalian carnivores and forest raptors (such as the pine marten and the Broad-winged Hawk). Amphibians such as Wood Frogs, Four-toed Salamanders, and Red-backed Salamanders utilize the cool, moist microsites created by coarse woody debris as resting/feeding areas.

Woody detritus reduces erosion and affects soil development, stores nutrients and water, is a major source of energy and nutrients, serves as a seedbed for plants, and is a major habitat for microbes, invertebrates and vertebrates. For example, yellow birch, white cedar and eastern hemlock regeneration is enhanced by coarse woody debris. These tree species are important components of a diverse northern forest and provide habitat for an untold number of vertebrate and invertebrate species. Bird researchers in northern Wisconsin found that hemlock dominated natural areas contained higher species diversity and richness than the even-aged managed hardwood sites that dominate this landscape.

The fundamental idea is to retain or enhance the amount of coarse woody debris in a stand in order to benefit the organisms associated with coarse woody debris, and to support nutrient cycles that benefit healthy forests (see Chapter 11: Timber Harvesting, page 144, for specific recommendations on coarse woody debris).

Eco-Region Applicability Coarse woody debris is important to forests and forest organisms statewide. Each eco-region has a number of species that utilize slash and coarse woody debris. In the north, birds such as Winter Wrens and Ruffed Grouse utilize downed logs for nesting/feeding sites and for territorial displays. Blue-spotted or Northern Redback

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Salamanders enjoy the moist, cool microsites provided by rotting logs on the forest floor. In the south, birds such as Hooded Warblers or Kentucky Warblers may be taking advantage of the arthropods that live in and around coarse woody debris. Regardless of the location, coarse woody debris and slash is an important component of the forest ecosystem.

Landscape Implications Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for snags and leave trees, the contribution of an individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. Coarse woody debris left on a specific site may be benefiting reptiles and amphibians living there but breeding elsewhere. Thus, coarse woody debris placement might be influenced by off-site factors. For example, when managing a pine plantation, coarse woody debris may be important as a salamander migratory corridor between an adjacent hardwood forest and a wetland breeding site. However, if the pine plantation is bordered by other dry or arid cover types and lacks wetlands of any type, coarse woody debris may not be important to salamanders at this site.

The size and position of intensive timber management may also determine the importance of coarse woody debris to associated organisms. For example, if a clearcut takes place surrounding a temporary wetland, coarse woody debris left in the clearcut and in the wetland would be essential habitat for breeding salamanders.

Increased sunlight in the pond and harvested stand makes desiccation a problem for salamanders. More downed logs would provide cool, moist microsites in order to avoid direct sunlight during the heat of the day. In addition, leaving downed logs would also provide drumming sites for Ruffed Grouse. If however, the clearcut was smaller and the wetland was bordered by older forest, coarse woody debris left in the clearcut would not be as important for salamanders. However, it still may perform other ecological functions important to the forested stand.

Conifer Retention and Regeneration Purpose The purpose of this aspect of habitat is to ensure diversity of wildlife habitat through the retention and regeneration of conifers for food, nesting and cover in mixed deciduous/coniferous stands. Conifers should continue to be a significant structural component in appropriate habitats and landscapes.

Rationale, Background and Benefits Many wildlife species benefit from a mixture of conifer and deciduous trees and shrubs. Retaining young conifers, including isolated trees and scattered clumps, can provide habitat and food needed for many wildlife species, and can increase the probability that conifers will later regenerate on harvested areas.

Various animal species, including the Great Gray Owl, Bald Eagle, Pine Warbler, white-tailed deer, elk, pine marten, lynx, snowshoe hare, and red-backed vole, depend on coniferous stands for structural attributes. Others – including Spruce Grouse, Red-breasted Nuthatch, red squirrel, porcupine, and elk – depend on food that coniferous stands provide. Deer and elk will often winter in conifer forests due to the reduced snow depths and thermal cover that these stands provide. Many species associated with the boreal forests of Canada reach the southern limits of their range in the coniferous and mixed coniferous forests of northern Wisconsin. Examples of these include pine marten, fisher, gray wolf, Cape May Warbler, Boreal Chickadee, Great Gray Owl, Gray Jay and Palm Warbler.

Historically, conifers often existed as scattered trees or clumps within hardwood stands. Many of these conifers have been lost due to poor regeneration following early logging. A number of species are adapted to these scattered overstory conifers or patches of conifer within a hardwood stand. Pine Warblers are often heard singing from scattered overstory white pines that have persisted or regenerated within an oak or maple forest.

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Bald Eagles or Osprey often use these scattered superstory trees as nesting or roosting sites. Often aspen/birch stands in northern Wisconsin contain patches of regenerating or mature white spruce or balsam fir. Birds such as Cape May Warbler, Magnolia Warbler and Canada Warbler will locate territories in and around these coniferous patches. These dense areas of conifer also provide thermal cover for grouse, deer and other northern species during cold winters and warm summers.

When retaining conifers, clumps are preferable to scattered trees. Clumped conifers are more windfirm, are better potential seed sources because of improved pollination, can withstand snow and ice loads more successfully, and can provide better cover (see Table 3-1, page 52).

Landscape Implications Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for conifer retention and regeneration, the contribution of an individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. When discussing conifer retention and its importance to wildlife, landscape scale management can be very important.

Many species that utilize coniferous or mixed/coniferous woods have much larger home ranges than the particular stand being considered for management, therefore, it’s important to take into account neighboring properties. In other situations, scattered leave trees or clumps of conifer regeneration will provide wildlife benefits, even when isolated from similar conditions.

If the stand being considered for management is bordered by coniferous forest, or if the region contains a large percentage of coniferous/mixed coniferous forest, then conifer retention or regeneration will have a greater likelihood of benefiting those species with larger home range needs or area requirements. Species such as Blackburnian Warblers, Connecticut Warblers or Cape May Warblers will use conifer retained in managed areas if these landscape conditions are met. Often, small songbirds such as these will nest in loose colonies where extra-pair matings are an important part of the breeding strategy. Larger patches of habitat will increase the chances that this mating system will work.

If the stand being considered for management is isolated from appropriate coniferous or mixed coniferous habitat, it will be of lesser value to those species needing large areas of this habitat. However, other species may utilize smaller patches of coniferous regeneration. For example, small patches of thick fir or spruce may harbor wintering Ruffed Grouse or Saw-whet Owls. Scattered white pine canopy trees can be important nesting areas for Pine Warblers or Bald Eagles.

Mast Purpose The purpose of this habitat aspect is to provide for wildlife that utilizes mast production from trees and shrubs.

Rationale, Background and Benefits Many species of trees and shrubs have developed a seed dispersal system that benefits many species of wildlife. Producing mast in the form of nuts or berries encourages mammals such as squirrels or birds to eat or transport the seeds contained within the fruit to other areas. Oaks may produce thousands of acorns in the

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hopes that a Blue Jay or Turkey will accidentally scratch one into the forest soil. Dogwoods and juneberries will produce fruit attractive to migrating birds, which will pass the seeds to neighboring areas during migration. This complex reproductive strategy is essential to the inner workings of many ecological systems in Wisconsin.

High levels of fat, protein and carbohydrates in mast contribute to energy stores critical for migration or hibernation, and for survival of newly-independent young. Many birds that eat insects on breeding grounds will consume berries during fall migration. Yearly variations in mast production may impact subsequent reproductive success of many species. Often, plentiful mast production will lead to abundant small mammal populations, which in turn benefits forest carnivores that prey on small mammals. During winter, some sources of mast remain available to forest wildlife on trees and shrubs, under snow or stored in caches (see Table 3-2, page 54).

Mast production is generally favored by increased crown exposure to light, crown size, maturity of trees or shrubs, increased soil nutrients, tempered microclimates (especially during flowering) and adequate soil moisture. Production on a site tends to vary considerably from year to year.

Other considerations with respect to mast include: • • •

Mast-producing species often depend on animals for their dispersal and reproduction.

Riparian edges often contain a higher concentration and richness of mast-producing species.

Most shrub species will regenerate well and produce mast after cutting, burning or soil disturbance.

Although concerns for oak and other dominant tree species are particularly important, especially in relation to game species (such as deer or gray squirrels), other mast species also provide important benefits.

Landscape Implications Although these guidelines address site-level recommendations for mast production, the contribution of an individual site should be considered in the context of the surrounding landscape. Land managers in regions with low mast availability have opportunities to enhance wildlife habitat characteristics by careful management of mast species on their land. Some wildlife species may travel significant distances to obtain mast. The black bear, for example, may travel 10 miles to obtain mast. Breeding birds will often relocate family groups to wetland edges or areas with increased levels of berries during late summer before migration. In areas with sufficient mast production, mast production may not be as important.

Patterns of Cutting Purpose The purpose of this habitat aspect is to provide site- and landscape-level wildlife habitat requirements by using a variety of sizes and shapes of harvest areas. Understanding the impact from site-level management on the larger forested area will help land managers make better wildlife decisions.

Rationale, Background and Benefits This management objective will involve making silvicultural decisions on a landscape basis. Ideally the management regime should range from the very fine-scale management represented by selection cutting to the coarse-scale management affected by sizable clearcuts. The size of clearcuts and other treatments should be determined by considering issues such as size of the management unit, the home range requirements of large animals, aesthetics, and natural disturbance regimes.

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Size and shape of both cut and uncut areas should mimic natural disturbance regimes that historically impacted the forest type to be managed. This will then benefit the native species of plants and animals adapted to this forest type and disturbance regime. Larger patch sizes historically occurred under natural disturbance regimes on even-aged, fire-dependent types, such as jack pine. Large clearcuts in such types can function for a short time as habitat for some area sensitive openland species such as Sharp-tailed Grouse and Upland Sandpipers.

These managed areas will be of even greater benefit to openland species if they are placed adjacent to more permanent open barrens. Colonization of new openland habitat created by forest management is much more likely to occur if it’s adjacent to existing populations of openland species. As the managed area ages, it will become less attractive to openland species, but other early successional species such as Eastern Towhees and Brown Thrashers will colonize the site.

Smaller patches are appropriate in more heterogeneous forest types, such as deciduous forests on moraines.

For example, northern mesic forests dominated by sugar maple, hemlock or beech were much more likely to undergo disturbance from wind than from large fires. Most wind events created smaller patchy canopy gaps within a larger forested matrix. Species like Black-throated Blue Warblers nest within the thick regeneration generated by these disturbance events, and thus could benefit from a silvicultural treatment that mimics this process.

The shape and size of the cutting area determines the total amount of ‘edge’ habitat created through management. An edge is defined as the transition area from two different forest types or successional stages.

The amount of edge in a landscape will create conditions favorable for some species and detrimental to others.

Many game species such as white-tailed deer and Ruffed Grouse, along with Indigo Buntings and Chesnutsided Warblers, prefer the wide variety of cover and food resources found along forest edges, and tend to be very good competitors for those resources. Landscapes with high amounts of natural or man-made edges tend to favor these edge species. However, many species of birds, some mammals and herps prefer the interior of larger (greater than 100 acres) blocks of forest. Cerulean Warblers, Acadian Flycatchers, Hooded Warblers, Blackthroated Blue Warblers, and many other interior species are listed as endangered, threatened or species of special concern by the Bureau of Endangered Resources due to loss of appropriate habitat. A large increase in the amount of edge, through forest management activities or a natural disturbance in large blocks of forest, will increase edge species which will replace many interior species.

Landscape Implications When employing large clearcuts, consider harvesting in segments over several years. This will provide both early successional diversity and, over the long term, a large mature forest stand. Coordinate with adjacent landowners when natural stand boundaries cross property lines.

Wetland Inclusions and Seasonal Ponds Purpose The purpose of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds is to provide site-level wildlife habitat features for terrestrial species associated with wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds within forests.

Rationale, Background and Benefits Wisconsin has a variety and abundance of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds. The mixture of land and water features across the landscape provides an important dimension to the habitats of many wildlife species.

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retain water for longer periods and support populations of invertebrates that consume forest litter that falls into the depressions. These invertebrates provide food for birds, mammals, amphibians, and other species. Redshouldered Hawks, a threatened species in Wisconsin, often choose forested areas that contain a number of wetland inclusions to ensure an adequate supply of prey for rearing young. Seasonal ponds are also important spring food sources for breeding waterfowl and migrating birds.

Seasonal ponds are best identified in spring when they are full of melt-water from the spring runoff. Frogs calling in spring, vegetation type or topography might provide additional clues to their location.

Amphibians are an important component of many forest ecosystems and many are dependent on seasonal wetlands for breeding habitat. These temporary or seasonal wetlands are important to amphibians because they don’t contain fish populations, which prey on salamander eggs. Blue-spotted and spotted salamanders will enter these ephemeral wetlands as soon as they loose their ice cover in spring. Pay attention to the roadsides during the first warm rain of the spring and you will literally see the forest floor crawling with salamanders traveling to breeding sites. Five species of frogs are also heavy users of wetland inclusions. Anyone who has walked along a forest road at night can recall the croaking of wood frogs, the peeping of spring peepers the distinctive notes of chorus frogs. Frog song can be so loud in these wetland inclusions that they block out all other sounds. Later in the spring and early summer, Cope’s and eastern gray tree frogs use these wetland inclusions for breeding.

Because of the high biomass of amphibians in forested habitats, they are extremely important both as predators of invertebrates and as prey for other forest wildlife species.

Applying guidelines for water quality, leave trees and snags, coarse woody debris and slash during forest management activities can retain and create key habitat features (including woody debris, litter depth and plant cover) in these areas, while preventing siltation, excessive warming or premature drying-up of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds.

The Need For Research and Monitoring Even though the ecological importance of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds is recognized, the total number and location of all such water bodies in Wisconsin’s forests is unknown. Existing inventories, such as the National Wetland Inventory, are incomplete with regard to wetland inclusions. Furthermore, seasonal ponds are sometimes difficult to recognize in the field. Uncertainty regarding the abundance and location of wetland inclusions and seasonal ponds indicates the need to document their occurrence, and further research their role in forest ecology in Wisconsin.

Riparian Wildlife Habitat Purpose The purpose of riparian wildlife habitat is to provide site-level wildlife habitat features for species that utilize riparian ecosystems.

Rationale, Background and Benefits Riparian areas are among the most important parts of forest ecosystems. These areas have high plant diversity, both horizontally and vertically from the water’s edge, which contributes to the high diversity of animals that live in these areas. Up to 134 vertebrate species occur in riparian forests in this region, but many of these species will also use non-riparian forest habitat. The species that are of most concern in riparian areas are “obligate” species, which require both the water and surrounding forests as habitat. In Wisconsin, obligate riparian species include amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Numerous plant and invertebrate species are also strongly associated with these habitats. Different animals are associated with different stream sizes. In Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan

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general, larger animals are associated with larger streams and smaller species with smaller streams. A reverse pattern is found in some salamanders.

Although some degree of mature forest cover is desirable along many riparian areas, all habitat conditions are valid, given long-term disturbance regimes. The greatest concern for riparian habitats is in those areas of the state where uplands have been converted to agriculture, resulting in little additional forest of any kind in the region. This situation occurs more in the southeastern and western portions of the state rather than in the north, which affords more flexibility in age classes, structures and cover type.

Forest streams come in many sizes, growing from spring-fed trickles to large rivers as they move downhill and converge with one another to drain larger and larger watersheds. Along this gradient, the ecological characteristics of a riparian area change in a gradual continuum. Because of these characteristics, management guidelines for riparian areas in general should be considered on a landscape level.

It’s important to keep in mind the following wildlife-related concerns for riparian habitats: • Leave Trees and Snags -Prothonotary Warblers, Tufted Titmice, Wood Ducks, and a number of other species are dependent on existing cavities in riparian forests. Woodpeckers and chickadees select dying or diseased trees in which to excavate cavities. It’s important to leave existing cavity trees and potential snags for use by the many cavity nesters that utilize riparian forests.

-Some riparian species require large super-canopy trees (trees above the existing canopy) for hunting perches and nesting sites. On larger rivers, Osprey will often perch in a large, dead white pine above a river to look for prey.

- Shade is essential for maintaining microhabitat conditions for some riparian animals. Winter Wrens, Northern Water thrushes and many salamanders like the cool, moist conditions created by a closed canopy riparian forest. Yellow Warblers, Willow Flycatchers and some herps need more open riparian conditions.

Providing a range of seral stages where appropriate will benefit a number of riparian species.

• Coarse Woody Debris and Slash - Many riparian animal species require downed logs for cover. Downed logs and slash in riparian areas provides additional microsites for insects and the species that prey on these insects. Salamanders, frogs and small mammals utilize these large logs as travel routes to avoid predation.

• Mast - Riparian edges often contain a higher concentration and richness of unique mast species, especially shrubs, than adjacent upland areas. It’s well-documented that riparian areas are critical migratory stopover locations for birds that winter in the Neotropics. These areas often have more insect life in the spring before leaf out than associated uplands. In the fall, dogwoods, nannyberry, wahoo, honeysuckle, elderberry, and other mast producing shrubs and trees provide nourishment to birds migrating south and other species preparing for winter.

• ETS Species -Many ETS species are found in riparian areas. -Many of the bigger blocks of forest in the southern half of Wisconsin occur in riparian zones along the larger rivers. These are important areas for forest interior species such as Red-shouldered Hawks, Cerulean Warblers, Acadian Flycatchers, Yellowthroated Warblers, Yellow-crowned Night Heron, and a host of other species found in the southern half of

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the state.

- High-quality streams and rivers are important habitat for many rare dragonflies, fish, mussels and clams, and other invertebrates. Often the presence of these species is used to evaluate stream health. The middle St. Croix, middle and lower Chippewa and lower Wisconsin are good examples of riparian systems that host many rare species. • Natural Communities and Sensitive Sites Many natural communities are associated with riparian ecosystems. Some, like floodplain forests, are always associated with riparian areas. Others, such as northern edge meadow, emergent aquatic and alder thicket are often associated with riparian areas, but can also be found in other situations.

Landscape Implications In areas dominated by agricultural land use practices (southern Door county), where riparian forests represent the majority of the forests in the area, consider using uneven-age management. Most rare species associated with these forests require high-canopy closure and large blocks of forest.

Resources for Additional Information Amphibians of Wisconsin, 2001, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ. No. ER-105 2001, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication that gives an overview of amphibian biology and conservation in Wisconsin. Has detailed life history and management information for each species in Wisconsin.

Bureau of Endangered Resources Web Site. This web site provides a wealth of information on rare species and natural communities, the State Natural Areas Program, Invasive Species, program information, and news and events regarding the Bureau, www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/er/.

