Humanities Harrovian - Issue 5

Credits

Writers

Ashley Tam

Audrey Hui

Benjamin Qin

Jessica Cheng

Rachel Pabaru

Takara Leung

Venus Yuen Editors

Leo Tse

Audrey Hui

Zoe Wong

David Lo

Sen Yi Mok

Ashley Tam

Charlize Mui

Davyn Kwok

Jessica Keady

Clarence Chen Design

Annie Yiu Academic Supervisor

Ms V. Marshall

The Women’s Suffrage Movement in the United Kingdom

Ashley Tam, Gellhorn House

What was the Women’s Suffrage Movement in the United Kingdom?

The Women’s Suffrage Movement fought for women’s voting rights and made global impacts, most prominently in the United States and the United Kingdom.

Since the times of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, women have always been excluded from voting, and the 18th and 19th century United Kingdom was no different However, the question of women’s voting rights had started to gain traction in the 19th century This sparked the Women’s Suffrage Movement: the decades-long fight for women’s voting rights

When did the Women’s Suffrage Movement start? What did the early days of the movement look like?

The Women’s Suffrage Movement began in 1832 with the first women’s suffrage petition presented to Parliament Mary Smith from Yorkshire petitioned to Henry Hunt, a more radical member of Parliament, that she and other unmarried women should have a voice in the elections for Members of Parliament, starting the fight for women’s rights

Such efforts were continued in 1866 when many prominent female reformers gathered a mass women’s suffrage petition with over 1500 signatures This petition was then presented to the House of Commons by John Stuart Mill, a Member of Parliament at the time These early efforts, despite not making any considerable progress, were important building blocks in the history of the Suffrage Movement

During the period of 1870-1905, not much advancement was made, as there was an overall lack of popularity and enthusiasm for the movement This occurred even though there were regional Suffrage groups being formed and acts passed, such as The Married Women's Property Act, which gave married women the right to own their own property and money Another was The Local Government Act, which allowed married and single women to vote in elections for county and borough councils

How did the Women’s Suffrage Movement try to achieve its goal?

During the late 19th century to early 20th century, the Women’s Suffrage Movement started to gain more attention, with an increased number of women joining the cause; multiple suffrage societies across the United Kingdom joined to form the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) led by Millicent Fawcett in 1897 With one united force, the suffragists, the more peaceful organisation of women’s suffrage, used petitions, lobbying, marching, and other peaceful methods to fight for equal voting rights for women.

This peaceful fight for women’s voting rights continued until 1903, where it became apparent that peaceful methods had generated little progress and that more active approaches were needed. Displeased with the lack of progress so far, the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was formed; it was led by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst, with the motto ‘Deeds, not Words.’

Following this, the movement started gaining a higher profile and wider recognition through their more violent and extreme approaches in fighting for women’s suffrage. The suffragettes of the WSPU began attacking property: setting public objects such as post boxes and buildings on fire, smashing windows, staging protests, planting bombs, attempting to storm the House of Parliament, as well as many other violent measures.

As the actions continued to get increasingly violent, the police began to arrest the suffragettes responsible for these actions However, the imprisoned suffragettes would go on hunger strikes to garner a response from the officials, leading to them being force-fed by the police In some cases, these suffragettes even sacrificed their lives for the cause This was the case in 1913, when Emily Wilding Davidson went to such lengths for the Women’s Suffrage Movement She stepped in front of the King’s horse at Epsom Derby, losing her life in the process

However, during 1914 as the First World War began, the women’s suffrage organisations suspended activities and diverted focus to the war effort, taking up jobs that were normally carried out by men The heavy involvement of women in the war effort changed the perception of female roles in society

This support for the war effort shown by the members of the Women’s Suffrage Movement helped develop endorsement from the public by displaying their care for their nation and their commitment to helping the war effort; thereby garnering public support and increasing their popularity like never before

Was the goal of Women’s Suffrage achieved?

Women’s suffrage in the United Kingdom was achieved on the 6th of February 1918, when The Representation of the People Act was passed, allowing women over the age of 30 residing in occupied land or premises, and men over the age of 21 with the right to vote This was a momentous occasion for the suffragists and suffragettes and was an amazing accomplishment for both the WSPU and the NUWSS Moreover, The Parliamentary Qualification of Women Act was also passed, enabling women to stand as Members of Parliament, which was a drastic step in creating gender equality in the United Kingdom and providing increased opportunities for women outside of their stereotypical domestic roles in the past

What are the lasting impacts the Women's Suffrage Movement has today?

The Women’s Suffrage Movements across the globe impacted voting rights for women forever, unlocking the ongoing fight for gender equality on a global scale

The movement changed the lives of half the world’s population, it changed people’s attitudes towards women’s rights, and it changed the perception of female roles in society

The legacy of the Women’s Suffrage Movement, being one of the most influential and powerful campaigns in history has no doubt inspired other social and political movements : such as the civil rights movement, the ongoing LGBTQ+ rights movement, and many others that fight for reform and change in modern society. In all, the fight for Women’s Suffrage was one that showed the true strength and willpower of women; one that broke the rules for a better tomorrow.

Photo: The New Internationalist

The Impacts of Social Movements on the Law and Public Opinion in the United States.

