TOP CLEANEST COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD
RESEARCHERS BADR AL AMRI ABDULAZIZ ALKHAMIS ABDULLAH ALEID ABDULRHMAN ALMUQRRY MOHANNAD ALOTAIBI MSHAL ALHARBY HMOUD ALFATHELL
ADVISER: PROF. TOMAS U. GANIRON JR, PHD.
1
نّ الحمد هلل ،نحمده ونستعٌنه ونستغفره ،ونعوذ باهلل من شرور أنفسنا ومن سٌئات أعمالنا ،من ٌهده هللا فال مضل له ،ومن ٌضلل فال هادي له ،وأشهد أن ال إله إال هللا وحده ال شرٌك له، وأشهد أن محمداً عبده ورسوله ،صلوات هللا وسالمه علٌه .وعلى آله وصحبه ..أما بعد سوف نتحدث فً بحثنا هذا عن "افضل المدن نظافة فً العالم " وسوف نتحدث فً بحثنا هذا عن الموقع واللغة والحكم والطبٌعة واعادة التدوٌر
2
HONG KONG
1.LOCATION 2.LANGUAGE 3.GOVERNANCE 4.LEGAL SYSTEM AND JUDICIARY 5. CULTURE 6.CLIMATE 7.RECYCLING IN HONG KONG: A LOT OF ROOM FOR IMPROVEMENT
3
. LOCATION POSITIONED AT THE MOUTH OF THE PEARL RIVER DELTA ON THE
COAST
OF
SOUTHERN
CHINA,
HONG
KONG’S
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AS A GATEWAY BETWEEN THE EAST AND WEST HAS MADE IT AN ATTRACTIVE CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL TRADE. AS A REFLECTION OF THIS, THE HEART OF ASIA’S WORLD CITY HAS ALWAYS BEEN THE BUSTLING AND BEAUTIFUL VICTORIA HARBOUR. HONG KONG ISLAND LIES TO THE
SOUTH
OF
THE
HARBOUR,
WHILE
THE
KOWLOON
PENINSULA FORMS ITS NORTHERN SHORES. TO THE NORTH OF KOWLOON LIES THE NEW TERRITORIES, WHICH STRETCH ALL THE WAY TO MAINLAND CHINA. HONG KONG IS ALSO HOME TO MORE THAN 200 OUTLYING ISLANDS, INCLUDING LANTAU ISLAND, WHERE HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT IS LOCATED
.LANGUAGE 4
HONG KONG CAN MOSTLY THANK ITS COLONIAL HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL HARBOUR FOR THE RICH BLEND OF CULTURES THAT GIVE IT ITS UNIQUE CHARACTER. WHILE THE MAJORITY OF THE CITY’S POPULATION ARE CHINESE SPEAKERS, SIMPLY WALKING THE STREETS WILL EXPOSE YOU TO A MEDLEY OF ASIAN AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
CHINESE CANTONESE, A MINORITY DIALECT OF MAINLAND CHINA, IS SPOKEN BY 88 PER CENT OF PEOPLE IN HONG KONG. NONETHELESS, OTHER CHINESE DIALECTS, SUCH AS HAKKA, TAISHANESE AND TEOCHIU ARE ALSO PRESENT, AS IS MANDARIN OF COURSE – CHINA’S OFFICIAL DIALECT, WHICH HAS BECOME MORE WIDELY SPOKEN IN HONG KONG SINCE THE REUNIFICATION IN 1997.
ENGLISH FROM HONG KONG’S ESTABLISHMENT AS A COLONIAL PORT, THROUGH ITS PERIOD AS A MANUFACTURING HUB, AND UP UNTIL ITS CURRENT ROLE AS AN INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL 5
CENTRE, THE CITY’S POPULATION HAS ALWAYS LOOKED OUTWARDS. AS A RESULT, ENGLISH IS WIDELY SPOKEN. TODAY, IT IS THE LANGUAGE OF PREFERENCE IN THE GOVERNMENT, BUSINESS AND TOURISM SECTORS. ALL OFFICIAL SIGNS AND PUBLIC TRANSPORT ANNOUNCEMENTS, AS WELL AS MOST MENUS, ARE BILINGUAL. AS A VISITOR, YOU CAN EXPECT TO ENCOUNTER
MINIMAL
PROBLEMS
COMMUNICATING
IN
ENGLISH AS MOST TAXI DRIVERS, SALESPEOPLE, TOURISM INDUSTRY EMPLOYEES
AND
POLICE
HAVE
REACHED
COMPETENT LEVELS OF THE LANGUAGE. IN FACT, MANY LOCALS EVEN PEPPER THEIR CHINESE SPEECH WITH ENGLISH WORDS AND PHRASES.
. Governance MAIN ARTICLES: POLITICS OF HONG KONG, HONG GOVERNMENT, AND ELECTIONS IN HONG KONG
KONG
6
THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL BUILDING IN CENTRALBECAME THE HOME TO LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF HONG KONG IN 1985. OWING TO ITS LONG HISTORY AS A COLONY OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE, HONG KONG IS A CITY-STATE WHICH CONTINUES TO ENJOY A HIGH DEGREE OF AUTONOMY EVEN AFTER ITS RETURN TO CHINA.[84] IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE SINOBRITISH
JOINT
DECLARATION,
AND
THE
UNDERLYING
PRINCIPLE OF ONE COUNTRY, TWO SYSTEMS, HONG KONG HAS A
"HIGH
DEGREE
OF
AUTONOMY
AS
A
SPECIAL
ADMINISTRATIVE REGION IN ALL AREAS EXCEPT DEFENCE AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS."[NOTE
1]
THE DECLARATION STIPULATES
THAT THE REGION MAINTAIN ITS CAPITALIST ECONOMIC SYSTEM AND GUARANTEES THE RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF ITS PEOPLE
FOR
AT
HANDOVER.[NOTE
2]
LEAST
50
YEARS
BEYOND
THE
1997
THE GUARANTEES OVER THE TERRITORY'S
AUTONOMY AND THE INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS ARE ENSHRINED IN A CONSTITUTION, THE HONG KONG BASIC LAW (WHICH IS BASED ON THE COMMON LAW OF ENGLAND), WHICH OUTLINES THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNANCE OF THE HONG KONG SPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVE REGION, BUT WHICH IS SUBJECT
TO
COMMITTEE
THE
INTERPRETATION
OF
THE
OF
THE STANDING
NATIONAL
PEOPLE'S
CONGRESS (NPCSC).[85][86] 7
THE PRIMARY PILLARS OF GOVERNMENT ARE THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, THE CIVIL SERVICE, THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL, AND THE JUDICIARY. THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL IS HEADED BY THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE WHO IS ELECTED BY THE ELECTION COMMITTEE AND THEN APPOINTED BY THE CENTRAL PEOPLE'S GOVERNMENT.THE CIVIL SERVICE IS A POLITICALLY NEUTRAL BODY
THAT
IMPLEMENTS
GOVERNMENT SERVICES,
POLICIES
AND
PROVIDES
WHERE PUBLIC SERVANTS ARE
APPOINTED BASED ON MERITOCRACY. THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL HAS 60 MEMBERS, HALF OF WHOM ARE DIRECTLY ELECTED BY UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE BY PERMANENT RESIDENTS OF
HONG
KONG ACCORDING
TO
FIVEGEOGRAPHICAL
CONSTITUENCIES. THE OTHER HALF, KNOWN AS FUNCTIONAL CONSTITUENCIES, ARE DIRECTLY ELECTED BY A SMALLER ELECTORATE, WHICH CONSISTS OF CORPORATE BODIES AND PERSONS FROM VARIOUS STIPULATED FUNCTIONAL SECTORS. THE ENTIRE COUNCIL IS HEADED BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL WHO SERVES AS THE SPEAKER. JUDGES ARE
APPOINTED
BY
THE
CHIEF
EXECUTIVE
ON
THE
RECOMMENDATION OF AN INDEPENDENT COMMISSION. THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BASIC LAW, INCLUDING HOW AND WHEN THE UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE PROMISED THEREIN IS TO BE ACHIEVED, HAS BEEN A MAJOR ISSUE OF POLITICAL 8
DEBATE SINCE THE TRANSFER OF SOVEREIGNTY. IN 2002, THE GOVERNMENT'S PROPOSED ANTI-SUBVERSION BILL PURSUANT TO ARTICLE 23 OF THE BASIC LAW, WHICH REQUIRED THE ENACTMENT OF LAWS PROHIBITING ACTS OF TREASON AND SUBVERSION AGAINST THE CHINESE GOVERNMENT, WAS MET WITH
FIERCE
OPPOSITION,
SHELVED.[23][94][95] DEBATE
AND
BETWEEN
EVENTUALLY
PRO-BEIJING
GROUPS,
WHICH TEND TO SUPPORT THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH, AND THE PAN-DEMOCRACY CAMPCHARACTERISES HONG KONG'S POLITICAL
SCENE,
WITH
THE
LATTER
SUPPORTING
A
FASTER PACE OF DEMOCRATISATION, AND THE PRINCIPLE OF ONE MAN, ONE VOTE.[96] IN 2004 THE GOVERNMENT FAILED TO GAIN PAN-DEMOCRAT SUPPORT TO PASS ITS SO-CALLED "DISTRICT COUNCIL MODEL" FOR
POLITICAL
REFORM.[97] IN
2009,
THE
GOVERNMENT
REISSUED THE PROPOSALS AS THE "CONSULTATION DOCUMENT ON THE METHODS FOR SELECTING THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE AND FOR FORMING THE LEGCO IN 2012". THE DOCUMENT PROPOSED THE ENLARGEMENT OF THE ELECTION COMMITTEE, HONG KONG'S ELECTORAL COLLEGE, FROM 800 MEMBERS TO 1,200 IN 2012 AND EXPANSION OF THE LEGISLATURE FROM 60 TO 70 SEATS. THE TEN NEW LEGISLATIVE SEATS WOULD CONSIST OF FIVE
GEOGRAPHICAL
CONSTITUENCY
SEATS
AND
FIVE 9
FUNCTIONAL CONSTITUENCY SEATS, TO BE VOTED IN BY ELECTED
DISTRICT
THEMSELVES.[98] THE REJECTION SIGNIFICANT
BY
COUNCIL
MEMBERS
PROPOSALS
PAN-DEMOCRATS BREAKTHROUGH
FROM
AMONG
WERE
DESTINED
ONCE
AGAIN,
OCCURRED
FOR
BUT
AFTER
A
THE
CENTRAL PEOPLE'S GOVERNMENT ACCEPTED A COUNTERPROPOSAL BY THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY. IN PARTICULAR, THE PAN-DEMOCRACY CAMP WAS SPLIT WHEN THE PROPOSAL TO DIRECTLY ELECT FIVE NEWLY CREATED FUNCTIONAL SEATS WAS NOT ACCEPTABLE TO TWO CONSTITUENT PARTIES. THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY SIDED WITH THE GOVERNMENT FOR THE FIRST
TIME
SINCE
THE
HANDOVER
AND
PASSED
THE
PROPOSALS WITH A VOTE OF 46–12.[99]
. LEGAL SYSTEM AND JUDICIARY MAIN ARTICLES: LAW OF HONG KONG AND JUDICIARY OF HONG KONG
10
THEMIS OR LADY JUSTICE, ARMED WITH SWORD AND BALANCE SCALES(LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL BUILDING,CENTRAL, HONG KONG). SHE IS THE PERSONIFICATION OF JUSTICE BALANCING THE SCALES OF TRUTH AND FAIRNESS. Hong Kong's legal system is completely independent from the legal system of mainland China. In contrast to mainland China's civil law system, Hong Kong continues to follow the English Common Law tradition established under British rule.[100] The essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying legal precedent (stare decisis) to the facts before them. For example, murder is a common law crime rather than one established by an Act of Parliament. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament; murder, for example, now carries a mandatory life sentence rather than the death penalty. According to Article 92[dead link] of the Basic Law, Hong Kong's courts may refer to decisions rendered by courts of other common law jurisdictions as precedents,[21][101] and judges from other common law jurisdictions, most commonly England, Canada and Australia, are allowed to sit as non-permanent judges of the Court of Final Appeal.[21][101] Structurally, the court system consists of the Court of Final Appeal, the High Court, which is made up of the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance, and the District Court, which includes the Family Court.[102] Other 11
adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Court, the Coroner's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal, and the Obscene Articles Tribunal.[102] Justices of the Court of Final Appeal are appointed by Hong Kong's Chief Executive.[21][101] The Court of Final Appeal has the power of final adjudication with respect to the law of Hong Kong as well as the power of final interpretation over local laws including the power to strike down local ordinances on the grounds of inconsistency with the Basic Law[103][104] The Department of Justice is responsible for handling legal matters for the government. Its responsibilities include providing legal advice, criminal prosecution, civil representation, legal and policy drafting and reform, and international legal cooperation between different jurisdictions.[100] Apart from prosecuting criminal cases, lawyers of the Department of Justice act on behalf of the government in all civil and administrative lawsuits against the government.[100]As protector of thepublic interest, the department may apply for judicial reviews and may intervene in any cases involving the greater public interest.[105] The Basic Law protects the Department of Justice from any interference by the government when exercising its control over criminal prosecution.[106][107]
CULTURE
CITY LIGHTS OF KOWLOON: MONG KOK, SAI YEUNG CHOI STREET SOUTH, AT THE CORNER WITH NELSON STREET. (2011) 12
A STATUE OF BRUCE LEE ON THE AVENUE OF STARS, A TRIBUTE TO THE CITY'S MARTIAL ARTS Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where "East meets West", reflecting the culture's mix of the territory's Chinese roots with influences from its time as a British colony.[17] Concepts like feng shui are taken very seriously, with expensive construction projects often hiring expert consultants, and are often believed to make or break a business.[212] Other objects like Ba gua mirrors are still regularly used to deflect evil spirits,[213] and buildings often lack any floor number that has a 4 in it,[214] due to its similarity to the word for "die" in Cantonese.[215] The fusion of east and west also characterises Hong Kong's cuisine, where dim sum, hot pot, and fast food restaurants coexist with haute cuisine.[216] Hong Kong is a recognised global centre of trade, and calls itself an "entertainment hub".[217] Its martial arts film genre gained a high level of popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s. Several Hollywood performers, notable actors and martial artists have originated from Hong Kong cinema, notably Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, Chow Yun-fat, Michelle Yeoh, Maggie Cheung and Jet Li. A number of Hong Kong film-makers have achieved widespread fame in Hollywood, such as John Woo, Wong Kar-wai, and Stephen Chow.[217]Homegrown films such as Chungking Express, Infernal Affairs, Shaolin Soccer,Rumble in the Bronx, In the Mood for Love and Echoes of the Rainbow have gained international recognition. Hong Kong is the centre for Cantopopmusic, which draws its influence from other forms of Chinese music and Western genres, and has a multinational fanbase.[218] The Hong Kong government supports cultural institutions such as the Hong Kong Heritage Museum, the Hong Kong Museum of Art, the Hong Kong 13
Academy for Performing Arts, and the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra. The government's Leisure and Cultural Services Department subsidises and sponsors international performers brought to Hong Kong. Many international cultural activities are organised by the government, consulates, and privately.[219][220] Hong Kong has two licensed terrestrial broadcasters – ATV and TVB. There are three local and a number of foreign suppliers of cable and satellite services.[221] The production of Hong Kong's soap dramas, comedy series, and variety shows reach audiences throughout the Chinese-speaking world. Magazine and newspaper publishers in Hong Kong distribute and print in both Chinese and English, with a focus on sensationalism and celebrity gossip.[222] The media in Hong Kong is relatively free from official interference compared to Mainland China, although the Far Eastern Economic Reviewpoints to signs of self-censorship by media whose owners have close ties to or business interests in the People's Republic of China and states that even Western media outlets are not immune to growing Chinese economic power.[223] Hong Kong offers wide recreational and competitive sport opportunities despite its limited land area. It sends delegates to international competitions such as the Olympic Games and Asian Games, and played host to the equestrian events during the 2008 Summer Olympics.[224] There are major multipurpose venues like Hong Kong Coliseumand MacPherson Stadium. Hong Kong's steep terrain and extensive trail network with expansive views attracts hikers, and its rugged coastline provides many beaches for swimming.[225]
CLIMATE SEASONS HONG KONG HAS A SUB-TROPICAL CLIMATE WITH DISTINCT SEASONS. THE ONLY PREDICTABLE WEATHER EVENTS THAT 14
COULD HAVE A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON YOUR TRAVEL PLANS ARE TYPHOONS. TYPHOON SEASON BEGINS IN MAY AND ENDS IN NOVEMBER. WHEN
A
TYPHOON
IS
APPROACHING,
WARNINGS
ARE
BROADCAST ON TELEVISION AND RADIO. THERE ARE VARIOUS DEGREES OF WARNING SIGNALS ISSUED BY THE HONG KONG OBSERVATORY, BUT WHEN THE NO. 8 SIGNAL IS IN PLACE, MOST BUSINESSES AND SHOPS CLOSE DOWN AND FLIGHTS MAY BE CANCELLED. THERE IS A SEPARATE WARNING SYSTEM FOR HEAVY RAIN. YOU CAN FIND DETAILED INFORMATION ABOUT CURRENT AND
SEASONAL
WEATHER
ON
THE HONG
KONG
OBSERVATORY WEBSITE. WHILE YOU’RE IN HONG KONG, YOU CAN ALSO DIAL 1878 200 AND PRESS '3' FOR ENGLISH TO CHECK THE LATEST SITUATION. WHAT TO EXPECT FROM HONG KONG’S SEASONS SPRING
(MARCH
TEMPERATURE
AND
TO
MAY)
HUMIDITY
ARE RISING. EVENINGS CAN BE COOL. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE: 17OC – 26 OC
15
SUMMER
(JUNE
TO
AUGUST)
HOT, HUMID AND SUNNY, WITH OCCASIONAL
SHOWERS
THUNDERSTORMS.
AND THE
TEMPERATURE CAN EXCEED 31°C BUT HIGH HUMIDITY LEVELS CAN MAKE IT FEEL EVEN HOTTER. AVERAGE TEMPERATURE: 26OC – 31 OC AUTUMN
(SEPTEMBER
TO
NOVEMBER) THERE ARE PLEASANT BREEZES, PLENTY
OF
SUNSHINE
COMFORTABLE
AND
TEMPERATURES.
MANY PEOPLE REGARD THESE AS THE BEST MONTHS OF THE YEAR TO
VISIT
HONG
KONG.
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE: 19OC – 28 OC WINTER
(DECEMBER
TO
FEBRUARY) COOL, DRY AND CLOUDY, WITH
16
OCCASIONAL COLD FRONTS. THE TEMPERATURE CAN DROP BELOW 10°C
IN
URBAN
AREAS.
AVERAGE TEMPERATURE: 12OC – 20 OC
.RECYCLING
IN
HONG KONG: A LOT OF ROOM FOR IMPROVEMENT
PREVIOUS ATTEMPTS BY THE GOVERNMENT AT CRAFTING RECYCLING POLICY AND DEVELOPING A RECYCLING CULTURE HAVE
NOT
GAINED
MUCH
TRACTION.
FROM
THE
GOVERNMENT ENACTMENT OF THE $.50 PLASTIC BAG TARIFF, TO THE INSTALLATION OF RECYCLING BINS THROUGHOUT PUBLIC
AREAS
IN
HONG
KONG,
THE
HONG
KONG 17
GOVERNMENT HAS BEEN PROACTIVE IN ENCOURAGING RECYCLING. THEY HAVE EVEN SET AN AGGRESSIVE RECYCLING RATE
GOAL
OF
55%
BY
2015.
YET THE FACTS BEHIND RECYCLING IN HONG KONG REMAIN DIRE. RESIDENTIAL RECYCLING RATES ARE AT A PALTRY 14%, WITH GLASS RECYCLING ALMOST NON-EXISTANT AT RATES OF 1-3%. EVEN AFTER SURPASSING PARTICIPATION GOALS IN THEIR
BUILDING
AND
ESTATE
FOCUSED
RECYCLING
PROGRAMS, JUST OVER 1800 RESIDENTIAL AND GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS ACROSS THE CITY HAVE JOINED THE PROGRAM SINCE 2005. ALMOST ONE IN FOUR PEOPLE IN THE CITY HAVE NO RECYCLING OPTIONS FROM HOME AT ALL. IN ADDITION, THE ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION DEPARTMENT (EPD) HAS PREDICTED THAT BY 2017-2018 HONG KONG WILL HAVE EXHAUSTED ALL LANDFILL SPACE. FOR THESE REASONS, WE DEVELOPED A WAY TO MANAGE AND RECYCLE WASTE IN A SUSTAINABLE, EFFICIENT, AND MORE CONVENIENT WAY.
WE HOPE WE'RE NOT ALONE IN OUR PASSION FOR A GREENER HK, AND A GREENER WORLD. WE ARE LOOKING FOR PEOPLE PASSIONATE
ABOUT
ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES.
WHILE
RECYCLING IS INHERENTLY ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY, WE 18
ARE FOCUSED ON FOSTERING A RECYCLING CULTURE AND DEVELOPING THE ENVIRONMENTAL DIALOGUE IN HONG KONG. WE HOPE TO ACCOMPLISH THIS BY EDUCATING THE PUBLIC ON HOW TO RECYCLE AND REDUCE WASTE, AS WELL AS RUNNING WORKSHOPS TO EDUCATE PEOPLE ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT AND HOW TO LIVE A ‚GREENER‛ LIFESTYLE.
IN ADDITION TO COMMITTING OURSELVES TO HELPING HONG KONG’S PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, WE AIM TO SERVE HONG KONG’S
SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT
BY
EMPLOYING
AND
EMPOWERING UNDER-SERVED, MARGINALIZED PEOPLE IN HONG KONG. BY SIMPLIFYING THE RECYCLING PROCESS, HK RECYCLES WILL HIRE MARGINALIZED PEOPLE WITH LITTLE OR NO JOB EXPERIENCE AS COLLECTORS, TRAINING THEM TO RUN A LARGE PART OF OUR DAILY OPERATIONS AND EARN +20% ABOVE MARKET WAGES. AS A LABOR-DEPENDENT SERVICE BUSINESS, AS WE GROW, AS WILL THE JOB OPPORTUNITIES; THAT IS, THE MORE PEOPLE WE GET TO RECYCLE, THE MORE PEOPLE
WE
CAN
EMPLOY.
FINALLY, IN OUR MISSION TO GIVE BACK TO THE COMMUNITY IN MULTIPLE WAYS, WE ALSO INTEND TO DONATE A PERCENTAGE OF REVENUES FROM RECYCLABLES TO CHARITIES 19
AND COMMUNITY GROUPS IN THE REGION. THIS WILL HOPEFULLY ENCOURAGE PEOPLE TO RECYCLE EVEN MORE AND GIVE THEM YET ANOTHER REASON TO PARTICIPATE. IT ALSO EMPHASIZES OUR BELIEF THAT BUSINESSES BE SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE.
HK RECYCLES TRULY BELIEVES IN THE PHRASE, ‚ONE MAN’S JUNK, IS ANOTHER MAN’S TREASURE.‛ BY TAKING CUSTOMERS’ ‚JUNK,‛ WE LOOK TO CREATE A SUSTAINABLE RECYCLING SYSTEM SO THAT DOMESTIC WASTE CAN BE REUSED AND REPURPOSED, WHILE REJUVENATING MARGINALIZED PEOPLE WITH
SUSTAINABLE
OPPORTUNITIES.
HK RECYCLES: REUSE. REJUVENATE. RECYCLE.