Natural Heritage Inventory On-line Database. This application provides users an opportunity to search the Wisconsin Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI) Program’s database for the status and distribution of endangered resources, or to learn what species or natural communities are known to exist within a particular area of interest.

The On-line Database is intended for information and general planning purposes rather than regulatory decision-making, www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/er/nhi/NHI_ims/ onlinedb.htm Snakes of Wisconsin, 2000, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ. No. ER-100-00, Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication that gives an overview of snake biology and conservation in Wisconsin. Has detailed life history and management information for each species in Wisconsin.

The Endangered and Threatened Vertebrates Species of Wisconsin, 1997, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ. No. ER-091.Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication that gives life history, distribution and management information for all threatened and endangered vertebrates in Wisconsin. A county by county listing of species occurrences is included, but is not up-to-date.

The Endangered and Threatened Plant Species of Wisconsin, 1993, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ.

No. ER-067, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication gives basic occurrence and habitat information for the listed plant species in Wisconsin. Species descriptions are separated by general habitat type. Unfortunately, this document has not been updated since 1993, so not all information is current.

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The Endangered and Threatened Invertebrates of Wisconsin, 1999, Bureau of Endangered Resources Publ. No. ER-085-99, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. BER publication details life histories and general conservation issues of each listed invertebrate species in Wisconsin. Also includes a county by county listing of occurrences of these species at the end of the document.

Threatened and Endangered Species of Forests in Wisconsin: A Guide to Assist with Forestry Activities, 2000.

A joint publication of International Paper Company, US Fish and Wildlife Service and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources is available from any of the sponsors. Gives a description, life history information and forestry considerations for endangered and threatened species that utilize forested habitats.

Vogt, Richard C. 1981. Natural History of Amphibians and Reptiles of Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum and Friends of the Museum, Inc. 205 pp. Good source for general information of the natural history of herps in Wisconsin.

Wild Turkey: Ecology and Management in Wisconsin, 2001. Bureau of Integrated Science Services, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. This publication gives a complete account of Wild Turkey re-introduction, management, and ecology in Wisconsin. Landowners interested in managing their land for Wild Turkeys should consider this source as a definitive guide to Turkey biology in Wisconsin.

Wildlife and Your Land: A Series About Managing Your Land for Wildlife. Bureau of Wildlife Management, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. This source served as the foundation for many of the wildlife issues covered in the FMG handbook. This collaborative effort focuses on different management issues land managers and owners should consider when managing their property. This series is available in hardcopy form or on the web at www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/land/ wildlife/publ/wildland.htm.

Wisconsin Breeding Bird Atlas Web Site.

2002. University of Wisconsin-Green Bay, www.uwgb.edu/birds/wbba/. This web site displays the results of the Wisconsin Breeding Bird Atlas performed from 1995 to 2000 on private and public lands across the state.

It’s a good source of information for the range and distribution of bird species within the state. The web site will generate a species list by quad or county and also contains pictures of the species that could be used in identification.

Wisconsin State Herbarium: University of Wisconsin – Madison Web Site. This web site contains on-line herbarium records for all plants found within Wisconsin. You can search the herbarium by species, genus or common name. Each species description contains information on location, habitat, photos, and a floristic rating. Locations are only given to the county level.

Wisconsin’s Biodiversity as a Management Issue, 1995. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. This report was written for Department of Natural Resources managers to provide them with a context for their work. This report gives an overview on the issues and implications of Wisconsin’s rich biotic heritage. It also gives an overview of the ecological, social and economic issues tied to each major community type in Wisconsin. This is a good general source for information on the landscape surrounding a given property.

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REFORESTATION Reforestation is the practice of regenerating and growing healthy trees on previously forested sites. Natural regeneration occurs by means of root suckering, stump sprouting, or natural seeding. This occurs in existing forest stands through the application of one of the silvicultural management systems as described in the Management Systems Section. Artificial regeneration methods involve aerial or ground seeding, or planting seedlings by hand or with a planting machine. These methods can occur in existing forest stands but are primarily done on sites in Door County that currently have no trees.

This chapter provides an overview of the planning, design, site preparation, and planting methods needed to successfully establish forest tree plantings. It will concentrate on artificial regeneration of non forested sites.

A successful reforestation project involves planning & commitment. A written reforestation plan will increase the likelihood of success by addressing site preparation, planting & maintenance details. Landowners should analyze their available budget, time constraints, and access to reforestation resources (e.g., nursery stock, equipment, and labor) when considering a reforestation project. A realistic budget must account for the cost of establishment and follow-up care, such as weed control treatments. It usually takes young trees 5 or more years to become well established. For those early years it is critical that the proper steps are taken to get your planting off to a good start. Like many things in life, putting in the effort to care for your planting early on will reap rewards later.

Your Reforestation Goals The first step in planning a reforestation project is to think about how it relates to both short- and longterm landowner goals. Such goals might include producing income from timber, improving habitat for specific wildlife species, restoring a natural plant community, reducing soil erosion, improving water quality, or enhancing the aesthetics of the land. Remember that many goals are compatible with each other, allowing a single forest planting to serve multiple purposes. Generally speaking, reforestation efforts in the county fall into one of the following categories.

Windbreaks & Screens These plantings consist of relatively narrow strips of evergreen species strategically located to minimize the effects of prevailing winds or to create a visual barrier. They are usually one to five rows wide with a 12 to 15 foot tree spacing between and within the rows. Spruce, pine and cedar are the most commonly used species. At this spacing it will obviously take time for the windbreak/screen to be effective but the trees need adequate room to grow and retain lateral branches. More closely spaced trees will grow into each other sooner and will shade the bottom branches, which will eventually die due to a lack of light. If you choose to plant at a closer spacing you will need to thin some of the trees over time to give adequate space for those that remain. Windbreaks should be planted at least 65 feet from the area you want to protect on the west and north side.

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Wildlife Plantings These plantings usually consist of a mixture of evergreens, hardwoods & shrubs planted in clumps or strips with a primary purpose of providing wildlife habitat. Strip plantings usually have a row or two of shrubs spaced 6 to 8 feet apart located on the strip’s west and/or north side. A 30 foot gap is left and several rows of evergreens (spruce & pine) are planted at 10 to 15 foot spacing. A couple rows of taller hardwoods come next followed by a row or two of shorter hardwoods also planted at 10 to 15 foot spacing. A couple rows of shrubs complete the planting spaced 20 to 30 feet away from the last row of short hardwoods with 6 to 8 feet between the shrubs. Clump plantings usually consist of evergreens in the clump center with small hardwoods and shrubs planted toward the edges at the same spacing mentioned earlier. Variation in planting design can be tailored to fit the layout of a particular property.

Mixed hardwood & evergreen planting Section 15 Brussels

Forest Plantings These larger scale plantings consist of evergreens and/or hardwoods planted to create a forest habitat for wildlife and timber products. Approximately 800 to 1000 trees per acre are planted to fully utilize the site and encourage well formed trees. Once the planting reaches 25-30 years of age it will need periodic thinning to give remaining trees adequate growing space. At full maturity (80-150 years of age) there may only be room for 20 to 30 trees per acre. In the past, forest plantings were primarily single species plantings of conifers and occasionally black walnut. In more recent years mixed planting of conifer & hardwoods has taken place in various arrangements. Forest plantings are generally planted in rows for ease of planting, maintenance and thinning. Rows are usually spaced about 8 feet apart with trees 6 to 7 feet apart within the row. Row width will depend somewhat on size of maintenance equipment (i.e. mower). Rows may be curved or contoured to reduce the "row effect" and make a more natural appearing forest. Fire lanes are incorporated into larger plantings to improve accessibility and reduce fire hazard. The wildlife habitat benefits of these plantings will change over time as seedlings grow into mature trees.

Enhancement Plantings These plantings are variable in size shape & density but in general are smaller in scale. They are generally conducted to introduce species diversity onto a property and in many cases benefit wildlife habitat and improve aesthetics as well. They are highly dependent on landowner objectives and current cover on the property. The general goal is to augment naturally occurring vegetation on the property to meet specific landowner objectives.

Preparing the Site Site preparation is the creation of a favorable growing environment for tree seeds or seedlings. The biggest obstacle facing seedling establishment is competition from other vegetation. Effective site preparation will reduce competing vegetation, and create a sufficient number of suitable growing sites without causing excessive soil disturbance.

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•Mechanical site preparation typically disturbs the soil and reduces competing vegetation by plowing, disking, raking, chopping, scalping, and trenching, among other approaches. In some cases, mechanical site preparation can be valuable, as exposing and disturbing mineral soil can have the added benefits of increasing root zone temperatures, aerating the soil, and improving drainage. However, when mechanical site preparation is done incorrectly, it can result in soil erosion, compaction and rutting. Also consider the potential competing vegetation that may develop from dormant seeds after the soil is exposed. A combination of both mechanical and chemical techniques can be used for added control.

•Chemical site preparation can be an effective method to control vegetation, and increase the amount of sunlight and water available for plant Chemical control of competing vegetation in growth. Chemical methods may involve simple bands/strips on a new tree planting. Section 27 Egg Harbor equipment, can be less expensive, and provide longer control than mechanical site preparation. However, chemical effectiveness depends on the appropriate herbicide selection, the timing of application, application rate, and weather conditions. Herbicide applications may need to be repeated for several years to ensure stand establishment. All herbicides must be applied in accordance with label recommendations and their registered use. Updated detailed forestry herbicide information is available through your local DNR or consulting forester.

•Prescribed burning, or controlled ground fires, can be an effective and inexpensive means of removing or reducing vegetation, and preparing a suitable seedbed. Burning can also improve soil nutrient levels.

Prescribed burning, however, can reduce the effectiveness of pre-emergent herbicides and can increase solar heating at the ground line, leading to seedling mortality. The use of fire as a vegetation management technique is very appealing to many small landowners because it appears “natural” – but it can be dangerous. Effective and safe use of prescribed fire requires appropriate equipment and training and is rarely used in Door County.

•Cover crops can be grown to prevent invasion by noxious weeds, non-native invasive species, or other competing vegetation. Cover crops can also control soil erosion, improve soil condition, and increase waterholding capacity. It is important to select a cover crop species that will accomplish the site preparation objectives, but not adversely impact tree growth. Legumes are sometimes selected as cover crops because they can enhance soil nitrogen. Small grain crops, such as winter wheat and rye, can inhibit weed growth, and add organic matter to the soil while providing limited competition for tree seedlings. Winter wheat can be spring seeded to produce a less vigorous but effective cover crop.

Former agriculture fields present a unique set of site preparation challenges. Fields that were in row crops the previous year, such as corn or soybeans, generally require a pre-emergent herbicide after planting to control germination of stored weed seed. Cover crops may also be used to control invasive weeds.

Alfalfa, clover, or some perennial grasses provide fierce competition for tree seedlings and seeds. Alfalfa and sod are easiest to control during the year prior to planting, with an early fall application of herbicide when the plants are still actively growing. Alternatively, rotation into a row crop or other desirable cover crop, followed by planting of seedlings, has been especially effective for hardwood plantings on heavy soils.

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Species Selection The tree species selected for reforestation must be compatible with your management goals, and biologicallysuited to the planting site. A number of factors need to be considered in species selection and include the following: • Soils & drainage Soil properties affect the moisture and nutrients available for tree growth, therefore, a careful analysis of soil characteristics and uniformity is a critical step in selecting trees species that are welladapted to the planting site. These factors include: • Soil texture – is it too coarse or sandy?

• Depth of topsoil – what is the available rooting depth?

• Parent material – is high or low soil pH a potential problem?

• Available moisture – is there adequate organic matter in the soil?

• Internal drainage – does water drain freely or puddle following rain?

• Nutrients – does current vegetation appear lush or chlorotic?

• Bulk density – is the soil compacted or have a hard pan due to past land use?

• Erosion patterns – has original topsoil been heavily eroded?

Site quality is almost impossible to change significantly once trees are planted, so assessment of soil and site characteristics is essential. Soil uniformity can also be checked so that species recommendations can be customized to fit the site. Methods of soil evaluation include the use of published soil surveys, and completion of soil lab analysis. Soil survey reports and/or soil maps offer a general assessment of landscape soil features while soil lab analysis provides information on selected soil properties, and can identify possible nutrient deficiencies.

• Climatic suitability Tree species are adapted to a specific range of climatic conditions. Since Wisconsin has a wide range of climates, our state hosts a wide variety of native tree species. Therefore, it is important to select species that are adapted to the climatic conditions of the planting site. For example, several species reach the northern limit of their range in Wisconsin. Species like black walnut are limited to the southern portion of the state by climatic factors such as minimum winter temperature. Other climatic factors to consider when initiating a plantation are timing and amounts of precipitation, the potential for ice storms and snow loads, and risks associated with early or late frosts.

• Potential growth rate Site productivity is the capacity of a site to yield a given forest product in a specified period of time, and has traditionally been measured as gross volume per acre per year. Evaluation of productivity levels will help in the selection of species that will exhibit optimal growth on the planting site.

Productivity can be evaluated in several ways: 1) Site Index: Examining the growth rates of existing or adjacent forest trees 2) Habitat Type Classification: Using other plant community information 3) Site Productivity History: Examining the records of past yields or performance. Some of these measures are indirect, and provide estimates of potential productivity rather than precise measurements. Keep in mind that productivity generalizations from one species to the next vary greatly – what may be viewed as adequate productivity for one species may prove to be inadequate for others.

• Potential competition problems Existing and potential vegetation will compete with young seedlings for moisture, nutrients and light. Not all vegetation is alike in its ability to compete with young trees, and must be evaluated in order to determine the timing and extent of appropriate control measures. Vegetation existing on

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the planting site is an obvious consideration, but other plants that regenerate readily from dormant seeds or from well-established root systems also pose potential problems. The types and amounts of competing (or potentially competing) vegetation must be considered when selecting appropriate planting stock, site preparation treatments and maintenance activities.

• Potential for pest problems Forest pest problems need to be considered in you reforestation plans. Insect, disease and animal (browse) damage can influence not only species selection but site preparation and maintenance requirements as well. Many forest pests are more nuisance than they are a severe problem. It is important to recognize the difference and account for problem forest pests in your reforestation plans. Well documented pest problems can be minimized or avoided. In other cases, the new outbreaks of introduced pests are less predictable and sometimes occur only after reforestation is complete. The bottom line is to plan reforestation decisions with the most up-to date pest information available.

• Animal damage The main causes of animal damage in our area are mice/voles, rabbits & deer. Site preparation and maintenance measures can reduce habitat that harbors rodent & rabbits and alleviate or minimize some impacts. Negative impacts of high populations or concentrations of deer particularly in southern Door County may prevent successful establishment of tree species (hardwoods in particular) that would otherwise be well suited to your planting site. In these cases alternate species my need to be planted or intensive protection measures taken.

Nursery Stock Selection of the best nursery stock type for a given situation depends upon the identification of planting site factors that influence seedling establishment and early growth.

Bare root stock is seeded and grown in nursery beds for one to three years, and may be moved to a transplant bed to improve root development. Advantages of bare root stock include lower costs, ease of transportation and storage, competitive advantage over weeds, less susceptibility to deer browse, and faster root regeneration. Bare root stock, however, takes longer to grow, can dry out quickly due to exposed roots, is prone to root damage and deformity during planting operations, and may require special planting considerations due to the larger seedling size. Bare root stock is often sold using an age class designation, such as 1-0, 2-0, 3-0 or 2-1.

The first numeral refers to the number of years spent in a seedbed. For example, a 2-0 designation means the tree spent two years in a seedbed. The second numeral refers to the number of years spent in a transplant bed. For example, a 2-1 designation means the tree spent two years in a seedbed and one year in a transplant bed (transplanting improves root development).

Containerized stock is usually less than one-yearold and is grown, shipped and planted in a soil “plug” of peat, perlite (or vermiculite) and sand.

Usage in the Lake States has been restricted

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Nursery stock in cold storage at the Peninsula Research Farm.

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primarily to conifer seedlings, but recent advances in pot sizes have allowed some production of containerized hardwoods. The advantages of containerized stock include the fact that seedlings can be grown in six to 15 weeks, they have high survival rates, superior initial height growth, more uniform size, and good plantability, especially on rocky sites where it may be difficult to open a large hole for bare root seedlings. In addition, these seedlings are less likely to experience transplant shock since the tree is planted in the rooting medium, and the process makes more efficient use of seed. Finally, containerized stock extends planting seasons, and seedlings can perform well on adverse sites. Containerized seedlings also are more resistant to heat and drying stress, so transportation and storage are less problematic. Containerized stock, however, is more expensive than bare root stock, more bulky to transport and handle, less able to compete with weeds, susceptible to deer browse, prone to frost heaving when planted on bare mineral soil, and often smaller in size.

Nursery stock can be purchased through both private and DNR nurseries. DNR nurseries sell nursery stock that is ordered in the fall and planted in the spring. It is important to submit DNR tree orders as soon as they become available (usually the end of September). Some species sell out within days. DNR stock is grown & shipped as bare-root seedlings. Cost will vary by age, species & quantity ordered. DNR stock is sold at the cost of production and is usually less expensive than private nursery stock. It cannot be resold or used for landscaping, Christmas trees or ornamental planting. For most planting sites in Door County preferred ages to order in DNR stock are 3-year-old evergreens and 2-year-old hardwoods. Listing of private nurseries can be obtained from your local DNR forester. Private nurseries may offer tree species, quantities or ages unavailable through DNR nurseries. Private nursery stock is not subject to planting restrictions.

Shipping & Storage Reforestation surveys indicate that common problems facing seedling survival are due to poor shipping & handling practices. From the time seedlings are lifted from the nursery bed, to the time they are planted, it is critically important to keep the seedlings moist (relative humidity 90 to 95 percent) and cool (34ยบF to 36ยบF).

DNR nursery stock is direct shipped via refrigerated truck direct from the nursery to the Peninsular Research Farm north of Sturgeon Bay. The Door County Soil & Water Conservation Department contracts the trucking and bills people directly for shipping charges. Stock is shipped from mid April to early May. The Research Farm provides one of the best storage facilities in the state. Stock is held in coolers just above freezing to keep trees dormant & in good condition for planting. Smaller orders are distributed on the Saturday following shipment. Larger orders are held until planting time. Once out of the cooler, trees should be kept cool and moist and planted as soon as possible.

Private nursery stock is generally shipped via commercial shipper. Shipping dates are negotiated with the nursery. Picking up nursery stock directly from DNR & private nurseries is also an option and dates need to be arranged in advance.

