The Psych Perspective - Issue 4

SYCH IV PERSPECTIVE

What is the Psych Perspective?

The Psych Perspective is a student led publication-based society at Harrow Hong Kong that showcases student-written material on a variety of psychological topics. The Psych Perspective was created to give pupils the opportunity to explore the fascinating world of psychology and delve deeper into the study of the mind and human behaviour. Students are able to write about anything that piques their interest, whether it be about the phenomenon of first love or the Borromean Knot. We hope you enjoy reading the following articles and appreciate the captivating stories and the thought-provoking questions raised throughout the issue.

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Meet the Team

Clarinde Sanft, President and Editor-in-Chief

Amelia Roberts-Rodriguez, Tiffany He, Reika Oh, Clarinde Sanft

Jennifer Zhou, Deputy Editor-in-Chief

Juliana Enkleze, Deputy Editor-in-Chief

Reika Oh, Director of Art and Design

I’m honoured to present the fourth edition of the Psychology Harrovian.

This edition inquires into a myriad of topics in psychology, from the criminology of recidivism to understanding the human psyche via the Borromean knot and neurosexism in gender research. It’s truly been a pleasure being able to lead the development of this publication and a privilege to work with our team of contributors to see all the effort that has gone into this final product.

I hope all the readers take an interest in the articles and the extensive range of subjects included in this issue as much as I did. I wish that they are instilled with the aspiration to delve further into the vast subject of psychology.

I would like to thank all the writers’ artists, and editors with whom I had the incredible opportunity to work with this term.

Sanft, Editor Chief and President

First and foremost, I would like to say a huge thank you to everyone who contributed to the fourth issue of the Psych Perspective.

It has been a pleasure to be a part of this creation process, and I enjoyed looking at all of the illustrators’ takes on the article topics. I hope that the compelling variety of articles ranging from the phenomenon of first love to the mystery of recidivism paired with the fantastic illustrations provide a deeper understanding of the world around us and leave you with deepened curiosity in the human psyche.

Reika Oh, Director of Art and Design

Clarinde

sages

This is the first issue of the Psych Perspective that I participated in as the deputy editorin-chief, and it has been an absolute pleasure to work with this great team. It took a lot of effort and hard work to present this edition to all of you, and I am really grateful for everyone that contributed. I hope you can find something you enjoy reading within this issue, no matter if you are a complete ‘beginner’ to psychology or someone who wants to explore more in this mysterious and fascinating field.

Jennifer Zhou, Deputy Editor-in-Chief

It has been a pleasure to be part of the Psych Perspective and as a deputy editor-in-chief no less. I am delighted to be able to be part of this team and be able to help present this issue and more onwards. I hope you are looking forward to delving into some compelling titles that show links between psychology, our brains and everyday experiences that we have pondered on but never actually looked into. With great contributions from our fellow students in Harrow HK, you now have access to these questions and some of their answers at your fingertips and don’t forget about the fascinating artwork, enjoy!

Julianna Enkleze, Deputy Editor-in-Chief

I am extremely thrilled to once again announce a brand-new issue for the Psychology Harrovian this term. My congratulations go to all the writers, editors and illustrators for their creativity, hard work and dedication towards this publication. The pupils have written some excellent articles that are interesting, thought-provoking and allow for further discussions. The topics of these articles range from looking at why social media is harmful to the teenager's psychological state to understanding the Psychology in the game 'Mafia' as well as looking at the effect of music on the soul. This publication is underpinned by curiosity and passion, it is a journey that these pupils have taken towards engaging with the human psyche. I hope you enjoy reading the articles and the illustrations to go with it as much as I have.

Mrs. Sharin Sikka, Academic Supervisor

Contri WRITERS

Clarence Chen

Alicia Cheung

Cindy Jiang

Ashlee Kwan

Katie Lai

Audrey Lam

Jordan Lau

Crystal Lee

Justin Leung

Angela Li

Gigi Mo

Benjamin Qin

Clarinde Sanft

Aston Tam

Tracy Zhang

Jennifer Zhou

ibutors

EDITORS

Jais Brar

Agnes Chan

Juliana Enkleze

Tisha Handa

Valerie Ho

Luna Huang

Nicole Lau

Ricky Li

Lara McWilliam

Benjamin Qin

Clarinde Sanft

Tracy Zhang

Jennifer Zhou

ILLUSTRATORS

Estelle Chen

Zia Cheung

Tiffany He

Audrey Hui

Kyle MacDonald

Reika Oh

Amelia Roberts-Rodriguez

Clarinde Sanft

Glos

Problems with Perception

Clarence Chen

Why is Social Media harmful to teenagers’ psychological state?