Audrey Hui, Gellhorn House

What are social movements?

Social movements are organised group efforts done to achieve a certain goal There are movements behind the most significant changes around the world, acting as key drivers of legal reform and political change

Movement Law

Movement Law is a field that studies the relationship between lawyers, the legal process, and social change It offers to understand the strategies and experiments of resistance and contestation of social movements, with movement law scholars focusing on the history and strategies of social movements and therefore, their impact on the creation of legislation

Defining a ‘successful social movement’

Hahrie Han, Professor of Political Science at John Hopkins University explores what it is that makes a social movement successful in such a way that it results in new laws being established in favour of the movement. She says a successful social movement makes the participation of ordinary people possible and probable, where people can realise their own power. For a social movement to prosper is for its leaders to be able to strategize and be flexible when it comes to push backs and achieve their goals despite them.

Within social movements, the law can be used as a strategy to achieve the desired social change

With social change being the purpose of a social movement, a legal reform provides a means of realising that goal Social movement organisations seek to secure said legal reform and consequently bring about changes in society

Therefore, for social movements to leave a true impact on the future, it is role legislation to implement new reforms as a legal obligation and right, as it forces the government to make decisions on how they should repress or engage with a movement

Photo: Cyrus Gomez

Examples of successful social

The Civil Rights Movement of an enormously successful overturning of segregation la Voting Rights for African discrimination in housing, ed piece of this movement was demonstration of true resil inclusion of ordinary pe determination against the r Black community in Montgo fight against segregation for these 365 days, the Black c community together so that n

The Women's Liberation M another example of a Socia change Divorce laws were lo from firing pregnant wome numbers of women began to 1972, Congress passed the discrimination was prohibite program receiving federal f open their doors to women F Roe V Wade legalised abor not being a success, it resu being assigned to enforce marches, strikes, and more d of pornography shops, or flou

What both movements hav implement permanent chan However, while Social Mov that may seem like a move in status quo), it does not ensure

Public Opinion

It is the pressure deriving fro of media that promotes the public opinion through its people being aware of such seek to construct change mobilising voters, or creatin shifts in public values and directly bring about social ch society's values and public o system and affect the prospe effective implementation of le

Conclusion

Social movements that con determined manner have an legislation and in shifting pub it increases the public's aware p way for some of the most profound changes in modern society, whether in legislation or public opinion

Photo: Unsplash

Philosophical Critiques of Scientism

Benjamin Qin, Shaftesbury House

Science and religion have both paralleled one another in a perennial rivalry ever since their inceptions. However, the fine line that used to exist between them has, in recent years, been blurred into the scientism movement - an extreme version of logical positivism based on the exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science applied in all areas of investigation. [1] In other words, scientism can be reduced to three propositions:

Science is the only source of true knowledge, and anything other than science is false knowledge.

Scientific conclusions are never wrong, and they never have been

Scientific methods can be used in all areas of study

This essay will present the case that scientism is a poor doctrine by means of philosophical analysis - involving discovery of the very eidos or essence of scientism, as well as brief ontological, epistemological, and ethical critiques thereof Although philosophers of science have critiqued scientism in the past, this essay will use traditional refutations and will not rely on explicit philosophy of science as the problem of scientism does not lie in science, but in the imposition of dogmatic faith upon science

Photo: NASA

The Eidos of Scientism

Eidos means “essence” or “form” in Platonic philosophy, [2] and is what Plato elucidated as the intangible, perfect, and unchanging concepts which serve as the ideals upon which all empirical reality is based on, as shown in his famous allegory of the cave: hypothetical prisoners were only able to perceive shadows from the real world, and not the real world in-itself. [3]

Understanding the eidos of scientism can help in evaluating why it is flawed; this can be done through eidetic reduction, which was first developed by Husserl as a key part of his school of transcendental phenomenology [4]

Eidetic reduction involves mentally changing features of an object, and if the object can intuitively be identified as the same object after one change, then the changed feature is not an eidos of that object However, if the opposite occurs and the object can no longer be identified as the same object after a feature has been changed, then that feature is an eidos of the object

Scientism can have a different name, a different set of followers, and other different empirically-determined properties that are not eidoses of the object of scientism Hence, it appears logical to conclude that the eidoses of scientism are the main, non-empirical (or a priori) predicates which constitute the definition of scientism: science and the extreme faith in it

However, I contend that science is not an eidos of scientism This is because if science itself is eidetically reduced, then it can be found that the eidoses of science lie in its purpose, [5] which are the useful results of scientific inquiry. Scientism is based upon an excessive faith in the methodology of science, yet methodology is not an eidos of science, as there are different scientific methods (using different equipment, nomenclature, analysis etc…). These procedures all yield the same useful and inspiring results to us, making it the defining factor for the success of science in the first place. This shows that scientism is not based on an eidos of science.