20
SINGAPORE
1. Lacation 2. Languages 3. Government 4. Economy 5. Politics 6. Demographics 7. Religion 8. Climate 9. Recycling
21
LOCATION
OUTLINE OF SINGAPORE AND THE SURROUNDING ISLANDS & WATERWAYS SINGAPORE CONSISTS OF 63 ISLANDS, INCLUDING THE MAIN ISLAND, WIDELY KNOWN AS SINGAPORE ISLAND BUT ALSO AS PULAU UJONG. THERE ARE TWO MAN-MADE CONNECTIONS TO JOHOR, MALAYSIA: THE JOHOR–SINGAPORE CAUSEWAY IN THE NORTH, AND THE TUAS SECOND LINK IN THE WEST. JURONG ISLAND, PULAU TEKONG, PULAU UBIN AND SENTOSA ARE THE LARGEST OF SINGAPORE'S SMALLER ISLANDS. THE HIGHEST NATURAL POINT IS BUKIT TIMAH HILL AT 166 M (545 FT). THERE ARE ONGOING LAND RECLAMATION PROJECTS, WHICH HAVE INCREASED SINGAPORE'S LAND AREA FROM 581.5 KM2 (224.5 SQ MI) IN THE 1960S TO 704 KM2 (272 SQ MI) TODAY; IT MAY GROW BY ANOTHER 100 KM2 (40 SQ MI) BY 2030. SOME PROJECTS INVOLVE MERGING SMALLER ISLANDS THROUGH LAND RECLAMATION TO FORM LARGER, MORE FUNCTIONAL ISLANDS, AS WITH JURONG ISLAND. 5% OF SINGAPORE'S LAND 22
IS SET ASIDE AS NATURE RESERVES. URBANISATION HAS ELIMINATED MOST PRIMARY RAINFOREST ON THE MAIN ISLAND, BUKIT TIMAH NATURE RESERVE BEING THE ONLY SIGNIFICANT REMAINING FOREST THERE ARE ONLY ABOUT 250 ACRES (101 HA) OF FARMLAND REMAINING IN SINGAPORE.
LANGUAGES MAIN ARTICLE: LANGUAGES OF SINGAPORE NATIVE LANGUAGES (MOTHER TONGUES) OF SINGAPOREANS LANGUAGE PERCENT CHINESE 49.9% ENGLISH 32.3% MALAY 12.2% TAMIL 3.3% SINGAPORE HAS FOUR OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: ENGLISH, MALAY, MANDARIN, AND TAMIL. ENGLISH IS THE COMMON LANGUAGE OF THE NATION AND IS THE LANGUAGE OF BUSINESS, GOVERNMENT, AND THE MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS. PUBLIC BODIES IN SINGAPORE CONDUCT THEIR BUSINESSES IN ENGLISH, AND OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS WRITTEN IN A NON-ENGLISH OFFICIAL LANGUAGE SUCH AS CHINESE, MALAY OR TAMIL TYPICALLY HAVE TO BE TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH TO BE ACCEPTED FOR SUBMISSION. THE CONSTITUTION OF SINGAPORE AND ALL LAWS ARE WRITTEN IN ENGLISH, AND TRANSLATORS ARE REQUIRED IF ONE WISHES TO ADDRESS THE SINGAPOREAN COURTS IN A LANGUAGE OTHER THAN ENGLISH. HOWEVER, ENGLISH IS THE NATIVE TONGUE FOR ONLY ONE-THIRD OF ALL SINGAPOREANS, WITH 23
ROUGHLY A THIRD OF ALL SINGAPOREAN CHINESE, A QUARTER OF ALL SINGAPOREAN MALAYS AND HALF OF ALL SINGAPOREAN INDIANS SPEAKING IT AS THEIR NATIVE TONGUE. TWENTY PERCENT OF SINGAPOREANS CANNOT READ OR WRITE IN ENGLISH. MANY, BUT NOT ALL, SINGAPOREANS ARE BILINGUAL IN ENGLISH AND ANOTHER OFFICIAL LANGUAGE, WITH VASTLY VARYING DEGREES OF FLUENCY. THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES RANKED IN TERMS OF LITERACY AMONGST SINGAPOREANS ARE ENGLISH (80% LITERACY), MANDARIN CHINESE (65% LITERACY), MALAY (17% LITERACY), AND TAMIL (4% LITERACY). SINGAPOREAN ENGLISH IS BASED ON BRITISH ENGLISH, AND FORMS OF ENGLISH SPOKEN RANGE FROM STANDARD ENGLISH TO A PIDGIN KNOWN AS "SINGLISH". SINGLISH IS HEAVILY DISCOURAGED BY THE GOVERNMENT. CHINESE IS THE LANGUAGE THAT IS SPOKEN AS THE NATIVE TONGUE BY THE GREATEST NUMBER OF SINGAPOREANS, HALF OF THEM SINGAPOREAN MANDARIN IS THE MOST COMMON VERSION OF CHINESE IN THE COUNTRY,] WITH 1.2 MILLION USING IT AS THEIR HOME LANGUAGE. NEARLY HALF A MILLION SPEAK OTHER CHINESE DIALECTS, MAINLY HOKKIEN, TEOCHEW, AND CANTONESE, AS THEIR HOME LANGUAGE, ALTHOUGH THE USE OF THESE IS DECLINING IN FAVOUR OF MANDARIN AND ENGLISH. MALAY WAS CHOSEN AS THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE BY THE SINGAPOREAN GOVERNMENT AFTER INDEPENDENCE FROM BRITAIN IN THE 1960S TO AVOID FRICTION WITH SINGAPORE'S NEIGHBOURS — MALAYSIA AND INDONESIA — WHICH ARE MALAY-SPEAKING IT HAS A SYMBOLIC RATHER THAN FUNCTIONAL PURPOSE. IT IS USED IN THE NATIONAL ANTHEM "MAJULAH SINGAPURA", IN CITATIONS OF SINGAPOREAN 24
ORDERS AND DECORATIONS, AND IN MILITARY COMMANDS. TODAY, IN GENERAL, MALAY IS SPOKEN WITHIN THE SINGAPOREAN MALAY COMMUNITY, WITH ONLY 16.8% OF ALL SINGAPOREANS LITERATE IN MALAY AND ONLY 12% USING IT AS THEIR NATIVE LANGUAGE. AROUND 100,000, OR 3%, OF SINGAPOREANS SPEAK TAMIL AS THEIR NATIVE LANGUAGE. TAMIL HAS OFFICIAL STATUS IN SINGAPORE AND THERE HAVE BEEN NO ATTEMPTS TO DISCOURAGE THE USE OF OTHER INDIAN LANGUAGES.
GOVERNMENT
SINGAPORE'S PARLIAMENT HOUSE. SINGAPORE IS A PARLIAMENTARY REPUBLIC WITH A WESTMINSTER SYSTEM OF UNICAMERAL PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT REPRESENTING CONSTITUENCIES. ITS CONSTITUTION ESTABLISHES REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY AS ITS POLITICAL SYSTEM. FREEDOM HOUSE RANKS SINGAPORE AS "PARTLY FREE" IN ITS FREEDOM IN THE WORLD REPORT, AND THE ECONOMIST RANKS SINGAPORE AS A "HYBRID REGIME", THE THIRD RANK OUT OF FOUR, IN ITS "DEMOCRACY INDEX". 25
SINGAPORE IS CONSISTENTLY RATED ONE OF THE LEAST CORRUPT COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD BY TRANSPARENCY INTERNATIONAL.
ECONOMY MAIN ARTICLE: ECONOMY OF SINGAPORE PRE-INDEPENDENCE ECONOMY BEFORE INDEPENDENCE IN 1965, SINGAPORE WAS THE CAPITAL OF THE BRITISH STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, A CROWN COLONY. IT WAS ALSO THE MAIN BRITISH NAVAL BASE IN EAST ASIA. BECAUSE OF ITS STATUS AS THE MAIN BRITISH NAVAL BASE IN THE REGION, AS WELL AS HOSTING THE LARGEST DRY DOCK IN THE WORLD AT THAT TIME IN THE FORM OF THE SINGAPORE NAVAL BASE, IT WAS DESCRIBED IN THE PRESS AS THE 'GIBRALTAR OF THE EAST'. THE OPENING OF THE SUEZ CANAL IN 1869 CAUSED GLOBAL TRADE TO BOOM, AND SINGAPORE BECAME A MAJOR WORLD TRADE NODE, AND THE PORT OF SINGAPORE BECAME ONE OF THE LARGEST AND BUSIEST PORTS IN THE WORLD. BEFORE INDEPENDENCE IN 1965, SINGAPORE HAD A GDP PER CAPITA OF $511, THEN THE THIRD-HIGHEST IN EAST ASIA. AFTER INDEPENDENCE, FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND A STATE-LED DRIVE FOR INDUSTRIALISATION BASED ON PLANS BY GOH KENG SWEE AND ALBERT WINSEMIUS CREATED A MODERN ECONOMY. MODERN-DAY ECONOMY
26
THE PORT OF SINGAPORE, ONE OF THE WORLD'S FIVE BUSIEST, WITH THE SKYLINE OF SINGAPORE IN THE BACKGROUND. TODAY, SINGAPORE HAS A HIGHLY DEVELOPED MARKETBASED ECONOMY, BASED HISTORICALLY ON EXTENDED ENTREPÔT TRADE. ALONG WITH HONG KONG, SOUTH KOREA AND TAIWAN, SINGAPORE IS ONE OF THE ORIGINAL FOUR ASIAN TIGERS. THE SINGAPOREAN ECONOMY IS KNOWN AS ONE OF THE FREEST, MOST INNOVATIVE, MOST COMPETITIVE, AND MOST BUSINESS-FRIENDLY. THE 2011 INDEX OF ECONOMIC FREEDOM RANKS SINGAPORE AS THE SECOND FREEST ECONOMY IN THE WORLD, BEHIND HONG KONG. ACCORDING TO THE CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX, SINGAPORE IS CONSISTENTLY RANKED AS ONE OF THE LEAST CORRUPT COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD, ALONG WITH NEW ZEALAND AND THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. SINGAPORE IS THE 14TH LARGEST EXPORTER AND THE 15TH LARGEST IMPORTER IN THE WORLD. THE COUNTRY HAS THE HIGHEST TRADE-TO-GDP RATIO IN THE WORLD AT 407.9 PERCENT, SIGNIFYING THE IMPORTANCE OF TRADE TO ITS ECONOMY. THE COUNTRY IS CURRENTLY THE ONLY ASIAN COUNTRY TO HAVE AAA CREDIT RATINGS FROM ALL THREE MAJOR CREDIT RATING AGENCIES; STANDARD & POOR'S, MOODY'S, AND FITCH. SINGAPORE ATTRACTS A LARGE AMOUNT OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AS A RESULT OF ITS LOCATION, CORRUPTION-FREE ENVIRONMENT, SKILLED 27
WORKFORCE, LOW TAX RATES AND ADVANCED INFRASTRUCTURE. THERE ARE MORE THAN 7,000 MULTINATIONAL CORPORATIONS FROM THE UNITED STATES, JAPAN, AND EUROPE IN SINGAPORE. THERE ARE ALSO 1,500 COMPANIES FROM CHINA AND 1,500 FROM INDIA. FOREIGN FIRMS ARE FOUND IN ALMOST ALL SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY. SINGAPORE IS ALSO THE SECOND LARGEST FOREIGN INVESTOR IN INDIA. ROUGHLY 44 PERCENT OF THE SINGAPOREAN WORKFORCE IS MADE UP OF NON-SINGAPOREANS. OVER TEN FREE TRADE AGREEMENTS HAVE BEEN SIGNED WITH OTHER COUNTRIES AND REGIONS. SINGAPORE ALSO POSSESSES THE WORLD'S ELEVENTH LARGEST FOREIGN RESERVES, AND IS RATED TOP IN TERMS OF NET INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT POSITION PER CAPITA. THE CURRENCY OF SINGAPORE IS THE SINGAPORE DOLLAR, ISSUED BY THE MONETARY AUTHORITY OF SINGAPORE. IT IS INTERCHANGEABLE WITH THE BRUNEI DOLLAR. IN RECENT YEARS, THE COUNTRY HAS BEEN IDENTIFIED AS AN INCREASINGLY POPULAR TAX HAVEN FOR THE WEALTHY DUE TO THE LOW TAX RATE ON PERSONAL INCOME, A FULL TAX EXEMPTION ON INCOME THAT IS GENERATED OUTSIDE OF SINGAPORE AND LEGISLATION THAT MEANS THAT CAPITAL GAINS ARE ALSO TAX EXEMPT. AUSTRALIAN MILLIONAIRE RETAILER BRETT BLUNDY, WITH AN ESTIMATED PERSONAL WEALTH WORTH AU$835 MILLION, AND MULTI-BILLIONAIRE FACEBOOK CO-FOUNDER EDUARDO SAVERIN ARE TWO EXAMPLES OF WEALTHY INDIVIDUALS WHO HAVE SETTLED IN SINGAPORE (BLUNDY IN 2013 AND SAVERIN IN 2012).[75] SINGAPORE RANKED FIFTH PLACE ON THE TAX JUSTICE NETWORK'S 2013 FINANCIAL SECRECY INDEX OF THE WORLD'S TOP TAX HAVENS, SCORING NARROWLY AHEAD OF THE UNITED STATES. 28
Politics Executive power rests with the Cabinet of Singapore, led by the Prime Minister, and the President. The president is elected through popular vote, and has some veto powers for a few key decisions such as the use of the national reserves and the appointment of judges, but otherwise occupies a ceremonial post. The Parliament serves as the legislative branch of government. Members of Parliament (MPs) consist of elected, non-constituency and nominated members. Elected MPs are voted into parliament on a "first-past-the-post" (plurality) basis and represent either single-member or group-representation constituencies. The People's Action Party has won control of Parliament with large majorities in every election since self-governance was secured in 1959. However, in the most recent parliamentary elections in 2011, the opposition, led by the Workers' Party, made significant gains and increased its representation in the House to 6 elected MPs. The legal system of Singapore is based on English common law, albeit with substantial local differences. Trial by jury was entirely abolished in 1970 leaving judicial assessment performed wholly by judgeship. Singapore has penalties that include judicial corporal punishment in the form of caning for rape, rioting, vandalism, and some immigration offences. There is a mandatory death penalty for murder, and for certain drug-trafficking and firearms offences. Amnesty International has said that some legal provisions conflict with the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty, and that Singapore has "possibly the highest execution rate in the world relative to its population". The government has disputed Amnesty's claims. In a 2008
29
survey, international business executives believed Singapore, along with Hong Kong, had the best judicial system in Asia. In 2011, the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index ranked Singapore in the top countries surveyed for "Order and Security", "Absence of Corruption", and "Effective Criminal Justice". However, it scored low for both "Freedom of Speech" and "Freedom of Assembly". All public gatherings of five or more people require police permits, and protests may legally be held only at Speakers' Corner.
DEMOGRAPHICS
HIGH-RISE HDB FLATS AND CONDOMINIUMS OVERLOOKING BISHAN PARK AS OF 2012, THE POPULATION OF SINGAPORE IS 5.312 MILLION PEOPLE, OF WHOM 3.285 MILLION (62%) ARE CITIZENS WHILE THE REST (38%) ARE PERMANENT RESIDENTS OR FOREIGN WORKERS/STUDENTS. TWENTY-THREE PERCENT OF SINGAPOREAN CITIZENS WERE BORN OUTSIDE SINGAPORE (I.E. FOREIGN BORN CITIZENS). THERE ARE HALF A MILLION PERMANENT RESIDENTS IN SINGAPORE IN 2012. THE RESIDENT POPULATION DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE 11 MILLION TRANSIENT VISITORS WHO VISIT SINGAPORE ANNUALLY. 30
THE MEDIAN AGE OF SINGAPOREANS IS 37 YEARS OLD AND THE AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD SIZE IS 3.5 PERSONS. DUE TO SCARCITY OF LAND, FOUR OUT OF FIVE SINGAPOREANS LIVE IN SUBSIDISED, HIGH-RISE, PUBLIC HOUSING APARTMENTS KNOWN AS HOUSING AND DEVELOPMENT BOARD (HDB) FLATS, AFTER THE BOARD RESPONSIBLE FOR PUBLIC HOUSING IN THE COUNTRY. LIVE-IN DOMESTIC HELPERS ARE QUITE COMMON IN SINGAPORE AND THERE ARE NEARLY 200,000 DOMESTIC HELPERS THERE. IN 2010, THREE QUARTERS OF SINGAPOREAN RESIDENTS LIVE IN PROPERTIES THAT ARE EQUAL TO OR LARGER THAN A FOURROOM HDB FLAT OR IN PRIVATE HOUSING. HOME OWNERSHIP RATE IS AT 87.2%. MOBILE PHONE PENETRATION RATE IS EXTREMELY HIGH AT 1,400 MOBILE PHONE SUBSCRIBERS PER 1000 PEOPLE. AROUND 1 IN 10 RESIDENTS OWNS A CAR. THE TOTAL FERTILITY RATE IS ESTIMATED TO BE .79 CHILDREN PER WOMAN IN 2013, THE LOWEST IN THE WORLD AND WELL BELOW THE 2.1 NEEDED TO REPLACE THE POPULATION. TO OVERCOME THIS PROBLEM, THE SINGAPORE GOVERNMENT HAS BEEN ENCOURAGING FOREIGNERS TO IMMIGRATE TO SINGAPORE FOR THE PAST FEW DECADES. THE LARGE NUMBER OF IMMIGRANTS HAS KEPT SINGAPORE'S POPULATION FROM DECLINING. SINGAPORE TRADITIONALLY HAS ONE OF THE LOWEST UNEMPLOYMENT RATES AMONG DEVELOPED COUNTRIES. THE SINGAPOREAN UNEMPLOYMENT RATE HAS NOT EXCEEDED 4% IN THE PAST DECADE, HITTING A HIGH OF 3% DURING THE 2009 GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS AND FALLING TO 1.9% IN 2011. AS OF 2009, ABOUT 40% OF SINGAPORE'S RESIDENTS WERE FOREIGNERS, ONE OF THE HIGHEST PERCENTAGE IN THE WORLD. THE GOVERNMENT IS CONSIDERING CAPPING THESE 31
WORKERS, ALTHOUGH IT HAS BEEN RECOGNISED THAT THEY ARE CRUCIAL TO THE COUNTRY'S ECONOMY, AS FOREIGN WORKERS MAKE UP 80% OF THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY AND UP TO 50% OF THE SERVICE INDUSTRY. IN 2009, THE GOVERNMENT CENSUS REPORTS THAT 74.2% OF RESIDENTS WERE OF CHINESE, 13.4% OF MALAY, AND 9.2% OF INDIAN DESCENT, WHILE EURASIANS AND OTHER GROUPS FORM 3.2%. PRIOR TO 2010, EACH PERSON COULD REGISTER AS A MEMBER OF ONLY ONE RACE, BY DEFAULT THAT OF HIS OR HER FATHER, THEREFORE, MIXED-RACE PERSONS WERE SOLELY GROUPED UNDER THEIR FATHER'S RACE IN GOVERNMENT CENSUSES. FROM 2010 ONWARD, PEOPLE MAY REGISTER USING A "DOUBLE-BARRELLED" CLASSIFICATION, IN WHICH THEY MAY CHOOSE ONE PRIMARY RACE AND ONE SECONDARY RACE, BUT NO MORE THAN TWO .
RELIGION MAIN ARTICLE: RELIGION IN SINGAPORE RELIGION IN SINGAPORE (PEW RESEARCH) RELIGION BUDDHIST NONE MUSLIM PROTESTANT OTHER (MOSTLY TAOIST) CATHOLIC HINDU
PERCENT 34% 16% 14% 11% 10% 7% 5% 32
FOLK
3%
BUDDHISM IS THE MOST WIDELY PRACTISED RELIGION IN SINGAPORE, WITH 33% OF THE RESIDENT POPULATION DECLARING THEMSELVES ADHERENTS AT THE MOST RECENT CENSUS. THE NEXT-MOST PRACTISED RELIGION IS CHRISTIANITY, FOLLOWED BY ISLAM, TAOISM, AND HINDUISM. 17% OF THE POPULATION DID NOT HAVE A RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION. THE PROPORTION OF CHRISTIANS, TAOISTS, AND NON-RELIGIOUS PEOPLE INCREASED BETWEEN 2000 AND 2010 BY ABOUT 3% EACH, WHILST THE PROPORTION OF BUDDHISTS DECREASED. OTHER FAITHS REMAINED LARGELY STABLE IN THEIR SHARE OF THE POPULATION. THERE ARE MONASTERIES AND DHARMA CENTRES FROM ALL THREE MAJOR TRADITIONS OF BUDDHISM IN SINGAPORE: THERAVADA, MAHAYANA, AND VAJRAYANA. MOST BUDDHISTS IN SINGAPORE ARE CHINESE AND ARE OF THE MAHAYANA TRADITION. CHINESE MAHAYANA IS THE MOST PREDOMINANT FORM OF BUDDHISM IN SINGAPORE, WITH MISSIONARIES COMING INTO THE COUNTRY FROM TAIWAN AND CHINA FOR SEVERAL DECADES. HOWEVER, THAILAND'S THERAVADA BUDDHISM HAS SEEN GROWING POPULARITY AMONG THE PEOPLE (NOT ONLY THE CHINESE) IN THE PAST DECADE. SOKA GAKKAI INTERNATIONAL, A JAPANESE BUDDHIST ORGANISATION, IS PRACTISED BY MANY PEOPLE IN SINGAPORE, BUT MOSTLY BY THOSE OF CHINESE DESCENT. TIBETAN BUDDHISM HAS ALSO MADE SLOW INROADS INTO THE COUNTRY IN RECENT YEARS.
33
INCORPORATION OF NATURE WITHIN A CITY
OVER THE CENTURIES THE ROLES OF RIVERS AS PART OF THE CITY HAS ALTERED MANY TIMES FROM THE ORIGINAL USE FOR THE IRRIGATING CROPS IN NEARBY FIELDS, AS WELL AS BEING AN ESSENTIAL RESOURCE IN ESTABLISHING A PERMANENT SETTLEMENT. HOWEVER WHEN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION TOOK PLACE IN THE 19TH CENTURY THE ROLE OF THE RIVERS IN CITIES ALTERED AND IT BECAME A FAR MORE VALUABLE RESOURCE AS IT ALLOWED NOT ONLY FOR THE TRANSPORTATION OF GOODS FROM TOWN TO TOWN BUT ALSO BECAME THE BASIS FOR THE EXPANSION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE TRADING PROWESS OF THE CITY. THIS TRANSPORTATION OF GOODS WAS DONE THROUGH THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CANAL NETWORK SPREADING ACROSS THE COUNTRY WHICH TAMED THE RIVERS SUFFICIENTLY AND SO THEREFORE ALLOWED FOR THE MOVEMENT OF GOODS SUCH AS COAL TO MOVE FROM PLACE TO PLACE. FURTHERMORE AFTER THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE RAILWAY NETWORK WHICH NOW TOOK OVER MOST OF THE MOVEMENT OF GOODS THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY, THIS LEFT THE RIVERS AND CANALS OF BRITAIN WITHOUT A ROLE IN BRITAIN’S TRANSPORT NETWORK. THIS ALLOWED AREAS OF THE CANAL AND RIVER NETWORKS TO BECOME POLLUTED THROUGH CHEMICAL WASTE AND PUBLIC MISUSE, WHICH CAUSED DIFFICULTIES FOR THE ANIMALS FOR WHICH THE RIVER AND ITS SURROUNDING WETLANDS AND MARSHES WERE THEIR NATURAL HABITATS. YET SINCE THE 1950S THERE HAS BEEN A DRAMATIC INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF RIVERSIDE DEVELOPMENTS WHICH HAVE NOT ONLY BROUGHT INCREASED MONEY INTO THE AREA BUT HAVE ALSO REDEVELOPED AND ENHANCED THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 34
AND INCREASED THE AESTHETIC QUALITIES OF THESE AREAS ON THE WHOLE. CLIMATE SINGAPORE HAS A TROPICAL RAINFOREST CLIMATE (KÖPPEN: AF ) WITH NO DISTINCTIVE SEASONS, UNIFORM TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE, HIGH HUMIDITY, AND ABUNDANT RAINFALL. TEMPERATURES USUALLY RANGE FROM 22 TO 35 °C (72 TO 95 °F). RELATIVE HUMIDITY AVERAGES AROUND 79% IN THE MORNING AND 73% IN THE AFTERNOON. APRIL AND MAY ARE THE HOTTEST MONTHS, WITH THE WETTER MONSOON SEASON FROM NOVEMBER TO JANUARY. FROM JULY TO OCTOBER, THERE IS OFTEN HAZE CAUSED BY BUSH FIRES IN NEIGHBOURING INDONESIA. ALTHOUGH SINGAPORE DOES NOT OBSERVE DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME, IT FOLLOWS TIME ZONE GMT+8, ONE HOUR AHEAD OF ITS GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION.