Root Pruning & Culling Root pruning may be necessary for seedlings with long fibrous root systems in order to facilitate proper planting. Remember that the key to seedling establishment and survival is a vigorous root system, so approach root pruning conservatively. If your planting equipment can adequately plant the entire root system of your

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stock, root pruning is not required. Severe root pruning can quickly lead to seedling mortality after planting because seedlings will not have sufficient root area to absorb water. Recommendations for pruning 2-0 conifer nursery stock are to clip the root system eight to 10 inches below the root collar. Larger conifer nursery stock, such as 3-0 or transplants, requires a larger root system in order to maintain a proper shoot to root ratio. Most hardwood nursery stock can be pruned to eight to 10 inches below the root collar, and the lateral roots can be pruned at four inches from the main taproot. Remember that larger hardwood stock must be pruned more conservatively, and may require specially designed planting equipment to prepare adequate planting holes. Root pruning must be done in a cool environment where the seedlings will not be exposed to the drying effects of wind and sun, therefore, the planting site is often the worst place to conduct root pruning.

If your nursery stock is not presorted or is ordered in bulk quantities, it will be necessary to separate trees and cull weak seedlings at this time. In bulk orders often times roots are intertwined and need to be separated prior to planting. Bulk orders also include extra seedlings to allow for (or offset losses from) culling. The nursery often provides specifications on what should be culled from a bulk order. Eliminate the wilted, discolored, damaged, or “scraggly� seedlings. Keep seedlings moist during the entire pruning and culling process. Place the seedlings back into their packaging, remoisten, and reseal the packages tightly to keep in moisture.

Handling & Planting Small-scale plantings can be hand planted using a shovel, planting bar or auger. The average inexperienced tree planter can hand plant about 500 seedlings per day, depending on site conditions and stock type. A professional tree planter can often hand plant 1,000 or more seedlings per day. When planting by hand, remember to keep the seedlings shaded, cool and moist at all times. Do not leave packages of seedlings exposed to sunlight and warm temperatures at the job site. Utilize a reflective tarp, and consider delivering the stock in stages during the workday. Carry seedlings in a planting bag or bucket along with wet burlap to keep the root One of five Door County Soil & Water Conservation systems moist. Handle the roots as little as possible, Department machine planters available for rent. and do not carry the seedlings exposed to the air or immersed in water. The roots should hang freely in the planting hole and not be twisted or crooked. The new soil line should be slightly above the seedling’s root collar. The soil should be packed firmly around the seedling to maintain good soil to root contact and eliminate air pockets.

Larger scale plantings are planted with a mechanical tree planter pulled by a medium sized tractor.

Professional machine planting services are available for hire. For those who desire more hands on involvement, the Door County Soil & Water Conservation Dept. (SWCD) owns five planting machines that can be rented by landowners planting 2000 or more trees. The SWCD provides planter drop off and pick up service.

Landowners furnish the tractor and labor. The local DNR forester handles planter scheduling and trouble shooting and hosts a preseason planting meeting for people renting planting machines. Machine planting rates

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are commonly 5000 or more trees per day. Stock handling is the same as for hand planting; keep the trees cool and moist until they are in the ground.

Direct Seeding Another option for tree establishment is direct seeding. Tree seed is planted directly into reforestation sites instead of planting stock grown in a nursery. Recent direct seeding efforts in Door County have concentrated on planting hardwood seed into former cropland. The components of direct seeding are similar to conventional planting and include: securing seed, site preparation, planting seed and follow up control of competing vegetation.

Ideally, local seed sources can be secured to obtain the species and amount of seed required. Obtaining seed can be a challenge since good seed years vary among species and are often unpredictable. Seed can be collected by the landowner or purchased through DNR or private nurseries. Seed sources should be from within 100 miles of the planting site. Seed collection should target trees that exhibit good growth characteristics (vigorous, good form, little defect or disease). Timing seed collection and care of seed is critical to insure viable seed is being planted. Most seed ripens in late summer or early fall with the exception of a few species which ripen in spring. If you plan on doing your own seed collecting, make sure you contact your local DNR forester for advice. They will also have sources for obtaining seed should you decide to purchase it.

Early results from seeding trials suggest that tilling the soil as you would for planting crops is the best method for preparing your seeding site. Herbicides may be needed in advance of tillage if you are planting land formerly in heavy sod or hay. Plowing and/or disking are the common tillage Direct seeding acorns with a seed drill. Section 13 Union methods used. Timing a direct seeding after a site was in a grain or row crop is ideal.

Site preparation usually occurs in late summer or early fall.

Planting seed can be done by use of a seed drill or by broadcasting the seed on the soil surface and covering it by disking or dragging. There is currently an acorn planter available through your local DNR forester for seeding a variety of large seeded species (oak, hickory, walnut, and butternut). The seeder attaches to a tractor by way of a three-point hitch and can be rented for a nominal fee. Broadcasting seed can be done by hand or with a mechanical spreader followed by light tillage. Most seed is planted in fall shortly after it is collected.

Many seeds need to go through a temperature change to break dormancy and trigger germination (process called stratification). Planting seed directly into the planting site in fall will achieve stratification requirements for spring germination. Seeding rates will vary by species.

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One of the main advantages of direct seeding is the reduced stress on seedlings. Seedlings germinate and grow relatively undisturbed. A major disadvantage of direct seeding is that young seedlings will lack the fertilization, irrigation and pest protection they would receive in a nursery setting. For this reason, control of competing vegetation is critical to give the germinating trees a chance to grow & develop. This can be achieved by a combination of herbicides, cover crops and or mowing. There is no standard recommendation for follow up control of competing vegetation. Working with your forester for recommendations specific to your planting site is important. The cost of direct seeding will vary by species and planting method, but in general, will be less than conventional planting of nursery stock.

Maintenance Vegetation Control The success of a planting will often be determined by the control of competing vegetation before and after the trees are planted. Good site preparation will get seedlings off to a fast start, but weed competition may need to be controlled for at least three growing seasons, or until the trees are well-established. Herbicides are often the most effective method for follow-up weed control. The proper choice of herbicide, timing and method of application are critical to insure that planted trees are not damaged. Mechanical weed control may be suitable for some post-planting situations. Shallow disking or rototilling between rows is effective if care is used to avoid damaging the trees and their root systems. Mowing can reduce weed maturation and seed production, and minimize rodent habitat Mowing can prevent the physical smothering of trees (i.e., lodging) as grasses and broadleaf plants die and fall over the winter. Hand or mechanical cutting of woody vegetation may effectively release young seedlings, but repeated treatments may be needed due to stump sprouting.

Monitoring Some monitoring process should be used to evaluate plantation survival and assess maintenance needs. A regular program of monitoring helps ensure the success of a reforestation project. At a minimum, plantations should be evaluated during the first growing season, four to five months after planting (although earlier evaluations may make problem diagnosis easier), and again during the third growing season to verify survival and establishment. During the evaluation process make note of insect, disease, animal, and/or competing vegetation problems.

Survival counts are a quick way to determine if replanting is necessary in order to meet management goals.

Estimating survival on random 1/100 acre plots throughout the plantation can assess seedling survival. This can be accomplished in a few easy steps. First, attach an 11.8 foot length of cord to a stake to represent the radius of a 1/100 acre plot. Then place the stake in the center of each plot, and use the cord to determine which trees fall within the plot. Count the number of live and dead trees within each plot. Since each tree counted represents 100 trees per acre, multiply the number of live trees by 100 to determine the average number of live trees per acre. The number of live trees per acre divided by the total number of both live and dead trees per acre equals the survival percentage. Average the values from all the plots tallied to determine the survival for the whole plantation. The number of plots required to obtain a reliable survival estimate depends on the size of the plantation and the variability of survival within the plantation. A rule of thumb is to do one survival plot per acre for the first 10 acres, and one additional plot for each additional five acres of plantation. An alternative method (faster, but potentially less accurate) is to select a row and count the number of live and dead trees.

Switch rows periodically to sample across the entire plantation.

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Cost Sharing Incentive Programs There may be an opportunity to offset planting expenses through state or federally funded reforestation incentive programs. If interested contact your local DNR forester for eligibility requirements and available funding. Also, you can currently take deductions and credits for reforestation expenses on your federal income taxes.

Reforestation Aids There are a wide variety of products available to aid in the survival of a plantation. Root dips and gels are hydrating gels used to coat seedling roots prior to handling and planting operations. Their primary purpose is to prevent drying of the seedling’s roots during the planting process. Mulches and vegetation mats are used to suppress weed growth, retain soil moisture and reduce erosion. Mulches can include bark, sawdust, straw, wood chips or other materials. Mulches must be applied to a depth adequate to suppress weed growth (i.e., two to three inches), but should not be heaped or mounded immediately next to the seedling. Mulches are labor intensive to apply and can attract rodents seeking nesting areas. Vegetation mats are typically made from plastics or natural fibers. They suppress weed growth while still allowing water infiltration. The primary disadvantage of mats is the high cost. Tree shelters protect trees from animal browse and improve initial height growth by creating a greenhouse effect. They make seedlings easier to locate, and protect the trees from herbicide damage. Tree shelters do not eliminate the need for vegetation control and require annual maintenance. Shelters block a significant quantity of incoming light, so they should be used in full sun conditions. Tree shelters are used primarily with high value hardwoods, and the cost may not be economically justified for many landowners. Other problems associated with the use of shelters include stem dieback and rodent nesting. After a few years, tree shelters may actually inhibit sapling growth, so they should be removed once terminal shoots have emerged from the shelter top, and the sapling becomes rigid enough to stand on its own. Tree barriers can be effective for controlling browse damage. They are usually home-made from various types of fencing with anchor stakes. The goal is to create a barrier between the trees and whatever is browsing it. For rodent protection, small mesh is needed. For deer browse, larger mesh to a height of at least 5 feet is necessary. Bud caps have been used to also protect from browse damage on terminal buds. A piece of waterproof material (i.e. Tyvek) is wrapped around the terminal bud and stapled. They are installed in a fashion that allows new growth to emerge the following spring.

Patience & Perseverance One of the most limiting factors on new tree plantings is adequate rainfall. During dry conditions supplemental watering may increase success on small-scale plantings. This is not very practical on larger plantings so they will rely heavily on natural precipitation. Losses from severe drought may require replanting to reach your planting objectives. Assuming you have done everything needed to get your planting started off correctly and the weather cooperates; it will still take several years for most species to put on a significant amount of top growth. Don’t be disappointed. Early in the plantings life, the trees and shrubs are busy growing underground to establish a good root system. Once this occurs you will notice an increase in above ground growth that should continue until maturity.

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SOILS Soil is the fundamental resource of the forest. Without it, other resources of the forest would vanish over time.

Identifying and reducing impacts to the soil is an essential part of a strategy for sustainable forest management.

Primary considerations in maintaining soil productivity include the following: • Soil Productivity is a major factor in determining the amount of timber harvesting that can be sustained over time. It also affects other forest attributes, such as wildlife habitat and biodiversity.

• Soil productivity limit’s the kinds of tree species that will grow on a site as well as their rate of growth.

• Maintaining soil productivity keeps forest soils in a condition that favors regeneration, survival and long term growth of desired forest vegetation.

• Maintaining forest soil productivity is less costly than correction or mitigation (after the fact).

• Maintaining the productivity and sustainability of forest soils is key to meeting societies need for forest products and other amenities of the forest.

Door County is unlike any other in terms of soil composition. Most of the soils in the county originated from glaciation and the weathering of bedrock. The unique qualities of the soils of Door County result in Section 4. Nasewaupee many land use and water quality concerns. Many of the soils of the county are very shallow, especially in the northern two-thirds of the peninsula; 22% of the soil in the county is less than 18 inches in depth, and an additional 17% is between 18 to 36 inches in depth. The shallow depth of soil to the underlying fractured bedrock presents many problems with suitability of septic system absorption fields, forestry and agricultural practices, and construction development. Due to the calcareous nature of the parent material that these soils originated, the soils of Door County are characteristically alkaline.

In some forestry plantings, particularly in northern door county, you may notice plantations where trees are stunted in growth and off color. A number of the fields that were previously farmed and are today in trees have areas where tilling the soil brought a highly calcareous subsoil that appears to be toxic to tree growth and either kills or severely inhibits growth of seedlings and saplings.

There are 75 different soil types found throughout Door County. Soil types with similar characteristics have been grouped into six different soil associations. A soil association is a geographic region that has a distinctive pattern of soils in defined proportions. Soils that make up an association are similar in morphology. There are minor soils in each association, which have different properties than the soils making up the association name.

These soils are usually found in the particular associations’ geographic boundary. Door County is made up of six associations that will be described on the following pages. For a complete description of each soil, see the Door County Soil Survey. These six soil associations can be used to determine the large-scale suitability for certain types of land use, planning, and management. The six major soil associations found in Door County are:

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• Summerville-Longrie-Omena association • Rousseau-Kiva-Markey association • Deford-Yahara Variant-Carbondale association

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• Emmet-Solona-Angelica association • Kewaunee-Kolberg-Manawa association • Carbondale-Cathro association

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(1) Summerville - Longrie - Omena Association – Consists of nearly level to moderately steep soils on upland till plains and ridges where bedrock strongly influences topography. This major association makes up approximately 48% of the county.

The Summerville series has approximately 24 percent of the association, Longrie - 24%; Omena - 20%; and minor soils - 36%. Minor soils are Alpena, Bonduel, Bonduel Shallow Variant, Bonduel Wet Variant, Namur, and Solona soils. Controlling erosion and maintaining organic matter content and fertility are the main concerns of management for this association with regard to cultivation. The native vegetation associated with this soil association is a strong component of sugar maple and beech, with a smaller component of white birch and red oak.

The association is well drained having a sandy loam, or loam subsoil, over a sandy loam or fine sandy loam till or dolomite bedrock. The moderately deep and deep soils are mainly utilized for cultivated crops such as corn, small grains and legumes. The shallow soils are mainly used for pasture or remain wooded.

(2) Emmet - Solona - Angelica Association – Consists of nearly level to sloping or upland till plains and broad ridges; approximately 23% of the county's land is included in this association.

The Emmet series makes up a majority of the association at 44%, Solona - 16%; Angelica - 10% and minor soils - 30%. Minor soils are Cathro, Omena, Longrie, Namur and Summerville. Controlling erosion and maintaining organic matter content and fertility are the main management concerns with regard to cultivation.

The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Emmet series native vegetation was made up of sugar maple, red oak, American beech and some white pine. The Solona and Angelica series were wetter soil composed of American elm, northern white cedar and a mix of green and white ash and tag alder.

The association is well to poorly drained having a loamy sand to silt loam subsoils over sandy loam or loam till.

Most well drained soils and artificially drained soils are well suited to crops commonly grown in the county.

Undrained wet areas are used mainly for pasture, woodland, and wildlife habitat.

(3) Rousseau - Kiva - Markey Association – Consists of nearly level to sloping soils on out wash plains, stabilized dunes, beach ridges, and in depressions; occupies approximately 6% of the county and is common to shorelines.

The Rousseau series makes up approximately 28% of the association; Kiva - 16%; Markey - 15%; and the minor soils - 41%. Boyer, Duel, Sisson, Wainola are minor soils.

The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Rousseau series native vegetation was made up of sugar maple, red oak, Aspen and white birch. The Kiva series was mainly sugar maple, aspen and some northern white cedar. The Markey series were wetter soils composed of northern white cedar, ash, tagalder and dogwood.

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The soils in this association are generally unsuited to crops commonly grown in the county; therefore, they are mainly used for pasture, woodland and wildlife habitat. Erosion can be controlled by planting a suitable tree species.

(4) Kewaunee - Kolberg - Manawa Association – Consists of nearly level to moderately steep soils on glacial till upland plains and ridges where, in some places, bedrock (Dolomite) has a strong influence on topography. It occupies approximately 11% of the county.

The Kewaunee series makes up approximately 39% of this association; Kolberg - 15%; Manawa - 14%; and minor soils - 32%. Minor soils are Manistee, Namur, Poygan, Suamico, and Kolberg Variant. This association is well drained to somewhat poorly drained having dominant silty clay subsoil over a silty clay till or dolomite bedrock.

The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Kewaunee and Kolberg series native vegetation was made up of sugar maple and red oak. The Manawa series was a wetter soil that is somewhat poorly drained and was made up mainly of mainly of American elm, ash and willow.

Most of the association is used for cultivated crops such as corn, small grain and legumes. Steeper areas or undrained wet areas are used for pasture, woodland, or wildlife habitat. Management concerns of this association are; controlling erosion, maintaining organic-matter content and fertility.

(5) Deford - Yahara Variant - Carbondale Association – Consists of nearly level soils in glacial lake basins and on outwash plains; occupies approximately 5% of the county.

Deford, Yahara Variant and Carbondale soils each make up about 14% of the association. The minor soils, Markey, Rousseau, Wainola and Yahara, make up about 58%. Most of the association is in woodland and wildlife habitat.

The native vegetation within this association varies by soil series. The Deford and Yahara variant series native vegetation was made up of American elm, white ash and northern white cedar. The Carbondale series was a wetter soil that is very poorly drained and was made up mainly of mainly of northern white cedar, balsam fir, ash, white birch and tag alder.

(6) Carbondale - Cathro Association – Consists of nearly level organic soils in glacial lake basins and depressions; occupies about 7% of the county.

These are the wettest soils in the county and most are poorly drained. The Carbondale soils make up about 49% of the association and Cathro soils, 23%. Minor soils, Allendale, Angelica, and Pinconning make up 28%.

The native vegetation of the Carbondale and Cathro series was made up of American elm, ash, northern white cedar, tagalder and dogwood.

Most of this association is poorly suited to common crops of the county. Therefore, most is woodland or wildlife habitat.

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THREATENED & ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION An important consideration for land management decisions is the impact they may have on plant and animal species and the natural community in which they live. Many species and communities are common and the impacts of time-tested management activities are well known. For others, their presence on the landscape may be uncommon or rare and may require special consideration to insure their protection. In terms of unique species and habitats, Door County is a special place. There are currently more state protected "Natural Areas" here than any other county in Wisconsin. Those Natural Areas as well as other parts of the peninsula are home to a significant number of species and communities that are threatened, endangered or of special concern. Door County ranks near the top of the list in occurrences of these species.

Wisconsin is governed by both the federal and state endangered species acts whose purpose is to protect those plants, animals and communities. The Federal Endangered Species Act (1973) protects plants & animals that are in danger of disappearing from the face of the earth as well as the habitats on which they depend. Species currently facing extinction are classified as "Endangered". Species that are declining and may disappear in the near future are classified as "Threatened". A list of species in both categories is maintained by the federal government. Animals on this list are protected on both public and private lands. Plants are protected primarily on federal lands such as national forests, national wildlife refuges and military bases. The Wisconsin Endangered Species Act (1978 amended 2001), uses similar definitions for the words "Endangered" and "Threatened". It requires a list be maintained of plants and animals meeting those definitions. Animals on the state list are protected on all lands in the state. Plants are protected on public property. Plants on private land are protected (the current owner or leaser is exempt as are forestry or agricultural practices or maintenance of a utility facility).