In contrast to science, the scientistic faith in science cannot be eidetically reduced. This is evident in how faith analytically belongs to the category of “possibility/impossibility” from the 12 innate, pure categories of the understanding that Kant explored in his Critique of Pure Reason [6] This implies that faith is one of the fundamental determinants of human perception and experience, thus making it irreducible to any further extent, and a pure concept which serves as the single eidos for scientism

Due to this conclusion, the following critiques of scientism will be centred around its eidos of faith

Photo: National Cancer Institute

For an ontological critique of scientism, we can turn to Heidegger’s views on the nature of being In Being and Time, [7] Heidegger said, “[The question of Being aims] at ascertaining the a priori conditions not only for the possibility of the sciences - which examine beings as beings of such and such a type, and, in doing so, already operate with an understanding of Being - but also for the possibility of those ontologies themselves which are prior to the ontical sciences and which provide their foundations ” Since Heidegger’s concept of “Seinsvergessenheit” suggests that the nature of being was a “forgotten question where the forgetting had also been forgotten”, this means that the natural sciences operate without a conscious understanding of the concept of being, and thus without it, they are only able to derive contingent conclusions From this, Heidegger concluded that science was only one type of worldview, and in a documentary filmed in 1975, [8] he proceeded to state how a dogmatic faith in the power of science (i e scientism) was a religion, and hence, does not logically follow as a result of the nature of the being of science

Alternatively, another ontological critique would involve Brentano’s reintroduction of the mediaeval philosophical concept of intentionality, which is the ability for individual mental frameworks of consciousness to subjectively direct themselves towards objects that originate in an objective reality [9] Faith is evidently one of these individual mental frameworks (as it is a pure concept that determines human consciousness, as referenced earlier) So, the intentionality whereby an excessive faith acts as a framework for the interpretation of scientific truths transforms the objectivity of science into a subjectivity particular to an individual

The Epistemological Critique

An epistemological critique of scientism will revolve around the falsifications of the three propositions mentioned in the introduction which express its core beliefs. This will demonstrate why scientism is entirely faith-based, and how there is no clear logical justification for it.

The first proposition that I formulated states, “science is the only source of true knowledge, and anything other than it is false knowledge.” This is false in two ways:

Science is based upon a groundwork other than itself, and so the non-scientific axioms which serve as the groundwork for science must also be true if science were to be true, thus making science not the only source of true knowledge The fact that science has a non-scientific basis is proven by Kant in his 1786 publication Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, [10] where he demonstrated how traditional areas of scientific study originate in metaphysical ideas

Wittgenstein suggested in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus that language (which is the system he thought all human understanding derived from) could never describe truths in the world, but only represent truths and act as a tool for humans in the reference of objects [11] He then developed this idea further by saying that since scientific knowledge is gained through the ascribing of language to phenomena, science does not actually communicate truths, but only representations of truths

The second proposition states, “scientific conclusions are never wrong, and they never have been ” This is also false in two ways:

A simple historical evaluation will reveal that scientific beliefs have radically changed over time, and so some scientific conclusions have been wrong A well-known example was how Ptolemy's geocentric model (which places earth in the centre) was replaced by Copernicus’ heliocentric model (which correctly placed the Sun as the centre of our solar system), even though both theories are considered scientific [12]

Hume’s “problem of induction” can be applied epistemologically to suggest that if an observed fact about the world is true, it does not necessarily imply that the observed fact ought to be true in any given future or past situation [13] For example, the idea that the Earth has currently orbits Sun in a year does not entail this would be the case in the future This can then be applied to falsify the proposition by suggesting that it is not known whether scientific conclusions are never wrong, because even though they are true, it does not mean they always ought to be so Therefore, it is illogical to assume that they are never wrong

The third proposition states, “scientific methods can be used in all areas of study ” This is false because scientific methods (by definition) are only known as such due to how they can only be used in scientific contexts Methods in other areas of study must be different from scientific methods because they are used to approach different subjects, and thus, the manner in which they are approached must also be different for maximised success. Besides, not all disciplines are even related to science (e.g. literary criticism related to science in any way, and scientific methods cannot be applied to it).

The Ethical Critique

A simple, logical truth is that when one believes in a concept, all the predicates of that concept are trusted and accepted. [14] Therefore, if one believes in the concept of scientism, then they also believe in all the predicates of scientism, including the fact that they should do immoral acts in certain situations as a direct result of their belief in scientism

From this, it can also be said that if a single instance can be found where a belief in scientism directly results in unethical behaviour, then it proves that scientism itself is unethical This is because morality is binary - actions are either right or wrong and so if a part of a concept is wrong, then that concept itself is wrong, since the part falsifies its rightness Some may disagree with this by stating that the method of Hegelian sublation can be used to escape binary situations [15] However, that would be incorrect, because morality isn’t just binary, it is completely binary, meaning that a Hegelian sublation would involve the dismissal of the concept of morality entirely, and the creation of something new, as was demonstrated by Nietzsche in his book Beyond Good and Evil, where he explored his concept of the “will to power” as an explanation for all actions, rather than morality The dismissal of the concept of morality would be of no use in this ethical critique, so my proposition still stands

Let us consider the following: suppose there is a company which recently developed a medicinal drug they claim to be “scientifically backed ” Unfortunately, the experiments were flawed because there was not sufficient testing, thus causing the medicine to be unsafe and life-threatening A member of the government (who happens to be a strong believer in scientism) would then legally approve the drug (on the basis of the company claiming it to be “scientifically backed” alone) and assure the public that it is safe and effective, yet the drug ends up taking the lives of many and leaving others with health problems