[HIDE]CLIMATE DATA FOR SINGAPORE M O N T H R E C O R D H
J A N
F E B
M A R
A P R
M A Y
J U N
J U L
A U G
S E P
O C T
N O V
D E C
Y E A R
3 4 . 3
3 5 . 2
3 6 . 0
3 5 . 8
3 5 . 4
3 5 . 0
3 4 . 0
3 4 . 2
3 4 . 3
3 4 . 6
3 4 . 2
3 3 . 8
3 6 . 0
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9
( 9 35
I G H °C (° F) A V E R A G E H I G H °C (° F) A V E R A G E L O W °C (° F)
3 . 7 )
5 . 4 )
6 . 8 )
6 . 4 )
5 . 7 )
5 )
3 . 2 )
3 . 6 )
3 . 7 )
3 0 . 1
3 1 . 2
3 1 . 6
3 1 . 7
3 1 . 6
3 1 . 3
3 0 . 9
3 0 . 9
3 0 . 9
( 8 6 . 2 )
( 8 8 . 2 )
( 8 8 . 9 )
( 8 9 . 1 )
( 8 8 . 9 )
( 8 8 . 3 )
( 8 7 . 6 )
( 8 7 . 6 )
( 8 7 . 6 )
2 3 . 3
2 3 . 6
2 4 . 4
2 4 . 8
2 4 . 8
2 4 . 6
2 4 . 5
( 7 3 . 9 )
( 7 4 . 5 )
( 7 5 . 9 )
( 7 6 . 6 )
( 7 6 . 6 )
( 7 6 . 3 )
( 7 6 . 1 )
2 3 . 9 ( 7 5 )
4 . 3 )
3 1 . 1
3 . 6 )
3 0 . 6
2 . 8 )
3 0 . 0
6 . 8 )
3 1 . 0
( 8 8 )
( 8 7 . 1 )
( 8 6 )
( 8 7 . 8 )
2 4 . 2
2 4 . 1
2 3 . 7
2 3 . 5
2 4 . 1
( 7 5 . 6 )
( 7 5 . 4 )
( 7 4 . 7 )
( 7 4 . 3 )
( 7 5 . 4 )
36
R E C O R D L O W 째C (째 F) R AI N F A L L M M (I N C H E S) A V G. R AI
1 9 . 4
1 9 . 7
2 0 . 2
2 0 . 7
2 1 . 2
2 0 . 8
1 9 . 7
2 0 . 2
2 0 . 7
2 0 . 6
( 6 6 . 9 )
( 6 7 . 5 )
( 6 8 . 4 )
( 6 9 . 3 )
( 7 0 . 2 )
( 6 9 . 4 )
( 6 7 . 5 )
( 6 8 . 4 )
( 6 9 . 3 )
( 6 9 . 1 )
2 0 . 6
1 9 . 4
( 6 9 . 1 )
( 6 6 . 9 )
2 5 6 . 9
2 8 7 . 4
2 , 3 4 2 . 5
( 1 1 . 3 1 5 )
1 9
2 1 . 1 ( 7 0 )
2 4 3 . 2
1 5 9 . 9
1 8 5 . 7
1 7 8 . 9
1 7 1 . 3
1 6 2 . 1
1 5 8 . 7
1 7 5 . 4
1 6 9 . 2
( 9 . 5 7 5 )
( 6 . 2 9 5 )
( 7 . 3 1 1 )
( 7 . 0 4 3 )
( 6 . 7 4 4 )
( 6 . 3 8 2 )
( 6 . 2 4 8 )
( 6 . 9 0 6 )
( 6 . 6 6 1 )
( 7 . 6 3 )
( 1 0 . 1 1 4 )
1 5
1 1
1 4
1 5
1 5
1 3
1 3
1 4
1 4
1 6
1 9
1 9 3 . 8
( 9 2 . 2 2 4 ) 1 7 8
37
N Y D A Y S % H U M I D IT Y M E A N M O N T H L Y S U N S H I N E
8 4 . 7
1 7 3 . 6
8 2 . 8
1 8 3 . 6
8 3 . 8
1 9 2 . 2
8 4 . 8
1 7 4 . 0
8 4 . 4
1 7 9 . 8
8 3 . 0
1 7 7 . 0
8 2 . 8
1 8 9 . 1
8 3 . 0
1 7 9 . 8
8 3 . 4
1 5 6 . 0
8 4 . 1
1 5 5 . 0
8 6 . 4
1 2 9 . 0
8 6 . 9
8 4 . 2
1 3 3 . 3
2 , 0 2 2 . 4
38
H O U R S P E R C E N T P O S SI B L E S U N S H I N E
4 7
5 4
5 2
4 8
4 8
4 9
5 1
4 8
4 3
4 2
3 6
4 6 . 2
3 6
SOURCE #1: NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY (TEMP 1929-1941 AND 1948-2011, RAINFALL 1869-2011, HUMIDITY 1929-1941 AND 1948-2011, RAIN DAYS 1891-2011) SOURCE #2: HONG KONG OBSERVATORY (SUN ONLY, 1982—2008)
39
SINGAPORE PARKS AND GARDENS SINGAPORE HAS OVER 42 PARKS AND GARDENS IN AND AROUND THE CITY SUCH AS THE WOODLANDS PARK AND BUKIT TIMAH NATURE RESERVE. THE WOODLANDS PARK IS DESIGNED IN TRADITIONAL MALAY/CHINESE THEMES. THERE IS A RIVER THAT RUNS THROUGH THE PARK AND UNDER THE COUNCIL PROJECT; PART OF THE RIVER WAS ENLARGED TO FORM A LAKE. THERE ARE A NUMBER OF ATTRACTIONS INCLUDING A PLAYGROUND AND AN AMPHITHEATRE. THE BUKIT TIMAH NATURE RESERVE IS 12 KM FROM CITY CENTRE WITH AN AREA OF 1.64 SQUARE KILOMETRES. IT CONTAINS PRIMARY RAINFOREST. THERE ARE MORE SPECIES OF TREE IN THIS NATURE RESERVE THAN THERE ARE IN THE WHOLE OF NORTH AMERICA. THERE ARE ALSO OTHER NATURE RESERVES, LIKE THE SUNGEI BULOH NATURE RESERVE WHICH CONTAINS MANGROVE FORESTS, SWAMPS, PONDS AND PRAWN FARMS. THE PARKS, GARDENS AND NATURE RESERVES COVER MANY ASPECTS OF NATURE AND ARE ALL FOUND IN ONE CITY. ORGANISATIONS, PROJECTS, AND PLANS SINGAPORE HAS MANY ENVIRONMENTAL WATCHDOGS (KNOWN AS PECKHAMS) AND COMMITTEES THAT LOOK AFTER THE ENVIRONMENT WITHIN SINGAPORE. THE NATURE SOCIETY SINGAPORE IS A CONSERVATION COMMITTEE THAT PROMOTES PUBLIC AWARENESS OF CONSERVATION AND CONDUCTS BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS TO PROVIDE DATA FOR THE NATURE SOCIETY TO HELP WITH PLANS AND PROJECTS. SINGAPORE ALSO HAS A NATIONAL PARKS BOARD TREE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM THAT ENCOURAGES A SENSE OF OWNERSHIP OF TREES IN PEOPLES CARE. ROADSIDE TREES ARE CAREFULLY SELECTED FOR THEIR SUITABILITY FOR THE 40
ROADSIDE. DURABILITY AND STABILITY ARE KEY FOR THIS. VEGETATION IS PRUNED TO MAKE IT LOOK PRESENTABLE. TREE INSPECTIONS ARE CARRIED OUT THAT LOG THE HEALTH OF TREES IN A DATABASE SO THERE IS A COMPLETE HISTORY OF TREES IN SINGAPORE THAT HAVE HAD TREATMENT AND WHEN. SINGAPORE ALSO HAS A GREEN PLAN 2012. THIS WAS DRAWN UP IN 2002 AND IS A 10-YEAR PLAN TO CREATE A SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS. AWARDS ARE GIVEN TO ORGANISATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS THAT HAVE MADE OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND CARE. TRAINING IS GIVEN TO THE LARGE WORKFORCE THAT CARES FOR THE EXISTING GARDENS AND FOR THOSE SPEARHEADING NEW PROJECTS.
Taking recycling lessons from super Singapore
LAND-SCARCE SINGAPORE’S RECYCLING RATE IS ENVIABLE BUT TO INCREASE TO OVER 60% BY 2012, WITHOUT A LANDFILL TAX, WILL REQUIRE MORE INNOVATION. FOLLOWING THE WORLD CITIES SUMMIT, JEFF COOPER - VICE PRESIDENT OF ISWA - TOOK THE OPPORTUNITY TO INVESTIGATE THE COUNTRY’S AMBITIOUS RECYCLING AND WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANS, AND TO ATTEND THE OPENING OF ITS LATEST WTE FACILITY.
41
SINGAPORE HAS A POPULATION OF 4.8 MILLION, A HIGH POPULATION DENSITY OF 6500 PEOPLE PER KM2 AND VERY LIMITED NATURAL RESOURCES. IT THEREFORE HAS A HUGE INCENTIVE TO ENSURE THAT IT ADDRESSES SUSTAINABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT. WHEN THE SINGAPORE GREEN PLAN 2012 WAS ADOPTED IN 2006, THE COUNTRY WANTED TO FOLLOW THE PRINCIPLES OF THE WASTE HIERARCHY IN ORDER TO ENSURE THAT SINGAPORE’S NON-RECOVERABLE WASTE WAS REDUCED TO AN ABSOLUTE MINIMUM, EXPLAINS VANEETA BHOJWANI, DEPUTY DIRECTOR FOR THE INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT AND PROMOTION OFFICE OF THE NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY (NEA) OF SINGAPORE. HOWEVER, SHE GOES ONTO EXAPLAIN, THE MAIN TARGET WAS TO REACH A 60% RECYCLING RATE FOR THE ISLAND’S WASTE BY 2012. SINGAPORE HAS PRIORITISED WASTE MINIMISATION TO REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF WASTE GENERATED, ESPECIALLY FROM THE HOUSEHOLD SECTOR, ALTHOUGH THE SCOPE FOR DOING SO IS QUITE LIMITED IN COMPARISON WITH EU COUNTRIES. THE FIRST PRIORITY WAS TO REACH A VOLUNTARY AGREEMENT WITH THE FOOD AND BEVERAGE 42
AND PACKAGING INDUSTRIES TO REDUCE THE AMOUNT OF PACKAGING GENERATED.
RECYCLING
THE NATIONAL RECYCLING PROGRAMME IS A VOLUNTARY RECYCLING PROGRAMME FOR HOUSEHOLDS AND TRADE PREMISES. RECYCLING BAGS AND BINS ARE PROVIDED FOR THE STORAGE OF RECYCLABLES WHICH ARE COLLECTED FORTNIGHTLY. IN THIS WAY, MOST OF THE POPULATION HAS THE OPPORTUNITY TO PARTICIPATE AND 63% OF THE HOUSEHOLDS DO, ALTHOUGH HOUSEHOLD WASTE RECOVERY RATES ARE ONLY 13%. IN 2001 SINGAPORE DECIDED TO CHANGE THE PREVIOUS SYSTEM WHEREBY THE STATE, THROUGH THE NEA UNDERTOOK THE COLLECTION OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE (AND ITS DISPOSAL) BY CONTRACTING OUT THE OPERATION. BIDS WERE SOUGHT FOR NINE AREAS WITHIN SINGAPORE FOR DAILY HOUSEHOLD WASTE COLLECTIONS AND A FORTNIGHTLY COLLECTION OF DRY RECYCLABLE WASTES. FOUR OF THE CONTRACTS ARE HELD BY A LOCAL COMPANY, FORMED FROM THE RUMP OF THE OLD STATE WASTE COLLECTION ENTERPRISE, THREE WERE HELD BY SULO, NOW TAKEN OVER BY VEOLIA, AND THE OTHER TWO BY LOCAL COMPANIES.
43
MR TEO CHEE HEAN, DEPUTY PRIME MINISTER OF SINGAPORE IS AMONG THE GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS GETTING AN OVERVIEW OF THE KEPPEL SEGHERS TUAS WTE PLANT THE PROBLEM WITH FORTNIGHTLY COLLECTIONS OF RECYCLABLE WASTES FROM SINGAPORE’S PREDOMINANTLY HIGH RISE HOUSING IS THE TIME AND EFFORT NEEDED TO COLLECT THE WASTES. THEREFORE IN SEVERAL CASES THIS OPERATION IS SUB-CONTRACTED OUT. EITHER THE SUBCONTRACTOR IS PAID FOR THE TONNAGE OF RECYCLABLE WASTES COLLECTED AND SUPPLIES THE BAGS OR THE SUBCONTRACTOR IS PAID A FEE FOR SERVICING THE HOUSEHOLDS AND THE BAGS ARE SUPPLIED TO THE SUBCONTRACTOR. FOR INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL WASTES THERE ARE A VARIETY OF RECYCLING INITIATIVES THAT HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED BY LOCAL COMPANIES, INCLUDING THE COMPOSTING OF HORTICULTURAL WASTES. WOOD WASTES ARE SHREDDED TO MAKE PARTICLE BOARD ACHIEVING A 37%
44
RECYCLING RATE, HOWEVER, PLASTICS ONLY ACHIEVE A 12% RATE. CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION (C&D) WASTE COMPRISES MAINLY NON-INCINERABLE MATERIALS. THE NEA CHARGES S$77 (US$57) PER TONNE FOR WASTE DISPOSED AND THIS PROVIDES AN INCENTIVE FOR C&D COMPANIES TO CUT COSTS BY REDUCING WASTE THROUGH BETTER WORK PROCESSES SUCH AS THE SEGREGATION OF WASTE FOR RECYCLING. THE NEA HAS ALSO FACILITATED THE SETTING UP OF C&D WASTE RECYCLING FACILITIES BY ENSURING THAT LAND IS AVAILABLE TO SET UP RECYCLING PLANTS, AND PROVIDING FUNDING SUPPORT FOR TEST-BEDDING NEW TECHNOLOGIES UNDER THE INNOVATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY FUND. THE RECYCLING RATE EXCEEDS 90% AND EVEN ‘SLAG’, SHOT BLASTING MATERIALS USED IN THE SHIPPING MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR SECTOR, IS BEING REUTILISED. IN 2006 THE OVERALL SINGAPORE RECYCLING RATE WAS 51%, THIS ROSE TO 54% IN 2007 AND 56% BY 2008 ACCORDING TO THE NEA’S ANNUAL REPORT FOR 2008/09. SINGAPORE HOPES TO INCREASE THIS FURTHER, PARTLY THROUGH THE RECOVERY OF THE 1500 TONNES PER DAY (TPD) OF IBA (INCINERATOR BOTTOM ASH). A PILOT PLANT FOR IBA PROCESSING HAS BEEN BUILT, PARTLY AIDED BY A RESEARCH GRANT FROM THE GOVERNMENT, TO EVALUATE THE BEST OPTIONS. DURING 2008 THE MOVE TOWARDS GREATER REPROCESSING AND RE-UTILISATION OF C&D WASTES WAS GIVEN A CONSIDERABLE BOOST WHEN INDONESIA DECIDED THAT IT WOULD NO LONGER SEND AGGREGATES TO SINGAPORE.
45
RAISING THE RECYCLING RATE BEYOND ITS GREEN PLAN TARGET OF 60% BY 2012 WILL BE DIFFICULT BECAUSE UNLIKE MANY EU COUNTRIES AND AUSTRALIAN STATES, IN SINGAPORE THERE IS NO LANDFILL TAX.
WASTE RECOVERY WHILE STATE INTERVENTION IS LIMITED IT IS HELPING TO PUSH MORE WASTE UP THE HIERARCHY. THEREFORE ANY WASTE THAT IS COMBUSTIBLE HAS TO GO INTO ONE OF THE ISLAND’S INCINERATION PLANTS, ALL OF WHICH WERE UNTIL RECENTLY OWNED AND MANAGED BY THE STATE, AND THE COST IS S$77 ($57) PER TONNE. OF THE 7000 TPD PRESENTED FOR INCINERATION, 57% COMES FROM HOUSEHOLDS AND ONLY 43% FROM COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. SINGAPORE’S FIFTH INCINERATOR WAS OFFICIALLY OPENED IN JUNE 2010. IT WAS SIGNIFICANT IN TWO WAYS: IT IS THE FIRST INCINERATION PLANT TO BE BUILT AND OPERATED BY THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN SINGAPORE AND THE FIRST TO BE SMALLER THAN EACH OF ITS PREDECESSORS. INDEED, IT IS SMALLEST MSW INCINERATION PLANT EVER BUILT IN SINGAPORE. UNDER SINGAPORE’S POLICY TO ENCOURAGE GREATER PRIVATE SECTOR INVESTMENT AN INTERNATIONAL TENDER FOR A DESIGN, BUILD AND OPERATE CONTRACT FOR A NEW WTE FACILITY WAS ANNOUNCED IN 2005 UNDER THE NEA’S PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (PPP) INITIATIVE. A LOCAL COMPANY, KEPPEL SEGHERS WON THE 25-YEAR CONTRACT FOR THE 800 TONNES PER DAY INCINERATION PLANT. THE PLANT CAN GENERATE UP TO 20 MW OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TO GO INTO THE NATIONAL GRID. 46
THE NEW TUAS INCINERATION PLANT DUE TO SINGAPORE’S SUCCESS IN RECYCLING MORE WASTES AND ITS FIRST EFFORTS AT WASTE PREVENTION, THE FIRST OF SINGAPORE’S WASTE INCINERATION PLANTS HAS NOW BEEN REPLACED. THE NEWLY OPENED PLANT’S DESIGN CAPACITY IS EVEN LOWER THAN SINGAPORE’S FIRST PLANT AT 800 TPD THROUGH THE NEA’S DESIGN, BUILD AND OPERATE CONTRACT. THE NEW KEPPEL SEGHERS’ TUAS PLANT BECAME FULLY OPERATIONAL IN OCTOBER 2009 AFTER ITS SUCCESSFUL COMMISSIONING TRIALS. THE REASON FOR SINGAPORE CHOOSING INCINERATION AS ITS PRIMARY METHOD OF WASTE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL IN THE 1970S WAS EMPHASISED BY THE DEPUTY PRIME MINISTER, MR TEO CHEE HEAN IN HIS SPEECH WHEN OPENING THE NEW PLANT: ‚WITH JUST 700 KM2 AND A HIGH POPULATION DENSITY SINGAPORE NEEDED TO FIND AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE LAND-INTENSIVE METHOD OF LANDFILLING WASTE‛. THIS ASPECT OF SAVING LAND RESOURCES IN SINGAPORE WAS FURTHER EMPHASISED BY MR MICHAEL CHIA, THE DEPUTY CHAIRMAN AND CEO OF KIE (KEPPEL INTEGRATED ENGINEERING, WITHIN WHICH KEPPEL SEGHERS FORMS ITS ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ARM), IN HIS SPEECH AT THE OFFICIAL OPENING. THE PLANT OCCUPIES ONLY 1.6 HA OF LAND TO ‚SUPPORT NEA’S AIM OF BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE QUALITY ENVIRONMENT IN LAND-SCARCE SINGAPORE BY INCORPORATING MANY SPACE SAVING AND TECHNOLOGICALLY ADVANCED FEATURES‛. ONE OF THE DESIGN FEATURES OF THE PLANT IS THE COMBUSTION GRATE CONFIGURATION WHICH ALLOWS EFFECTIVE MIXING OF THE WASTE FOR EFFICIENT COMBUSTION THROUGH A MIX OF TILES (SLATS) WITHIN THE GRATE, SOME 47
OF WHICH ARE FIXED AND OTHERS CAPABLE OF MOVING THE WASTE IN EITHER ONE OR TWO DIMENSIONS. ACCORDING TO PROF JIM SWITHENBANK FROM THE WASTE INCINERATION CENTRE BASED AT SHEFFIELD UNIVERSITY, PURELY FROM VISUAL INSPECTION, THE BURN OUT OF THE WASTE WAS GOOD WITH ASH CONTENT PROBABLY HAVING A VERY LOW CARBON CONTENT. ONCE THE WASTE HAS BEEN REDUCED TO 10% OF ITS ORIGINAL VOLUME, THE IBA IS TRANSPORTED TO SINGAPORE’S ONLY LANDFILL, SEMAKAU. THIS TRANSFER IS THROUGH THE TUAS MARINE TRANSFER STATION WHICH IS INTEGRATED INTO THE NEIGHBOURING SOUTH TUAS INCINERATOR.
THE DEPUTY PRIME MINISTER TAKES A LOOK INTO THE FURNACE OF SINGAPORE’S NEWEST INCINERATION PLANT THE SEMAKAU LANDFILL SITE WAS CONSTRUCTED IN THE 1990S AS A LAND RECLAMATION PROJECT WITH A 7 KM BUND ENCLOSING TWO SMALL ISLANDS PRODUCING A 350 HA SITE WITH 63 MILLION M3 CAPACITY. FULLY LINED AND CAREFULLY ENGINEERED IT WAS INITIALLY EXPECTED TO LAST SINGAPORE 48
FOR 20-25 YEARS BEFORE A FURTHER LANDFILL FACILITY NEEDED TO BE DEVELOPED. WITH THE REDUCTION OF WASTE BEING SENT FOR LANDFILL, THE SEMAKAU SITE IS NOW EXPECTED TO LAST 35-50 YEARS. THIS TIMELINE OUGHT TO BECOME POTENTIALLY SUBSTANTIALLY LONGER IF THE IBA IS RECOVERED AND UTILISED AS A SECONDARY AGGREGATE. WITH REGARD TO THE ULTIMATE DISPOSAL ROUTES, EXCLUDING THE WASTES SENT FOR RECYCLING, A MERE 180,000 TONNES WENT DIRECTLY TO LANDFILL IN 2008 WHILE 2.45 MILLION TONNES WENT THROUGH THE FOUR INCINERATION PLANTS. OUTPUTS FROM THE FIRST FOUR INCINERATION PLANTS INCLUDE 1048 GWH OF ELECTRICITY GENERATED IN 2008. THE AMOUNT IS EXPECTED TO INCREASE SLIGHTLY EACH YEAR DUE TO OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCIES WITHIN THE INCINERATION PLANTS. OVERALL, SINGAPORE HAS AN ENVIABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM - CERTAINLY COMPARABLE TO THE BEST THAT THE EU CAN DEMONSTRATE. HOWEVER, AT PRESENT IT STANDS AS AN ISOLATED BEACON IN A REGION WHERE THE STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT ARE STILL TO BE ESTABLISHED, LET ALONE IMPLEMENTED. EVEN WITHIN SINGAPORE, HOWEVER, THERE ARE MANY OPPORTUNITIES TO ENHANCE ITS PROGRESS TO ACHIEVE THE AMBITIOUS OBJECTIVES INCORPORATED INTO THE SINGAPORE GREEN PLAN 2012. - JEFF COOPER IS VICE PRESIDENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOLID WASTE ASSOCIATION (ISWA). E-MAIL: JEFFCOOPER.101@BTINTERNET.COM 49
AUSTRALIA
1. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE 2. currency of Australia 3. Government 4. Culture 5. Environment 6. RECYCLING
50
Australia is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east. For at least 40,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages grouped into roughly 250 language groups.[17][18] After the discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established. On 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Since Federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. The federation comprises six states and several territories. The population of 23.1 millionis highly urbanised and heavily concentrated in the eastern states. Australia is a developed country and one of the wealthiest in the world, with the world's 12th-largest economy. In 2012 Australia had the world's fifth-highest per capita income, Australia's military expenditure is the world's 13th-largest. With the second-highest human development index globally, Australia ranks highly in many international comparisons of national performance, such as quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political rights. Australia is a member of the United Nations, G20, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Trade Organization, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and the Pacific Islands Forum.