To maintain data on the locations and status of rare species, natural communities, and natural features, Wisconsin's Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI) was established in 1985 by the Wisconsin Legislature. It is maintained by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources' (WDNR) Bureau of Endangered Resources and is part of an international network of inventory programs.

Information in the Natural Heritage Inventory is sensitive because rare species are very vulnerable to collection as well as destruction. Publication of exact locations may threaten their continued existence. It is for this reason that the NHI data are exempt from the Wisconsin Open Records Law. However, the Bureau of Endangered Resources can and does share NHI data to facilitate protection, plan management, design preserves, and avoid impacts to rare resources. Data are shared with care but with the customer's needs in mind.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS What does it mean when rare species are found on my land? It means you have land that is quite different than most properties in the state. Native species that have been eliminated elsewhere still find a home on your land. This may have some legal obligations, but it may also yield some benefits.

What is the difference between threatened and endangered species? Endangered means the species is in danger of becoming extinct. Threatened means the species is less vulnerable, but a chance exists that they will soon be endangered.

What if the species are plants? The plants that are found on private property belong to the landowner.

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What becomes of them is the decision of the landowner. Of course, the Department of Natural Resources wants to encourage and help the landowner protect and manage these valuable plants.

What if the rare species turn out to be birds or other animals? Because animals usually travel freely from one property to another, they belong to everyone. Laws determine what anyone can do with these species. For example, it is illegal to shoot a timber wolf in Wisconsin, although it is not illegal to shoot a white tailed deer in season. Laws also protect nesting birds or turtles from being disturbed during the nesting season. For example, it is illegal to disturb an active Bald Eagle nest. Sometimes habitats are protected. Many of our State Natural Areas protect large pieces of rare habitats such as beach dunes, sedge meadows, or old growth forest. These rare habitats often host a number of rare plants and animals.

If an endangered species is found, who will get this information? The information is shared with the landowner or land manager, of course. Otherwise, it’s confidential. It is not dispensed to the media, and is exempt from the open records law.

How does a landowner benefit from the knowledge that an endangered or threatened species occurs on their property? You learn from biologists what makes your property special. You may get help with managing the natural resources on your land. Several programs are in place that can provide tax advantages or cost sharing for management. Knowledge of the occurrence or rare plants and animal is increasing every year. The best information on occurrences of rare species is the Endangered Resources Programs Natural Heritage Inventory. Information on publicly owned land is relatively good, however, private land is inventoried only with permission of the landowner, and coverage is very patchy.

Protection and Management The majority of forest management activities will not involve ETS species. Even when they are found, the laws seldom totally prohibit activities. The landowner owns the plants found on the property. On public land, endangered and threatened plant species are considered when developing a management plan or conducting a timber sale. Endangered and threatened animal species are protected by law, but many can be incidentally taken, if certain restrictions are followed. Special concern species have no legal protection, but that does not abdicate the responsibility to consider them in planning actions.

When found, most ETS species tend to be found in specialized habitats. Seeps, ephemeral ponds, cliffs, extensive bog areas, old-growth forest, and large blocks of southern Wisconsin forest harbor a vast majority of the 245 forested ETS species. Many species are also localized in their distribution. Several species are found in only a few locations in the state with the rarest species almost exclusively found on publiclyprotected land.

Most forestry- related activities do not negatively affect threatened or endangered species as long as ecosystem based sustainable forestry practices are used. However situations may arise where there is a conflict between land management (including forestry) and protection of these species. For many of these situations there are workable solutions. Information on the impacts of forest management activities on threatened & endangered species is available but is far from complete and continued research is ongoing.

Many studies on the relationship between timber harvest and vertebrates provide a basis for making decisions regarding rare species. Relatively little is known about the impacts of timber harvest on rare plants and especially invertebrates. Long-lived and slow-dispersing understory plants and invertebrates, especially those that have their optimum habitat in late-successional or old growth forest, may be

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particularly affected by timber harvest.

The following section provides information on documented sightings of threatened & endangered species in Door County. It is not a complete list of all species in the county, but those that are most likely to be affected by logging or other forestry operations. This information is based on the best knowledge currently available.

This information will be improved upon or expanded as research continues and/or new species are located. You are encouraged to contact your local DNR forester or endangered resource specialist for updated information on threatened, endangered or special concern species relative to land management activities.

Federal and State Listed Species in Door County likely to be affected by logging or other forestry practices:

MAMMALS TIMBER WOLF (Canis lupus) State Status: Endangered

Description: The timber wolf, or gray wolf, looks somewhat like a large dog but has a arrow chest, longer legs, and larger feet than most dogs. Its coat is colored a mixture of gray, brown, tan, and black, with a light cream color on the underside. Wolves in Wisconsin normally weigh 50-100 pounds, about two or more times the size of a coyote. Wolf and coyote tracks normally follow in straight lines, with the hind foot stepping into the track of the front foot. Dog tracks normally do not overlap and have a more zigzag pattern. Wolf tracks are usually 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches compared to less than 2.7 inches for coyotes.

Habitat: Wolf packs occur in heavily forested areas where few people live and where there are few roads. Such conditions occur most commonly in the mixed deciduous and coniferous forests of northern Wisconsin. Wolves also are expanding their range into parts of west central Wisconsin.

Forestry Considerations: Maintaining low, active road densities (including logging roads)of less than 1 mile of road per square mile of land, benefits wolves. Gating logging roads after the timber harvest, or using winteronly roads, would reduce disturbance. Harvesting activities should be avoided within 1/2 mile of an active den from March through July, and no tree cutting should occur within110 yards (5 chains)of active dens.

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BIRDS BALD EAGLE (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) Federal Status: Threatened State Status : De-listed

Description: Adult bald eagles have dark brown bodies and wings contrasting with the familiar white head, neck, and tail feathers. The adult female (34-43 inches long) is larger than the male (30-35 inches long). The eagle’s wingspan is 7 feet, with adults weighing 8-14pounds. Immature eagles are dark brown with spatterings of white on the under wings and tail. Their head and tail feathers turn white as they approach 4 to 5 years old.

Habitat: In Wisconsin, eagles are found along rivers and lakes where they catch and eat fish and other prey.

They will also eat dead animals along lake and river shores as well as in agricultural fields and on roadsides.

Bald eagles nest in large trees, usually near water. These nests usually are located near the tops of the tallest trees and are added to and reused year after year.

Forestry Considerations: Eagles are very sensitive to disturbance by human beings, especially during the breeding and nesting season (February 15 to August 15).Within 330 feet of a nest, major habitat changes should be avoided including timber harvest, land clearing, building and road or trail construction. Mature live and dead trees should be maintained for perches and protection from the wind. Human activity should be avoided from March 15 to July 15, and kept to a minimum from July 16 to August 15.

Within 330 to 660 feet of a nest, human activity should be kept to a minimum from March 15 to July 15. From July 16 to August 15, moderately disturbing activities, such as hunting, fishing, and hiking, are possible.

Heavier disturbance, including harvest and road building, should be conducted during the remainder of the year.

Within 660 feet to 1/4 mile of a nest, bald eagle roosts or feeding sites should be protected. If timber cutting occurs, it is suggested that several super canopy pine trees be left for future nest tree replacement. Ideally, activities that are within sight of eagles on their nest should be conducted outside of the breeding and nesting season. Land within 90 feet of the shoreline of rivers and lakes should be managed to promote large white pines. As many large dead trees as possible should be left standing, especially trees with a diameter of >12 inches, for use as perch trees.

CERULEAN WARBLER (Dendroica cerulea) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened Description: The male cerulean warbler's breeding plumage is sky-blue with faint, dark streaks above; below it is white with a narrow black breast band and blue-gray Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan

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streaking on the sides. The adult female is greenish above with a pale yellowish stripe over the eye and pale below with dull streaked sides. Both sexes have two white wing bars.

Habitat: Throughout its breeding range the cerulean warbler is found in a variety of moderately moist habitats, containing tall, mature, deciduous trees. It is found both in floodplain and upland forests of medium to large size (greater than 40 acres). Important breeding habitat features include a closed canopy forest with some smaller (< 2.5 inches dbh) trees and a few smaller dead trees. Habitat loss and fragmentation of mature forests are key factors limiting breeding populations. In Wisconsin, it is estimated that a 200-acre, unfragmented woodlot would have a 50%chance of supporting a breeding population of this warbler. In addition to reducing the acres of suitable habitat, forest fragmentation enhances the conditions for nest parasitism by brownheaded cowbirds and nest predation by other animals.

Forestry Considerations: In areas with cerulean warblers, favor the use of single-tree or group-selection silviculture. Groups should be less than 1/4 acre in size to maintain a relatively closed canopy to avoid cowbird parasitism of cerulean warbler nests. Employ Wisconsin’s Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality, providing buffers along riparian corridors. Avoid harvest during the April 15 to July 15 nesting season in areas with known active nests.

HOODED WARBLER (Wilsonia citrina) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened Description: The hooded warbler, about51/2 inches long at maturity, has a black hood surrounding a bright yellow face, and a tail with large white spots. Female and young are similar in appearance to the male, but are duller in color and have no black hood. Their nests are usually made of leaves, bark strips, and spider webs, placed between 1 and 5feet above the ground.

Habitat: The hooded warbler inhabits shrubby openings (1/4 to 2 1/2 acres in size) in moist to wet deciduous woods in large tracts (>200acres) of mature (>50 years old) forest in southern Wisconsin. Nesting occurs during mid-May to mid-July, with nests in hardwood saplings (like sugar maple) 1 to 6 feet in height. The nest is made of grape vine, tree bark, leaves and grass, all interwoven with spider webs. This warbler is an “area sensitive” species that is likely to experience poor nesting success—and hence declining populations—in smaller or fragmented forests. A mature forest of 240 acres is believed to have at least a 50% chance of supporting a breeding population.

Forestry Considerations: Utilize single-tree selection or small group-selection silviculture since it mimics natural wind throw, maintaining the small canopy gaps that benefit this species. These openings within a mature forest will provide interior edge conditions for foraging and nesting. Minimize disturbance (including tree harvest) during the nesting season where this species is known to occur.

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OSPREY (Pandion haliaetus) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened Description: The osprey is a large bird of prey (body length 23 inches, wingspan 5 feet) that plunges into water to capture fish. The bird is black-brown above and mostly white below. Its white head has a broad black cheek patch and its tail is barred with brown. The ospreyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s long, narrow wings are angled back at the wrist when it flies. A black wrist patch contrasts with the white under wings. Ospreys weigh 3 to 3 1/2pounds.

Habitat: The osprey is a bird of waterways: rivers, lakes and shore lands. In northern Wisconsin, breeding habitat is generally mature second-growth hardwood and pine forests. Primary nest sites are super canopy snags and dead-topped pines located along lake and stream shorelines. Additionally, nests may be located in recent clearcuts adjacent to water, on snags in marshes or bogs and in swamp conifer stands. These nests are highly vulnerable to being toppled by wind. Ospreys also nest on power line poles or other human-made structures.

The osprey nest is made of sticks admeasures more than 3 feet in diameter. Nests are often repaired and reused year after year.

Forestry Considerations: Since osprey usually nest directly over or near water, following Wisconsin's Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality will protect their streamside or lakeside habitat. BMP's will also protect waterquality, which enhances survival of the fish upon which osprey feed. Avoid disturbances such as timber-cutting and road-building within 660 feet of an active osprey nest during the May 1 to August15 nesting season.

RED-SHOULDERED HAWK (Buteo lineatus) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened Description: The red-shouldered hawk is a medium-sized raptor of the Buteo group. Adult males(17 to 23 inches long) are slightly smaller than adult females (19 to 24inches long). It has a rusty-red shoulder marking and barred, rusty to reddish under parts. Its flight feathers have distinct black and white bars above.

When viewed from below, the spread wings display a translucent, crescentshaped patch. The hawkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s grayish tail is marked by several wide dark bars alternating with narrow white bars and a white tip.

Habitat: In central Wisconsin, red-shouldered hawks use large (>200 acres), unfragmented tracts of mature (>50 years old), moderately moist forest. Preferred habitat contains numerous large trees. The majority of nests are found in red oaks. Nest tree diameters range from 18 to 35inches. Nests are usually placed near the main

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trunk in a crotch 40 to 60 feet above ground. Often the same nest tree is used year after year. Along the Mississippi River, red-shouldered hawks use medium to mature floodplain or riparian forests as nesting habitat. These forests are often dominated by 45- to 70-year-old silver maples and/or cottonwoods. Red-shouldered hawk nest sites along the Mississippi are usually associated with still water, backwater pools, open marshes, temporary waterways or the confluence of two streams. These wetlands provide important foraging habitat where frogs and crayfish occur.

Forestry Considerations: Forestry practices that maintain an average canopy closure of 70% or more would be beneficial to red-shouldered hawks. An aspen component (1- to 5-acre patches on a 55-year rotation) also would be beneficial. Cutting should not isolate an active nest tree and disturbance (including road construction and logging) should be minimized within 300 feet of a nest from March through July 15. Use of Wisconsin’s Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality should be followed, especially the provision of a buffer zone along riparian corridors.

MUSSELS AND SNAILS CHERRYSTONE DROP SNAIL (Hendersonia occulta) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened

Description: The shell is thick, wider than high, reddish or yellowish in color, marked by fine spiral lines across the surface of the whorls, and about 0.25 inches (5-8 mm) in diameter. The domed shaped spire (top part of shell above the aperture) has 6½ whorls with the sutures (seams between the whorls) unimpressed. The base is rounded and without an opening, the umbilical area covered by a callous pad. In adults, the outer lip is greatly thickened forming a heavy projecting ridge.

Habitat: Occurs in Brown, Door, Kewaunee, Manitowoc, Sheboygan, Ozaukee, Milwaukee, Sauk, Crawford, Iron, Vernon and Grant Counties of Wisconsin. Inhabits of small areas of algific habitat or the similar cool, moist, shaded sites of cliffs where algific conditions occur without substantial talus or ice. The species is most often found on wooded alluvial-soil banks and bluffs along the Lake Michigan shore. Driftless Area sites are on north-facing slopes supporting oak-maple woodland. This snail is found in the soil and leaf litter along cliffs, soil-covered ledges on cliff faces, and on talus and soil and leaf litter near the cliff base.

Forestry Considerations: Maintain a buffer from the top and bottom edges of the bluff for 50 feet where no vegetation can be removed. Forestry operations in watersheds where rare mollusks (mussels and snails) occur should be conducted in a manner to avoid soil erosion and prevent sediments and other pollutants from entering the waterways. Refer to Wisconsin’s Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality by the Wisconsin Bureau of Forestry.

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MIDWEST PLEISTOCENE VERTIGO SNAIL [HUBRICHTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S VERTIGO SNAIL]

(Vertigo hubrichtii) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Endangered

Description: Aid to ID: Vertigo snails have pupa-shaped shells that are tan, brown, or orange with an indentation in the outer lip and distinctive folds within the aperture. The shell is more globose than that of other snails that have folds within the aperture. Shape, number, and location of the aperture folds are used by specialists to distinguish V. hubrichti from similar species. The shell of V. hubrichti is orange and small (2.1 mm) with usually 6 whorls.

Habitat: Occurs in Brown, Door, Fond du Lac, Manitowoc, Dodge, Sauk, and Grant Counties of Wisconsin.

Inhabits cold, undisturbed, and well-forested algific sites occurring characteristically in small patches of decaying deciduous tree leaves (most often paper birch or mountain maple) on or in front of open vents in areas otherwise dominated by bryophytes. Primary habitat is the soil and fern covered ledges of limestone cliffs along the upper Great Lakes.

Forestry Considerations: Maintain a buffer from the top and bottom edges of the bluff for 50 feet where no vegetation can be removed. Forestry operations in watersheds where these rare mollusks (mussels and snails) occur should be conducted in a manner to avoid soil erosion and prevent sediments and other pollutants from entering the waterways. Refer to Wisconsinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality by the Wisconsin Bureau of Forestry.

PLANTS CALYPSO ORCHID (Calypso bulbosa) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened

Description: The calypso orchid is a delicate flower that grows about8 inches tall. Its blossom is shaped somewhat like a slipper, with purple side petals and a white or yellow lip. A solitary broad, pointed, evergreen leaf emerges in late August and remains through winter. The calypso orchid blossoms from late May through early July.

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Habitat: The calypso orchid is found mainly immature conifer forests, especially in mossy swamps dominated by white cedar. In Wisconsin, it has been seen only in the northern counties of the state.

Forestry Considerations: The calypso orchid is intolerant of canopy loss. Therefore, single-tree selection would be the preferred forestry technique in areas where this orchid grows.

DROOPING SEDGE (Carex prasina) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened

Description: Sedges at first glance resemble grasses, but upon closer examination prove to have some significant differences. For example, their stems are solid, have no joints and often are markedly triangular. Drooping sedge grows in tufts or dense tussocks about 10 to 24 inches tall. Each stem has several long clusters of minute flowers, the terminal (topmost) spike usually has only male flowers with stamens. The flowers are so small that a hand lens is necessary to see the identifying characteristics.

Habitat: Drooping sedge grows in wet, marshy wooded areas and along stream banks. These sites sometimes remain constantly wet due to springs and seeps. Yellow birch, black ash and skunk cabbage are frequent associates.

Forestry Considerations: Single-tree selection silviculture is the most compatible harvest technique where this sedge grows. Forestry activities that would change the water table in areas where the drooping sedge grows should be avoided, and Wisconsin's Forestry Best Management Practices for Water Quality should be followed.

DWARF LAKE IRIS (Iris lacustris) Federal Status: Threatened State Status: Threatened

Description: The dwarf lake iris blossoms from early May through the beginning of June. The large flowers of this iris, 3 inches in diameter, are dark blue to purple, with bright yellow crests that decorate the three main

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petals. The flat, parallel-veined leaves are arranged in fans and grow to about 6 inches in height. This plant often grows in colonies.

Habitat: This beautiful, diminutive iris may be found along the northern shores of the Great Lakes. The dwarf lake iris thrives in the cool, moist air blowing off the Great Lakes. It prefers the thin, moist, sandy or rocky soil near the shores, and the partial shade of the northern forests. It is often associated with white cedar, paper birch and balsam fir.

Forestry Considerations: Care should be taken not to destroy colonies of the dwarf lake iris because it reproduces primarily vegetatively. Although the plant readily flowers and occasionally sets seed, it rarely sprouts from seed. Because the iris needs just the right combination of sun and shade to grow, major habitat modification should be avoided.