From the perspective of secular normative ethics:

It is immoral by deontological ethics because it violates Kant’s “categorical imperative” by killing and lying, which are both innately wrong and universally forbidden [16]

It is immoral by utilitarianism because it leaves the consequences of death and suffering, which minimises happiness - from Bentham’s ethics - [17] and as a result, also minimises the quality of happiness - from Mill’s ethics [18]

It is immoral by virtue ethics because the medicine does not fulfil its Aristotelian telos or purpose of treating disease. [19]

Illustration: Annie Yiu, Anderson House

It is immoral by contractarianism because the people who took the medicine had never fully agreed to it, as they did not know that by consenting to take the medication, they were also putting themselves at risk Additionally, from a Rawlsian contractarian theory, it does not allow for equal opportunities that benefit the least advantaged as it imbalances the chances of survival between a consenter and a non-consenter of the medicine [20]

From the perspective of religious ethics, it is immoral because it violates the “Golden Rule”, that you should “do unto others as you would have them do unto you”, which is found in almost all religions. [21] This is because it is most likely that the believer of scientism did not want severe health risks themself, so by having an illogical faith in science, they did not follow the “Golden Rule” when they gave the people who took his medicine health risks.

Conclusion

From ontological, epistemological, and ethical critiques of the scientism movement based on its eidos of dogmatic faith, it can be concluded that scientism misinterprets the very being of science, subjectifies scientific ideas, is illogical in all its beliefs, and is immoral based on all major ethical systems. It is fair to say that even though scientism is mistaken, science and all other forms of intellectual inquiry are not, and it is the riddance of certainty and dogma (which scientism largely treasures) that allows for new discoveries, developments, and advancements

Photo: The Canadian Encyclopedia

The Indian Partition

Jessica Cheng, Gellhorn House

The Indian Partition was a defining event in the history of modern India and Pakistan. It involved the division of British India into two separate states: India and Pakistan 1947 was the largest and most rapid forced migration of human people in history, with an estimated 14 5 million people migrating within 4 years, of which 1 million of those lost their lives in search for a new home

The partition was mainly based on the two major religions in India: Hindu people going to the Indian mainland and Islamic people going to the newly created country of Pakistan, which was divided into East and West Pakistan East Pakistan would later become modern Bangladesh

The partition was accompanied by widespread violence and confusion; millions of people forced to flee their homes without sufficient notice and information about how they would travel and where they would go Changes in geographical borders before the official British announcements also played a significant role in increasing the state of panic and worry among the people

The people involved in the partition included British colonial officials and Indian nationalist leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who played a key role in advocating for the creation of Pakistan

British Involvement

India was freed from two centres of British rule at midnight on the 14th of August 1947; though it has remained a part of the Commonwealth to this day The British Raj took it upon themselves to be highly involved in the technicalities of the partition, especially the drawing of the borders between India and Pakistan, as it was stated in the Indian Independence Act, made in 1974, after the British government decision to withdraw from India completely

Lord Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of India, and it was his responsibility to smoothly execute a peaceful transition of power from the British crown to the Indian people

Photo: Wikipedia

The ha before It was ligious people

The Migration Process

Communities that had coexisted for almost a millennium were attacking each other in a terrifying outbreak of sectarian violence, resulting in immense brutality and even displacement. Tensions between the different religions were already at their peak due to British methods of segregation prior to the partition. For example, the fact that the Indian people were only allowed to vote for someone of the same religious identity, causing further segregation and suspicions between religions.

In Punjab and Bengal, the carnage was especially intense, with massacres, arson, forced conversions, mass abductions, and savage sexual violence Punjab was the centre of division during this period due to its location on the Indian-Pakistani borders, establishing Punjab as a place of visible Muslim-Hindu divide

(Photograph) Women and children in makeshift homes Shaina Aswani

Women especially accounted as victims of this widespread violence Many were captured and forced into marriage with their captors Children were separated from their families resulting in families being torn apart Many families had to leave their homes where they had lived for decades

These people lost their languages, ways of life, homes, property, and entire communities because of the hasty partition

“Partition is not a solution for allegedly intractable conflict between communities” - Priya Satia, Historian in Stanford University

The Partition’s Legacy

The partition led to many economic failures, as well as a large humanitarian crisis The partition also had drastic economic consequences, like the failings of agriculture and the planting sectors that people once inhabited

To this day, there is still turmoil between India and Pakistan, mainly over the area of Kashmir, a region to the very north of India, which does not aid the cessation of suspicions and tensions between the two areas Though, it must be noted that the Indian Partition did not initiate the deterioration of Hindu-Islamic relations in this region but rather catalysed it. It heightened tensions between the two religious communities leaving everlasting and irreparable damages for all parties involved.

Photo: Shaina Aswani

Timeline of Events

1600 - British East India Company is established.