51
Geography and climate AUSTRALIA'S LANDMASS OF 7,617,930 SQUARE KILOMETRES (2,941,300 SQ MI) IS ON THE INDO-AUSTRALIAN PLATE. SURROUNDED BY THE INDIAN AND PACIFIC OCEANS, IT IS SEPARATED FROM ASIA BY THE ARAFURA AND TIMOR SEAS, WITH THE CORAL SEA LYING OFF THE QUEENSLAND COAST, AND THE TASMAN SEA LYING BETWEEN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. THE WORLD'S SMALLEST CONTINENT AND SIXTH LARGEST COUNTRY BY TOTAL AREA, AUSTRALIA—OWING TO ITS SIZE AND ISOLATION—IS OFTEN DUBBED THE "ISLAND CONTINENT", AND IS SOMETIMES CONSIDERED THE WORLD'S LARGEST ISLAND.[140] AUSTRALIA HAS 34,218 KILOMETRES (21,262 MI) OF COASTLINE (EXCLUDING ALL OFFSHORE ISLANDS), AND CLAIMS AN EXTENSIVE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE OF 8,148,250 SQUARE KILOMETRES (3,146,060 SQ MI). THIS EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE DOES NOT INCLUDE THE AUSTRALIAN ANTARCTIC TERRITORY. EXCLUDING MACQUARIE ISLAND, AUSTRALIA LIES BETWEEN LATITUDES 9° AND 44°S, AND LONGITUDES 112° AND 154°E. THE GREAT BARRIER REEF, THE WORLD'S LARGEST CORAL REEF, LIES A SHORT DISTANCE OFF THE NORTH-EAST COAST AND EXTENDS FOR OVER 2,000 KILOMETRES (1,240 MI). MOUNT AUGUSTUS, CLAIMED TO BE THE WORLD'S LARGEST MONOLITH,[144] IS LOCATED IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. AT 2,228 METRES (7,310 FT), MOUNT KOSCIUSZKO ON THE GREAT DIVIDING RANGE IS THE HIGHEST MOUNTAIN ON THE AUSTRALIAN MAINLAND. EVEN TALLER ARE MAWSON PEAK (AT 2,745 METRES OR 9,006 FEET), ON THE REMOTE AUSTRALIAN TERRITORY OF HEARD ISLAND, AND, IN THE AUSTRALIAN ANTARCTIC TERRITORY, MOUNT MCCLINTOCK AND MOUNT MENZIES, AT 3,492 METRES (11,457 FT) AND 3,355 METRES (11,007 FT) RESPECTIVELY.
52
EVERLASTINGS ON MOUNT HOTHAM, LOCATED IN VICTORIA AUSTRALIA'S SIZE GIVES IT A WIDE VARIETY OF LANDSCAPES, WITH SUBTROPICAL RAINFORESTS IN THE NORTH-EAST, MOUNTAIN RANGES IN THE SOUTH-EAST, SOUTH-WEST AND EAST, AND DRY DESERT IN THE CENTRE. IT IS THE FLATTEST CONTINENT, WITH THE OLDEST AND LEAST FERTILE SOILS; DESERT OR SEMI-ARID LAND COMMONLY KNOWN AS THE OUTBACK MAKES UP BY FAR THE LARGEST PORTION OF LAND. THE DRIEST INHABITED CONTINENT, ONLY ITS SOUTH-EAST AND SOUTH-WEST CORNERS HAVE A TEMPERATE CLIMATE. THE POPULATION DENSITY, 2.8 INHABITANTS PER SQUARE KILOMETRE, IS AMONG THE LOWEST IN THE WORLD, ALTHOUGH A LARGE PROPORTION OF THE POPULATION LIVES ALONG THE TEMPERATE SOUTH-EASTERN COASTLINE. EASTERN AUSTRALIA IS MARKED BY THE GREAT DIVIDING RANGE, WHICH RUNS PARALLEL TO THE COAST OF QUEENSLAND, NEW SOUTH WALES AND MUCH OF VICTORIA. THE NAME IS NOT STRICTLY ACCURATE, BECAUSE PARTS OF THE RANGE CONSIST OF LOW HILLS, AND THE HIGHLANDS ARE TYPICALLY NO MORE THAN 1,600 METRES (5,249 FT) IN HEIGHT. THE COASTAL UPLANDS AND A BELT OF BRIGALOW GRASSLANDS LIE BETWEEN THE COAST AND THE MOUNTAINS, WHILE INLAND OF THE DIVIDING RANGE ARE LARGE AREAS OF GRASSLAND. THESE INCLUDE THE WESTERN PLAINS OF NEW SOUTH WALES, AND THE EINASLEIGH UPLANDS, BARKLY TABLELAND, AND MULGA LANDS OF INLAND QUEENSLAND. THE NORTHERNMOST POINT OF THE EAST COAST IS THE TROPICAL-RAINFORESTED CAPE YORK PENINSULA. 53
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF AUSTRALIA THE LANDSCAPES OF THE NORTHERN PART OF THE COUNTRY— THE TOP END AND THE GULF COUNTRY BEHIND THE GULF OF CARPENTARIA, WITH THEIR TROPICAL CLIMATE—CONSIST OF WOODLAND, GRASSLAND, AND DESERT. AT THE NORTH-WEST CORNER OF THE CONTINENT ARE THE SANDSTONE CLIFFS AND GORGES OF THE KIMBERLEY, AND BELOW THAT THE PILBARA. TO THE SOUTH OF THESE AND INLAND, LIE MORE AREAS OF GRASSLAND: THE ORD VICTORIA PLAIN AND THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MULGA SHRUBLANDS. AT THE HEART OF THE COUNTRY ARE THE UPLANDS OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA; PROMINENT FEATURES OF THE CENTRE AND SOUTH INCLUDE THE INLAND SIMPSON, TIRARI AND STURT STONY, GIBSON, GREAT SANDY, TANAMI, AND GREAT VICTORIA DESERTS, WITH THE FAMOUS NULLARBOR PLAIN ON THE SOUTHERN COAST. THE CLIMATE OF AUSTRALIA IS SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCED BY OCEAN CURRENTS, INCLUDING THE INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE AND THE EL NIÑO–SOUTHERN OSCILLATION, WHICH IS CORRELATED WITH PERIODIC DROUGHT, AND THE SEASONAL TROPICAL LOWPRESSURE SYSTEM THAT PRODUCES CYCLONES IN NORTHERN AUSTRALIA. THESE FACTORS CAUSE RAINFALL TO VARY MARKEDLY FROM YEAR TO YEAR. MUCH OF THE NORTHERN PART OF THE COUNTRY HAS A TROPICAL, PREDOMINANTLY SUMMERRAINFALL (MONSOON) CLIMATE. THE SOUTHWEST CORNER OF THE COUNTRY HAS A MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE. MUCH OF THE SOUTHEAST (INCLUDING TASMANIA) IS TEMPERATE. 54
CURRENCY OF AUSTRALIA The Australian dollar is the currency of the Commonwealth of Australia, including Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru and Tuvalu. Within Australia it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign ($), with A$ sometimes used to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies. It is subdivided into 100 cents. As of 2011, the Australian dollar is the 5th most traded currency in the world, accounting for 7.6% of the world's daily share. It trades in the world foreign exchange markets behind the US dollar, the euro, the yen and the pound sterling. The Australian dollar is popular with currency traders, because of the comparatively high interest rates in Australia, the relative freedom of the foreign exchange market from government intervention, the general stability of Australia's economy and political system, and the prevailing view that the Australian dollar offers diversification benefits in a portfolio containing the major world currencies, especially because of its greater exposure to Asian economies and the commodities cycle. The currency is commonly referred to by foreignexchange traders as the "Aussie".
THE WORLD.
LANGUAGE MAIN ARTICLE: LANGUAGES OF AUSTRALIA Although Australia has no official language, English has always been entrenched as the de facto national language. Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon, and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling. General Australian serves as the standard dialect. According to the 2011 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for 55
close to 81% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin (1.7%), Italian (1.5%), Arabic (1.4%), Cantonese (1.3%), Greek (1.3%), and Vietnamese (1.2%); a considerable proportion of first- and secondgeneration migrants are bilingual. A 2010–2011 study by the Australia Early Development Index found the most common language spoken by children after English was Arabic, followed by Vietnamese, Greek, Chinese, and Hindi. Between 200 and 300 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact, of which only about 70 have survived. Many of these are exclusively spoken by older people; only 18 Indigenous languages are still spoken by all age groups. At the time of the 2006 census, 52,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 12% of the Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home. Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of about 5,500 deaf people.
Government AUSTRALIA IS A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY WITH A FEDERAL DIVISION OF POWERS. IT USES A PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT WITH QUEEN ELIZABETH II AT ITS APEX AS THE QUEEN OF AUSTRALIA, A ROLE THAT IS DISTINCT FROM HER POSITION AS MONARCH OF THE OTHER COMMONWEALTH REALMS. THE QUEEN RESIDES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, AND SHE IS REPRESENTED BY HER VICEROYS IN AUSTRALIA (THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL AND BY THE GOVERNORS AT THE STATE LEVEL), WHO BY CONVENTION ACT ON THE ADVICE OF HER MINISTERS. SUPREME EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY IS VESTED BY THE CONSTITUTION OF AUSTRALIA IN THE SOVEREIGN, BUT THE POWER TO EXERCISE IT IS CONFERRED BY THE CONSTITUTION SPECIFICALLY ON THE GOVERNORGENERAL. THE MOST NOTABLE EXERCISE TO DATE OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S RESERVE POWERS OUTSIDE THE PRIME MINISTER'S REQUEST WAS THE DISMISSAL OF THE WHITLAM GOVERNMENT IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL CRISIS OF 1975. 56
THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IS SEPARATED INTO THREE BRANCHES:
THE LEGISLATURE: THE BICAMERAL PARLIAMENT, DEFINED IN SECTION 1 OF THE CONSTITUTION AS COMPRISING THE QUEEN (REPRESENTED BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL), THE SENATE, AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES; THE EXECUTIVE: THE FEDERAL EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, IN PRACTICE THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL AS ADVISED BY THE PRIME MINISTER AND MINISTERS OF STATE; THE JUDICIARY: THE HIGH COURT OF AUSTRALIA AND OTHER FEDERAL COURTS, WHOSE JUDGES ARE APPOINTED BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL ON ADVICE OF THE COUNCIL.
GOVERNMENT HOUSE, CANBERRA, ALSO KNOWN AS "YARRALUMLA", IS THE OFFICIAL RESIDENCE OF THE GOVERNORGENERAL. IN THE SENATE (THE UPPER HOUSE), THERE ARE 76 SENATORS: TWELVE EACH FROM THE STATES AND TWO EACH FROM THE MAINLAND TERRITORIES (THE AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY). THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (THE LOWER HOUSE) HAS 150 MEMBERS ELECTED FROM SINGLE-MEMBER ELECTORAL DIVISIONS, 57
COMMONLY KNOWN AS "ELECTORATES" OR "SEATS", ALLOCATED TO STATES ON THE BASIS OF POPULATION, WITH EACH ORIGINAL STATE GUARANTEED A MINIMUM OF FIVE SEATS. ELECTIONS FOR BOTH CHAMBERS ARE NORMALLY HELD EVERY THREE YEARS, SIMULTANEOUSLY; SENATORS HAVE OVERLAPPING SIX-YEAR TERMS EXCEPT FOR THOSE FROM THE TERRITORIES, WHOSE TERMS ARE NOT FIXED BUT ARE TIED TO THE ELECTORAL CYCLE FOR THE LOWER HOUSE; THUS ONLY 40 OF THE 76 PLACES IN THE SENATE ARE PUT TO EACH ELECTION UNLESS THE CYCLE IS INTERRUPTED BY A DOUBLE DISSOLUTION. AUSTRALIA'S ELECTORAL SYSTEM USES PREFERENTIAL VOTING FOR ALL LOWER HOUSE ELECTIONS WITH THE EXCEPTION OF TASMANIA AND THE ACT WHICH, ALONG WITH THE SENATE AND MOST STATE UPPER HOUSES, COMBINE IT WITH PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION IN A SYSTEM KNOWN AS THE SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE. VOTING IS COMPULSORY FOR ALL ENROLLED CITIZENS 18 YEARS AND OVER IN EVERY JURISDICTION, AS IS ENROLMENT (WITH THE EXCEPTION OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA). THE PARTY WITH MAJORITY SUPPORT IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES FORMS THE GOVERNMENT AND ITS LEADER BECOMES PRIME MINISTER. IN CASES WHERE NO PARTY HAS MAJORITY SUPPORT, THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL HAS THE POWER TO APPOINT THE PRIME MINISTER AND, IF NECESSARY, DISMISS ONE THAT HAS LOST THE CONFIDENCE OF PARLIAMENT. THERE ARE TWO MAJOR POLITICAL GROUPS THAT USUALLY FORM GOVERNMENT, FEDERALLY AND IN THE STATES: THE AUSTRALIAN LABOR PARTY AND THE COALITION WHICH IS A FORMAL GROUPING OF THE LIBERAL PARTY AND ITS MINOR PARTNER, THE NATIONAL PARTY. INDEPENDENT MEMBERS AND SEVERAL MINOR PARTIES HAVE ACHIEVED REPRESENTATION IN AUSTRALIAN PARLIAMENTS, MOSTLY IN UPPER HOUSES. WITHIN AUSTRALIAN POLITICAL CULTURE, THE COALITION IS CONSIDERED CENTRE-RIGHT AND THE LABOR PARTY IS CONSIDERED CENTRE-LEFT. QUEENSLAND IN PARTICULAR, ALONG WITH WESTERN AUSTRALIA AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY, ARE REGARDED AS COMPARATIVELY CONSERVATIVE. VICTORIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, TASMANIA, AND 58
THE AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY ARE REGARDED AS COMPARATIVELY SOCIALLY LIBERAL. NEW SOUTH WALES HAS OFTEN BEEN REGARDED AS A POLITICALLY MODERATE BELLWETHER STATE. FOLLOWING A PARTYROOM LEADERSHIP CHALLENGE, JULIA GILLARD BECAME THE FIRST FEMALE PRIME MINISTER IN JUNE 2010. THE MOST RECENT FEDERAL ELECTION WAS HELD ON 7 SEPTEMBER 2013 AND RESULTED IN A MAJORITY GOVERNMENT FOR THE COALITION WITH LIBERAL PARTY OF AUSTRALIA LEADER TONY ABBOTT AS PRIME MINISTER-ELECT. HE WAS SWORN INTO OFFICE BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF AUSTRALIA ON 18 SEPTEMBER.
RELIGION AUSTRALIA HAS NO STATE RELIGION; SECTION 116 OF THE AUSTRALIAN CONSTITUTION PROHIBITS THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FROM MAKING ANY LAW TO ESTABLISH ANY RELIGION, IMPOSE ANY RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCE, OR PROHIBIT THE FREE EXERCISE OF ANY RELIGION. IN THE 2011 CENSUS, 61.1% OF AUSTRALIANS WERE COUNTED AS CHRISTIAN, INCLUDING 25.3% AS ROMAN CATHOLIC AND 17.1% AS ANGLICAN; 22.3% OF THE POPULATION REPORTED HAVING "NO RELIGION" (WHICH INCLUDES HUMANISM, ATHEISM, AGNOSTICISM AND RATIONALISM); 7.2% IDENTIFY WITH NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS, THE LARGEST OF THESE BEING BUDDHISM (2.5%), FOLLOWED BY ISLAM (2.2%), HINDUISM (1.3%) AND JUDAISM (0.5%). THE REMAINING 9.4% OF THE POPULATION DID NOT PROVIDE AN ANSWER.
59
ST MARY'S CATHOLIC CATHEDRAL, SYDNEY, BUILT TO A DESIGN BY WILLIAM WARDELL. ABOUT A QUARTER OF AUSTRALIANS ARE ROMAN CATHOLIC. PRIOR TO EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT IN AUSTRALIA, THE ANIMIST BELIEFS OF AUSTRALIA'S INDIGENOUS PEOPLE HAD BEEN PRACTISED FOR MILLENNIA. IN THE CASE OF MAINLAND ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIANS, THEIR SPIRITUALITY IS KNOWN AS THE DREAMTIME AND IT PLACES A HEAVY EMPHASIS ON BELONGING TO THE LAND. THE COLLECTION OF STORIES THAT IT CONTAINS SHAPED ABORIGINAL LAW AND CUSTOMS. ABORIGINAL ART, STORY AND DANCE CONTINUE TO DRAW ON THESE SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS. IN THE CASE OF THE TORRES STRAIT ISLANDERS WHO INHABIT THE ISLANDS BETWEEN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA, SPIRITUALITY AND CUSTOMS REFLECTED THEIR MELANESIAN ORIGINS AND DEPENDENCE ON THE SEA. THE 1996 AUSTRALIAN CENSUS COUNTED MORE THAN 7000 RESPONDENTS AS FOLLOWERS OF A TRADITIONAL ABORIGINAL RELIGION. SINCE THE ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST FLEET OF BRITISH SHIPS IN 1788, CHRISTIANITY HAS GROWN TO BE THE MAJOR RELIGION. CONSEQUENTLY, THE CHRISTIAN FESTIVALS OF CHRISTMAS AND EASTER ARE PUBLIC HOLIDAYS, THE SKYLINES OF AUSTRALIAN CITIES AND TOWNS ARE MARKED BY CHURCH AND CATHEDRAL SPIRES, AND THE CHRISTIAN CHURCHES HAVE PLAYED AN INTEGRAL ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, HEALTH 60
AND WELFARE SERVICES IN AUSTRALIA. THE CATHOLIC EDUCATION SYSTEM OPERATES AS THE LARGEST NONGOVERNMENT EDUCATOR, ACCOUNTING FOR ABOUT 21% OF ALL SECONDARY ENROLMENTS AS OF 2010, WITH CATHOLIC HEALTH AUSTRALIA SIMILARLY BEING THE LARGEST NON-GOVERNMENT PROVIDER. CHRISTIAN WELFARE ORGANISATIONS ALSO PLAY A PROMINENT ROLE IN NATIONAL LIFE, WITH ORGANISATIONS SUCH AS THE SALVATION ARMY, ST VINCENT DE PAUL SOCIETY AND ANGLICARE HAVING WIDESPREAD SUPPORT. SUCH CONTRIBUTIONS ARE RECOGNISED ON AUSTRALIA'S CURRENCY, WITH THE PRESENCE OF CHRISTIAN MINISTERS SUCH AS ABORIGINAL WRITER DAVID UNAIPON ($50); FOUNDER OF THE ROYAL FLYING DOCTOR SERVICE, JOHN FLYNN ($20); AND CATHERINE HELEN SPENCE ($5) WHO WAS AUSTRALIA'S FIRST FEMALE CANDIDATE FOR POLITICAL OFFICE. OTHER SIGNIFICANT AUSTRALIAN RELIGIOUS FIGURES HAVE INCLUDED MARY MACKILLOP, WHO IN 2010 BECAME THE FIRST AUSTRALIAN TO BE RECOGNISED AS A SAINT BY THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH AND CHURCH OF CHRIST PASTOR SIR DOUGLAS NICHOLLS WHO, LIKE MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. IN THE UNITED STATES, LED A MOVEMENT AGAINST RACIAL INEQUALITY IN AUSTRALIA AND WAS ALSO THE FIRST INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIAN TO BE APPOINTED AS A STATE GOVERNOR. FOR MUCH OF AUSTRALIAN HISTORY THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND (NOW KNOWN AS THE ANGLICAN CHURCH OF AUSTRALIA) WAS THE LARGEST RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION, HOWEVER MULTICULTURAL IMMIGRATION HAS CONTRIBUTED TO A DECLINE IN ITS RELATIVE POSITION, WITH THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH BENEFITING FROM THE OPENING OF POST-WAR AUSTRALIA TO MULTICULTURAL IMMIGRATION AND BECOMING THE LARGEST GROUP. SIMILARLY, ISLAM, BUDDHISM, HINDUISM AND JUDAISM HAVE ALL BEEN EXPANDING IN THE POST WAR DECADES.[264] TO A LESSER EXTENT, SMALLER AFFILIATIONS INCLUDING THE BAHÁ'Í FAITH, SIKHISM, WICCA AND PAGANISM HAVE ALSO SEEN A SIGNIFICANT INCREASE IN NUMBERS. IN THE 2001 CENSUS THERE WERE, 17,381 SIKHS, 11,037 BAHÁ'ÍS, 10,632 PAGANS AND 8,755 WICCANS IN AUSTRALIA.
61
AN INTERNATIONAL SURVEY, MADE BY THE PRIVATE AND NOTFOR PROFIT GERMAN THINK-TANK, THE BERTELSMANN FOUNDATION, FOUND THAT "AUSTRALIA IS ONE OF THE LEAST RELIGIOUS NATIONS IN THE WESTERN WORLD, COMING IN 17TH OUT OF 21 [COUNTRIES] SURVEYED" AND THAT "NEARLY THREE OUT OF FOUR AUSTRALIANS SAY THEY ARE EITHER NOT AT ALL RELIGIOUS OR THAT RELIGION DOES NOT PLAY A CENTRAL ROLE IN THEIR LIVES." WHILE WEEKLY ATTENDANCE AT CHURCH SERVICES IN 2001 WAS ABOUT 1.5 MILLION (ABOUT 7.8% OF THE POPULATION), A SURVEY OF 1,718 AUSTRALIANS BY THE CHRISTIAN RESEARCH ASSOCIATION AT THE END OF 2009 SUGGESTED THAT THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE ATTENDING RELIGIOUS SERVICES PER MONTH IN AUSTRALIA HAS DROPPED FROM 23% IN 1993 TO 16% IN 2009, AND WHILE 60% OF 15 TO 29YEAR-OLD RESPONDENTS IN 1993 IDENTIFIED WITH CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS, 33% DID IN 2009.
Culture SINCE 1788, THE BASIS OF AUSTRALIAN CULTURE HAS BEEN STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY ANGLO-CELTIC WESTERN CULTURE. DISTINCTIVE CULTURAL FEATURES HAVE ALSO ARISEN FROM AUSTRALIA'S NATURAL ENVIRONMENT AND INDIGENOUS CULTURES. SINCE THE MID-20TH CENTURY, AMERICAN POPULAR CULTURE HAS STRONGLY INFLUENCED AUSTRALIA, PARTICULARLY THROUGH TELEVISION AND CINEMA. OTHER CULTURAL INFLUENCES COME FROM NEIGHBOURING ASIAN COUNTRIES, AND THROUGH LARGESCALE IMMIGRATION FROM NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING NATIONS.