Alicia Mia Cheung

Deja Vu: a journey back to ‘the past’

Cindy Jiang

The Romanticization of Suffering & Mental Disorders

—

Ashlee Kwan

The Accuracy and Validity of Popular Personality Categorization

Katie Lai

Music and the Soul

Audrey Lam

Criminology: The Mystery of Recidivism

—

Jordan Lau

The Phenomenon of First Love

Crystal Lee

ssary

For the Extroverts, Introverts, and everything in between

— Justin Leung

Is what you see really what you see? The Rosenhan Experiment

Angela Li

Psychology in the Game “Mafia”

Gigi Mo

Lacan’s “Borromean Knot”: Understanding the Human Psyche

— Benjamin Qin

The Evolution Behind our Love-sick Brains

Clarinde Sanft

Freudian Theory of Aggression

— Aston Tam

Human Perception: The Perception of Self vs Others

Isabella Xu

Are self-diagnosis of mental health disorders and increased mental health awareness beneficial?

— Tracy Zhang

Family of origin: IGT of violence

Jennifer Zhou

Problems with Perception

By Clarence Chen

Whenponderingthecertaintieswithinour world,itseemsevidentthatperceptionisa certaintyundermostcircumstances.When Iseeachair,Icouldgiveyouthephysical descriptors of said chair. It is cool in temperature, has a knitted texture, and carriesabrowncolour.Anyoneelseinthe same position would give a very similar description

However, when we try to be precise and delve into what exact colour, shape, and textureIamperceiving,thecomplexityof perception,appearanceandrealitybecome apparent.

Takethecolourofthechair ThecolourI attribute to the chair is brown, and although I say the chair is brown when I look closely, some parts appear white due tothewaylightreflectsoffofitordarkerin colour because of shadows making some features look black. The chair as a whole entity is not solely brown But this distribution and array of colours are not constant; any change of lighting or my viewingperspectivecouldcompletelyalter the colour of the different parts of the chair. Therefore, this would also logically meanthatanyotherspectatorofthechair will, no matter what, see a completely differentdistributionofcoloursthanI:Itis impossibleforanotherpersonandItobe physically in the same space and thereby have the same viewing perspective. So between the myriad of colours which one shouldIattributetothechair?Thereisno waytodeducewhichcolouristhecorrect

one,soitlogicallymustfollowthatthereis nocolourwhichIcanaccuratelyattribute tothechair.

Thissameexampleofcolourcanbesaidfor shape;basedonmyviewingangle;thechair couldlookenormousorsmall,lopsidedor stable and many more permutations and possibilities Experience, however, teaches ushowtodiscernandinferthesedifferent viewing angles and perspectives into identifiable objects. Our senses here are flawed; we can not be certain about what we perceive and, thereby, can not be sure aboutthetruthsaboutreality.

CognitionAndPerception

It has been the predominant view by the psychological community that our perceptions are only altered by our subconscious modularly. The consensus was that there was modulation of perceptualexperiencesbyattention,which isdrivenbycognition

However, the promising theory of cognitive penetration has provided evidence that cognition plays a more significant role in our perception than we once thought. The McGurk experiment andthesoundflashillusion,tonameafew, point to the possibility that our consciousness plays a major role in our perceptionoftheworld. Sowhatiscognitivepenetration?Firestone

cognitivepenetrationas‘ourbeliefs,desires, emotions, actions, and even the languages we speak can directly influence what we see ’ . In other words, our conscious mind couldinfluenceourperceptionentirely.

In 1976 cognitive psychologists Harry McGurk and John Macdonald discovered that conflicts within one ’ s visual and auditory speech could completely alter one ’ s perception of a message. Neuroscientists at Baylor College of Medicineaskparticipantstokeeptheireyes closed whilst listening to a person making the sound ‘ba ba ba’; the participants, as expected,reportedhearing‘bababa’.Then the participants were asked to open their eyesandwereplayedwiththesameaudio clip. Still, with a person mouthing ‘ ga ga ga ’ , interestingly, participants reported hearing ‘ ga ga ga ’ even when the audio beingplayedwasthesameasbefore.Their visual cognition affected their auditory perception

Similarly, the sound flash illusion occurs whenbeepingsoundsareplayed,anddark circlesareflashedonascreen.Thefirsttime one beep is played, and one dark circle is flashed on a screen. In the second round, twobeepsareplayed,andonedarkcircleis flashed on a screen When neuroscientists askedtheirsubjectshowmanydarkcircles wereflashedinthefirstround,theexpected answer of 1 was the most common. However, just as the McGurk experiment participantsgavethe

wrongaccountforthesecondround,they thought they saw two dark circles being flashed instead of one. The subject’s auditory cognitions altered their visual perceptions.