1858 - The India Act, the power is transferred to the British government

1919 - Rowlatt Acts, it gave the Imperial Legislative Council the right to arrest any person without trial This led to the Amritsar massacre where 20,000 unarmed Indians were killed

1920 - Gandhi, a prominent figure behind the Hindu majority, launched his non-violent movements against Britain for a free India

1922 - Gandhi is arrested on charges of sedition, the obstruction of official proceedings, by British officials

1930 - Gandhi started the Civil Disobedience Movement against Britain's Salt Act (Salt March), which prohibited Indians from selling salt, as well as charging large taxes for those who bought them

1935 - Government of India Act, it established India as a nation consisting of British India and princely states, which are small regions ruled by a leader.

1940 - Jinna, the well-known leader of the Muslim minority, calls for the establishment of Pakistan, a country where there would be Muslim majority.

1945 - The new Labour Government begins to prepare for Indian independence Direct Action Day riots further convince the British that partition is inevitable

3 June 1947 - Lord Mountbatten announces the plan for Indian partition

15 August 1947 - Radcliffe’s borders of East Pakistan, West Pakistan and mainland India are released

1971 East Pakistan separated from West Pakistan to form Bangladesh

Photo: Topography

Climate change: shifting climate belts will dictate the future

Rachel Pabaru, Wu House

Climate belts and their distribution:

Climate is the long-term weather patterns in an area, and these weather patterns are highly subject to climate change, both natural and anthropogenic Climate belts are areas with distinct climates; these belts correspond to weather patterns, latitude, and the biodiversity found there

There are many ways of classifying climate, however the most common is the Köppen climate classification created by climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1884 The Köppen system groups climate into five categories: tropical climates (A); arid climates (B); temperate climates (C); continental climates (D); polar climates (E), and 30 sub-types These groups were created based on precipitation and temperature, which is why they are vulnerable to changes created by anthropogenic climate change; therefore, it is highly likely that we will see a shift in climate belts due to a warming climate

Figure 1(a) shows present-day climate zones (1980-2016) and 1(b) shows a future map (2071-2100)

As the planet continues to warm, climate zone shifts will continue to accelerate as they have done so since the 1980s In the 20th century, up to 5% of the Earth’s total land area underwent climate zone changes, with the expansion of arid climate zone was equivalent to up to 1 5% of the Earth’s total land area and shrinkage of the polar climate zone was equivalent to 0 5-1 0% of the Earth’s total land area While these changes may seem insignificant, they trigger a cascade of impacts, posing a significant threat to the planet and society

Tropical climate zones close to the equator, as shown in Figure 1(a), will experience warmer temperatures due to global warming The Earth has already warmed 1 1°C, and a recent IPCC report warns that warming is very unlikely to be kept below the key threshold of 1 5°C above pre-industrial averages Arid zones are expanding at a rate of 4 2x105 km2 per decade due to this warming, which has many adverse impacts on the countries who rely heavily on agriculture Disruption to agricultural production, especially in countries heavily reliant on cash crops (such as Indonesia, which exports palm, coffee, and cocoa), will result in GDP reductions from lower crop yields, and food shortages Additionally, warmer temperatures are also triggering water shortages, severe drought, and desertification the process by which land turns to desert Each year, 1,350 square miles of land turns to desert in Nigeria, resulting in lower crop yields and forcing farmers to abandon their livelihoods This occurs simultaneously with population growth, one third of which is expected to come from developing countries in Africa and Asia, further straining already limited water resources Reductions in crop yields and water availability can and have led to conflict over resource scarcity Desertification in the Darfur region has created tension between nomadic herders and farmers; this, combined with ethnic and religious tensions led to the first genocide of the 21st century a possible indicator of what is to come with climate change and increasing resource scarcity, especially in weak and failing states.

Polar climates are experiencing a significant reduction in ice coverage due to warming, with the polar zone shrinking in the second half of the last century. The Arctic Ocean projected to be ice-free in the summer before the mid-century, leading to inland parts of the Arctic, such as the northwest of Russia and Finland, becoming continental climates, characterised by extreme seasonal changes, cold winters and long-lasting snow coverage, and short growing seasons. While this presents economic opportunities for the Arctic, the consequences shifting climate belts, especially in low-lying island nations, such as the Maldives and Vanuatu, Africa and Southeast Asia, are a cause for concern and adapting will be a major challenge across the globe. With the melting of ice caps, sea levels are predicted to rise by at worst 15 metres, threatening low-lying small coastal islands, river deltas and coastal communities. For example, much of Bangladesh is predicted to become uninhabitable because of rising sea levels due to its location in the Bay of Bengal and inland flooding from Himalayan meltwater One-third of Bangladesh’s population lives along the coast and by 2050, 13 million Bangladeshis (10% of the population) are predicted to emigrate due to climate change

One of the biggest challenges we face is climate-induced migration, which is adding to the already growing migration, whether forced or voluntary As temperatures and sea levels continue to rise, many cities and countries, such as Bangladesh, will become uninhabitable More extreme, unpredictable weather patterns will force people to leave their homes in record numbers These climate migrants are predicted to travel north, away from arid and tropical climate zones closer to the equator, and towards higher latitudes, where continental, temperate and polar climate zones are located Resource shortages and conflicts due to climate change will force millions to migrate both internally and internationally The UN International Organisation for Migration estimates there will be as many as 1 billion environmental migrants in the next 30 years, the majority of which will come from developing countries predicted to be the most adversely affected by climate change