62
Environment ALTHOUGH MOST OF AUSTRALIA IS SEMI-ARID OR DESERT, IT INCLUDES A DIVERSE RANGE OF HABITATS FROM ALPINE HEATHS TO TROPICAL RAINFORESTS, AND IS RECOGNISED AS A MEGADIVERSE COUNTRY. THE FUNGI TYPIFY THAT DIVERSITY; THE TOTAL NUMBER THAT OCCUR IN AUSTRALIA, INCLUDING THOSE NOT YET DISCOVERED, HAS BEEN ESTIMATED AT AROUND 250,000 SPECIES, OF WHICH ROUGHLY 5% HAVE BEEN DESCRIBED. BECAUSE OF THE CONTINENT'S GREAT AGE, EXTREMELY VARIABLE WEATHER PATTERNS, AND LONG-TERM GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION, MUCH OF AUSTRALIA'S BIOTA IS UNIQUE AND DIVERSE. APPROXIMATELY 85% OF FLOWERING PLANTS, 84% OF MAMMALS, MORE THAN 45% OF BIRDS, AND 89% OF IN-SHORE, TEMPERATE-ZONE FISH ARE ENDEMIC. AUSTRALIA HAS THE GREATEST NUMBER OF REPTILES OF ANY COUNTRY, WITH 755 SPECIES.
THE KOALA AND THE EUCALYPTUS FORM AN ICONIC AUSTRALIAN PAIR AUSTRALIAN FORESTS ARE MOSTLY MADE UP OF EVERGREEN SPECIES, PARTICULARLY EUCALYPTUS TREES IN THE LESS ARID REGIONS, WATTLES REPLACE THEM IN DRIER REGIONS AND DESERTS AS THE MOST DOMINANT SPECIES. AMONG WELLKNOWN AUSTRALIAN ANIMALS ARE THE MONOTREMES (THE 63
PLATYPUS AND ECHIDNA); A HOST OF MARSUPIALS, INCLUDING THE KANGAROO, KOALA, AND WOMBAT, AND BIRDS SUCH AS THE EMU AND THE KOOKABURRA. AUSTRALIA IS HOME TO MANY DANGEROUS ANIMALS INCLUDING SOME OF THE MOST VENOMOUS SNAKES IN THE WORLD. THE DINGO WAS INTRODUCED BY AUSTRONESIAN PEOPLE WHO TRADED WITH INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS AROUND 3000 BCE. MANY ANIMAL AND PLANT SPECIES BECAME EXTINCT SOON AFTER FIRST HUMAN SETTLEMENT, INCLUDING THE AUSTRALIAN MEGAFAUNA; OTHERS HAVE DISAPPEARED SINCE EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT, AMONG THEM THE THYLACINE. MANY OF AUSTRALIA'S ECOREGIONS, AND THE SPECIES WITHIN THOSE REGIONS, ARE THREATENED BY HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND INTRODUCED ANIMAL, CHROMISTAN, FUNGAL AND PLANT SPECIES. THE FEDERAL ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION ACT 1999 IS THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE PROTECTION OF THREATENED SPECIES. NUMEROUS PROTECTED AREAS HAVE BEEN CREATED UNDER THE NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR THE CONSERVATION OF AUSTRALIA'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY TO PROTECT AND PRESERVE UNIQUE ECOSYSTEMS; 65 WETLANDS ARE LISTED UNDER THE RAMSAR CONVENTION, AND 16 NATURAL WORLD HERITAGE SITES HAVE BEEN ESTABLISHED. AUSTRALIA WAS RANKED 51ST OF 163 COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD ON THE 2010 ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE INDEX. CLIMATE CHANGE HAS BECOME AN INCREASING CONCERN IN AUSTRALIA IN RECENT YEARS, AND PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT IS A MAJOR POLITICAL ISSUE. IN 2007, THE FIRST RUDD GOVERNMENT SIGNED THE INSTRUMENT OF RATIFICATION OF THE KYOTO PROTOCOL. NEVERTHELESS, AUSTRALIA'S CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS PER CAPITA ARE AMONG THE HIGHEST IN THE WORLD, LOWER THAN THOSE OF ONLY A FEW OTHER INDUSTRIALISED NATIONS. RAINFALL IN AUSTRALIA HAS SLIGHTLY INCREASED OVER THE PAST CENTURY, BOTH NATIONWIDE AND FOR TWO QUADRANTS OF THE NATION, ACCORDING TO THE BUREAU OF METEOROLOGY'S 2011 AUSTRALIAN CLIMATE STATEMENT, AUSTRALIA HAD LOWER THAN AVERAGE TEMPERATURES IN 2011 AS A CONSEQUENCE OF 64
A LA NIÑA WEATHER PATTERN, HOWEVER, "THE COUNTRY'S 10YEAR AVERAGE CONTINUES TO DEMONSTRATE THE RISING TREND IN TEMPERATURES, WITH 2002–2011 LIKELY TO RANK IN THE TOP TWO WARMEST 10-YEAR PERIODS ON RECORD FOR AUSTRALIA, AT 0.52 °C ABOVE THE LONG-TERM AVERAGE". WATER RESTRICTIONS ARE FREQUENTLY IN PLACE IN MANY REGIONS AND CITIES OF AUSTRALIA IN RESPONSE TO CHRONIC SHORTAGES DUE TO URBAN POPULATION INCREASES AND LOCALISED DROUGHT. THROUGHOUT MUCH OF THE CONTINENT, MAJOR FLOODING REGULARLY FOLLOWS EXTENDED PERIODS OF DROUGHT, FLUSHING OUT INLAND RIVER SYSTEMS, OVERFLOWING DAMS AND INUNDATING LARGE INLAND FLOOD PLAINS, AS OCCURRED THROUGHOUT EASTERN AUSTRALIA IN 2010, 2011 AND 2012 AFTER THE 2000S AUSTRALIAN DROUGHT.
Recycling
Electronic waste has been on the agenda of the Australian Federal Government since the mid-1990s. The Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (now replaced by the Environment Protection and Heritage Council (EPHC)) was the first body to identify electrical and electronic waste as a concern. 65
In 2002, the EPHC again declared that e-waste needed action. The Electrical Equipment Product Stewardship Sub-Group examined the issue and decided that computer and television waste were 'wastes of concern'. Since that time the television and computer industry has been working with the EPHC to identify a suitable way to manage end-of-life televisions and computers. In November 2008 the EPHC committed to the development of a national solution to the issue of managing television and computer waste. This action culminated in the release of a package of documents designed to enable public consultation on the various options for managing end-of-life televisions and computers on 16 July 2009. The main document in the package is the Consultation Regulatory Impact Statement: Televisions and Computers. The paper canvasses various options for managing endof-life units and analyses the costs and benefits of each. The Consultation Paper does not have a preferred option. The preferred option will be developed by government through the public consultation process prior to the next meeting of the EPHC on 5 November 2009 in Perth where State and Federal Minister will adopt a position. A series of public meetings were held in Adelaide, Perth, Sydney and Melbourne to receive feedback to the government's proposals. The meetings occurred in late July and early August 2009. PRODUCT STEWARDSHIP Product Stewardship Australia (PSA) is a not-for-profit organisation established by the television industry to lead the way in developing recycling programs for e-waste in Australia, particularly televisions. PSA works closely with both state and federal governments along with other industry associations to advance product stewardship in Australia. PSA has contributed to the development of the Consultation Regulatory Impact Statement on Televisions and Computers.
.
66
NEW ZEALAND
1. Location 2. Language 3. Government 4. Laws 5. People 6. Environment 7. Recycle
67
1- LOCATION NEW ZEALAND LIES ABOUT 1,600 KM FROM BOTH AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. ITS THREE MAIN ISLANDS ARE THE NORTH AND SOUTH ISLANDS AND STEWART ISLAND, OR RAKIURA, LYING DUE SOUTH OF THE SOUTH ISLAND. THE SOUTH ISLAND (150,437 SQ KM), OFTEN REFERRED TO AS ‘THE MAINLAND’ BY ITS INHABITANTS, IS LARGER THAN THE NORTH ISLAND (113,729 SQ KM). STEWART ISLAND IS 1,680 SQ KM.
THE TERMS ‘DEEP SOUTH’ FOR SOUTHLAND AND ‘FAR NORTH’ FOR NORTHLAND HINT AT THE LENGTH OF THE MAIN ISLANDS. THE MĀORI NAMES ALSO SIGNIFY THE COUNTRY’S LONG, NARROW SHAPE – THE NORTH ISLAND IS TE IKA A MĀUI (THE FISH OF MĀUI, A LEGENDARY CHARACTER), AND THE SOUTH IS TE WAKA O MĀUI (THE CANOE OF MĀUI). THE THREE
68
MAIN ISLANDS STRETCH 1,500 KM ACROSS LATITUDES 34째 TO 47째 SOUTH. NEW ZEALAND IS AN ARCHIPELAGO WITH OVER 700 OFFSHORE ISLANDS. MOST ARE SMALL AND LIE WITHIN 50 KM OF THE COAST. THE ISLANDS ARE THE VISIBLE SURFACE OF AN EXTENSIVE SUBMARINE PLATEAU, AND ENABLE THE COUNTRY TO ENJOY A HUGE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (FISHING GROUNDS.) THE CHATHAM ISLANDS ARE 800 KM EAST OF THE SOUTH ISLAND. THERE ARE ALSO SEVERAL UNINHABITED ISLAND GROUPS: THE KERMADEC ISLANDS LIE ABOUT 1,000 KM NORTHEAST OF AUCKLAND; THE BOUNTY, SNARES, ANTIPODES, AUCKLAND AND CAMPBELL SUBANTARCTIC ISLANDS LIE SOUTH OF THE MAINLAND. TOPOGRAPHY: THE NORTH ISLAND IS MAINLY ROLLING HILL COUNTRY, MUCH OF WHICH IS FARMED. A SERIES OF NARROW RANGES (TARARUA, RUAHINE AND KAIMANAWA) FORM A ROUGHLY NORTH-EAST BELT OF HIGHER COUNTRY THAT RISES UP TO 1,700 M. MUCH OF THE SURVIVING FOREST COVER IS FOUND HERE AND IN OTHER MOUNTAINOUS AREAS. IN THE CENTRAL NORTH ISLAND, VOLCANOES THAT HAVE BEEN ACTIVE OVER THE PAST MILLION YEARS JUT UP THOUSANDS OF METRES 69
NEAR LAKE TAUPŌ. THIS IS THE COUNTRY’S LARGEST LAKE, FORMED BY WATER FILLING A VOLCANIC CRATER. NEARBY, ROTORUA’S MUD POOLS BOIL AND GEYSERS ERUPT. THE SOUTH ISLAND IS DIVIDED BY THE SOUTHERN ALPS, WHICH TRAVERSE MOST OF ITS LENGTH AND RISE OVER 3,000 M. TO THE WEST OF THE ALPS LIE RAINFORESTS. TO THE EAST ARE THE FARMLANDS OF THE CANTERBURY PLAINS, FORMED BY RIVERS FLOWING FROM THE MOUNTAINS. IN THE SOUTH, A SERIES OF LARGE LAKES FORMED IN DEPRESSIONS THAT WERE SCOURED OUT BY HUGE GLACIERS. STEWART ISLAND IS MAINLY LOW ROLLING HILLS. UNLIKE THE TWO MAIN ISLANDS, IT REMAINS ALMOST ENTIRELY COVERED IN NATIVE VEGETATION. GEOLOGICAL ORIGINS: NEW ZEALAND IS A SLIVER OF THE SUPERCONTINENT GONDWANA. THE ISLANDS ARE ONLY THE VISIBLE PART OF A MUCH LARGER SUBMERGED SUBCONTINENT THAT SEPARATED FROM AUSTRALIA, ON THE EASTERN MARGIN OF GONDWANA, AROUND 85 MILLION YEARS AGO SINCE THE CAMBRIAN GEOLOGICAL PERIOD (OVER 500 MILLION YEARS AGO), SEA LEVELS AND THE LAND HAVE RISEN AND FALLEN MANY TIMES. PERIODS OF MOUNTAIN BUILDING HAVE BEEN FOLLOWED BY EPOCHS WHEN MOUNTAINS 70
ERODED AWAY. HUGE VOLCANOES ERUPTED AND MASSIVE EARTHQUAKES AND LANDSLIDES HAVE RAVAGED THE EARTH. GREAT GLACIERS HAVE LAIN OVER MUCH OF THE LAND, MELTED AWAY AND THEN RETURNED AS THE CLIMATE HAS REPEATEDLY COOLED AND WARMED OVER TIME SPANS HARD TO COMPREHEND.
71
2- LANGUAGE ENGLISH AND MAORI ARE THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES OF NEW ZEALAND. MAORI BECAME AN OFFICIAL LANGUAGE IN 1987. IN APRIL 2006, NEW ZEALAND BECAME THE FIRST COUNTRY TO DECLARE SIGN LANGUAGE AS AN OFFICIAL LANGUAGE, ALONGSIDE MAORI AND ENGLISH. NEW ZEALAND SIGN LANGUAGE, OR NZSL, IS THE MAIN LANGUAGE OF THE DEAF COMMUNITY IN NEW ZEALAND TE REO MAORI - THE MAORI LANGUAGE: MAORI IS ONLY USED IN NEW ZEALAND AND NOWHERE ELSE IN THE WORLD. DESPITE ITS OFFICIAL STATUS, THE LANGUAGE CONTINUES TO STRUGGLE AGAINST BEING LOST. IN THE 1840 TREATY OF WAITANGI, QUEEN VICTORIA PROMISED THE MAORI THAT THEIR LANGUAGE WOULD BE PROTECTED. WHEN MAORI PEOPLE MOVED TO THE CITIES IN THE 1940'S, THEY FELT PRESSURED TO SPEAK ENGLISH AND CHILDREN WERE RAISED WITHOUT THE MAORI LANGUAGE. BY THE 1970'S, THE MAORI LANGUAGE WAS CLOSE TO BEING IRREVOCABLY LOST. IT IS ONLY RECENTLY THAT THE MAORI LANGUAGE HAS GATHERED WIDESPREAD SUPPORT. IN THE PRESENT, THE
72
MAORI LANGUAGE IS COMMONLY USED IN THE MEDIA AND AT SCHOOL. A RECENT SURVEY BY THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT SHOWS ABOUT 130,000 PEOPLE SPEAK SOME MAORI. A VISIT TO NEW ZEALAND WILL INTRODUCE YOU TO MANY MAORI PLACE NAMES, SUCH AS ONEHUNGA, WHANGAMOMONA, KAHIKATEA AND NGURU. THERE ARE ALSO MANY MAORI CULTURAL ATTRACTIONS AND PLACES THAT YOU CAN VISIT TO MEET THE MAORI PEOPLE, LEARN OF THEIR HERITAGE AND TRADITIONS AND TRY THEIR FOOD.
3- GOVERNMENT THE POLITICS OF NEW ZEALAND TAKE PLACE IN A FRAMEWORK OF A PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRATIC MONARCHY. THE BASIC SYSTEM IS CLOSELY PATTERNED ON THAT OF THE WESTMINSTER SYSTEM, ALTHOUGH A NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT MODIFICATIONS HAVE BEEN MADE. THE HEAD OF STATE IS QUEEN ELIZABETH II, WHO IS REPRESENTED BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL AND THE HEAD OF GOVERNMENT IS THE PRIME MINISTER WHO CHAIRS THE CABINET DRAWN FROM AN ELECTED PARLIAMENT. NEW ZEALAND HAS NO FORMAL CODIFIED CONSTITUTION; THE CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK CONSISTS OF A MIXTURE 73
OF VARIOUS DOCUMENTS (INCLUDING CERTAIN ACTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM AND NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTS), THE TREATY OF WAITANGI AND CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTIONS. THE CONSTITUTION ACT IN 1852 ESTABLISHED THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT AND THESE WERE LATER CONSOLIDATED IN 1986. CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS ARE PROTECTED UNDER COMMON LAW AND ARE STRENGTHENED BY THE BILL OF RIGHTS ACT 1990 AND HUMAN RIGHTS ACT 1993, ALTHOUGH THESE ARE NOT ENTRENCHED AND CAN BE OVERTURNED BY PARLIAMENT WITH A SIMPLE MAJORITY.[1] THE CONSTITUTION ACT DESCRIBES THE THREE BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND: THE EXECUTIVE (THE SOVEREIGN AND CABINET), THE LEGISLATURE (PARLIAMENT) AND THE JUDICIARY (COURTS). HEAD OF STATE: QUEEN ELIZABETH II IS THE CURRENT QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND AND THE REALM OF NEW ZEALAND HEAD OF STATE. THE NEW ZEALAND MONARCHY HAS BEEN DISTINCT FROM THE BRITISH MONARCHY SINCE THE STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER ADOPTION ACT 1947, AND ALL ELIZABETH II'S OFFICIAL BUSINESS IN NEW ZEALAND IS CONDUCTED IN THE NAME OF THE QUEEN OF NEW ZEALAND, NOT THE QUEEN OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. WHILE ROYAL ASSENT AND THE 74
ROYAL SIGN-MANUAL ARE REQUIRED TO ENACT LAWS, LETTERS PATENT, AND ORDERS IN COUNCIL, THE AUTHORITY FOR THESE ACTS STEMS FROM THE NEW ZEALAND POPULACE.[4] IN PRACTICE, THE FUNCTIONS OF THE MONARCHY ARE CONDUCTED BY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL, APPOINTED BY THE MONARCH ON THE ADVICE OF THE PRIME MINISTER. AS OF 2011, THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL IS SIR JERRY MATEPARAE. THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL'S POWERS ARE PRIMARILY SYMBOLIC AND FORMAL IN NATURE. THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL FORMALLY HAS THE POWER TO APPOINT AND DISMISS PRIME MINISTERS AND TO DISSOLVE PARLIAMENT; AND ALSO FORMALLY SIGNS LEGISLATION INTO LAW AFTER PASSAGE BY PARLIAMENT. THE GOVERNORGENERAL CHAIRS THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, WHICH IS A FORMAL COMMITTEE CONSISTING OF ALL MINISTERS OF THE CROWN. MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL ARE REQUIRED TO BE MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT, AND MOST ARE ALSO IN CABINET.
4- LAWS THE LAW OF NEW ZEALAND CAN BE FOUND IN SEVERAL SOURCES. THE PRIMARY SOURCES OF NEW ZEALAND LAW ARE 75
STATUTES ENACTED BY THE NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENT AND DECISIONS OF THE COURTS OF NEW ZEALAND. AT A MORE FUNDAMENTAL LEVEL, THE LAW OF NEW ZEALAND IS BASED ON THREE RELATED PRINCIPLES: PARLIAMENTARY SOVEREIGNTY; THE RULE OF LAW; AND THE SEPARATION OF POWERS. AS A FORMER BRITISH COLONY, THE NEW ZEALAND LEGAL SYSTEM IS HEAVILY BASED ON THE ENGLISH LAW, AND REMAINS SIMILAR IN MANY RESPECTS. THERE ARE ALSO IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES, WHICH REFLECT THE UNIQUE LEGAL CULTURE THAT HAS DEVELOPED IN NEW ZEALAND.
76
THE TREATY OF WAITANGI: EATY OF WAITANGI, SIGNED IN 1840, IS WIDELY BELIEVED TO HAVE ESTABLISHED BRITISH LAW IN NEW ZEALAND. HOWEVER, THERE ARE NUMEROUS PROBLEMS WITH THIS THEORY. FIRSTLY, THE MĀORI AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE VERSIONS OF THE TREATY ARE SUBSTANTIALLY DIFFERENT. THE ENGLISH VERSION TRANSFERS SOVEREIGNTY TO QUEEN VICTORIA (IN CLAUSE ONE) AND GRANTS MĀORI THE RIGHTS OF BRITISH SUBJECTS (IN CLAUSE THREE). ALTHOUGH NO SPECIFIC MENTION IS MADE IN THE TREATY OF ANY LEGAL SYSTEM, THESE TWO CLAUSES SEEM TO IMPLY THAT BRITISH LAW WOULD BE ESTABLISHED IN NEW ZEALAND. THE MĀORI VERSION, HOWEVER, STATES THAT VICTORIA RECEIVES KAWANATANGA (GOVERNORSHIP) WHILE THE CHIEFS RETAIN TINO RANGATIRATANGA (ABSOLUTE CHIEFTAINSHIP) IN CLAUSE TWO AS OPPOSED TO THE PROPERTY RIGHTS PROMISED IN THE ENGLISH VERSION. ALTHOUGH THE THIRD CLAUSE OF THE MĀORI VERSION SAYS THAT THE QUEEN WOULD TREAT MĀORI THE SAME AS PEOPLE IN ENGLAND, MANY HISTORIANS ARGUE THAT MĀORI BELIEVED THAT THE NEW GOVERNOR WOULD EXERCISE HIS POWERS OVER THE EUROPEANS ONLY, AND THAT THE CHIEFS WOULD CONTINUE TO RULE OVER MĀORI. IN THE EYES OF SOME MODERN MĀORI, THE NEW ZEALAND LEGAL SYSTEM IS INVALID AS IT VIOLATES THE TREATY'S PROMISE OF TINO RANGATIRATANGA (CHIEFTAINSHIP).