Selective harvest techniques that create a mixture of sunny and shady areas are ideal. Wintertime logging is preferred. The use of insecticides and herbicides should be restricted within 100feet of iris colonies.

FOAMFLOWER (Tiarella cordifolia) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Endangered Description: Foamflower is well-named. Where the plants grow in large groups, the clusters of tiny white flowers look like foam floating across the forest floor. Each plant grows4 to 6 inches tall, with broad, heart-shaped, coarsely toothed leaves arising from the base. Dozens of tiny five-petaled flowers form an oval cluster at the top of the plant. It blooms from April to mid-July. Foamflower spreads by means of stolons (horizontal stems) creeping along the soil surface.

Habitat: The shady floor of mixed hardwood forests in northeastern Wisconsin is foamflower's preferred habitat. It grows where the soil is evenly moist, and where abundant fallen leaves and twigs decompose, producing soil that is rich in organic matter.

Forestry Considerations: In woodlands where foamflower grows, logging should be minimized. Removal of the shading canopy overhead would result in reduced humidity, desiccation of the soil and loss of this rare wildflower. Therefore, winter harvest along with single-tree selection silviculture is favored.

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HANDSOME SEDGE (Carex formosa) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened Description: Handsome sedge grows in tufts or clumps 1 to 2 feet tall, its stems purple at their bases. The main leaves are slender, 1/8 to 1/4 inch wide and hairy on their underside. From the center of the clump of leaves arises a stem on which the small greenish flowers are borne. The seeds that ripen from female flowers are about 1/4inch long and 1/8 inch wide, with three sharp lengthwise ridges. A good hand lens or dissecting microscope helps when identifying sedges.

Habitat: Handsome sedge grows in moist calcareous soil in deciduous woods and thickets. Also, it is sometimes found in meadows.

Forestry Considerations: Handsome sedge prefers sites with light, dappled shade. Selective tree harvest that maintains this level of shade is compatible with the continued existence of this rare sedge.

HAWTHORN-LEAVED GOOSEBERRY (Ribes oxyacanthoides) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened Description: In spring the hawthorn-leaved gooseberry shrub bears small, white, tubular, bell-shaped flowers singly or in groups of two or three. Spines occur where the flower stem meets the branch. Young branches are yellow-gray and slightly hairy; older branches are reddish-brown and smooth with peeling strips of gray bark. Arching branches may take root when they touch the ground, producing new plants. The leaves of this shrub resemble miniature maple leaves.

Habitat: Hawthorn-leaved gooseberry is a shrub of cool, rocky sites. In Wisconsin it grows in four northwestern counties on â&#x20AC;&#x153;shattered-rock" slopes and at low sites where cold air collects.

Forestry Considerations: Trees growing near hawthorn-leaved gooseberry plants may be lightly thinned, as long as the forest canopy remains relatively intact. This rare shrub is adapted to light shade and the cool air of shady sites. Farther from the site, selective harvest would be compatible with the continued survival of the hawthorn-leaved gooseberry.

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MOONWORT (Botrychium lunaria) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Endangered

Description: Moonwort is a tiny, rubbery, almost-white fern that grows from1 to 6 inches tall. About halfway up the stem the plant splits into two branches, one containing three to five pairs of fan shaped leaflets, and the other bearing rust-colored spore cases.

Habitat: In Wisconsin, moonwort is found in cool northern hardwood forests. It also grows on the edges of shrub stands or red cedar woodlands, near native prairies, in open prairies and dunes.

Forestry Considerations: Moonwort is fragile and especially susceptible to trampling. Where moonwort has been found, care should be taken to avoid disturbing the habitat, especially during the growing season. Selective harvest of trees during the winter can be compatible with the continued existence of moonwort.

NORTHERN COMANDRA (Geocaulon lividum) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Endangered Description: Northern comandra has branched stems up to afoot tall with smallish, green flowers growing in groups of 3from stem/leaf axils. Its brilliant scarlet fruits attract birds which readily eat them and scatter the seeds. Northern comandra grows in large colonies.

Habitat: This rare wildflower grows on sandy beach ridges and old dunes, partly shaded by conifer woods. In Wisconsin, northern comandra has been found only in Door County.

In other states, northern comandra is also found in moist woods, cedar-spruce swamps and heath bogs. It is a harmless parasite on roots of pine trees.

Forestry Considerations: Forests where northern comandra occurs may be thinned selectively. This might, in fact, encourage the wildflower, which prefers partial shade.

Such thinning should be done in midwinter when the ground is frozen solidly and the plant is dormant.

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PINE-DROPS (Pterospora andromedea) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Endangered Description: Pine-drops have a sturdy, hairy, fleshy pink stem which grows up to 3 feet tall.

From June to August, nodding, bowl shaped, white to reddish flowers droop from the upper half of the stem. The flowers mature into fruiting capsules, each of which can produce 4,800minute, winged, wind spread seeds. This means a single plant can produce as many as 600,000 seeds! The lower part of the stem bears numerous short, tan to pink scales.

This plant has no green leaves.

Habitat: Usually this plant is found in humus-rich forests under white pine trees in eastern Wisconsin. In parts of its range, pine-drops can be found in hardwood forests.

It does not produce any chlorophyll, relying instead on dead organic matter for food.

Underground, it has a massive snarl of branching roots which, in partnership with various soil fungi, absorb nutrients from decaying plant and animal matter.

Forestry Considerations: It is important to maintain the shaded character of the mixed woods where pine-drops live, along with the humus-rich, loose soil found there. Therefore, single-tree selection silviculture is advisable, along with the use of equipment that does not compact the soil. Spring and summer harvest of trees will disturb or crush growing, flowering and fruiting plants. Winter harvest, when the soil is solidly frozen and the plant is dormant, is best.

RAMâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S-HEAD LADYâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S-SLIPPER (Cypripedium arietinum) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened

Description: The ram's head lady's slipper has broad shiny leaves with conspicuous Lengthwise folds. It flowers in late May or early June, and may reach 6 to12 inches tall.

Each blossom consists of three separate, petal-like sepals and true petals on the side, all greenish-brown, and a pinkish inflated petal below.

Habitat: This rare Wisconsin orchid is usually found in cool coniferous swamps and bogs, as well as in white cedar swales, all in the northern and northeastern parts of the state. In addition, it is found, rarely, in the pine/aspen/spruce uplands of Ashland County.

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Forestry Considerations: Ram’s-head lady’s slipper is intolerant of disturbance, especially erosion and trampling. Single-tree or group selection silviculture in wintertime would be preferred in areas where this native orchid occurs.

SMALL ROUND-LEAVED ORCHIS (Amerorchis rotundifolia) Federal Status: Not Listed State Status: Threatened Description: The small round-leaved orchis is identified by the single, round basal leaf, 1 1/2 to4 inches long, and an erect flower stalk (6 to 17inches tall) with five or more pinkish, orchid like flowers with dark purple spots on the lip. These flowers appear in early to mid-summer.

Habitat: This wild orchid occurs mainly in swamps, or forests bordering swamps, and bogs. These conifer swamps are characterized by tamarack, cedar, balsam fir and spruce.

Forestry Considerations: This rare, beautiful wildflower is especially intolerant of canopy removal and soil compaction. Care should be taken to avoid habitat modification and to limit disturbance where the plant is known to occur.

Links to further information: Endangered Resources - WDNR WDNR-Forestry - Threatened and Endangered Species in Forests of Wisconsin

PROTECTION OF CULTURAL RESOURCES One aspect of land management today that needs consideration is protection of potential cultural resources on your property. Cultural resources include historic structures, archaeological sites, cemeteries, and traditionaluse areas. Together, they represent roughly 13,000 years of human occupation in Wisconsin – from the end of the last ice age to the present day. Prehistoric cultural resources reflect the activities of Indian people prior to initial French contact in 1634. Since the first written records of Wisconsin began at that time, 1634 marks the beginning of the historic period. To be considered important, a cultural resource has to be at least 50 years old.

Cultural resources represent parts of an inheritance shared by all people. This heritage is of fundamental value to modern-day societies. These resources often possess spiritual, scientific and other values that are weighed

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differently by different cultures. Today the management of cultural resources is a necessary component of land stewardship.

Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources Types of cultural resources include: • Historic Structures - Houses, barns and outbuildings - Lime kilns - Bridges and railroad trestles - Schools and churches - Stores and office buildings - Mills and factories • Cemeteries - Platted cemeteries - Family cemeteries and individual graves - Burial mounds

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• Traditional-use Areas - Sugar bushes - Medicine gathering areas - Sacred springs - Ceremonial sites • Archaeological Sites - Campsites and villages - Caves and rock shelters - Quarries and flint knapping workshops - Large animal kill and butchering stations - Ridged fields and other types of garden beds - Enclosures and earthworks - Fish weirs - Rock art sites - Ruins of trading posts and homesteads - Shipwrecks

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Economics of Cultural Resource Management (CRM) Economically, CRM will not usually pay for itself, but some forest landowners will discover that reserved and protected cultural resources can be financial assets.

• Cultural resource conservations often contribute to soil, water and wildlife habitat conservation measures.

• The return on investment in the preservation, rehabilitation and adaptive reuse of above-ground cultural resources is often reflected in increased resale values, and may be used as an effective tool for developing a sense of corporate or community identity that encourages new investment.

• A growing number of federal and state laws provide financial incentives for preserving and protecting cultural resources. For example, through conservation easements, landowners may qualify for a federal income tax deduction or property tax credits. Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources Potential Impacts In general, cultural resources are fragile. Many archaeological deposits lie within a few inches of the ground surface. Hence, even very shallow ground disturbance can destroy the context of artifacts or features such as the dirt floors of ancient houses. Threats range from natural forces (e.g., erosion, flooding, weathering, and fire) to human action (e.g., logging, agriculture, mining, land development, and vandalism). Potentially damaging effects to cultural resources resulting from forestland management activities include: • Soil disturbance and/or compaction • A change in the vegetation that is part of a traditional-use area • Damage to above-ground features Cultural Resource Management (CRM) and the Law The legal basis for CRM is rooted in federal and state legislation concerned with natural resource conservation and environmental protection going back to the early 1900s. The National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, as amended, is the centerpiece of the national historic preservation program. It established the National Register of Historic Places and provides for State and Tribal Historic Preservation Officers to implement the national preservation program. Section 106 of NHPA requires that federal agencies consider the effects of their activities on cultural resources. Federal law applies whenever activity takes place on federal land, will use federal funds, or will require a federal permit. The Wisconsin Field Archeology Act requires state agencies to contact the Wisconsin Historical Society if the agency’s actions may impact an archaeological site, burial site or historic structure listed in cultural resource inventories. State law applies whenever the activity is on state-owned land, will use state funds, or requires a state permit. However, timber harvesting is exempt from review unless new logging roads are to be constructed.

State law affords special protection to burial sites, regardless of age or land ownership (including private lands). All human burials are afforded the same legal protection as platted cemeteries.

Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources Cultural Resource Inventories The Wisconsin Historical Society maintains an inventory of archaeological and burial sites as well as historic structures reported to their office. However, since most of the state has never been formally surveyed, unreported cultural resources likely outnumber those listed in their inventories. Archaeological sites are more apt to be inventoried if they have been plowed; exposing artifacts on the field surface, or if they have aboveground features such as burial mounds or piles of logging camp refuse. Access to archaeological and burial site inventories is restricted to protect sites from looting,

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discourage trespass, and show respect for sites that some regard as sacred. The statewide inventory of known historic structures is openly available through the Wisconsin Historical Society’s web site WDNR - Facilities Management - Archaeological and Historic Sites of Wisconsin Assessing Cultural Resources If a forest management site has not been previously surveyed for cultural resources, individuals may conduct their own assessment of the area’s potential. One might begin by checking existing maps, air photos and printed historical information, and then assess the landscape.

The following have high potential for cultural resources: • Current shorelines or terraces adjacent to lakes, rivers or streams, and shorelines of ancient lakes and old river channels • Junctions of water bodies, including river junctions, and lake inlets and outlets • Peninsulas or points of land along a shoreline, including islands • Good places to camp, including areas where people camp now • Areas adjacent to fish spawning beds, good fishing spots and wild rice beds • Transportation routes (e.g., old trails, roads or portages) Chapter 6 — Cultural Resources Field Identification of Cultural Resources During a walk-over inspection of the management area, in preparation for a timber sale, forest managers and landowners may discover unrecorded cultural resources.

Some things to look for are: • High spots offering a panoramic view • Unusual natural features • Surface artifacts (check bare spots, tree tip-ups and cut banks) • Surface features - Cellar and well holes - Cement or asphalt slabs - Fieldstone foundations - Miscellaneous building materials (bricks, roofing materials, plaster, and stucco) - Metal well pipes - Earthen berms and trenches - Shallow depressions (such as graves or ricing pits) • Milled lumber (such as boards suitable

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for burial crosses, spirit houses or building construction) • Domestic or exotic plants (including lilac bushes, fruit trees and daylilies) • Old roads, trails and portages (especially where two come together) • Trash dumps containing antique items or jumbo-sized tin cans • Standing structures and buildings Assessing Management Alternatives • Protection by law. If the pre-field review indicates the project area contains a site protected by law (such as a burial site), further action will be determined by statute or regulations.

• Identification as a low-sensitivity site. If no cultural resources have been recorded and the pre-field review and walk-over inspection yielded no indications of important cultural resources, the site would have low sensitivity. Proceed with the management activity.

• Identification as a high-sensitivity site. If cultural resources are known to exist or if the pre-field review and walk-over inspection indicate their presence, the site has high sensitivity. In this case, it is recommended that the forest manager avoid the sensitive area or bring in a cultural resource management professional to conduct a survey.

When Accidental Discovery Occurs Unrecorded cultural resources may be discovered during operations. Guidelines for proceeding depend on the nature of the discovery.

• In the case of human burials, if such discovery occurs, temporary suspension of operations in the vicinity of the discovery is required. If a human burial site is accidentally discovered, contact the Burial Sites Preservation Office at the Wisconsin Historical Society.

• For other types of cultural resources, such as archaeological artifacts, temporary suspension is not required, but is recommended. Suspending operations in the immediate vicinity of the cultural resource will provide time to contact a cultural resource professional, or develop plans to apply appropriate guidelines to avoid or mitigate potential effects.

• Documentation of cultural resources discovered during forest management activities is not required. However, landowners and operators are encouraged to make a written record of their discoveries, and share that information with the Office of the State Archaeologist at the Wisconsin Historical Society.

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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR WATER QUALITY One of the biggest threats to water quality in the United States is nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint source pollution occurs when surface water runoff from rainfall or snowmelt moves across or into the ground, picking up or carrying pollutants into streams, lakes, wetlands, or groundwater. Soil becomes a nonpoint source pollutant when water runoff carries large amounts of soil into a waterbody.

Nonpoint source pollution is the source for about half of all pollutants entering our nation’s waters. Nationally, three to nine percent of all nonpoint source pollution comes from forestry practices. Because Wisconsin is relatively flat, only about three percent of the state’s nonpoint source pollution comes from forestry practices.

While three percent sounds small, localized nonpoint source pollution can be significant, and the cumulative effects of all sources can seriously degrade water quality in a drainage system.

Forest management activities can generate the following forms of nonpoint source pollution:

SEDIMENT Forest floor vegetation and organic debris protect the soil from the erosive actions of falling raindrops and runoff. Forestry management activities such as road building can remove this protection, and lead to erosion of the soil creating sediment. When sediment is carried away in runoff and deposited elsewhere, sedimentation occurs. Without using appropriate BMP's on exposed and sloping land, the soil will likely erode and may wash into a body of water. Sediment is the primary pollutant associated with forestry activities, especially at stream crossings for forest roads and skid trails.

In the world of nature, sedimentation is a slow, naturally occurring process – however, human activities often speed it up.

The result can be large amounts of sediment accumulating in lakes, streams and wetlands that speed up the aging of lakes, and bury fish spawning grounds and aquatic plants. These plants are a source of food and habitat for fish and other aquatic organisms.

Accumulating sediment also constricts naturally flowing channels, leading to increased stream bank erosion and possible flooding. Suspended sediment can cloud the water, reducing the hunting success of sight-feeding fish, and can also damage the gills of some fish species, causing them to suffocate.

ORGANIC DEBRIS Leaves and large woody debris (usually large fallen logs, at least 12 inches in diameter, with an attached root ball) that naturally fall into streams can greatly benefit aquatic ecosystems.

However, too much organic debris deposited in a short time can harm water quality. This can occur during logging when treetops and branches fall or wash into streams. Too much decomposing matter in streams can decrease dissolved oxygen in the water,

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which fish need to thrive and reproduce.

INVASIVE PLANTS A number of non-native invasive species are impacting forested riparian areas and wetlands. Reed canary grass can rapidly overtake a site where the forest canopy is opened up by harvesting or wind damage. It is extremely difficult to regenerate bottomland forests once reed canary grass is established. Another non-native invasive species, glossy buckthorn, can form a dense shrub layer that also limits regeneration.

CHEMICALS Pesticides (herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) help control forest pests and undesirable plant species. But when applied improperly, pesticides can be toxic to aquatic organisms. Fuel, oil and coolants used in harvesting and road-building equipment must also be handled carefully to avoid water pollution.

TEMPERATURE Some sunlight filtering through trees is healthy for many streams. It can promote plant growth (food) in the water, and foster healthy ground vegetation along shorelines. However, when trees and the shade they provide are removed along most small streams, peak mid-summer water temperatures climb as a result of increased solar radiation. This can eliminate cold water fish, reduce dissolved oxygen, and affect the metabolism and development of fish.

NUTRIENTS Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus exist naturally in forest soil, and can enter waterbodies if the soil erodes into water. Also, if fertilizers are used in forest management, they can wash into waterbodies in runoff. Excessive amounts of nutrients may cause algal blooms in lakes and streams, which can reduce levels of dissolved oxygen in the water to below what fish and other aquatic species need to survive.

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STREAMFLOW Timber harvesting can increase peak streamflow which increases chances for flooding, stream bank erosion, and sedimentation. If timber harvesting equipment compacts a large area of the forest soil, water infiltration into the soil is reduced, and surface runoff into streams increases. This also reduces water percolation through the soil to recharge groundwater which provides cool, clean water to lakes and streams – helping to maintain steady streamflows and lake levels throughout the summer.

Harvesting can also contribute to an increase in peak streamflow. In basins where 60 percent or more of the trees are less than 15 years old, snow can melt several times faster than in older stands.

Protecting Riparian Functions and Values Clean water is essential to Wisconsin’s economy and rich quality of life. Lakes and streams provide habitat for wildlife, fish and other aquatic species. Our forests play a vital role in purifying and maintaining clean water for streams, lakes and groundwater.