The IPCC warns that rising sea levels, especially in highly populated mega-deltas of Southeast Asia, such as the Pearl River Delta, will be at very high risk from coastal flooding and river flooding The impacts of frequent flooding and the submergence of the coast in these mega-deltas will ripple through the global economy, as many of these places are hubs for global trade and business People will be forced to migrate elsewhere in the hundreds of millions, with 4 million people already needing to migrate from islands in the Bay of Bengal to the mainland Migration on this scale poses challenges for host countries that have to deal with the pressure of mass migration, while simultaneously adapting to climate change themselves

Wealthy developed countries will need to take in displaced climate migrants Despite possessing a greater ability to mitigate some impacts of climate change, some developed countries are predicted to be the most severely physically impacted by climate change and will struggle to adapt The USA, Australia and southern Europe are expected to experience more frequent and intense hydrometeorological hazards, ranging from drought to floods to hurricanes and heatwaves Just last year, heatwaves in Europe broke many temperature records, making the summer of 2022 the hottest on record for Europe, highlighting the need to adapt infrastructure to make it climate-resilient. There is also evidence of Europe’s worst drought in 500 years, which will only worsen with climate change as climate models predict a shift towards an arid climate in southern Europe, including parts of Spain, Portugal, and southern Italy. With these changes and additional stress from climate migration, new resource shortages may be triggered due to increased consumption and disruption of agriculture.

Africa and South Asia, it is likely that tensions in Europe will rise, and immigrants will face greater hostility, and governments will face pressure to find a compromise

However, warming in the Arctic may mitigate some social impacts of climate change As ice melts, new cities may be created, which can alleviate the stress of an influx of climate migrants Parts of Siberia are consistently recording temperatures of 30°C, indicating the potential of the Arctic to re-home millions displaced by climate change in Africa and Southeast Asia While Arctic nations can be called ‘winners’ due to longer growing seasons and increased shipping, establishing new economic centres, these benefits will not offset the negative impacts of climate change elsewhere, and will further exacerbate climate change due to the positive feedback mechanism of the albedo effect – ice melts and darker oceans absorb more heat, causing more warming, which causes further ice melt This will lead to further climate migration as more land becomes uninhabitable, which will only increase border stress and lead to greater antiimmigrant sentiment.

Conclusion

To conclude, the impacts of shifting climate belts due to climate change will lead to many adverse impacts that trigger the mass migration of millions of people. While there is uncertainty over the extent of the impact of climate change, it is fairly certain that we will need to adapt and accommodate displaced peoples. Even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced now, the climate will continue changing and climate belts will continue shifting; it is an inevitability that climate-induced migration will occur, having already begun. Extreme climate hazards, rising sea levels, increasing resource scarcity and conflict are forcing millions to abandon their homes in search of safety in more suitable climates closer to the poles in what could be the biggest migrant crisis in history.

Photo: Angel Garcia

Air Transportation: a catalyst for socioeconomic development

Takara Leung, Keller House

"Airports will shape business location and urban development in the 21st century as much as highways did in the 20th century, railroads in the 19th and seaports in the 18th" Air transportation plays a vital role in stimulating economic development by facilitating flows of trade, culture, and people Airports are essential hubs for connectivity and trade, which could lead to significant regional growth, particularly in developing countries

Globally, there are 900 airlines, which serve 1670 airports through their network of pathways They transport a combined two billion passengers annually Although airports are large-scale infrastructure projects, and, on average, cost US$30 million per 3km runway, air transport entirely covers its infrastructure costs In contrast with road and rail, through taxation, they are a net positive contributor to national treasuries (the government department responsible for managing the economy overall)

Aviation’s total economic impact is estimated at US$2.96 trillion, equivalent to 8% of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Aside from its direct economic impacts, via links to the tertiary sector, the air transport industry also has indirect impacts. It enables other industries, which are essential for economic development, to thrive. The economic growth caused, resultant of the growing aviation industry, has unprecedented social benefits as well.

Job Creation

The air transport industry generates 5 million jobs directly; this consists of those employed by airlines as pilots and flight attendants, as well as in the civil aerospace sector, which includes the manufacturing of engines. This only scratches the surface of the impacts of the aviation industry Globally, 29 million jobs are supported by this industry, six times the figure mentioned above

The jobs predominantly comprise of the catalytic impacts air transport has on tourism, which has created 15 5 million jobs Air transport can improve the quality of life for many individuals within a society by supporting tourism According to the US Travel Association, the most common activity for international tourists is shopping, closely followed by visiting historical sites and joining sightseeing tours Given that these activities all require human assistance, it creates jobs for local residents 6 7 million jobs are directly supported by the spending of international visitors arriving by air By providing stable incomes to people within the service sector, tourism can assist in improving living standards

The aviation sector has evidently impacted the wider economy Increasing air traffic has proven catalytic effects of attracting more international corporations and foreign direct investment (FDI), which leads to an increase in high-income jobs This leads to more well-educated, skilled workers moving to that country; as a result, the GDP and average national income increases This creates a positive multiplier effect, amplifying the original influences Through the creation of new jobs, the national government will also earn an increase in revenue from taxes This money is then reinvested back into society through erecting and maintaining buildings or improving infrastructure, as well as fostering the protection of conservated areas Increased government spending helps to improve the overall quality of life for citizens, as they are able to access better healthcare and education services All of this would not have been possible without air transport, which has helped sustain both social and economic development