77
ANOTHER PROBLEM WITH THE IDEA THAT THE TREATY ESTABLISHED THE RULE OF BRITISH LAW IS THAT IN 1840 MĀORI STILL CONTROLLED NEW ZEALAND. ALTHOUGH THE BRITISH HAD SENT A GOVERNOR, THEY HAD NOT BACKED HIM UP WITH TROOPS AND FOR THE FIRST FEW YEARS OF SUPPOSED BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY, EUROPEANS WERE SIGNIFICANTLY OUTNUMBERED AND OUTGUNNED BY MĀORI. MĀORI GENERALLY OBEYED BRITISH LAW IN EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS AND WHEN THEY OR THEIR CHIEFS CHOSE TO, BUT THERE WAS NOTHING TO MAKE THEM OBEY THE LAW IN AREAS THEY CONTROLLED, WHICH UNTIL ABOUT THE 1860S WAS MOST OF THE COUNTRY. BRITISH LAW, AND LATER NEW ZEALAND LAW AS PASSED BY THE NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENT WAS SLOWLY ESTABLISHED OVER THE COUNTRY, BUT IT REMAINED INEFFECTIVE IN MĀORI-CONTROLLED AREAS UNTIL THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY AT LEAST. IN PRACTICAL TERMS, BRITISH-BASED LAW WAS ESTABLISHED IN NEW ZEALAND NOT THROUGH THE TREATY OF WAITANGI BUT THROUGH CONQUEST AND SETTLEMENT.THE TREATY WAS NEVER RATIFIED AND HAS LITTLE STANDING IN NEW ZEALAND LAW. IN 1877 A JUDGE RULED THAT IT WAS A 'LEGAL NULLITY'. IN 1975 THE TREATY OF WAITANGI ACT WAS PASSED ESTABLISHING THE WAITANGI TRIBUNAL AND ENABLING IT TO INVESTIGATE AND REPORT ON CONTEMPORARY BREACHES OF THE TREATY, AND RECOMMEND COMPENSATION. THIS HAD LITTLE IMPACT UNTIL 1985, WHEN THE ACT WAS AMENDED TO ALLOW INVESTIGATIONS INTO HISTORIC BREACHES. THE TRIBUNAL'S RULINGS ARE NOT BINDING ALTHOUGH IN CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES IT CAN PREVENT OR PLACE CONDITIONS ON THE SALE OF STATE OWNED LAND. SINCE THE 1980S REFERENCES TO THE TREATY HAVE APPEARED IN VARIOUS PIECES OF LEGISLATION, AND LEGAL RULINGS HAVE ESTABLISHED THAT IT CAN BE RELEVANT EVEN TO LEGISLATION WHICH DOES NOT MENTION IT. HOWEVER THE 78
GOVERNMENT IS NOT GENERALLY BOUND BY THE TREATY, NOR ARE THE PEOPLE OF NEW ZEALAND. 5- PEOPLE NEW ZEALANDERS, COLLOQUIALLY KNOWN AS KIWIS, ARE CITIZENS OF NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND IS A MULTIETHNIC SOCIETY, AND HOME TO PEOPLE OF MANY NATIONAL ORIGINS. ORIGINALLY COMPOSED SOLELY OF THE INDIGENOUS MĀORI, THE ETHNIC MAKEUP OF THE POPULATION HAS BEEN DOMINATED SINCE THE 19TH CENTURY BY NEW ZEALANDERS OF EUROPEAN DESCENT, MAINLY OF SCOTTISH, ENGLISH AND IRISH ANCESTRY, WITH SMALLER PERCENTAGES OF OTHER EUROPEAN ANCESTRIES SUCH AS FRENCH, DUTCH, SCANDINAVIAN AND SOUTH SLAVIC. NEW ZEALAND HAS AN ESTIMATED RESIDENT POPULATION OF AROUND 4.37 MILLION AS OF AUGUST 2010 TODAY, THE ETHNIC MAKEUP OF THE NEW ZEALAND POPULATION IS UNDERGOING A PROCESS OF CHANGE, WITH NEW WAVES OF IMMIGRATION, HIGHER BIRTH RATES AND INCREASING INTERRACIAL MARRIAGE RESULTING IN THE NEW ZEALAND POPULATION OF MĀORI, ASIAN, PACIFIC ISLANDER AND MULTIRACIAL DESCENT GROWING AT A HIGHER RATE THAN THOSE OF SOLELY EUROPEAN DESCENT, WITH SUCH 79
GROUPS PROJECTED TO MAKE UP A LARGER PROPORTION OF THE POPULATION IN THE FUTURE. WHILE MOST NEW ZEALANDERS LIVE IN NEW ZEALAND, THERE IS ALSO A SIGNIFICANT DIASPORA, ESTIMATED IN 2001 AT OVER 460,000 OR 14% OF THE INTERNATIONAL TOTAL OF NEW ZEALAND-BORN PEOPLE. OF THESE, 360,000, OVER THREEQUARTERS OF THE NEW ZEALAND-BORN POPULATION RESIDING OUTSIDE OF NEW ZEALAND, LIVE IN AUSTRALIA. OTHER COMMUNITIES OF NEW ZEALANDERS ABROAD ARE CONCENTRATED IN OTHER ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES, SPECIFICALLY THE UNITED KINGDOM, THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA, WITH SMALLER NUMBERS LOCATED ELSEWHERE.[3] THIS DIASPORA HAS REPORTEDLY SURGED AS OF 2010, WITH WELL OVER 650,000 NEW ZEALANDERS LIVING ABROAD (WITH 566,815 ESTIMATED TO LIVE IN AUSTRALIA ALONE IN JUNE 2010). CULTURE OF NEW ZEALAND: THE CULTURE OF NEW ZEALAND IS LARGELY INHERITED FROM BRITISH AND EUROPEAN CUSTOM, INTERWOVEN WITH MAORI AND POLYNESIAN TRADITION. AN ISOLATED PACIFIC ISLAND NATION, NEW ZEALAND WAS COMPARATIVELY RECENTLY SETTLED BY HUMANS. INITIALLY MĀORI ONLY, THEN BICULTURAL WITH COLONIAL AND RURAL VALUES, NOW NEW 80
ZEALAND IS A COSMOPOLITAN CULTURE THAT REFLECTS ITS CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS, IS CONSCIOUS OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, AND IS AN EDUCATED, DEVELOPED WESTERN SOCIETY. MĀORI CULTURE HAS PREDOMINATED FOR MOST OF NEW ZEALAND'S HISTORY OF HUMAN HABITATION. MĀORI VOYAGERS REACHED THE ISLANDS OF NEW ZEALAND SOME TIME BEFORE 1300, THOUGH EXACT DATES ARE UNCERTAIN. OVER THE ENSUING CENTURIES OF MĀORI EXPANSION AND SETTLEMENT, MĀORI CULTURE DIVERGED FROM ITS POLYNESIAN ROOTS. MĀORI ESTABLISHED SEPARATE TRIBES, BUILT FORTIFIED VILLAGES (PĀ), HUNTED AND FISHED, TRADED COMMODITIES, DEVELOPED AGRICULTURE, ARTS AND WEAPONRY, AND KEPT A DETAILED ORAL HISTORY. REGULAR EUROPEAN CONTACT BEGAN APPROXIMATELY 200 YEARS AGO, AND BRITISH IMMIGRATION PROCEEDED RAPIDLY DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. THE COLONISTS HAD A DRAMATIC EFFECT ON THE INDIGENOUS MAORI, BRINGING CHRISTIANITY, TECHNOLOGY, AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. IN 1840 MĀORI LEADERS SIGNED THE TREATY OF WAITANGI, INTENDED TO ENABLE THE TRIBES TO LIVE PEACEFULLY WITH THE COLONISTS. HOWEVER AFTER SEVERAL INCIDENTS, THE TREATY WAS IGNORED AND 81
THE NEW ZEALAND LAND WARS BROKE OUT FROM 1845, WITH MĀORI SUFFERING A LOSS OF LAND AND IDENTITY, WHILE ALSO INCREASINGLY BECOMING A MINORITY GROUP OVER THE FOLLOWING CENTURY. DESPITE SUCH SETBACKS, MĀORI CULTURE HAS REGAINED MUCH OF ITS LOST INFLUENCE IN RECENT DECADES. EUROPEAN NEW ZEALANDERS (PĀKEHĀ), DESPITE THEIR LOCATION FAR FROM EUROPE, RETAINED STRONG CULTURAL TIES TO "MOTHER ENGLAND. THESE TIES WERE WEAKENED BY THE DEMISE OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE AND LOSS OF SPECIAL ACCESS TO BRITISH MEAT AND DAIRY MARKETS. PĀKEHĀ BEGAN TO FORGE A SEPARATE IDENTITY INFLUENCED BY THEIR PIONEERING HISTORY, A RURAL LIFESTYLE AND NEW ZEALAND'S UNIQUE ENVIRONMENT. PĀKEHĀ CULTURE BECAME PREVALENT AFTER THE LAND WARS, BUT AFTER SUSTAINED POLITICAL EFFORTS, BICULTURALISM AND THE TREATY OF WAITANGI BECAME PART OF THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM IN THE LATE 20TH CENTURY, TO PROMOTE UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN MĀORI AND PĀKEHĀ. MORE RECENTLY, NEW ZEALAND CULTURE HAS BEEN BROADENED BY GLOBALIZATION AND IMMIGRATION FROM THE PACIFIC ISLANDS, EAST ASIA AND SOUTH ASIA. EUROPEAN AND MĀORI REMAIN THE TWO LARGEST ETHNICITIES, BUT THE 82
LARGE POLYNESIAN POPULATION IN AUCKLAND HAS PROMPTED THE OBSERVATION THAT AUCKLAND IS NOW THE LARGEST POLYNESIAN CITY IN THE WORLD. HOWEVER, THE COUNTRY OUTSIDE OF AUCKLAND IS STILL MUCH LESS HETEROGENEOUS, WITH BIG PARTS OF THE SOUTH ISLAND REMAINING PREDOMINANTLY OF EUROPEAN DESCENT. NEW ZEALAND MARKS TWO NATIONAL DAYS OF REMEMBRANCE, WAITANGI DAY AND ANZAC DAY, AND ALSO CELEBRATES HOLIDAYS DURING OR CLOSE TO THE ANNIVERSARIES OF THE FOUNDING DATES OF EACH PROVINCE. NEW ZEALAND HAS TWO NATIONAL ANTHEMS OF EQUAL STATUS; GOD SAVE THE QUEEN AND "GOD DEFEND NEW ZEALAND"[4] - THE LATTER OF WHICH IS OFTEN SUNG WITH ALTERNATING MĀORI AND ENGLISH VERSES. MANY CITIZENS PREFER TO MINIMISE ETHNIC DIVISIONS, SIMPLY CALLING THEMSELVES NEW ZEALANDERS OR KIWIS.
83
POPULAR SPORT: RUGBY.. OF ALL THE SPORTS AT WHICH NEW ZEALAND HAS EXCELLED, RUGBY IS THE GAME WHICH IS WIDELY ACCEPTED AS OUR 'NATIONAL GAME.' IN THE 19TH CENTURY, NEW ZEALAND RUGBY WAS ESTABLISHED AS AN IMPORTANT SPORT WITHIN NEW ZEALAND, WITH MANY CLUBS FORMING IN TOWNS AND RURAL DISTRICTS BEFORE THE YEAR 1900. COMPETITIONS WERE HELD BETWEEN PROVINCIAL TEAMS AND AGAINST VISITING TEAMS FROM AUSTRALIA AND BRITAIN. THE ALL BLACKS, OUR NATIONAL RUGBY TEAM, TRAVELED ON TOUR TO BRITAIN IN 1905 AND AGAIN IN 1924. TODAY, THE SPORT HAS THE LARGEST NUMBER OF SPECTATORS AND FOLLOWERS OF ANY SPORT IN NEW ZEALAND, AND THE ALL BLACKS BOAST THE HIGHEST 84
WINNING RATE OF ANY TEAM IN THE WORLD. FIND OUT MORE ABOUT THE ALL BLACKS AND OTHER NEW ZEALAND RUGBY TEAMS AND CLUBS. 6- ENVIRONMENT YOU’RE NEVER MORE THAN 130 KM FROM THE SEA IN NEW ZEALAND, WHICH HAS 18,000 KM OF COASTLINE. IT’S ALSO A LAND OF MOUNTAINS, LAKES AND RIVERS, NATIVE FORESTS, AND FARMLANDS. BECAUSE THE COUNTRY WAS ISOLATED FOR MILLIONS OF YEARS, UNIQUE NATIVE FLORA AND FAUNA, SUCH AS FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, HAVE EVOLVED. THE VARIETY, BEAUTY AND ACCESSIBILITY OF THESE NATURAL FEATURES ARE CENTRAL TO NEW ZEALAND’S IDENTITY, AND ATTRACT THOUSANDS OF TOURISTS EVERY YEAR. A LAND OF CONTRASTS THE ISLANDS OF NEW ZEALAND LIE IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN, SOUTH-EAST OF AUSTRALIA.
ALTHOUGH THE LAND IS NARROW, THERE IS PLENTY OF VARIETY – VOLCANOES AND GLACIERS, BEACHES AND FORESTS, OPEN PLAINS. RUNNING THE LENGTH OF THE SOUTH ISLAND IS A MOUNTAIN RANGE CALLED THE SOUTHERN ALPS. THE NORTH ISLAND IS MAINLY HILL COUNTRY WITH THE GREAT EXPANSE OF LAKE TAUPŌ AT ITS CENTRE. 85
CLIMATE THE COASTAL CLIMATE IS MILD TO COOL – IT RARELY GETS VERY HOT, BUT INLAND REGIONS CAN BE VERY COLD. MOST PLACES RECEIVE THEIR FAIR SHARE OF SUNNY AND CLOUDY DAYS. WINDS COME MAINLY FROM THE WEST AND THEY CAN BE VERY STRONG. THERE IS GENERALLY PLENTY OF RAIN, AND EVERYWHERE RIVERS AND STREAMS TWIST TO THE SEA.
THE COAST SWIMMING IN THE SEAS AROUND NEW ZEALAND ARE PENGUINS AND SEALS, WHALES AND DOLPHINS. SAND AND PEBBLE BEACHES, ESTUARIES, PENINSULAS AND FIORDS ARE FEATURES OF THE LONG AND WINDING SHORELINE. BUSH, TUSSOCK AND FARMLAND DENSE NATIVE FORESTS ONCE COVERED THE LAND, BUT MOST OF IT HAS BEEN CHOPPED DOWN OR BURNT TO MAKE WAY 86
FOR FARMLAND, WHICH COVERS ALMOST HALF THE COUNTRY. BUT FOREST STILL COVERS MUCH OF THE HILLS AND MOUNTAINS. HIGH ABOVE THE FORESTS, TUSSOCK GRASSLANDS STRETCH OUT, DOTTED IN SPRING AND SUMMER WITH BRIGHT ALPINE FLOWERS SUCH AS MOUNTAIN DAISIES AND GIANT BUTTERCUPS. ANIMAL NEW ZEALAND HAS BEEN ISOLATED FROM OTHER LANDS FOR MILLIONS OF YEARS. THIS ALLOWED SOME ANIMALS AND PLANTS TO DEVELOP INTO FASCINATING FORMS, SUCH AS GIANT LAND SNAILS AND FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, INCLUDING THE FAMOUS KIWI. BIRDS, WITH THEIR DISTINCTIVE CALLS, ARE THE MOST NOTICEABLE FORM OF NATIVE WILDLIFE. MOST ARE UNIQUE TO NEW ZEALAND. THESE PLANTS AND ANIMALS EVOLVED WITH FEW BROWSING ANIMALS TO COMPETE WITH, AND NO PREDATORY MAMMALS. THE EARLY POLYNESIAN SETTLERS KILLED THE MOA – A LARGE FLIGHTLESS BIRD – AND IN THE 19TH CENTURY MANY OTHER BIRD SPECIES WERE KILLED BY RATS, CATS, STOATS AND OTHER PREDATORS THAT CAME WITH THE EUROPEAN SETTLERS.
6- RECYCLE 87
REPROCESSING ADDS VALUE; NEW ZEALAND RE-PROCESSING INDUSTRIES USE RECYCLABLES COLLECTED AT THE KERBSIDE AS FEEDSTOCK TO PRODUCE NEW PRODUCTS. THESE INCLUDE CARDBOARD, GLASS BOTTLES AND A WIDE RANGE OF PLASTIC GOODS INCLUDING MATTING, SLIP-SHEETS, AND WATER TANKS. THIS CREATES JOBS AND GENERATES EXPORT EARNINGS AT THE SAME TIME. IT REDUCES OUR DEPENDENCE ON VIRGIN MATERIALS (IMPORTS) AND IMPROVES OUR ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE. IT IS A GOOD FIT WITH THE 100% PURE NZ BRANDING.
A SHORT HISTORY OF KERBSIDE RECYCLING: KERBSIDE RECYCLING WAS INTRODUCED IN NEW ZEALAND IN THE EARLY 1990’S USING A CRATE BASED SYSTEM WITH KERBSIDE SORTING. RECYCLING IS NOW COMMON PRACTICE, AND WE ARE SEEING NEW GENERATION COLLECTION SYSTEMS THAT RELY ON MECHANISED COLLECTION AND SORTING 88
SYSTEMS. THIS SHIFT TO CAPITAL INTENSIVE, MECHANICAL SYSTEMS IS A GLOBAL TREND. THESE SYSTEMS SIMPLIFY THE COLLECTION PHASE BY COLLECTING EVERYTHING IN ONE CONTAINER AND NO SORTING IS DONE AT THE KERB. THIS IS KNOWN AS A COMMINGLED COLLECTION SYSTEM.
WHAT IS “COMMINGLED” OR “SINGLE STREAM RECYCLING! ALL RECYCLABLES (PAPER, PLASTIC, GLASS, STEEL AND ALUMINIUM CANS) ARE COLLECTED IN A SINGLE WHEELIE-BIN, COMPACTED AND SORTED LATER AT A MATERIALS RECOVERY FACILITY (MRF).
UNDERSTANDING COMMINGLED / SINGLE STREAM RECYCLING SYSTEMS COMMINGLED SYSTEMS HAVE TWO MAIN PARTS, THE COLLECTION PHASE AND THE SORTING PHASE
89
1-COMMINGLED COLLECTIONTHE COMMINGLED COLLECTION METHODOLOGY USES THE SAME TYPES OF VEHICLES, BINS AND LIFTERS THAT ARE USED TO COLLECT RUBBISH, TO COLLECT OUR RECYCLING. HOUSEHOLDERS ARE ENCOURAGED TO PUT ALL THEIR RECYCLING INTO ONE LARGE BIN, A WHEELIE-BIN. BINS ARE LIFTED INTO A TRUCK USING A ONE-ARMED BANDIT. NO SORTING GETS DONE DURING THE COLLECTION PHASE.RECYCLABLES ARE COMPACTED IN THE TRUCK TO MAXIMISE THE VOLUMES COLLECTED ON EACH RUN AND TO INCREASE TRANSPORT EFFICIENCIES COMPACTING DURING COLLECTION INCREASES THE WEIGHT COLLECTED PER LOAD.THIS REDUCES THE NUMBER OF VEHICLES NEEDED TO SERVICE A GIVEN NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS AND THE NUMBER OF TRIPS TO THE MRF FOR OFF LOADING. COMMINGLED COLLECTIONS HAVE GAINED POPULARITY AS THEY ARE THOUGHT TO BE SAFER FOR THE COLLECTION STAFF. IT IS ALSO ASSUMED THAT THE NET COST OF RECYCLING WILL BE LOWER WHEN THE COLLECTION COST IS LOWER.
SORTING COMMINGLED RECYCLINGCOMMINGLED COLLECTIONS REQUIRE A MECHANISED ‚MATERIALS RECOVERY FACILITY‛ (MRF) FOR SORTING OUT THE RECYCLABLES. A MRF IS A MECHANISED SORTING SYSTEM FOR 90
SEPARATING RECYCLABLES; PAPER, CARDBOARD, GLASS, PLASTICS, CANS AND TINS.THESE MRF SYSTEMS VARY IN SIZE AND SCALE BUT THEY ALL HAVE A SERIES OF CONVEYORS WITH A RANGE OF EQUIPMENT FOR SEPARATING MATERIALS. THESE CAN INCLUDE SCREENS, EDDY CURRENT SEPARATORS, AND OPTICAL SORTERS.MRFS COME WITH A HIGH CAPITAL COST AND HIGH ONGOING OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS. THEY USE A LOT OF ENERGY TO RUN ALL THE CONVEYORS AND COMPLEX EQUIPMENT.A LOT OF RECYCLABLE MATERIAL NEEDS TO FLOW THROUGH THE SYSTEM TO COVER THE CAPITAL COST OF INVESTING IN THIS HI TECH EQUIPMENT, SO USUALLY A MRF SERVES A LARGE POPULATION BASE ACROSS A CITY, A DISTRICT OR A REGION.A MRF IS THOUGHT TO REDUCE THE NET COST OF RECYCLING AS LESS LABOUR IS USED IN THE PROCESS.
91
UNDERSTANDING KERBSIDE SORT (MULTIPLE STREAM) COLLECTIONS KERBSIDE SORT SYSTEMS COLLECT AND SORT THE RECYCLING IN A VERY DIFFERENT WAY.
UNDERSTANDING KERBSIDE SORT RECYCLING SYSTEMS KERBSIDE SORT SYSTEMS ALSO HAVE TWO MAIN PARTS, THE COLLECTION PHASE AND THE SORTING PHASE, BUT SEEMS TO GET VERY DIFFERENT RESULTS.
KERBSIDE SORT COLLECTIONSTHE KERBSIDE SORT METHODOLOGY USES VEHICLES, BINS AND LIFTERS THAT HAVE BEEN PURPOSE BUILT FOR COLLECTING RECYCLING. 92
HOUSEHOLDERS ARE ENCOURAGED TO SEPARATE THEIR RECYCLING AT HOME. DIFFERENT AREAS HAVE DIFFERENT COMBINATIONS OF RECYCLABLES BUNDLED TOGETHER. OFTEN CANS AND PLASTICS GO TOGETHER IN A CRATE WITH PAPER AND CARD BUNDLED SEPARATELY. SOMETIMES GLASS GOES IN WITH THE PLASTIC AND CANS, SOMETIMES IT IS KEPT SEPARATE.RECYCLABLES ARE SORTED AT THE KERBSIDE, WITH DIFFERENT MATERIALS GOING INTO DIFFERENT TRUCK COMPARTMENTS. KEEPING RECYCLABLES SEPARATE REDUCES CONTAMINATION AND ENSURES HIGH QUALITY RECYCLABLES ARE AVAILABLE AS FEEDSTOCK FOR RE-PROCESSORS. BECAUSE A LOT OF THE SORTING IS DONE DURING THE COLLECTION PHASE, THIS CAN MEAN HIGHER COLLECTION COSTS. THIS IS USUALLY OFFSET BY LOWER COST IN THE SORTING PHASE.INTERNATIONAL EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT KERBSIDE SORT COLLECTIONS ARE NOT NECESSARILY MORE DANGEROUS THAN COMMINGLED ONES, THE RISKS ARE DIFFERENT. SO LONG AS THE RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH BOTH METHODS ARE EFFECTIVELY MANAGED EITHER SYSTEM CAN BE SAFELY USED.IT IS THOUGHT THAT SEPARATING RECYCLABLES AT HOME HELPS HOUSEHOLDERS BECOME AWARE OF WHAT IS AND IS NOT RECYCLABLE. THIS CREATES A FEEDBACK LOOP THAT HELPS PEOPLE CHOOSE RECYCLABLE PACKAGING AND 93
PAPER PRODUCTS. THIS LEADS TO ACTION THAT SEES PEOPLE REDUCING, REUSING AND RECYCLING MORE OVER TIME. SORTING KERBSIDE SORT RECYCLINGKERBSIDE SORT COLLECTIONS PROVIDE SEMI SORTED MATERIAL TO THE PROCESSING FACILITY.SOME MECHANICAL SYSTEMS, LIKE CONVEYORS, WILL BE USED TO HELP SEPARATE THE MATERIAL BUT PEOPLE DO A LOT OF THE SORTING WORK. THESE SYSTEMS VARY IN SIZE AND SCALE BUT ARE GENERALLY LOW TECH.SORTING SYSTEMS FOR MATERIAL THAT HAS BEEN SEPARATED AT SOURCE HAVE LOW CAPITAL COST AND LOW OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE COSTS. THEY ALSO USE A LOT LESS ENERGY. THESE LOW COST SYSTEMS DO NOT RELY ON HIGH THROUGHPUT, SO THEY CAN BE SMALLER AND EMPLOY LOCAL PEOPLE TO DO THE SORTING AND BALING WORK.KERBSIDE SORT IS THOUGHT TO REDUCE THE NET COST OF RECYCLING ONCE THE SALE OF MATERIAL HAS BEEN TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT. THERE IS EVIDENCE THAT THE NET COST OF RECYCLING WILL BE LOWER WHEN THE RECYCLING SYSTEM PRODUCES HIGH QUALITY RECYCLABLES FOR RESALE. IT IS EASIER TO GET HIGH QUALITY RECYCLABLES WITH A KERBSIDE SORT SYSTEM.
94
SWITZERLAND
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Geography of Switzerland Language Climate Politics of Switzerland Economy Culture
7. ENERGY, INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT 8. RECYCLING
95
Switzerland officially the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western and Central Europe where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them are the two global cities and economic centres of Z端rich and Geneva.