The most practical and cost-effective method to assure that forestry operations do not adversely affect water quality in Wisconsin is through the use of the voluntary Best Management Practices (BMPs). These BMPs are voluntary in the sense that they are not legally mandated. However, the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) strongly encourages their use by all Wisconsin forest landowners, land managers and forestry professionals. Several categories of public and private landowners in Wisconsin already use forestry water quality BMPs to guide their management activities. For example, compliance is required on DNR properties such as State Forests, and lands enrolled in the Managed Forest Law Program since 1995. In addition, the forestry water quality BMPs have been adopted by all 29 counties enrolled in Wisconsin’s County Forest Law program. The majority of Wisconsin’s industrial forestland is enrolled in the American Forest and Paper Association’s Sustainable Forestry Initiative, which requires water quality BMP compliance and logger training as a condition of membership.

Vernal pools, or casual water, provide habitat for certain wildlife species. Forestry operations should be conducted at the proper time to avoid disruptions to these small ecosystems.

It is the policy of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service to promote and apply approved BMPs for the control of nonpoint sources of water pollution.

Currently, BMPs developed by the Wisconsin DNR for nonpoint sources of water pollution support the Chequamegon and Nicolet National Forests.

In addition to the BMPs described in this manual, you should be aware of existing municipal, county, state, and federal regulations relating to forest management and water quality This guide can help you when making decisions about management activities on your land. Applications of BMPs may be modified for specific site conditions with guidance from a natural resource professional, if modifications provide equal or greater water Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan

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quality protection, or if the modification has no impact on water quality. Seek professional advice on BMPs and all forest management activities from natural resource professionals such as: • • • • •

Consulting foresters Industrial foresters Wisconsin DNR foresters, fish managers, and water quality staff USDA Natural Resources and Conservation Service staff County Land Conservation Department staff

Careful planning for forest management activities, such as road construction, timber harvesting and site preparation will minimize nonpoint source pollution. A well thought-out plan will lead to harvest operations that use BMPs, remove forest products efficiently and profitably, and promote sustainable forest growth and water quality protection.

A comprehensive forest management plan should include forestry BMPs for water quality. The level of formality and detail should be appropriate to the project size, cost and environmental risk. The plan should also be flexible and adaptable to changing conditions.

Landowners and land managers should select the best forest management strategy to protect water quality specific to the site. A contractor (e.g., logger or road developer) working with the landowner and land manager, is usually responsible for implementing forestry BMPs. Wisconsin DNR foresters and consulting or industrial foresters can work with you to develop a list of BMPs to include in your forest management plan.

Cost-sharing assistance may be available for plans written by a consulting forester.

RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT ZONES

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Forestry BMPs in wetlands protect water quality from erosion, and minimize changes to the surface and belowsurface water movement that can occur from rutting and road building. Changing the surface and below-surface water movement can affect the health of the wetland ecosystem and its flood protection function.

Activities in wetlands are often subject to municipal, county, state, and federal permit and regulatory requirements. Some of these regulations are listed in Appendix E: Regulations (see Section 404, Chapter NR 103, and Chapter NR 117). When you suspect your project involves a wetland and want to know what regulations apply, the sequence of contacts include 1) your county zoning office, 2) a Wisconsin DNR water management specialist, and 3) the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Maps from the Wisconsin Wetland Inventory can help you make a preliminary determination as to whether your project will affect wetlands. These maps may be reviewed at DNR offices and county or municipal zoning offices, or purchased from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Fisheries Management and Habitat Protection, PO Box 7921, Madison, WI 53707-7921.

INVASIVE SPECIES An "invasive species" is defined as a species that is 1) non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under normal undisturbed condition and 2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause an adverse impact to economic, environmental human health. Human actions are the primary means of invasive species introductions.

These species tend to grow aggressively in agricultural lands, home gardens, roadsides, and other disturbed sites. Some also possess noxious properties that cause allergic reactions or poisoning upon contact or consumption. The majority of invasive species have their origins in other countries, such as Europe or Asia.

Their introduction to North America dates from the arrivals of the earliest explorers and settlers. The immigrants brought a variety of common agricultural weeds embedded in natural packing materials, as fodder for livestock, within bags of seeds, and in the ballast of ships transporting them to the New World. Even some of the herbs brought for cooking, medicines, garden ornamentals, have become troublesome pests. This invasion of exotics has continued to the present time, and is exacerbated by population growth and over time human disturbances.

It is invasive plants that are of greatest concern, due to their impact on biological diversity and the natural functioning of ecosystems. The majority of invasives are exotics, but only a small proportion of all exotics are

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invasive. Economic impact of invasive species has been felt since the early days of agriculture in North America. The fact that invasive plants and animals are having a dramatic impact on natural ecosystems has only been recognized in recent years.

Invasive plants grow rapidly under a wide range of climate and soil conditions. Some, such as the biennial garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), over winter as rosettes and begin to flower and seed early in the spring before many of the native plants begin to grow. Most produce abundant seeds and may also have other adaptations that allow them to out-compete native plants.

The topic of invasive species in Door County has recently been brought to the forefront with the creation of a Door County Invasive Species Team. The Door County Invasive Species Team (DCIST) is a voluntary alliance of businesses, nonprofit groups, federal, state and public agencies, educational institutions, organizations, private landowners and other interested parties. The Team is committed to educate, prevent, minimize, and eradicate non-native plant species, in order to avoid monocultures and sustain diverse ecosystems within the Door County peninsula lakeshore basin, and ensure economic viability and human welfare.

The partnership promotes an open information exchange, public and private sector coordination, citizen involvement, and a comprehensive local resource management guide that is intended to maintain and protect biodiversity. The DCIST team maintains an Invasive Species Home Page (available at http://map.co.door.wi.us/swcd/Invasive/index.htm)that contains useful information for landowners in dealing with invasive species on their property. The Wisconsin DNR also maintains a website at: http://dnr.wi.gov/invasives/ that deals statewide with the topic of invasive species.

While there are a number of different invasives present in the county, not all affect the forested landscape. Four imparticular species have affected and will continue to affect the landscape in a negative way and should be controlled at the landscape level and eliminated on individual properties where possible. These species include: Garlic Mustard, Phragmites, Buckthorn and Reed Canary Grass.

Garlic Mustard Garlic mustard is a cool-season biennial herb that ranges from 12 to 48 inches in height as an adult flowering plant. Leaves and stems emit the distinctive odor of onion or garlic when crushed (particularly in spring and early summer), and help distinguish the plant from all other woodland mustard plants. First year plants consist of a cluster of 3 or 4 round, scallop edged leaves rising 2 to 4 inches in a rosette. Second-year plants generally produce one or two flowering stems with numerous white flowers that have four separate petals. Garlic mustard is the only plant of this height in our woods with white flowers in May. Fruits are slender capsules 1 to 2.5 inches long that produce a single row of oblong black seeds with ridged seed coats. Stem leaves are alternate and triangular in shape, have large teeth, and can be 2 to 3 inches across in fruiting plants. Petioles are longer on the leaves towards the base. Garlic mustard can also be distinguished by its uproot, which is slender, white, and "s"-shaped at the top of the root.

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Garlic mustard is an exotic species introduced from Europe presumably by early settlers for its supposed medicinal properties and for use in cooking. It is widely distributed throughout the northeastern and Midwestern U.S. from Canada to South Carolina and west to Kansas, North Dakota, and as far as Colorado and Utah. In Wisconsin, the plant is currently concentrated in the southeastern and northeastern counties, although distribution records indicate its presence is nearly statewide Garlic mustard grows in upland and floodplain forests, savannas, yards, and along roadsides, occasionally in full sun. It is shade-tolerant, and generally requires some shade; it is not commonly found in sunny habitats. It cannot tolerate acidic soils. The invasion of forests usually begins along the wood's edge, and progresses via streams, campgrounds, and trails.

This species is a biennial that produces hundreds of seeds per plant. The seeds are believed to be dispersed on the fur of large animals such as deer, horses, and squirrels, by flowing water and by human activities. In our areas, seeds lie dormant for 20 months prior to germination, and may remain viable for five years. Seeds germinate in early April. First-year plants appear as basal rosettes in the summer season. First-year plants remain green through the following Garlic Mustard winter, making it possible to check for the presence of this plant in your woods throughout the year. Garlic mustard begins vegetative growth early in the spring, and blooms in southern Wisconsin from May through early June. Fruits begin to ripen in mid-July, and are disseminated through August. Viable seeds are produced within days of initial flowering.

Garlic Mustard is a rapidly spreading woodland weed that is displacing native woodland wildflowers in Wisconsin. It dominates the forest floor and can displace most native herbaceous species within ten years. This plant is a major threat to the survival of Wisconsin's woodland herbaceous flora and the wildlife that depend on it. There are two modes of spread: an advancing front, and satellite population expansion possibly facilitated by small animals. Unlike other plants that invade disturbed habitats, garlic mustard readily spreads into high quality forests.

Controlling Garlic Mustard Mechanical Control: Minor infestations can be eradicated by hand pulling at or before the onset of flowering, or by cutting the flower stalk as close to the soil surface as possible just as flowering begins (cutting a couple inches above ground level is not quite as effective). Cutting prior to this time may promote resprouting. Cutting flowering plants at the ground level has resulted in 99% mortality and eliminates seed production. A scythe, monofilament weed whip, or power brush cutter may be helpful if the infestation covers a large area. When pulling, the upper half of the root must be removed in order to stop buds at the root crown from sending up new flower stalks. Pulling is very labor intensive, and can result in soil disturbance, damaging desirable species, and bringing up seeds from the seed bank. These results can be partially prevented by thoroughly tamping soil after pulling. If, however, seed bank depletion is desired, leave the soil in a disturbed state to encourage further germination, and return annually to remove the plants. In general, cutting is less destructive than pulling as a control method, but can be done only during flower stalk elongation. Pulling can be done at any time when the soil is not frozen. If flowering has progressed to the point that viable seed exists, remove the cut or pulled plants

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from the area. Because seeds remain viable for five years, it is essential that an area be monitored and plants removed for at least five years after the initial control effort.

For larger infestations, fall or early spring burning may be effective. First year plants are killed by fire, if the fire is hot enough to remove all leaf litter. However, the bare soil enhances survival of seedlings that germinate after the fire, and the total population may increase after the fire. Dense populations may be controlled more effectively by fall burning, when leaf litter provides adequate fuel. Spring burns should be conducted early enough to minimize possible injury to spring wildflowers. Three to five years of burning are required, and should be followed by hand-pulling or cutting of small populations produced from the seed bank. Garlic mustard plants hit by fire are generally killed. Because most woodland fires are patchy, flame torches may be useful in areas not burned in entirety.

Chemical Control: Several infestations can be controlled by applying 1-2% active ingredient (a.i.) solution of glyphosate to the foliage of individual plants and dense patches during late fall or early spring. At these times, most native plants are dormant, but garlic mustard is green and vulnerable. Glyphosate is a nonselective herbicide that will kill non-target plants if it comes into contact with them. Managers should exercise caution during application, and not spray so heavily that herbicide drips off the target species. Herbicide use is safest for native plants if done during the dormant season, as garlic mustard will grow as long as there is no snow cover and the temperature is greater than 35oF. An early spring application of tricolopyr at a 1% a.i. concentration in solution with water has been used, resulting in a 92% rosette mortality rate.

More Information on the Web Garlic Mustard - Wisconsin State Herbarium Garlic Mustard - Invasives on the Web

Common Reed Grass (Phragmites) Description: Phragmites is an herbaceous, perennial grass that can grow up to 15 feet (4.5 meters) in height. It has stout stems, long leaves (up to 2 feet(.6 meters)), and large feathery plumes of flowers that change from a purple brown color in July to tan or grey by late in the season. Phragmites may spread by seed, although a number of populations do not produce viable seeds. Stands of Phragmites are also established by the spread of underground rhizomes (a thickened underground stem).

Habitat: Phragmites thrives in sunny wetland habitats and prefers fresh or brackish water (tidal and nontidal marshes). Although it can

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tolerate salt water, growth is usually stunted. In Wisconsin, it is known to grow on lake shores and in marshes, bogs, fens, wet meadows, roadside ditches, spoil piles resulting from dredging, and even seepage areas on highway embankments. It grows in soils with a pH range of 3.7 to 9.0 and in saturated soils or those that are seasonally, regularly, or permanently inundated up to two feet. It cannot withstand strong wave action or running water because the vertical stems break easily. Phragmites especially takes advantage of situations where there are numerous human disturbances to the landscape. Examples include dredging, water pollution, alteration of the natural hydrological regime and increases in nutrients, soil salinity, or sedimentation.

Threats: Phragmites spreads rapidly by rhizomes in disturbed areas that have moist to wet soils. It will quickly dominate in these areas, displacing the natural, diverse community with a monoculture. A Phragmites rhizome can extend 30 feet (9 meters) in a year. Monocultures as large as 7,000 acres have been documented.

Giant or Common Reed Control: Prior to specific removal techniques, it is essential to minimize land disturbances and other human alterations in the area of restoration so that the factors that favor the spread and establishment of Phragmites are no longer present. Healthy, stable, natural plant communities are the best defense against the invasion and spread of Phragmites.

A number of control methods have been tried on Phragmites. Cutting has worked to control it although it is important to cut at the right time and to do so for a number of years. The plants should be cut just before the end of July when most of the food reserves are in the aerial portion of the plant. Doing this for several years has contained and significantly reduced common reed stands in a number of sites in the northeast.

Glyphosate herbicide has been used on a number of reed stands along the East Coast. The chemical must be applied after the tasseling stage when the plant is supplying nutrients to the rhizome and will translocate the herbicide as well. Burning will not control stands unless there is a root burn, which is difficult to achieve because the rhizomes are often under soil, mud, or water Recent efforts using black plastic have also had some success. In any case, there is no easy solution for control of this aggressive species.

Buckthorn (Common and Glossy) Both common and glossy buckthorns are tall shrubs or small trees reaching 20-25 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter.

Most often they grow in a large shrub growth form, having a few to several stems from the base. The shrubs have spreading, loosely-branched crowns. Their bark is gray to brown with prominent, often elongate, lighter-colored lenticels. The buckthorns share a very distinctive winter appearance having naked, hairy terminal buds and gracefully curving, or arched, twigs with closely-spaced, prominent leaf scars that give the twigs a warty or bumpy silhouette. Cutting a branch of either species exposes a yellow sapwood and a pinkish to orange heartwood. Both species of buckthorn are distinctive enough from other native species to be identified at all times of the year once their characteristics have been learned.

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The dioecious common buckthorn may be somewhat easier to spot when the female plants are in fruit. The columnar variety of glossy buckthorn has a very narrow upright form and is commonly used for wind or visual screening. Common buckthorn has dull green, ovate-elliptic leaves which are smooth on both surfaces and have minute teeth on the margins. They vary from rounded to pointed on the tip. Twigs of common buckthorn often end in thorns. Glossy buckthorn has thin, glossy, ovate or elliptic leaves. The upper leaf surface is shiny; the lower surface can be hairy or smooth and their margins are entire (not toothed). There are several ornamental cultivars of Rhamnus frangula including "columnaris" and "asplenifolia." It is believe that the seeds from these plants can disperse and produce weedy plants.

Similar Species: Alder buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia) is a small native shrub of less than 3 feet in height with twigs that are hairless and dark scales on the buds in winter. Lance-leafed buckthorn (Rhamnus lanceolata), found in bogs and swamps, is a small native shrub of less than 6 feet in height. Its leaves are 2-6 inches which gradually taper to a point at the tip that are alternate and has bud scales in the winter. Its leaves are 2-6 inches in length, alternately arranged, and gradually taper to a point at the tip. Branches bears bud scales in the winter.

Distribution and Habitat: Common buckthorn and glossy buckthorn are two closely related species originating in Eurasia and were introduced to North America as ornamentals. They were planted in hedgerows in Wisconsin as early as 1849. They have become naturalized from Nova Scotia to Saskatchewan, south to Missouri, and east to New England. They are well established and rapidly spreading in Wisconsin. Although their aggressively invasive growth patterns have created problems in many areas, exotic buckthorns are still legally sold and planted as ornamentals.

Glossy buckthorn is an aggressive invader of wet soils. It has become a problem in wetlands as varied as acidic bogs, calcareous fens, and sedge meadows. It is capable of growing both in full sun and in heavily shaded habitats. The species is not confined to wetlands, however, and grows well in a wide variety of upland habitats, including old fields and roadsides. Neither species is adversely affected by nutrient-poor soils.

Distribution in Wisconsin Distribution in USA] Life History and Effects of Invasion: Both buckthorns are characterized by long distance dispersal ability, prolific reproduction by seed, wide habitat tolerance, and high levels of phenotypic plasticity (adjusting physical appearance to maximize environmental conditions). Under full sun conditions, they can begin to produce seed a few years after establishment. Fruit production may be delayed for 10 to 20 years in shaded habitats. Common buckthorn flowers from May through June and fruit ripens August through September; glossy buckthorn blooms from late May until the first frost and produces fruit from early July through September. The abundant fruits are eaten birds, thus encouraging the long-distance dispersal of horticultural plantings. Seedlings establish best in high light conditions, but can also germinate and grow in the shade. The exotic buckthorns have very rapid growth rates and resprout vigorously after they have been cut. Typical of several non-native understory shrub species, buckthorns leaf out very early and retain their leaves late in the growing season, thereby shading out native wildflowers.

The first few individuals established in a natural area are usually from seeds transported by birds. Once these individuals begin to produce seed, the buckthorns can rapidly form dense thickets. The vigor of buckthorns is positively correlated to light availability.

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Once established, both buckthorn species have the potential to spread very aggressively in large numbers because they thrive in habitats ranging from full sun to shaded understory. Both species cast a dense shade as they mature into tall shrubs. This shading has a particularly destructive effect on herbaceous and low shrub communities, and may prevent the establishments of tree seedling.

Controlling the Exotic Buckthorn: As with all invasive species, buckthorns in natural areas are most effectively controlled by recognizing their appearance early and removing isolated plants before they begin to produce seed. With large infestations, the largest seed-producing plants should be removed first.

Mechanical Control: Prescribed burns in early spring and fall may kill seedlings (especially in the first year of growth), larger stems, and top-killed mature buckthorns, although this method has met with mixed results.

Burning is preferable for fire-shaped communities, but should not be used if it adversely affects the community.

Burning annually or biannually to control buckthorns may have to be continued for several years depending on the extent of establishment and the seed bank, which general lasts two to three years. It is generally difficult to burn in dense buckthorn stands as the understory is typically well-shaded, allowing little fuel build-up.