Aerotropolis

As governments have discovered the unequivocal effects of airports, this has led to the creation of aerotropolis–an urban region centred and developed around an airport in hopes of creating a global transport hub

A prime example is Singapore, a city-state located in the southeast of Asia. As a consequence of the Changi Airport opening in December 1981, Singapore experienced rapid traffic growth in the latter part of the 20th century. Thanks to its significant economic impacts, Changi Airport is one of Singapore’s primary assets. This is clearly demonstrated in the following statistics: 375,000 jobs supported by the air transport sector, which has contributed $37 Billion to the Singaporean economy (12% of GDP). The Changi Airport also helps Singapore maintain its supply chain competencies while attracting overseas investments. Airports also boost other industries within a country while being a major creator of jobs and attraction for FDI.

Airports serve as a visitor’s first and last impression of a city; hence, it is a vital asset which many governments have prioritised through the redeveloping and expanding their airports to garner international attention.

Transportation of goods

Air transportation helps facilitate global trade and enables countries to play a role in the global market. By creating ‘air bridges’ between cities, goods and people are allowed to flow through; thus, becoming a fundamental driver of economic growth. Consumers and producers alike benefit from global trade, especially due to the globalisation of products.

The increased transportation of goods by air allows countries to concentrate on developing specific industries. This is because more time and energy could be focused on those sectors as air transportation makes it easier and quicker to import goods from other countries. This means countries could just import the goods they do not create on their own. By enabling countries to specialise in activities in which they have comparative advantage over others, production will increase. Hence, trade will increase overall. Moreover, the quality of goods will also improve since more time and labour are invested in fewer products. For example, due to their advantages of climate and soil, French wine is consumed globally and is widely considered superior compared to wine from other countries The ability to transport goods by air allows French manufactures to invest more time and money into their wine, improving the overall quality for the drink to be enjoyed worldwide

Globalisation also leads to increased competition from the global market This is a huge benefit for consumers, as companies compete to create the best products for lower costs To beat the competition and stand out in the market, companies are encouraged to produce more innovative solutions To lower costs, many companies will also attempt to mass-produce products; the potential to serve a large market impacts the innovation of 70% of businesses This is another example of a strategy to decrease the cost of production, which results in consumers being able to buy goods for lower prices

Through the connection of buyers to sellers, air transportation also facilitates the consistent movement of goods Statistics reveal that 40% of interregional exports of goods (by value) are transported via aviation Providing fast connections between cities is beneficial to customers and the wider economy, even to those with less purchasing power

The transportation of goods has become significantly more affordable for lower-income countries (LICs) due to developments in air transportation This allows LICs to play a role in the global economy, which they previously were not a part of Unlike cargo ships, access to a port does not play a significant role in air transport Therefore, landlocked countries, which are often remote areas, become easily accessible Furthermore, aviation promotes social inclusion by providing an efficient pathway into remote areas

An example of a LIC which has benefited from aviation is Kenya, a country in East Africa that is renowned for its safari tours and vast wildlife Kenya uses air cargo to transport their manufactured products (i e , $1 2B of tea in 2020) overseas, predominantly to Pakistan Manufacturing has become a core pillar to the Kenyan economy and is the country’s biggest earner of foreign exchange This promotes social inclusion by ensuring all groups have an adequate standard of living

Evaluation and Conclusion

Despite the outlined benefits of aviation, the global pandemic has highlighted the fragility of the industry

The increasing dependence of some countries on other more self-sufficient ones exposes a key issue of aviation as a mode of transport: if the transport of commodities from overseas is suddenly suspended, the supply of goods become scarce, driving prices up significantly

The heavy impacts on tourism and retail sectors have led to declines in GDP, with the United States recording its steepest quarterly drop of 9.1% in economic output in the second quarter of 2020. This demonstrates its influence on even the largest economies - that they are not immune to the impacts of the decrease in air transport.

To conclude, air transport is undoubtably one of the biggest contributors to the advancement of the global economy in the last century. Airplanes are not affected by geographical locations and are arguably most efficient, unlike other modes of transport. By facilitating global trade, air transport drives economic and social development

Photo: Maikel Oosterink

The Movement of Continents Over Time

Venus Yuen, Wu House

Over centuries, scientists and geologists have produced explanations for the change in land and how those changes form continents over time Nowadays, the movement of continents is explained through the theory of plate tectonics, which has replaced the erstwhile theory known as continental drift

The Theory of Continental Drift

1912 was when one of the first theories that illustrated continental drift was proposed Wegener–a German climatologist-believed that the main seven expanses of land, now known as continents, were once a single landmass which he named Pangaea As time passed, parts of the land started drifting apart due to the rotation of the Earth This was supported by three main pieces of evidence: glacial sediments found across Earth from the Permo-Carboniferous, the perfect fit of continents, and the distribution of rocks, ancient fossils, and mountain ranges across the continents