GEOGRAPHY OF SWITZERLAND EXTENDING ACROSS THE NORTH AND SOUTH SIDE OF THE ALPS IN WEST-CENTRAL EUROPE, SWITZERLAND ENCOMPASSES A GREAT DIVERSITY OF LANDSCAPES AND CLIMATES ON A LIMITED AREA OF 41,285 SQUARE KILOMETRES (15,940 SQ MI). THE POPULATION IS ABOUT 7.9 MILLION, RESULTING IN AN AVERAGE POPULATION DENSITY OF AROUND 190 PEOPLE PER SQUARE KILOMETRE (485/SQ MI). THE MORE MOUNTAINOUS SOUTHERN HALF
96
OF THE COUNTRY IS FAR MORE SPARSELY POPULATED THAN THE NORTHERN HALF. IN THE LARGEST CANTON OF GRAUBÜNDEN, LYING ENTIRELY IN THE ALPS, POPULATION DENSITY FALLS TO 27 /KM² (70 /SQ MI).
Switzerland lies between latitudes 45° and 48° N, and longitudes 5° and 11° E. It contains three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps to the south, the Swiss plateau or middleland, and the Jura mountains on the north. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, comprising about 60% of the country's total area. Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps many glaciers are found, totalling an area of 1,063 square kilometres. From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers, such as the Rhine, Inn, Ticino and Rhone, which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe, among which are included Lake Geneva, Lake Constance and Lake Maggiore. Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes, and contains 6% of Europe's stock of fresh water. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of the national territory.
About a hundred of Switzerland's mountain peaks are close to or higher than 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). At 4,634 m (15,203 ft), Monte Rosa is the highest, although the Matterhorn (4,478 m or 14,692 ft) is probably the most famous. Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m or 13,642 ft) and Eiger, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing the St. Moritz area in canton Graubünden, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4,049 m or 13,284 ft). The more populous northern part of the country, comprising about 30% of the country's total area, is called the Middle Land. It has greater open and hilly landscapes, partly forested, partly open pastures, usually with grazing herds, or vegetables and fruit fields, but it is still hilly. There are large lakes found here and the biggest Swiss cities are in this area of the country. The largest lake is Lake Geneva (also called Lac Léman in French), in western Switzerland. The Rhone River is both the main input and output of Lake Geneva.
97
CLIMATE The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities,[47][48] from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant near Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. There are some valley areas in the southern part of Switzerland where some cold-hardy palm trees are found. Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing. The less humid winters in the mountains may see long intervals of stable conditions for weeks, while the lower lands tend to suffer from inversion, during these periods, thus seeing no sun for weeks. A weather phenomenon known as the fﾃｶhn (with an identical effect to the chinook wind) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind, bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps. This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south. Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect. The driest conditions persist in all inner alpine valleys that receive less rain because arriving clouds lose a lot of their content while crossing the mountains before reaching these areas. Large alpine areas such as Graubﾃｼnden remain drier than pre-alpine areas and as in the main valley of the Valais wine grapes are grown there. The wettest conditions persist in the high Alps and in the Ticino canton which has much sun yet heavy bursts of rain from time to time. Precipitation tends to be spread moderately throughout the year with a peak in summer. Autumn is the driest season, winter receives less precipitation than summer, yet the weather patterns in Switzerland are not in a stable climate system and can be variable from year to year with no strict and predictable periods.
CONTRASTED CLIMATES BETWEEN THE MOST GLACIATED AREA IN WESTERN EURASIA (ALETSCH GLACIER), THE COLD TEMPERATE JURA (VALLﾃ右 DE JOUX), THE SOUTHERN CANTON OF TICINO (LAKE LUGANO), AND THE WESTERN CANTON OF VAUD AND ITS VINE TERRACES (LAKE GENEVA)
Switzerland's ecosystems can be particularly fragile, because of the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains, often forming unique ecologies. The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable, with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes, and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing. The climatic, geological and topographical conditions of the alpine region make for a very fragile ecosystem that is particularly sensitive to 98
climate change. Nevertheless, according to the 2012 Environmental Performance Index, Switzerland is the first among 132 nations in safeguarding the environment, due to its high scores on environmental public health, its heavy reliance on renewable sources of energy (hydropower and geothermal energy), and its control of greenhouse gas emissions. THE SWISS FEDERAL COUNCIL IN 2013 WITH PRESIDENT UELI MAURER (IN THE MIDDLE) THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION ADOPTED IN 1848 IS THE LEGAL FOUNDATION OF THE MODERN FEDERAL STATE. IT IS AMONG THE OLDEST CONSTITUTIONS IN THE WORLD. A NEW CONSTITUTION WAS ADOPTED IN 1999, BUT DID NOT INTRODUCE NOTABLE CHANGES TO THE FEDERAL STRUCTURE.
POLITICS OF SWITZERLAND
outlines basic and political rights of individuals and zcitizen participation in public affairs, divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdiction and authority. There are three main governing bodies on the federal level: the bicameral parliament (legislative), the Federal Council (executive) and the Federal Court (judicial). The Federal Palace, seat of the Federal Assembly and the Federal Council. The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses: the Council of States which has 46 representatives (two from each canton and one from each half-canton) who are elected under a system determined by each canton, and the National Council, which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation, depending on the population of each canton. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. When both houses are in joint session, they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly. Through referendums, citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives, introduce amendments to the federal constitution, thus making Switzerland a direct democracy. The Federal Council constitutes the federal government, directs the federal administration and serves as collective Head of State. It is a collegial body of seven members, elected for a four-year mandate by the Federal Assembly which also exercises oversight over the Council. The President of the Confederation is elected by the Assembly from among the seven members, traditionally in rotation and for a one-year term; the President chairs the government and assumes representative functions. However, the president is a primus inter pares with no additional powers, and remains the head of a department within the administration. The Swiss government has been a coalition of the four major political parties since 1959, each party having a number of seats that roughly reflects its share of electorate and representation in the federal parliament. The classic distribution of 2 CVP/PDC, 2 SPS/PSS, 2 FDP/PRD and 1 SVP/UDC as it stood from 1959 to 2003 was known as the "magic formula". 99
Following the 2011 Federal Council elections, the seven seats in the Federal Council were distributed as follows: 1 SEAT FOR THE CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S PARTY (CVP/PDC), 1 SEAT FOR THE CONSERVATIVE DEMOCRATIC PARTY (BDP/PBD), 2 SEATS FOR THE FREE DEMOCRATIC PARTY (FDP/PRD), 2 SEATS FOR THE SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY (SPS/PSS), 1 SEAT FOR THE SWISS PEOPLE'S PARTY (SVP/UDC).
The function of the Federal Supreme Court is to hear appeals against rulings of cantonal or federal courts. The judges are elected by the Federal Assembly for six-year terms.
Economy
THE OMEGA SPEEDMASTER WORN ON THE MOON DURING THE APOLLO MISSIONS. IN TERMS OF VALUE, SWITZERLAND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR HALF OF THE WORLD PRODUCTION OF WATCHES.
Switzerland has a stable, prosperous and high-tech economy. In 2011 it was ranked as the wealthiest country in the world in per capita terms (with "wealth" being defined to include both financial and non-financial assets), while the 2013 Credit Suisse Global Wealth Report showed that Switzerland was the country with the highest average wealth per adult in 2013. It has the world's nineteenth largest economy by nominal GDP and the thirty-sixth largest by purchasing power parity. It is the twentieth largest exporter, despite its size. Switzerland has the highest European rating in the Index of Economic Freedom 2010, while also providing large coverage through public services. The nominal per capita GDP is higher than those of the larger Western and Central European economies and Japan. If adjusted for purchasing power parity, Switzerland ranks 8th in the world in terms of GDP per capita, according to the World Bank and IMF (ranked 15th according to the CIA Worldfactbook). The World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report currently ranks Switzerland's economy as the most competitive in the world, while ranked by the European Union as Europe's 100
most innovative country. For much of the 20th century, Switzerland was the wealthiest country in Europe by a considerable margin (by GDP – per capita). In 2007 the gross median household income in Switzerland was an estimated 137,094 USD at Purchasing power parity while the median income was 95,824 USD. Switzerland also has one of the world's largest account balances as a percentage of GDP.
THE GREATER ZÜRICH AREA, HOME TO 1.5 MILLION INHABITANTS AND 150,000 COMPANIES, IS ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT ECONOMIC CENTRES IN THE WORLD.
Switzerland is home to several large multinational corporations. The largest Swiss companies by revenue are Glencore, Gunvor, Nestlé, Novartis, Hoffmann-La Roche, ABB, Mercuria Energy Group and Adecco. Also notable are UBS AG, Zurich Financial Services, Credit Suisse, Barry Callebaut, Swiss Re, Tetra Pak, The Swatch Group and Swiss International Airlines. Switzerland is ranked as having one of the most powerful economies in the world. Switzerland's most important economic sector is manufacturing. Manufacturing consists largely of the production of specialist chemicals, health and pharmaceutical goods, scientific and precision measuring instruments and musical instruments. The largest exported goods are chemicals (34% of exported goods), machines/electronics (20.9%), and precision instruments/watches (16.9%). Exported services amount to a third of exports.[87] The services sector – especially banking and insurance, tourism, and international organisations – is another important industry for Switzerland. Around 3.8 million people work in Switzerland; about 25% of employees belonged to a trade union in 2004. Switzerland has a more flexible job market than neighbouring countries and the unemployment rate is very low. The unemployment rate increased from a low of 1.7% in June 2000 to a peak of 4.4% in December 2009. Population growth from net immigration is quite high, at 0.52% of population in 2004. The foreign citizen population was 21.8% in 2004, about the same as in Australia. GDP per hour worked is the world's 16th highest, at 49.46 international dollars in 2012.
101
THE ENGADIN VALLEY. TOURISM CONSTITUTES AN IMPORTANT REVENUE FOR THE LESS INDUSTRIALISED ALPINE REGIONS.
Switzerland has an overwhelmingly private sector economy and low tax rates by Western World standards; overall taxation is one of the smallest of developed countries. Switzerland is a relatively easy place to do business, currently ranking 28th of 178 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index. The slow growth Switzerland experienced in the 1990s and the early 2000s has brought greater support for economic reforms and harmonization with the European Union. According to Credit Suisse, only about 37% of residents own their own homes, one of the lowest rates of home ownership in Europe. Housing and food price levels were 171% and 145% of the EU-25 index in 2007, compared to 113% and 104% in Germany. Agricultural protectionism—a rare exception to Switzerland's free trade policies—has contributed to high food prices. Product market liberalisation is lagging behind many EU countries according to the OECD.[91] Nevertheless, domestic purchasing power is one of the best in the world. Apart from agriculture, economic and trade barriers between the European Union and Switzerland are minimal and Switzerland has free trade agreements worldwide. Switzerland is a member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA).
102
ENERGY, INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENVIRONMENT SWITZERLAND HAS THE TALLEST DAMS IN EUROPE, AMONG WHICH THE MAUVOISIN DAM, IN THE ALPS. HYDROELECTRICITY IS THE MOST IMPORTANT DOMESTIC SOURCE OF ENERGY IN THE COUNTRY. Electricity generated in Switzerland is 56% from hydroelectricity and 39% from nuclear power, resulting in a nearly CO2-free electricity-generating network. On 18 May 2003, two anti-nuclear initiatives were turned down: Moratorium Plus, aimed at forbidding the building of new nuclear power plants (41.6% supported and 58.4% opposed), and Electricity Without Nuclear (33.7% supported and 66.3% opposed). The former ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants was the result of a citizens' initiative voted on in 1990 which had passed with 54.5% Yes vs. 45.5% No votes. A new nuclear plant in the Canton of Bern is presently planned. The Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE) is the office responsible for all questions relating to energy supply and energy use within the Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications (DETEC). The agency is supporting the 2000-watt society initiative to cut the nation's energy use by more than half by the year 2050.
On 25 May 2011 the Swiss government announced that it plans to end its use of nuclear energy in the next 2 or 3 decades. "The government has voted for a phaseout because we want to ensure a secure and autonomous supply of energy", Energy Minister Doris Leuthard said that day at a press conference in Bern. "Fukushima showed that the risk of nuclear power is too high, which in turn has also increased the costs of this energy form." The first reactor would reportedly be taken offline in 2019 and the last one in 2034. Parliament will discuss the plan in June 2011, and there could be a referendum as well. 103
ENTRANCE OF THE NEW LÖTSCHBERG BASE TUNNEL, THE THIRD-LONGEST RAILWAY TUNNEL IN THE WORLD, UNDER THE OLD LÖTSCHBERG RAILWAY LINE. IT IS THE FIRST COMPLETED TUNNEL OF THE GREATER PROJECT ALPTRANSIT.
The most dense rail network in Europe of 5,063 km (3,146 mi) carries over 350 million passengers annually.[121] In 2007, each Swiss citizen travelled on average 2,258 km (1,403 mi) by rail, which makes them the keenest rail users. The network is administered mainly by the Federal Railways, except in Graubünden, where the 366 km (227 mi) narrow gauge railway is operated by the Rhaetian Railways and includes some World Heritage lines. The building of new railway base tunnels through the Alps is under way to reduce the time of travel between north and south through the AlpTransit project. Swiss private-public managed road network is funded by road tolls and vehicle taxes. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute system requires the purchase of a vignette (toll sticker)—which costs 40 Swiss francs—for one calendar year in order to use its roadways, for both passenger cars and trucks. The Swiss autobahn/autoroute network has a total length of 1,638 km (1,018 mi) (as of 2000) and has, by an area of 41,290 km2 (15,940 sq mi), also one of the highest motorway densities in the world. Zurich Airport is Switzerland's largest international flight gateway, which handled 22.8 million passengers in 2012. The other international airports are Geneva Airport (13.9 million passengers in 2012), EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg which is located in France, Bern Airport, Lugano Airport, St. Gallen-Altenrhein Airport and Sion Airport. Swiss International Airlines is the flag carrier of Switzerland. Its main hub is Zürich. Switzerland has one of the best environmental records among nations in the developed world; it was one of the countries to sign the Kyoto Protocol in 1998 and ratified it in 2003. With Mexico and the Republic of Korea it forms the Environmental Integrity Group (EIG). The country is heavily active in recycling and anti-littering regulations and is one of the top recyclers in the world, with 66% to 96% of recyclable materials being recycled, depending on the area of the country. In many places in Switzerland, household rubbish disposal is charged for. Rubbish (except dangerous items, batteries etc.) is only collected if it is in bags which either have a payment sticker attached, or in official bags with the surcharge paid at the time of purchase. This gives a financial incentive to recycle as much as possible, since recycling is free. Illegal disposal of garbage is not tolerated but usually the enforcement of such laws is limited to violations that involve the unlawful 104
disposal of larger volumes at traffic intersections and public areas. Fines for not paying the disposal fee range from CHF 200–500. Switzerland also has internationally the most efficient system to recycle old newspapers and cardboard materials. Publicly organised collection by volunteers and economical railway transport logistics started as early as 1865 under the leadership of the notable industrialist Hans Caspar Escher (Escher Wyss AG) when the first modern Swiss paper manufacturing plant was built in Biberist.
Culture
Three of Europe's major languages are official in Switzerland. Swiss culture is characterised by diversity, which is reflected in a wide range of traditional customs. A region may be in some ways strongly culturally connected to the neighbouring country that shares its language, the country itself being rooted in western European culture. The linguistically isolated Romansh culture in GraubĂźnden in eastern Switzerland constitutes an exception, it survives only in the upper valleys of the Rhine and the Inn and strives to maintain its rare linguistic tradition. Switzerland is home to many notable contributors to literature, art, architecture, music and sciences. In addition the country attracted a number of creative persons during time of unrest or war in Europe. Some 1000 museums are distributed through the country; the number has more than tripled since 1950. Among the most important cultural performances held annually are the Lucerne Festival, the Montreux Jazz Festival and the Locarno International Film Festival. Alpine symbolism has played an essential role in shaping the history of the country and the Swiss national identity. Nowadays some concentrated mountain areas have a strong highly energetic ski resort culture in winter, and a hiking (wandering) or Mountain biking culture in summer. Other areas throughout the year have a recreational culture that caters to tourism, yet the quieter seasons are spring and autumn when there are fewer visitors. A traditional farmer and herder culture also predominates in many areas and small farms are omnipresent outside the cities. Folk art is kept alive in organisations all over the country. In Switzerland it is mostly expressed in music, dance, poetry, wood carving and embroidery. The alphorn, a trumpet-like musical instrument made of wood, has become alongside yodeling and the accordion an epitome of traditional Swiss music.
105
Recycling The recycling rate for municipal solid waste in Switzerland exceeds 40% In 2009 2'801'285 tons of waste from households and small businesses was recycled and 2'680'359 tons of municipal waste was incinerated.
In Switzerland the following common household waste materials are recycled :aluminium and tin cans, old batteries, light bulbs, glass, paper, PET bottles ,textiles, electrical and electronic equipment, and other .The disposal of recyclable waste is mostly free of charge, though not always operated as door-to-door collection .Some waste must be brought to collection spots (eg glass, metal, textiles), some is collected in supermarkets or retail shops (eg batteries, pet bottles, old electrical and electronic equipment. The seven Swiss recycling organisations: FERRO-Recycling (tin cans), IGORA (household aluminium), INOBAT (household batteries), PET-Recycling Switzerland) PET beverage bottles), the SENS Foundation (electrical and electronic equipment), TEXAID (textiles) and VetroSwiss (glass) are united in the umbrella organisation Swiss Recycling. "This association exploits the communication synergies that exist between the individual recycling organisations by providing a common platform for disseminating information on the separate collection and appropriate recycling of materials. The association's independence and expertise make it a key contact for official bodies, politicians, retailers and schools throughout Switzerland on all issues relating to recycling". 106
Individual recycling rates The recycling rates of the individual recyclable materials reached in 2006 a mean of 76% of all currently recyclable items being recycled. This has narrowly surpassed the Swiss government's 75% target, meaning that for the time being there will be no introduction of a recycling tax on glass bottles and jars, nor on clothes and textiles, plastic bottles, home-use batteries, light bulbs or paperware and card.
Waste incineration SINCE THE INTRODUCTION OF LANDFILLING BAN IN SWITZERLAND ON 1. JANUARY 2000 ALL NON RECYCLED COMBUSTIBLE WASTE MUST BE INCINERATED. SWITZERLAND DISPOSES OF 28 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE INCINERATING FACILITIES (APRIL 2011).
HOUSEHOLD RUBBISH DISPOSAL IN MANY PLACES IN SWITZERLAND, HOUSEHOLD RUBBISH DISPOSAL AND COLLECTION IS CHARGED FOR. HOUSEHOLD REFUSE (EXCEPT DANGEROUS AND CUMBERSOME ITEMS, BATTERIES, SOFAS, ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES ETC.) IN THEORY, IS ONLY TO BE COLLECTED IF IT IS IN BAGS WHICH EITHER HAVE A PAYMENT STICKER ATTACHED, IN OFFICIAL BAGS WITH THE SURCHARGE PAID WHEN THE BAGS ARE PURCHASED OR WEIGHED AT CENTRAL COLLECTION BINS. HOWEVER IN PRACTICE, THIS IS DIFFICULT TO ENFORCE, FOR HYGIENE REASONS AND DIFFICULTY IN IDENTIFYING THE PERPETRATORS. HOWEVER IT IS A FINANCIAL INCENTIVE TO RECYCLE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE, FOR RECYCLING IS USUALLY FREE OF CHARGE OR CHEAPER, ALBEIT NOT ALWAYS OPERATED THROUGH A DOOR-TO-DOOR COLLECTION. SWISS HEALTH OFFICIALS AND POLICE OFTEN OPEN UP GARBAGE FOR WHICH THE DISPOSAL CHARGE HAS NOT BEEN PAID. THEY 107
SEARCH FOR EVIDENCE SUCH AS OLD BILLS WHICH CONNECT THE BAG TO THE HOUSEHOLD/PERSON THEY ORIGINATED FROM. FINES FOR NOT PAYING THE DISPOSAL FEE CAN NOW BE UP TO CHF 10'000.- IN SOME MUNICIPALITIES. AGAIN MANY PEOPLE ARE NOW AWARE OF THIS AND REMOVE THEIR NAMES AND DETAILS FROM ANY DOCUMENTATION DISPOSED OF ILLEGALLY BEFORE TRASHING IT, THEREFORE RENDERING IT IMPOSSIBLE AND FUTILE FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS TO IDENTIFY WHERE THE RUBBISH IS COMING FROM. IN FACT IN SOME AREAS THE COST OF THE PAYMENT STICKERS OR OFFICIAL RUBBISH SACKS HAS FALLEN SLIGHTLY. HOWEVER, WHERE THIS HAS OCCURRED, AN ANNUAL TAXATION ON REFUSE COLLECTION HAS BEEN INTRODUCED OR REINTRODUCED AS IT WERE. IN SOME EXTRAORDINARY CASES, A HANDFUL OF MUNICIPALITIES HAVE INTRODUCED REFUSE WEIGHING MACHINES AND ELECTRONIC CHIP-CARDS WHICH NEED TO BE 'TOPPED UP' WITH MONEY, THUS ENFORCING PAYMENT FOR REFUSE ELIMINATION BY WEIGHT AND NOT VOLUME. AGAIN CAUSING PROBLEMS FOR ELDERLY RESIDENTS WHO WOULD HAVE TO SOMEHOW GET TO THE NEAREST REFUSE DISPOSAL POINT, POSSIBLY HAVING TO WALK UPHILL OR A SIGNIFICANT DISTANCE. ALL SUCH METHODS ARE PROVING UNPOPULAR SWITZERLAND-WIDE, ESPECIALLY, AS SAID, AMONGST THE AGEING SWISS NATIONALS WHO OFTEN FIND IT DIFFICULT TO COME TO GRIPS WITH THE EVER-IMPOSING TECHNOLOGICAL ERA. DUMPING REFUSE AND HOUSEHOLD WASTE INAPPROPRIATELY AND/OR ILLEGALLY INCURS A HEAVY FINE.
108
CANADA
1. GEOGRAPHY 2. ETYMOLOGY 3. LANGUAGE 4. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 5. currency of Canada 6. Environment 7. RECYCLE
109
CANADA IS A COUNTRY IN NORTH AMERICA CONSISTING OF 10 PROVINCES AND 3 TERRITORIES. LOCATED IN THE NORTHERN PART OF THE CONTINENT, IT EXTENDS FROM THE ATLANTIC TO THE PACIFIC AND NORTHWARD INTO THE ARCTIC OCEAN. AT 9.98 MILLION SQUARE KILOMETERS IN TOTAL, CANADA IS THE WORLD'S SECOND-LARGEST COUNTRY BY TOTAL AREA, AND ITS COMMON BORDER WITH THE UNITED STATES IS THE WORLD'S LONGEST LAND BORDER SHARED BY THE SAME TWO COUNTRIES. THE LAND THAT IS NOW CANADA HAS BEEN INHABITED FOR MILLENNIA BY VARIOUS ABORIGINAL PEOPLES. BEGINNING IN THE LATE 15TH CENTURY, BRITISH AND FRENCH COLONIAL EXPEDITIONS EXPLORED, AND LATER SETTLED, THE REGION'S ATLANTIC COAST. FRANCE CEDED NEARLY ALL OF ITS COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA TO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1763 AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR, WHICH WAS ESSENTIALLY THE NORTH AMERICAN THEATRE OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. THE POPULATION GREW STEADILY IN 110
SUBSEQUENT DECADES, THE TERRITORY WAS EXPLORED AND ADDITIONAL SELF-GOVERNING CROWN COLONIES WERE ESTABLISHED. ON JULY 1, 1867, THREE COLONIES FEDERATED, FORMING A FEDERAL DOMINION THAT ESTABLISHED CANADA. CANADA IS A FEDERAL PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY AND A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY, WITH QUEEN ELIZABETH II AS ITS HEAD OF STATE. THE COUNTRY IS OFFICIALLY BILINGUAL AT THE FEDERAL LEVEL. IT IS ONE OF THE WORLD'S MOST ETHNICALLY DIVERSE AND MULTICULTURAL NATIONS, THE PRODUCT OF LARGE-SCALE IMMIGRATION FROM MANY COUNTRIES, WITH A POPULATION OF APPROXIMATELY 35 MILLION AS OF DECEMBER 2012. ITS ADVANCED ECONOMY IS ONE OF THE LARGEST IN THE WORLD, RELYING CHIEFLY UPON ITS ABUNDANT NATURAL RESOURCES AND WELL-DEVELOPED TRADE NETWORKS. CANADA'S LONG AND COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP WITH THE UNITED STATES HAS HAD A SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON ITS ECONOMY AND CULTURE. CANADA IS A DEVELOPED COUNTRY AND ONE OF THE WEALTHIEST IN THE WORLD, WITH THE EIGHTH HIGHEST PER CAPITA INCOME GLOBALLY, AND THE ELEVENTH HIGHEST RANKING IN THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX. IT RANKS AMONG THE HIGHEST IN INTERNATIONAL MEASUREMENTS OF EDUCATION, GOVERNMENT TRANSPARENCY, CIVIL LIBERTIES, QUALITY OF LIFE, AND ECONOMIC FREEDOM. CANADA IS A RECOGNIZED MIDDLE POWER AND A MEMBER OF G7, G8, G20, INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS, NATO, NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT, ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND 111
DEVELOPMENT (OECD), WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS, FRANCOPHONIE, ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES, ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION, AND THE UNITED NATIONS.