In high quality natural areas where the use of chemicals is a concern, small patches of plants up to 0.4 inch diameter can be pulled when the soil is moist. Larger plants 0.5 inch to 1.5 inch diameters can be dug or pulled using a weed wrench. Disturbed soil will result from these techniques, and should be tamped down to minimize seeding.

Girding (removed phloem connection of roots to shoots while retaining the xylem connection of shoots to roots) or cutting stems between December and March may not be very effective unless followed by an application of glyphosate herbicide.

Chemical Control: Chemical control methods are best done during the fall when most native plants are dormant yet buckthorns are still actively growing. This lessens the risk of affecting nontarget plants. The buckthorns' green leaves will provide easy recognition and allow for a thorough treatment at this time. Control methods are also effective in the growing season, but there is more risk of affecting non-target plants, and the effectiveness of the treatment is generally lower. Winter application of chemicals has proven to be successful as well, and further lessens the risk of damaging non-target species.

During the growing season, cutting stems off near ground level and treating them with glyphosate successfully curbs sprouting. Immediately after cutting, a 20%-25% active ingredient (a.i.) glyphosate should be applied to the stumps. Resprouts should be cut and treated again, or sprayed with a hand sprayer of 1.5% a.i. glyphosate (approved for use over water) solution to the foliage. Foliar application of glyphosate herbicide using a backpack sprayer is effective, but less selective.

In wetlands with artificially lowered water tables, restoring the water to its historical levels will often kill glossy buckthorns. Standard formulations of glyphosate cannot be used in standing water. Glyphosate formulated for use over water must be used.

More Information on the Web Buckthorns - Invasives on the Web

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Reed Canary Grass Description: Reed canary grass is a large, coarse grass that reaches 2 to 9 feet in height. It has an erect, hairless stem with gradually tapering leaf blades 3 1/2 to 10 inches long and 1/4 to 3/4 inch in width. Blades are flat and have a rough texture on both surfaces. Single flowers occur in dense clusters in May to mid-June. They are green to purple at first and change to beige over time. This grass is one of the first to sprout in spring, and forms a thick rhizome system that dominates the subsurface soil. Seeds are shiny brown in color. Both Eurasian and native ecotypes of reed canary grass are thought to exist in the U.S. The Eurasian variety is considered more aggressive, but no reliable method exists to tell the ecotypes apart. It is believed that the vast majority of our reed canary grass is derived from the Eurasian ecotype. Agricultural cultivars of the grass are widely planted.

Distribution and Habitat: Reed canary grass is a cool-season, sod-forming, perennial wetland grass native to temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and North America. The Eurasian ecotype has been selected for its vigor and has been planted throughout the U.S. since the 1800's for forage and erosion control. It has become naturalized in much of the northern half of the U.S., and is still being planted on steep slopes and banks of ponds and created wetlands.

Reed canary grass can grow on dry soils in upland habitats and in the partial shade of oak woodlands, but does best on fertile, moist organic soils in full sun. This species can invade most types of wetlands, including marshes, wet prairies, sedge meadows, fens, stream banks, and seasonally wet areas; it also grows in disturbed areas such as bergs and spoil piles.

Life History and Effects of Invasion: Reed canary grass reproduces by seed or creeping rhizomes. It spreads aggressively. The plant produces leaves and flower stalks for 5 to 7 weeks after germination in early spring, and then spreads laterally. Growth peaks in mid-June and declines in mid-August. A second growth spurt occurs in the fall. The shoots collapse in mid to late summer, forming a dense, impenetrable mat of stems and leaves. The seeds ripen in late June and shatter when ripe. Seeds may be dispersed from one wetland to another by waterways, animals, humans, or machines.

This species prefers disturbed areas, but can easily move into native wetlands and openings in lowland forests.

Reed canary grass can invade a disturbed wetland in less than twelve years. Invasion is associated with disturbances including ditching of wetlands, stream channelization, deforestation of swamp forests, sedimentation, and intentional planting. The difficulty of selective control makes reed canary grass invasion of particular concern. Over time, it forms large, monotypic stands that harbor few other plant species and are subsequently of little use to wildlife. Forest regeneration can be greatly inhibited or eliminated if the reed canary grass becomes established. Once established, reed canary grass dominates an area by building up a tremendous seed bank that can eventually erupt, germinate, and recolonize treated sites.

Controlling Reed Canary Grass: Reed canary grass is difficult to eradicate; no single control method is universally applicable. In natural communities, mechanical control practices are recommended. In buffer areas and in severely disturbed sites, chemical and mechanical controls may be used. If herbicide is used, care should be taken to prevent contact

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with non-target species. Any control technique to reduce or eliminate reed canary grass should be followed by planting native species adapted to the site.

As reed canary grass can enter a wetland area from eroding hill slopes, erosion control and catch-basins around preserved wetlands are appropriate preventative measures.

Mechanical Control: Small, discrete patches may be covered by black plastic for at least one growing season; the bare spot can then be reseeded with native species. This method is not always effective and must be monitored because rhizomes can spread beyond the edge of the plastic.

Prescribed burns in late spring or late fall may help reduce the reed canary grass population if repeated annually for 5 to 6 years. However, these fires are difficult to conduct due to water levels and/or the greenness of the grass at the time of burning. The application of 1.5% active ingredient solution of glyphosate will "brown off" reed canary grass enough to conduct prescribed burns. Burning is also ineffective in dense stands of reed canary grass that lack competition from native, fire-adapted species in the seed bank. A late-spring burn followed by mowing or wick-applying glyphosate to the emerging flowering shoots will eliminate reed canary grass seed production for that year. The earliest Mowing twice yearly (early to mid-June and again in early October) may help control reed canary grass by removing seed heads before the seed matures and exposing the ground to light, which promotes the growth of native wetland species. Discing the soil in combination with a mowing or burning regime may help by opening the soil to other species. Hand-pulling or digging may work on small stands in the early stages of invasion.

Grazing can enhance diversity, although it will not control reed canary grass. A bulldozer can be used to remove reed canary grass and rhizomes (12-18" deep), after which native species should be seeded. Discing or plowing can also be employed in this manner.

In small areas with few natives, another method involves repeated cultivation for one full growing season followed by dormant seeding near the first-frost date. Disrupting the plant roots every two to three weeks weakens the remaining plants and depletes the seed bank. When combined with spot herbicide application in sections too wet for early or late cultivation, results after two years have been good. Frequent and continued cultivation is important since one or two cultivations would simply cut the roots up and increase the number of individual plants.

Chemical Control: Small, scattered clones (2 feet in diameter) can be controlled by tying the stems together just before flowering, cutting them, and applying glyphosate in a 33% active ingredient (a.i.) solution to cut stems.

A formulation of glyphosate designed for use in wetlands will kill reed canary grass (especially young plants) when applied to foliage. Apply in early spring when most native plant species are dormant. Any herbicide application should be done only after removing dead leaves from the previous year in order to maximize growing shoot exposure and to minimize herbicide use.

A 5% a.i. solution of glyphosate formulated for use over water applied as a foliar spray will kill reed canary grass. Two herbicidal applications may be necessary to ensure complete coverage. Herbicide applied with a wick applicator attached to a tractor affects taller stands of reed canary grass without impacting the shorter vegetation.

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A late mowing in mid-September, followed by the application of 5% glyphosate a.i. in October (after big bluestem is dormant) can help to control reed canary grass.

Because reed canary grass productivity is reduced by shade, planting native shrubs or wetland trees in areas of chemically-treated grass may be effective.

While herbicide kills reed canary grass, the seed bank may germinate and recolonize the site. Several herbicidal applications may be necessary to inhibit seed bank recolonization. After the first application of herbicide has killed living plants, disturbance of the soil can encourage seed bank germination. When this occurs, the site can again be treated with herbicide to deplete the seed bank.

An alternative method involves wick application of glyphosate in the first to third weeks of June, followed by a late June to mid-July burn. This technique reduces reed canary grass cover, depletes the seed bank, and stimulates native seed banks.

More Information on the Web Reed Canary Grass - Wisconsin State Herbarium Reed Canary Grass - Invasives on the Web

FOREST HEALTH & PESTS A healthy forest is not necessarily free of insects and diseases. The insects that eat the foliage from trees also provide food for many birds species. Some of the fungi that cause root rot in trees also convert stumps into organic matter that provides fertilizer to young trees. The brush species that interfere with young trees also provide food and shelter for birds and other wildlife.

The health of a forest stand depends on the point of view or (in formal terms) the management goals of the owner. The following example will explain what we mean by a healthy forest: A 90 year-old 100-acre woodlot of black oak, white oak and hickory in the Central Sands contains occasional dead and dying oaks, many trees with cavities and dead limbs, occasional large white oaks with spreading crowns, a few large white pines that rise above the oak canopy and a 5-acre oak wilt pocket. The young trees growing up through the canopy are mostly white pine and a few red maples. No harvest or thinnings have been done in the last 50 years.

If the management goal is to grow and harvest high-quality oak saw logs now and in the future, this is a very unhealthy forest; most of the larger oaks are crooked, limby or hollow and there is little or no oak reproduction (baby trees).

If the management goal is to provide wildlife habitat for the next 5 years, this is a healthy forest. The oaks provide abundant acorns for many wildlife species and many cavities for shelter. The oaks support an abundant supply of leaf feeding insects (including gypsy moth) that provide food for many birds. The dead and dying oaks provide abundant food for woodpeckers. The oak wilt pocket is filling in with young oak, white pine and Door County Comprehensive Forestry Plan

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mixed brush which increases the age and species diversity of the woodlot. Many deer trails and several permanent hunting stands attest to the value of the woodlot for hunting.

This is also a very interesting and pleasant woodlot to view in all seasons because of the varying colors of oaks during the growing season and the presence of large and small white pines and the occasional dead tree.

Problem: The owner expects to use the woodlot for turkey and deer hunting for the foreseeable future and pass it on to his children who expect to use it for hunting as it is used now. He is unaware that a major change in his woodlot has already started that will greatly reduce the quality of wildlife habitat within 20 years. Gypsy moth defoliation and drought will start a chain reaction that will end with the death of most of the old oaks. In 20 years, a few, remnant white oaks will remain along with a few large white pine. A thicket of white pine and red maple saplings will be growing amid the trunks of the dead oaks. The acorn crop will be greatly reduced as will the quality of hunting and the visual beauty.

What can the landowner do? First, he needs to recognize the 2 indicators that a major change is underway: â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

the old age and poor health of the dominant oaks the lack of oak reproduction

Once the landowner recognizes these signs, he can decide what, if any, action to take. One option is to let the change occur and accept a long-term reduction in hunting quality of the land. A second option is to conduct a thinning to remove the young red maple and some of the oaks. This will allow the healthier trees more sunlight (which will help them produce an acorn crop) and allow a young oak forest to grow. The best way for the landowner to make this decision is to enlist the help of a professional forester.

A forest is always changing. Landowners need to be aware of the changes occurring in their forest in order to help it meet their immediate and long term goals by recognizing the beginnings of change and making change work for them.

The Wisconsin DNR maintains a forest health website that contains a wealth of information in regards to Wisconsin, including Door County. The site can be reached at: http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/forestry/FH/. There are a number of forest health issues that either affect or have the potential to affect Door counties forested landscape. The greatest threats locally are Emerald Ash Borer, Gypsy Moth, White tailed Deer, Oak wilt and Ash yellows. Emerald Ash Borer and Oak Wilt have not been found in Door county but are serious threats that need to be considered.

Emerald Ash Borer The Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis) is an exotic insect pest, native to Asia, which is currently threatening the ash (Fraxinus spp.) tree resource in the Great Lakes region.

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Emerald ash borer belongs to a group of insects known as metallic wood-boring beetles (Buprestidae). Since its discovery in southeastern Michigan during 2002 it has continued to spread throughout Michigan's Lower Peninsula and into nearby Ohio, Indiana and Ontario, Canada. An additional outlier infestation has been detected (6/13/06) near Dekalb, Illinois, located just 60 miles from the Wisconsin border. This is the first find in Illinois and the closest to Wisconsin. The insect may already be in Wisconsin and we just donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t know it yet.

The emerald ash borer has killed an estimated 15 million ash trees throughout the infested areas. The natural dispersal rate of emerald ash borer is just 1/2 - 2 miles per year, however the transmission of this pest has accelerated beyond its natural rate by the inadvertent transportation of its larvae in logs, firewood and nursery stock.

The beneath the bark feeding habits of emerald ash borer larvae cause extensive damage to an ash tree's vascular system, depriving the crown of water and nutrients. Research conducted

by Michigan State university and USDA Forest Service has shown that the emerald ash borer attacks both stressed and healthy ash trees, typically killing its host in 1-3 years, and will attack all ash species including white, green and black ash. Therefore, the health of Wisconsin's forests is threatened by the potential arrival of emerald ash borer.

Forest inventory and analysis data shows that Wisconsin has approximately 717 million ash trees in its forests.

As of May 2006 the emerald ash borer has not been found in Wisconsin, but it may already be here. We need you to help us look for this pest. Early detection, isolation and eradication are our best defenses against the emerald ash borer. Additional information on the Emerald Ash Borer can be found at: http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/Forestry/FH/Ash/index.htm Gypsy Moth Since its introduction into the United States in 1869, the gypsy moth has defoliated thousands of acres of trees in both forest and urban settings across the northeast United States. Originally introduced into Massachusetts, gypsy moth has spread north to Maine, west to Wisconsin, and south to North Carolina, infesting 19 states and Washington, DC. Despite numerous state and local control efforts, the infestation continues to move south and west.

The gypsy moth was first detected in Wisconsin in the mid-1970s in the eastern part of the state. In 1989, the gypsy moth had established populations along Wisconsin's eastern shore from Milwaukee to Green Bay. Since then, moths have been found in nearly every county and the eastern half of the state is recognized as infested. Quarantines have been placed on wood product exports from those counties and many participate in an annual suppression program to keep potential defoliation at a minimum.

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In high populations, the gypsy moth can be very destructive. Trees can be defoliated at an alarming pace, leaving them weak and susceptible to disease. At outbreak levels, gypsy moth caterpillars can be seen crawling on any surface in your yard or neighborhood and their waste can rain down from branches above.

But with a few common items and a little effort, you can get a gypsy moth population under control, or prevent one from getting out of control. How you go about that depends on whether you have just a few trees in your backyard or have hundreds over acres of land.

More Information â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘

Homeowners o Few trees / small property (Exit DNR) Woodlot Owners o Gypsy Moth Silvicultural Guidelines for Wisconsin (PDF 77KB) or HTML o Forest Management Strategies to Minimize Impact of the Gypsy Moth (PDF 113KB) or HTML

Oak Wilt Currently, Door County has no documented cases of Oak Wilt, but Brown County just to the south does so there is a strong possibility that it could affect oaks in our area in the near future. The areas of highest risk are in the southern half of the county due to having a larger oak resource. Oak wilt has probably been a part of our forests in Wisconsin for 100 years. Oak wilt is widespread throughout the southern Wisconsin oak resource.

Oak wilt is caused by a fungus. The fungus invades water-conducting vessels and induces wilt distribution in Wisconsin. water movement within the formation of balloon-like projections called tyloses which also plug the vessels. AsOak the tree is slowed, the leaves wilt and drop off the tree.

Oaks in the red oak group (black, northern red, northern pin and others with pointed leaf edges) are most susceptible.

Oaks in the white oak group (white, swamp white, burr and others with rounded leaf edges) are less susceptible.

The symptoms of Oak wilt vary between the Red oak group and the white oak group. Within the Red oak group the trees drop their leaves rapidly (usually within a 3-week period) most often in late June and throughout July and August. Some lose a portion of their leaves in September then rapidly lose all their leaves just after they come out in the spring. Within the white oak group, these trees drop their leaves on 1 to several branches several years in a row. Trees in the white oak group do not always die; they may survive an infection.

The disease spreads in two ways, underground and overland. Underground, oak wilt moves from diseased trees to healthy trees through roots that have become interconnected (root grafts). Most root grafts form between oaks of the same species; red oak roots graft more commonly than do white oak roots, and grafts between red and

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white oaks are very rare. Overland spread is mainly via sap-feeding beetles. In the spring, fungal mats (small masses of Ceratocystis fagacearum) develop under the bark of some trees that have died from oak wilt the year before. These mats force the bark to crack open. The fungus produces a sweet odor that attracts sap-feeding beetles on the mats. The beetles then fly to healthier oaks to feed on sap flowing from fresh wounds, thus infecting healthy trees. Overland spread can also occur when firewood or logs from infected trees harboring fungal mats are moved.

Oak trees are most susceptible to overland spread in the springtime, from bud swelling until 2 to 3 weeks past full leaf development: April 15 to July 15. During this period, do not prune, cut or injure oaks! If an oak is wounded during this time, cover the wound immediately with tree wound paint.

Tree wound paint can actually slow the natural wound closure process; limit the use of wound paint to the situation described above.

Observations and unpublished research have shown that overland infection can occur after July 1, yet these mid-summer through early fall infections are not common. To take a very cautious approach, do not prune or otherwise wound oaks from April 15 to October 1.

Two methods of wood treatment are effective in preventing overland spread via firewood.

1. Debarking (removing the bark form the wood) the wood will prevent the fungus mats from forming.

Debarking must be conducted before fungal mats form, thus it should occur in the late summer, fall or winter following tree death.

2. Cutting, splitting, stacking and covering the wood with a 4mm or thicker plastic will also prevent overland spread. All sharp edges or stubs should be cut to eliminate the possibility of puncturing the plastic. The entire pile must be sealed all around. Seal the bottom by covering it with dirt and logs or other heavy objects. If the wood is not burned over the winter following tree death, leave the tarp on through the next growing season (October 1) or until the bark is loose.

If Oak wilt is found in Door County and the disease is allowed to progress, it will spread to healthy oaks that are grafted through roots to the diseased trees. In stands where oak is common and root grafting prevalent, an everwidening pocket of dead oaks will form. In forests where oak is mixed with other species and is a minor component, spread will be slower and may actually stop from a lack of root grafting. New pockets may also be formed via overland spread by sap-feeding beetles.

Dead oak trees can serve as excellent den trees for wildlife. Oaks do not decay as quickly as aspen, birch and red maple, thus will provide shelter for wildlife for many years. Also, as oaks die, the site often becomes brushy for about 10 years. Warblers, grosbeaks, cuckoos, cardinals, grouse, rabbits, deer and shrews will be attracted to the brushy area. Brown creepers may nest under the sloughing bark on dead trees. Dead trees will also furnish insects for birds, and large specimens may provide perches for raptors.