Evidence

Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments found in Australia, Antarctica, South Africa, Arabia, India, and Madagascar were used as evidence to prove Wegener’s continental drift theory The Permo-Carboniferous was a period around 250 million years ago, when Earth experienced a major ice age, resulting in the spread of glacial sediments The presence of glacial sediments in these locations suggests that they were all once situated in a polar region This complements the theory of continental drift as it implies that these places that are now separated from each other, were once connected as one single landmass long ago Secondly, Wegener also observed that the coastlines of the continents fit perfectly together, further supporting his theory Additionally, similar rocks and structures were found on different continents and rocks of identical age and type were found on opposite sides of the Atlantic. The presence of Lystrosaurus fossils in South Africa, Antarctica, and India further suggests that these areas were once joined together to form Pangaea. Moreover, the Appalachians were also similar to mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Great Britain, and Ireland. Hence, Wegener concluded that the land on Earth was indeed a single landmass, but eventually, parts of the land drifted, forming what we refer to as continents today.

Despite the variety of evidence provided, the theory of continental drift was not widely accepted and was soon forgotten by many as Wegener was unable to provide a cogent explanation for what may have caused the drift of continents. However, in the 1960s, the theory of continental drift was brought up once again. With more advanced technology, it was easier to research reasons for the drift of continents and allowed us to study Earth more deeply.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics

The plate tectonics theory is a scientific theory that elucidates the movement of Earth’s lithospheric plates, also known as tectonic plates It is an improved and more logical explanation of the movement of continents and has evolved from the theory of continental drift The plate tectonics theory was first discovered by American geophysicist Jason Morgan in 1967 He presented the idea that rigid plates pave the Earth’s surface and that they move about each other, therefore, causing the continents to drift apart and come together occasionally

Photo: HVXLII

In general, there are three types of plate boundaries: convergent, transfor divergent

Convergent plate boundaries are locations where two tectonic plate towards each other, causing collisions There are three types of converge boundaries: ocean-ocean, ocean-continent, and continent-continent. At an ocean convergent boundary, one of the plates is subducted beneath the creating a deep ocean trench and a volcanic island arc At an ocean-co convergent boundary, the denser oceanic plate is subducted beneath the les continental plate This creates a deep ocean trench and a volcanic mountai on the continent This subduction of oceanic plates is also known responsible for the formation of most of the world's volcanoes and recycling of the Earth’s crust. Lastly, at a continent-continent con boundary, the two plates collide, creating a mountain range. Transform boundaries occur when two tectonic plates slide pass each othe can cause immense earthquakes and are characterized by intense seismic a However, unlike convergent and divergent boundaries, there are no plates or mountain chains created

Divergent boundaries occur when two tectonic plates are pushed apart fro other. This creates a space between the plates filled with magma from the which eventually solidifies over time to form a new crust. Divergen boundaries mostly occur between oceanic plates However, some exam divergent boundaries occurring on land include the Great Rift Valley in the Gulf of Aden, and the Red Sea The study of divergent plate bounda also provided evidence and theories to the processes that shape the surface, the geological history of the planet, and how it has changed over t

What Drives Plate Tectonics

The Earth’s tectonic plates are driven by convection currents in the mantle Convection currents occur due to the transfer of heat from the core to its surface, causing rising and sinking of material in the mantle material rises, it pushes the lithospheric plates apart which is known as di plate boundaries. Conversely, as it sinks, it pulls the plates togethe movement is known as convergent plate boundaries. Additionally, the mo of the plates is also influenced by the distribution of heat and density mantle, as well as the forces generated by the plates themselves

Advantages of the Movement of Continents

The movement of continents plays a significant role in the Earth’s climate because it affects the circulation of ocean currents and the distribution and moisture around the globe However, it may also cause climate chan global warming as its effect on the circulation of ocean currents may bring the polar regions through seawater The movement of continents also gav understanding of the movement of tectonic plates and the theory behind allows us to understand better how to stop and predict natural disasters th happen in the future.

Disadvantages of the Movement of Continents

The movement of continents can also cause natural disasters As the plates slide past, collide, or move apart from each other, the vast movem these plates easily causes natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunam volcanic eruptions which may result in deaths and injuries among peopl loss of resources and money in certain locations. Furthermore, the move continents can also affect the formation of natural resources such as oil, g minerals, as it changes the location, convenience, and accessibility of these resources

Photo: Tim Brown

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The Impacts of Social Movements on the Law and Public Opinion in the United States Anderson, James “Some Say Occupy Wall Street Did Nothing It Changed Us More than We Think ” Time, 15 Nov 2021, time com/6117696/occupy-wall-street-10-years-later/ “Banners, Barricades, and Bombs: How Social Movements Affect Public Opinion ”

Epicenter wcfia harvard edu, epicenter wcfia harvard edu/blog/banners-barricades-and-bombs Accessed 19 Apr 2023 Review, Stanford Law “Movement Law ” Stanford Law Review, www stanfordlawreview org/print/article/movement-law/ Accessed 19 Apr 2023

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The Philisophical Critiques of Scientism

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[7] Heidegger, Martin, Being and Time. Blackwell, 1967.

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The Indian Partition

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Air Transportation: a catalyst for socioeconomic development

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The Movement of Continents Over Time

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