Geography CANADA OCCUPIES A MAJOR NORTHERN PORTION OF NORTH AMERICA, SHARING LAND BORDERS WITH THE CONTIGUOUS UNITED STATES TO THE SOUTH (THE LONGEST BORDER BETWEEN TWO COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD) AND THE US STATE OF ALASKA TO THE NORTHWEST. CANADA STRETCHES FROM THE ATLANTIC OCEAN IN THE EAST TO THE PACIFIC OCEAN IN THE WEST; TO THE NORTH LIES THE ARCTIC OCEAN.[82][83] GREENLAND IS TO THE NORTHEAST, WHILE SAINT PIERRE AND MIQUELON IS SOUTH OF NEWFOUNDLAND. BY TOTAL AREA (INCLUDING ITS WATERS), CANADA IS THE SECOND-LARGEST COUNTRY IN THE WORLD, AFTER RUSSIA. BY LAND AREA ALONE, CANADA RANKS FOURTH.[83] THE COUNTRY LIES BETWEEN LATITUDES 41째 AND 84째N, AND LONGITUDES 52째 AND 141째W.
112
A SATELLITE COMPOSITE IMAGE OF CANADA. BOREAL FORESTS PREVAIL ON THE ROCKY CANADIAN SHIELD, WHILE ICE AND TUNDRA ARE PROMINENT IN THE ARCTIC. GLACIERS ARE VISIBLE IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES AND COAST MOUNTAINS. THE FLAT AND FERTILE PRAIRIES FACILITATE AGRICULTURE. THE GREAT LAKES FEED THE ST.
.
LAWRENCE RIVER IN THE SOUTHEAST, WHERE LOWLANDS HOST MUCH OF CANADA'S POPULATION
SINCE 1925, CANADA HAS CLAIMED THE PORTION OF THE ARCTIC BETWEEN 60° AND 141°W LONGITUDE, BUT THIS CLAIM IS NOT UNIVERSALLY RECOGNIZED. CANADA IS HOME TO THE WORLD'S NORTHERNMOST SETTLEMENT, CANADIAN FORCES STATION ALERT, ON THE NORTHERN TIP OF ELLESMERE ISLAND – LATITUDE 82.5°N – WHICH LIES 817 KILOMETRES (508 MI) FROM THE NORTH POLE. MUCH OF THE CANADIAN ARCTIC IS COVERED BY ICE AND PERMAFROST. CANADA HAS THE LONGEST COASTLINE IN THE WORLD, WITH A TOTAL LENGTH OF 202,080 KILOMETRES (125,570 MI); ADDITIONALLY, ITS BORDER WITH THE UNITED STATES IS THE WORLD'S LONGEST LAND BORDER, STRETCHING 8,891 KILOMETRES (5,525 MI). SINCE THE END OF THE LAST GLACIAL PERIOD, CANADA HAS CONSISTED OF EIGHT DISTINCT FOREST REGIONS, INCLUDING EXTENSIVE BOREAL FOREST ON THE CANADIAN SHIELD. CANADA HAS AROUND 31,700 LARGE LAKES, MORE THAN ANY OTHER COUNTRY, CONTAINING MUCH OF THE WORLD'S FRESH WATER. 113
THERE ARE ALSO FRESH-WATER GLACIERS IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES AND THE COAST MOUNTAINS. CANADA IS GEOLOGICALLY ACTIVE, HAVING MANY EARTHQUAKES AND POTENTIALLY ACTIVE VOLCANOES, NOTABLY MOUNT MEAGER, MOUNT GARIBALDI, MOUNT CAYLEY, AND THE MOUNT EDZIZA VOLCANIC COMPLEX. THE VOLCANIC ERUPTION OF THE TSEAX CONE IN 1775 WAS AMONG CANADA'S WORST NATURAL DISASTERS, KILLING 2,000 NISGA'A PEOPLE AND DESTROYING THEIR VILLAGE IN THE NASS RIVER VALLEY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA. THE ERUPTION PRODUCED A 22.5-KILOMETRE (14.0 MI) LAVA FLOW, AND, ACCORDING TO NISGA'A LEGEND, BLOCKED THE FLOW OF THE NASS RIVER. CANADA'S POPULATION DENSITY, AT 3.3 INHABITANTS PER SQUARE KILOMETRE (8.5 /SQ MI), IS AMONG THE LOWEST IN THE WORLD. THE MOST DENSELY POPULATED PART OF THE COUNTRY IS THE QUEBEC CITY – WINDSOR CORRIDOR, SITUATED IN SOUTHERN QUEBEC AND SOUTHERN ONTARIO ALONG THE GREAT LAKES AND THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. AVERAGE WINTER AND SUMMER HIGH TEMPERATURES ACROSS CANADA VARY FROM REGION TO REGION. WINTERS CAN BE HARSH IN MANY PARTS OF THE COUNTRY, PARTICULARLY IN THE INTERIOR AND PRAIRIE PROVINCES, WHICH EXPERIENCE A CONTINENTAL CLIMATE, WHERE DAILY AVERAGE TEMPERATURES ARE NEAR −15 °C (5 °F), BUT CAN DROP BELOW −40 °C (−40 °F) WITH SEVERE WIND CHILLS. IN NONCOASTAL 114
REGIONS, SNOW CAN COVER THE GROUND FOR ALMOST SIX MONTHS OF THE YEAR, WHILE IN PARTS OF THE NORTH SNOW CAN PERSIST YEAR-ROUND. COASTAL BRITISH COLUMBIA HAS A TEMPERATE CLIMATE, WITH A MILD AND RAINY WINTER. ON THE EAST AND WEST COASTS, AVERAGE HIGH TEMPERATURES ARE GENERALLY IN THE LOW 20S °C (70S °F), WHILE BETWEEN THE COASTS, THE AVERAGE SUMMER HIGH TEMPERATURE RANGES FROM 25 TO 30 °C (77 TO 86 °F), WITH TEMPERATURES IN SOME INTERIOR LOCATIONS OCCASIONALLY EXCEEDING 40 °C (104 °F).
ETYMOLOGY THE NAME CANADA COMES FROM THE ST. LAWRENCE IROQUOIAN WORD KANATA, MEANING "VILLAGE" OR "SETTLEMENT".IN 1535, INDIGENOUS INHABITANTS OF THE PRESENT-DAY QUEBEC CITY REGION USED THE WORD TO DIRECT FRENCH EXPLORER JACQUES CARTIER TO THE VILLAGE OF STADACONA. CARTIER LATER USED THE WORD CANADA TO REFER NOT ONLY TO THAT PARTICULAR VILLAGE, BUT THE ENTIRE AREA SUBJECT TO DONNACONA (THE CHIEF AT STADACONA); BY 1545, EUROPEAN BOOKS AND MAPS HAD BEGUN REFERRING TO THIS REGION AS CANADA IN THE 17TH AND EARLY 18TH CENTURIES, "CANADA" REFERRED TO THE PART OF NEW FRANCE THAT LAY ALONG 115
THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER AND THE NORTHERN SHORES OF THE GREAT LAKES. THE AREA WAS LATER SPLIT INTO TWO BRITISH COLONIES, UPPER CANADA AND LOWER CANADA. THEY WERE REUNIFIED AS THE PROVINCE OF CANADA IN 1841 UPON CONFEDERATION IN 1867, CANADA WAS ADOPTED AS THE LEGAL NAME FOR THE NEW COUNTRY, AND THE WORD DOMINION WAS CONFERRED AS THE COUNTRY'S TITLE. HOWEVER, AS CANADA ASSERTED ITS POLITICAL AUTONOMY FROM THE UNITED KINGDOM, THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT INCREASINGLY USED SIMPLY CANADA ON STATE DOCUMENTS AND TREATIES, A CHANGE THAT WAS REFLECTED IN THE RENAMING OF THE NATIONAL HOLIDAY FROM DOMINION DAY TO CANADA DAY IN 1982.
LANGUAGE CANADA'S TWO OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ARE ENGLISH AND FRENCH, PURSUANT TO SECTION 16 OF THE CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS AND THE FEDERAL OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT. CANADA'S FEDERAL GOVERNMENT PRACTICES OFFICIAL BILINGUALISM, WHICH IS APPLIED BY THE COMMISSIONER OF OFFICIAL LANGUAGES. ENGLISH AND FRENCH HAVE EQUAL STATUS IN FEDERAL COURTS, PARLIAMENT, AND IN ALL FEDERAL INSTITUTIONS. 116
CITIZENS HAVE THE RIGHT, WHERE THERE IS SUFFICIENT DEMAND, TO RECEIVE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SERVICES IN EITHER ENGLISH OR FRENCH, AND OFFICIAL-LANGUAGE MINORITIES ARE GUARANTEED THEIR OWN SCHOOLS IN ALL PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES. ENGLISH AND FRENCH ARE THE FIRST LANGUAGES OF 59.7 AND 23.2 PERCENT OF THE POPULATION RESPECTIVELY. APPROXIMATELY 98 PERCENT OF CANADIANS SPEAK ENGLISH OR FRENCH: 57.8 PERCENT SPEAK ENGLISH ONLY, 22.1 PERCENT SPEAK FRENCH ONLY, AND 17.4 PERCENT SPEAK BOTH. THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH OFFICIAL-LANGUAGE COMMUNITIES, DEFINED BY THE FIRST OFFICIAL LANGUAGE SPOKEN, CONSTITUTE 73.0 AND 23.6 PERCENT OF THE POPULATION RESPECTIVELY THE 1977 CHARTER OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE ESTABLISHED FRENCH AS THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE OF QUEBEC. ALTHOUGH MORE THAN 85 PERCENT OF FRENCH-SPEAKING CANADIANS LIVE IN QUEBEC, THERE ARE SUBSTANTIAL FRANCOPHONE POPULATIONS IN ONTARIO, ALBERTA, AND SOUTHERN MANITOBA; ONTARIO HAS THE LARGEST FRENCH-SPEAKING POPULATION OUTSIDE QUEBEC. NEW BRUNSWICK, THE ONLY OFFICIALLY BILINGUAL PROVINCE, HAS A FRENCH-SPEAKING ACADIAN MINORITY CONSTITUTING 33 PERCENT OF THE POPULATION. THERE ARE ALSO CLUSTERS OF ACADIANS IN SOUTHWESTERN NOVA SCOTIA, ON CAPE BRETON ISLAND, AND THROUGH CENTRAL AND WESTERN PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.
117
OTHER PROVINCES HAVE NO OFFICIAL LANGUAGES AS SUCH, BUT FRENCH IS USED AS A LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION, IN COURTS, AND FOR OTHER GOVERNMENT SERVICES, IN ADDITION TO ENGLISH. MANITOBA, ONTARIO, AND QUEBEC ALLOW FOR BOTH ENGLISH AND FRENCH TO BE SPOKEN IN THE PROVINCIAL LEGISLATURES, AND LAWS ARE ENACTED IN BOTH LANGUAGES. IN ONTARIO, FRENCH HAS SOME LEGAL STATUS, BUT IS NOT FULLY CO-OFFICIAL. THERE ARE 11 ABORIGINAL LANGUAGE GROUPS, COMPOSED OF MORE THAN 65 DISTINCT DIALECTS. OF THESE, ONLY THE CREE, INUKTITUT AND OJIBWAY LANGUAGES HAVE A LARGE ENOUGH POPULATION OF FLUENT SPEAKERS TO BE CONSIDERED VIABLE TO SURVIVE IN THE LONG TERM. SEVERAL ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES HAVE OFFICIAL STATUS IN THE NORTHWEST TERRITORIES. INUKTITUT IS THE MAJORITY LANGUAGE IN NUNAVUT, AND IS ONE OF THREE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES IN THE TERRITORY. IN 2011, NEARLY 6.8 MILLION CANADIANS LISTED A NONOFFICIAL LANGUAGE AS THEIR MOTHER TONGUE. SOME OF THE MOST COMMON NON-OFFICIAL FIRST LANGUAGES INCLUDE CHINESE (MAINLY CANTONESE; 1,072,555 FIRSTLANGUAGE SPEAKERS), PUNJABI (430,705), SPANISH (410,670), GERMAN (409,200), AND ITALIAN (407,490).
118
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
THE SENATE CHAMBER WITHIN THE CENTRE BLOCK ON PARLIAMENT HILL
CANADA HAS A PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF A CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY, THE MONARCHY OF CANADA BEING THE FOUNDATION OF THE EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATIVE, AND JUDICIAL BRANCHES. THE SOVEREIGN IS QUEEN ELIZABETH II, WHO ALSO SERVES AS HEAD OF STATE OF 15 OTHER COMMONWEALTH COUNTRIES AND EACH OF CANADA'S TEN 119
PROVINCES. AS SUCH, THE QUEEN'S REPRESENTATIVE, THE GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA (AT PRESENT DAVID LLOYD JOHNSTON), CARRIES OUT MOST OF THE FEDERAL ROYAL DUTIES IN CANADA. THE DIRECT PARTICIPATION OF THE ROYAL AND VICEROYAL FIGURES IN AREAS OF GOVERNANCE IS LIMITED. IN PRACTICE, THEIR USE OF THE EXECUTIVE POWERS IS DIRECTED BY THE CABINET, A COMMITTEE OF MINISTERS OF THE CROWN RESPONSIBLE TO THE ELECTED HOUSE OF COMMONS AND CHOSEN AND HEADED BY THE PRIME MINISTER OF CANADA (AT PRESENT STEPHEN HARPER), THE HEAD OF GOVERNMENT. THE GOVERNOR GENERAL OR MONARCH MAY, THOUGH, IN CERTAIN CRISIS SITUATIONS EXERCISE THEIR POWER WITHOUT MINISTERIAL ADVICE. TO ENSURE THE STABILITY OF GOVERNMENT, THE GOVERNOR GENERAL WILL USUALLY APPOINT AS PRIME MINISTER THE PERSON WHO IS THE CURRENT LEADER OF THE POLITICAL PARTY THAT CAN OBTAIN THE CONFIDENCE OF A PLURALITY IN THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. THE PRIME MINISTER'S OFFICE (PMO) IS THUS ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL INSTITUTIONS IN GOVERNMENT, INITIATING MOST LEGISLATION FOR PARLIAMENTARY APPROVAL AND SELECTING FOR APPOINTMENT BY THE CROWN, BESIDES THE AFOREMENTIONED, THE GOVERNOR GENERAL, LIEUTENANT GOVERNORS, SENATORS, FEDERAL COURT JUDGES, AND HEADS OF CROWN CORPORATIONS AND GOVERNMENT AGENCIES. THE LEADER OF THE PARTY WITH THE SECOND-MOST SEATS USUALLY 120
BECOMES THE LEADER OF HER MAJESTY'S LOYAL OPPOSITION (PRESENTLY THOMAS MULCAIR) AND IS PART OF AN ADVERSARIAL PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM INTENDED TO KEEP THE GOVERNMENT IN CHECK.
EACH OF THE 308 MEMBERS OF PARLIAMENT IN THE HOUSE OF COMMONS IS ELECTED BY SIMPLE PLURALITY IN AN ELECTORAL DISTRICT OR RIDING. GENERAL ELECTIONS MUST BE CALLED BY THE GOVERNOR GENERAL, EITHER ON THE ADVICE OF THE PRIME MINISTER, WITHIN FOUR YEARS OF THE PREVIOUS ELECTION, OR IF THE GOVERNMENT LOSES A CONFIDENCE VOTE IN THE HOUSE. THE 105 MEMBERS OF THE SENATE, WHOSE SEATS ARE APPORTIONED ON A REGIONAL BASIS, SERVE UNTIL AGE 75. FIVE PARTIES HAD REPRESENTATIVES ELECTED TO THE FEDERAL PARLIAMENT IN THE 2011 ELECTIONS: THE CONSERVATIVE PARTY OF CANADA (GOVERNING PARTY), THE NEW DEMOCRATIC PARTY (THE OFFICIAL OPPOSITION), THE LIBERAL PARTY OF CANADA, THE BLOC QUÉBÉCOIS, AND THE GREEN PARTY OF CANADA. THE LIST OF HISTORICAL PARTIES WITH ELECTED REPRESENTATION IS SUBSTANTIAL. CANADA'S FEDERAL STRUCTURE DIVIDES GOVERNMENT RESPONSIBILITIES BETWEEN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND THE TEN PROVINCES. PROVINCIAL LEGISLATURES ARE UNICAMERAL AND OPERATE IN PARLIAMENTARY FASHION 121
SIMILAR TO THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. CANADA'S THREE TERRITORIES ALSO HAVE LEGISLATURES, BUT THESE ARE NOT SOVEREIGN AND HAVE FEWER CONSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES THAN THE PROVINCES. THE TERRITORIAL LEGISLATURES ALSO DIFFER STRUCTURALLY FROM THEIR PROVINCIAL COUNTERPARTS.
LAW The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the UK, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.
122
THE INDIAN CHIEFS MEDAL, PRESENTED TO COMMEMORATE THE NUMBERED TREATIES OF 1871–1921 Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. The Crown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period. The Indian Act, various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples. Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921. These treaties are agreements with the Canadian Crown-in-Council, administered by Canadian Aboriginal law, and overseen by the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982. These rights may include provision of services such as health care, and exemption from taxation.. The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.
123
THE SUPREME COURT OF CANADA IN OTTAWA, WEST OF PARLIAMENT HILL
Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since 2000 by the Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin (the first female Chief Justice). Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions. Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
CURRENCY OF CANADA The Canadian dollar is the currency of Canada. As of 2011, the Canadian dollar is the 7th most traded currency in the world, accounting for 5.3% of the world's daily share. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $, or C$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies. It is divided into 100 cents. Owing to the image of a loon on the one-dollar coin, the currency is sometimes referred to as the loonie (though this term is often reserved only for the coin itself).
124
ABORIGINAL PEOPLES Archaeological studies and genetic analyses have indicated a human presence in the northern Yukon region from 24,500 BC, and in southern Ontario from 7500 BC. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. The aboriginal population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health. As a consequence of the European colonization, Canada's aboriginal peoples suffered from repeated outbreaks of newly introduced infectious diseases such as influenza, measles, and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), resulting in a forty- to eightypercent population decrease in the centuries after the European arrival. Aboriginal peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and MĂŠtis.The MĂŠtis are a mixed-blood people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers. In general, the Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.
125
Environment
Environment Canada (EC) (French: Environnement Canada), legally incorporated as the Department of the Environment under the Department of the Environment Act (R.S., 1985, c. E-10 ), is the department of the Government of Canada with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources. The powers, duties and functions of the Minister of the Environment extend to and include matters relating to: (a) the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment, including water, air and soil quality; (b) renewable resources, including migratory birds and other non-domestic flora and fauna; (c) water; (d) meteorology; (e) the enforcement of any rules or regulations made by the International Joint Commission; and (f) the coordination of the policies and programs of the Government of Canada respecting the preservation and enhancement of the quality of the natural environment. Its ministerial headquarters is located in les Terrasses de la Chaudière, Gatineau, Quebec.
126
Under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act[4] (CEPA 1999) (R.S., 1999, c. 33), Environment Canada became the lead federal department to ensure the cleanup of hazardous waste and oil spills for which the government is responsible, and to provide technical assistance to other jurisdictions and the private sector as required. The department is also responsible for international environmental issues (e.g., Canada-USA air issues). CEPA was the central piece of Canada's environmental legislation but was replaced when budget implementation bill (C-38) entered into effect in June 2012. Under the Constitution of Canada, responsibility for environmental management in Canada is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges (e.g., to the air). The federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country (e.g., benzene). Environment Canada provides stewardship of the Environmental Choice Program, which provides consumers with an eco-labelling for products manufactured within Canada or services that meet international label standards of (GEN) Global Ecolabelling Network. Environment Canada continues (2005–present) to undergo a structural transformation to centralize authority and decision-making, and to standardize policy implementation.
127
RECYCLE
In February 2004, a fee similar to the one in California was added to the cost of purchasing new televisions, computers, and computer components in Alberta, the first of its kind in Canada. Saskatchewan also implemented an electronics recycling fee in February 2007, followed by British Columbia in August 2007, Nova Scotia in February 2008, and Ontario in April 2009. In 2007, Manitoba issued the Proposed Electrical and Electronic Equipment Stewardship Regulation by which the sale of regulated products is forbidden unless covered by the stewardship program. "Products covered under this legislation include TVs, computers, laptops, and scanners." Recycling regulation passed in Ontario in October 2004, requires producers to "either develop product stewardship plans or comply with a product stewardship program for specific products." Canadian Federal legislation The Export and Import of Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Recyclable Material Regulations (EIHWHRMR) operates with a few basic premises, one of which being that electronic waste is either "intact" or "not intact". The various annexes define hazardous waste in Canada, and also deem any waste that is "...considered or defined as hazardous under the legislation of the country receiving it and is prohibited by that country from being imported or conveyed in transit" to be covered under Canadian regulation and therefor subject to prior informed consent procedures.
128
The loophole in the regulations that allows tons of e-waste to be exported from Canada is the use of the definition of "intact" vs "functional". A non-functioning electronic device that is intact can be exported under the current legislation. What can't be exported is a non-functioning but no longer intact electronic device. The principal problem being, the non-functioning electronic device is at high risk of being disassembled in some far away e-waste dumping ground. The Canadian government's use of a unique interpretation of the Basel Convention obligations "intact" and "not intact" opens the door to uncontrolled e-waste exports as long as the device is intact. See Canadian fact sheet and associated links. Since Canada ratified the Basel Convention on August 28, 1992, and as of August 2011, Environment Canada's Enforcement Branch has initiated 176 investigations for violations under EIHWHRMR, some of which are still in progress. There have been 19 prosecutions undertaken for non-compliance with the provisions of the EIHWHRMR some of which are still before the courts.
REFERENCES http://www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/plan-your-trip/know-hong-kong/location.jsp http://www.discoverhongkong.com/eng/plan-your-trip/know-hong-kong/language-and-culture.jsp http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hong_kong http://www.discoverhongkong.com/ae/plan-your-trip/know-hong-kong/climate.jsp http://www.hkrecycles.com/about-us-hong-kong-recycling.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/electronic_waste_by_country http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/australia
129