Read these publications for further information about oak wilt: "Oak Wilt Management: What are the options?" (exit DNR) "Are you thinking of building on a wooded lot? Protect your trees from oak wilt"

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Ash Yellows Ash yellows is a recently discovered disease that causes slow growth and decline of ash (Fraxinus) species. Ash yellows went undetected until the 1980's because its symptoms were not differentiated from those of decline caused by adverse environmental factors such as drought, shallow soils, flooding, or parasitism by opportunistic fungi. Current knowledge supports the theory that ash decline can result from various causes, and ash yellows can be, but is not always, a causal factor.

The impact of ash yellows on ash populations is not well documented. Individual trees in which the disease is discovered are likely to show declining growth, dieback and often death. The disease occurs in woodlots and forests, home landscapes, and urban plantings.

Distribution and Host Range Ash yellows has been reported only in North America. The main range of the disease includes parts of 16 northeastern and midwestern states and the southernmost portions of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec (Figure 2). Ash yellows has also been found in two southwestern locations. In addition to white ash (F. americana) and green ash (F. pennsylvanica), ten other ash species including blue ash (F. quadrangulata), black ash (F. nigra), and velvet ash (F. velutina) are also reported hosts.

Symptoms Symptoms of ash yellows vary with ash species. White ash sustains permanent and often rapid decline in tree growth. Slow twig growth and short internodes can cause foliage to appear tufted at tips of twigs and the crown to appear more transparent than normal (Cover photo and Figure 3).

Eventually a progressive dieback of branches begins and witches’-brooms may develop at the trunk base. Witches’-brooms are clusters of upright spindly shoots. Vertical cracks and cankers are common on the trunk near the ground Witches’-brooms usually develop near the soil line but occasionally are Figure 3. Tufted foliage at tips of found several feet up the trunk. Brooms may produce simple leaves or twigs and crown thinning. dwarfed compound leaves with fewer than the normal 5 to 9 leaflets .

Yellowing is common on foliage of brooms. On white ash, brooms occur most often on trees with severe dieback, on suppressed saplings, and on stumps of diseased trees. Green ash exhibit symptoms similar to white ash but appear to sustain less dieback and sometimes produce witches’brooms without other distinctive symptoms. Radial growth loss associated with MLO infection has been detected in green ash.

Field diagnosis of ash yellows is sometimes difficult. Reduced growth and progressive decline are typical symptoms of ash yellows but can also result from other factors such as poor site conditions, drought stress,

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freezing and flooding damage, mechanical or chemical injuries, insect attack, and parasitism by opportunistic fungi.

If numerous ash in a stand have ash yellows, the disease typically interferes with stand productivity. It is not critical to learn which individual trees are infected, however, because ash yellows commonly occurs in conjunction with slow growth and decline caused by adverse environments.

Site Relationships Ecological and vegetation studies have provided information about white ash stands affected by yellows and indicate the following: • • •

•

Ash yellows is more common in areas of mixed land use than in heavily forested areas and is often associated with understory plant species characteristic of exposed sites.

Ash yellows symptoms in trees larger than saplings are most prominent in hedgerows and near the edges of woodlots. Ash saplings in the understory of stands affected by ash yellows often have brooms.

Ash yellows can cause significant loss of volume growth in young stands. After tree crowns close in a young stand, the growth of trees with ash yellows diminishes markedly, and those with crowns in intermediate and suppressed positions eventually die.

Ash yellows and drought may interact to amplify growth decline.

Many ash affected by yellows continue moderate growth until they come under stress from other factors such as drought and competition with neighboring trees.

Management There is no known way to prevent or cure ash yellows. White ash that become infected when young do not grow to merchantable size. Most merchantable sized diseased ash trees live for at least 5-10 years. Management prescriptions which promote species diversity or stand conversion to species other than ash and reduce plant stresses from water shortage and competition should minimize growth losses associated with ash yellows.

Forests Management of stands where ash yellows occurs should be aimed at gradual replacement of white ash with other species. Where ash yellows occurs in merchantable white ash stands, trees of this species that exhibit slow growth and dieback should be removed during regular harvests as follows: • •

Harvest trees with greater than 50% crown dieback within 5 years.

Remove other affected ash during subsequent harvests.

Home Landscapes Managers of shade and ornamental trees should consider management strategies which: • • •

Remove trees with severe dieback, because they can not be rehabilitated.

Promote species diversity in tree planting programs, and avoid monocultures of ash along city streets.

Select tree species suitable to planting sites, and avoid planting ash in drought-prone sites.

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â&#x20AC;˘

Encourage tree care practices that reduce plant stresses. Watering during drought and periodic fertilization to promote general tree health may be useful.

In the future, ash cultivars or rootstocks resistant to or tolerant of ash yellows may become available.

White-tailed Deer.

Door counties white tailed deer population is significantly higher than in other portions of the state. The WDNR states that for the deer management units that include Door County (Units 80A, 80B and 81), the 2005-2006 over winter deer density estimates are between 26-54 deer per square mile. Using recommendations from the public, the WDNR set an over-winter population goal of 15-20 deer per square mile between the 3 deer management units. This overwinter goal is the population at which wildlife managers wish to keep the deer herd. This goal should â&#x20AC;&#x153;produce a healthy herd, a healthy ecosystem, few complaints and hunting opportunities (WDNR)â&#x20AC;?.

The WDNR lists several harmful ecological effects of large deer populations: Herbaceous plants may be reduced in abundance and diversity as deer numbers rise above 12-15 per square mile; tree and shrub species composition can change with reduced regeneration as deer numbers rise above 20-25 per square mile; large numbers of deer may affect rare insects that are dependent on one or a few plant species that are also preferred for food by deer; and the number and diversity of bird populations may be reduced as deer populations rise from 15 to over 35 per square mile due to impacts on ground level vegetation, the shrub layer and tree species composition.

There is a general consensus among many different resource professionals that white-tailed deer have overpopulated much of the state including Door County which in turn has had profound negative consequences for humans as well as plants and animals on the landscape. Areas that once held large populations of American Trillium and Canada Yew, today are absent from the landscape. Forest regeneration in Door County has in large part been turned upside down. Species such as sugar maple and white cedar are virtually impossible to regenerate in the county due in large part to an overpopulation of deer. The problem with deer herbivory is also

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evident in the browse line that can be observed in a number of areas in the county. This problem is becoming critical now because many of our forests are approaching maturity and will need to be regenerated in the near future. If regeneration cannot be accomplished , the future value of the area to all forest uses will be greatly diminished.

These problems associated with the white-tailed deer will cause a change in the forest cover types and how these forest cover types are managed over time if deer numbers stay as high as recent years. There are a number of different methods that have been tested to reduce or eliminate deer browsing on a forested landscape. They Browse line in the town of Nasewaupee, Section 5. range from chemical repellants and fencing to the use of different cutting methods and encouraging hunting in severely browsed areas. Many of these control measures are very cost prohibitive on the landscape level. In the long run, the most effective measure is going to be population control of the white tailed deer. Bringing the deer herd into balance with its surrounding environment is going to be the key. This means that deer harvests must be increased in a number of areas to reduce the population to levels that are compatible with the environment.

NATURAL COMMUNITIES & NATURAL AREAS IN DOOR COUNTY Natural Communities The purpose of this habitat aspect is to increase awareness of protected state natural areas and rare (including geographically restricted) natural community types. Generally, natural areas are tracts of land or water harboring natural features, which have experienced the least intrusive degrees of human disturbance, and which represent the diversity of Wisconsinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s native landscape. They contain outstanding examples of native biotic communities, and are often the last refuges in the state for ETS species. Natural areas may also include exceptional geological features. State Natural Areas are officially recognized parcels that can be visited to better understand the ecology of forests with little past disturbance. Natural areas and rare natural community types represent only a small portion of the total forested area of the state. A statewide, county by county, inventory for the presence of natural areas was completed by the State Natural Areas Program in the period of 1969 through 1983. Each site was evaluated for landscape characteristics, natural community site values and species viability.

Since 1985, this data and subsequent natural areas data is housed in the Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI) database. This program tracks rare natural communities plus many others that are geographically restricted, contain older seral stages, or harbor diverse concentrations of species. Among the rare natural communities such as oak openings, mesic prairies and algific talus slopes nearly all occurrences are tracked. For relatively common natural communities, such as northern mesic forests, the tracked occurrences represent those examples least disturbed by human activities (e.g., older successional stages) as well as areas that support exceptional biotic diversity. The significance of a given natural community occurrence is therefore related to not only its quality and condition, but also its size, context, and relative condition to more degraded examples. The presence

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of natural areas or sensitive natural communities can provide many benefits for the landowner and citizens of the state: A Natural community is a group of plants and animals, in a particular place at a particular time, interacting with one another and the environment around them. These communities are primarily subject to natural disturbances.

When these groups are repeated across a landscape in an observable pattern, they are considered a community type.

Of the more 70 different Natural communities that have been identified in the state, 37 have been documented in Door county. Some of these communities are forested communities that will be addressed in this plan as well as the forest cover types that may be found in the natural communities. Among these 37 natural communities there are also a number of non-forested communities that while may not directly relate to forest management, are equally as important on the landscape. The following is a list of the 37 Natural Communities present in Door County as Recognized by the Natural Heritage Inventory. The descriptions were prepared by Eric Epstein, Emmett Judziewicz and Elizabeth Spencer. For more information you may access the Natural Heritage Inventory website at: http://intranet.dnr.state.wi.us/int/land/er/nhi/nhi_pages/NHI_links.htm

Natural Areas of Door County A natural area is a site largely unaltered by modern human activity, where native vegetation is distributed in naturally occurring patterns. These patterns change over time under the influences of natural processes such as windstorms, drought, flooding cycles, and wildfires, as well as interactions between plants and wildlife that inhabit or periodically use a site. A natural area may be host to one or more natural community types such as boreal forest, open bog, talus forest or calcareous fen, the existence and extent of which are determined by factors such as climate, soil composition, and a site's unique history. Many natural areas do include some evidence of modern human activity, such as small areas of former croplands in a site largely dominated by native prairie, or occasional decayed stumps in a forest that was logged long ago. However, natural areas are characterized by being primarily in a natural state, with only minor evidence of disturbance from modern human activity.

Natural areas occur on private as well as public land, and across political jurisdictions. They may be found in designated preserves, within existing parks, or may be interspersed throughout developed and managed environments such as farms, ranches, commercial and industrial areas, and residential communities.

Of course, today's landscape looks very different from the way it looked 150 years ago. Many natural processes, such as large-scale fires and the presence of large herds of bison, are no longer present on most of the landscape. Natural areas today, ranging in size from a few acres to several thousand acres, are generally within larger landscapes that have been highly altered. Because all natural areas are an integral part of the larger landscape in which they exist, it is important to pay careful attention to wise stewardship of adjacent and nearby lands.

All natural areas may be considered "open space", but many types of open space are not natural areas.

Golf courses, baseball fields, pine plantations, parks with maintained lawns that are landscaped with exotic species, all could be described as open space, but are places where natural features have been

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partially to totally displaced. While some such areas offer a degree of habitat to native plants and wildlife, others have been highly altered, leading to dramatic declines in diversity of species.

In many parts of the state, it is often not practical or even possible to protect natural areas large enough to include the natural patterns that once existed on the landscape. Nevertheless, even small natural areas are important, and sometimes represent the only opportunity to protect natural communities or rare species in an area. For example, a ten-acre prairie in western Wisconsin that is surrounded by croplands bears little resemblance to the huge expanse of prairie that once existed on the landscape. However, if it were of good quality, it would still be considered a natural area.

The surrounding land could be planted to native prairie using seeds from the natural area, or could be kept in other kinds of open space that might help buffer the land from activities that could lessen the integrity of the site. Similarly, a forty-acre old-growth forest is a natural area, even if it is surrounded by recent clearcuts.

Allowing the clearcut forest to regenerate naturally would be one alternative that would help buffer the natural area and eventually add to its size.

Wisconsinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s State Natural Areas Program Wisconsin's landscape has experienced dramatic changes in the 150 years since intensive settlement began.

Little remains of the natural plant and animal communities which occupied our lands and waters in the settlement era and which set the stage for what Wisconsin has become. Their scattered remnants, which escaped the saw, the plow, and other development, are called natural areas. These exceptional sites are often the last refuges for rare plants and animals. We owe much to Wisconsin's early conservationists, who in 1951 recognized the loss of natural communities and their importance, and fostered the first state program in the United States to preserve them.

State Natural Areas (SNAs) are formally designated sites devoted to scientific research, the teaching of conservation biology, and especially to the preservation of their natural values and genetic diversity for future generations. They are not intended for intensive recreational uses like picnicking or camping. Wisconsin's Natural Areas Program (NAP) holds to its original mission: to locate and preserve a system of State Natural Areas harboring all types of biotic communities, rare species, and other significant natural features native to Wisconsin. However, significant changes have come into the program since its inception.

Wisconsin's NAP is housed in the Bureau of Endangered Resources (BER), within the Department of Natural Resources. Staff of BER oversees all aspects of the NAP in consultation with the Natural Areas Preservation Council (NAPC). The Council, formerly called the State Board for the Preservation of Scientific Areas, was established by the state legislature in 1951. This group serves as an advisory body to the Natural Areas Program. Its eleven members, drawn from the scientific and educational community of the state, guides the NAP staff in their mission to identify, manage and protect natural areas.

The natural area preservation process begins with identification and selection of the highest quality sites.

Identification of sites is accomplished largely through the continuing Natural Heritage Inventory (NHI); a section within the BER. The NHI maintains a comprehensive register of the state's natural features and rare species. This information, contained in an integrated system of maps and computer databases, is the result of 25 years of ongoing biological inventories.

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Protection is accomplished using a variety of tools, including fee acquisition, donations, and conservation easements. Sites on state-owned lands, especially parks, forests, and fish and wildlife areas, can simply be designated as State Natural Areas by cooperative agreements and management plans between the NAP and the cooperator. Similarly, areas controlled by universities, federal agencies, and private groups, such as The Nature Conservancy, are brought into the natural areas system by a "memorandum of understanding" — a long-term, but not legally-binding, commitment to maintain the sites as natural areas. Sites not owned by the state are purchased from willing sellers using funds from the Stewardship Program. Established in 1989, the program provides money for state land acquisition, including $1.5 million a year for natural area projects. An additional $500,000 a year from Stewardship supplements the Natural [Heritage] Area Match Grant Program, which matches, dollar-for-dollar, private donations of land or funds to the Natural Areas Program. In addition to donations and outright fee acquisition, the NAP also purchases conservation easements on natural lands. Once secured by purchase or agreement, sites are formally "designated" as State Natural Areas, becoming part of the natural area system. Designation confers a significant level of protection as guaranteed by DNR Administrative Rules, Management Plans, and Memoranda of Understanding, in compliance with state statutes.

A higher level of protection is accomplished by Articles of Dedication, a kind of conservation easement, which provides the strongest long-term legal protection for land in the state. Legally "dedicated" sites are protected in perpetuity for natural area use and may not be taken for other functions without a finding of urgent and greater public need by the governor and the legislature.

As of September 2002, 353 sites covering more than 125,000 acres have been designated as State Natural Areas. In addition to protecting biotic communities, these areas provide refuge for many species of plants and animals on Wisconsin's Endangered and Threatened Species List.

Management of State Natural Areas is based on specific plans agreed to by the land managing agency. In most instances, the best management for natural areas is to do nothing except protect them from human disturbance.

For many sites, however, invasive exotic species and encroaching woody plants are a real problem, requiring hands-on management. Prescribed burning and removal of trees and shrubs are used as management tools on prairies, fens, savannas, and sedge meadows. Whether managing natural areas or the person using them, much of the work is made possible through donations to the Endangered Resources Fund. The fund was established in 1984 as a means for direct public support of endangered resources protection projects, including management of designated natural areas.

Since its inception, in 1952, more than 350 areas in the state have been identified and established as “state natural areas” or “wildlife areas”. Twenty-four (24) of these natural areas are located in Door County. For additional information in regards to Natural areas in Door county, pleas refer to “A Guide to Significant Wildlife Habitat and Natural Areas of Door County, Wisconsin”. This document may be accessed at: Natural Areas Guide, or you may access the Wisconsin DNR State Natural Areas website at:WDNR - State Natural Areas Program

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Door County’s State Natural Areas Peninsula Park Beech Forest The Ridges Sanctuary Toft Point Jackson Harbor Ridges Whitefish Dunes Mink River Estuary Baileys Harbor Boreal Forest & Wetlands Kangaroo Lake Europe Bay Woods Ellison Bluff Rock Islands Woods Detroit Island

Peninsula Park White Cedar Forest Sister Islands Newport Conifer-Hardwoods Mud Lake Marshall’s Point Moonlight Bay Bedrock Beach Coffey Swamp Bay Shore Bluff Lands North Bay White Cliff Fen & Forest Big & Little Marsh Thorp Pond

* Detroit Island and Thorp Pond State Natural Area are not shown on map on page 90*

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References Threatened and Endangered Species in Forests of Wisconsin 2000 compiled by David A. Kopiztke Wisconsin Lakes 1995 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources Wisconsin Forest Management Guidelines 2003 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources Wisconsin Manual of Control Recommendations for Ecologically Invasive Plants 1997 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources Wisconsin Natural Resources Magazine -Vertically Inclined Dec. 2005 Kathyrn A. Kahler Wisconsin Forest Statistics, 1996 1997 Thomas L. Schmidt United States Dept. of Agriculture Door County Summary of Assessment 2006 Door Co. Real Property Listing Office A Guide to Significant Wildlife Habitat & Natural Areas of Door County, Wisconsin 2003 Collaborative Community Project Ecosystem Management Planning Handbook 2000 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources Natural Heritage Inventory Portal website 2006 Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources Official Directory 2005-2006 Door Co. Clerk Soil Survey of Door County Wisconsin. 1978 An Economic Development Adjustment Plan for Door County, Wisconsin 2005 Grant Thorton Door County Land & Water Resource Management Plan 2005 Door County Soil & Water Conservation Department Door County Land Guide 1999 Multiple Contributors Discovering Door Countyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Past 1994, Marvin M Lotz Door County, Wisconsins Peninsular Jewel. 1993. Bruce Thomas Identify and Manage Ash Yellows in Forest Stands and Home Landscape, NA-FR-03-94 USDA Forest Service The Impact of Deer on Forest Vegetation in Pennsylvania, 1981 David Marquis, Ronnie Brenneman USDA Forest Service Vermont Invasive Exotic Plant Sheet Giant or Common Reed Grass (Phragmites) Internet Resources Wisonsin Department of Natural Resources (multiple sites) http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/forestry http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/er/ http://dnr.wi.gov/org/land/wildlife/ Door County Invasives Species Team, http://map.co.door.wi.us/swcd/invasive/index.htm

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