UntappedAreas

Some sceptics have pointed out how predictive coding modelling may not fit with cognitive penetration and point out that to be a flaw within the theory. The predictive coding model is most simply brokendowntothreeparts.

Firstly, the brain creates top-down generative models and representations of theworld,whichdrawonhighprocessing levels.

Secondly,theserepresentationsarechanged bottom-up from lower-level processing. Lower level processing is “the processes involved in recognizing words, including the visual recognition of features, letters, and the use of phonological and orthographicinformation”,(Bell&Perfetti Reference Bell and Perfetti 1994). On the other hand top-down processing occurs through high-level processing. High level processes are the cognitive functions that allow one to encounter unfamiliar situations by modifying their prior knowledgeandexperience.

Thirdly, the resulting representation from these psychological processes is our perceptualexperiences.

Whilstthismodelishighlyconsistentwith the model of cognitive penetration when considering high-level processing within parts1and2into3categoriesof(A)never involving cognition, (B) sometimes involving cognition, and (C) always involvingcognitivestates,theargumentfor cognitive penetration begins to have flaws andcracks (A)rejectscognitivepenetration completely and (B) implies cognitive penetration is situational and (C) implies cognitivepenetrationalwaysoccurs.Where our high-level processing falls is still undetermined.Theonlywaytodetermine so is for the furthest empirical research to beconducted.

Thisisaspacethattheneuroscientificand psychological communities need to fill, researchandpushforward,andsomething thatweaslaymenshouldsupportandpay closeattentionto.Thisisbecauseinsights intothetruthofcognitivepenetrationcan answer the mysterious, confusing, and puzzling questions that exist within the problems of perception, delusions and hallucinations.

Illustration by Audrey Hui

The Effects of Social Media on Teens

Artwork by Estelle Chen

Alicia Mia Cheung

.

Why is social media harmful to teenagers' psychologicalstate?

1.Socialmediaimpactsreallifesocialising

Social media is the main form of communication for a lot of teenagers. In the 2012 to 2018 study, the proportion of teens who said that their favourite way to communicatewiththeirfriendswasinperson dropped from 49% in 2012 to 32% in 2018. This is harmful because not only are relationships on social media less personal in nature, it also lowers the confidence of teenagers socialising in person with other people,simplybecausetheyarenotasusedto it. Real life conversations are always more impactful and offer a better way to express your emotions and feelings With social distancingmeasuresimposedduetotheglobal pandemic, teenagers’ socialising skills are adversely impacted even more severely Teenagerswouldtypicallystayathomemore and the only way they can still connect with theirfriendsisthroughsocialmedia Teenagers who use social media as their main form of communication will have a high chance of havingdifficultyinusingtheirsocialskillsfully inthefuturebecausereallifecommunication remainsthestrongestformofcommunication

2.Socialmediacausesteenagerstocompare themselveswithotherpeople

A big part of social media is for people to promote an image of themselves and share theirliveswithotherpeople

Somepeopleportrayonlythebestsidesof theirlifeencouragingotherstocompare themselveswithadistortedreflectionof reality.Thissetsunrealisticexpectationsfor teenagers.Thiscouldlowerteenagers’ confidencewhichcouldalsoleadtodepression andanxiety.Inordertoassessveryrecent responsestosocialmediause,primaryresearch wasconductedamongstmyteenagepeers It wasimportanttodeducerecentperceptionsof socialmediauseandtheireffectsonthosewho usesocialmedia Inordertohavearangeof responsesandtoensurevalidity,thesurveywas conductedwith50participants Thequestions posedfocusedontheamountoftimespenton socialmediaandtherangeofdifferent platformsused,withtheparticipantsaskedto reflectupontheeffectsofsocialmedia(both positiveandnegative).Thesurveyresults revealed58%ofthefemaleteenagersthinkthat socialmediasets“unrealisticbeautystandards forteenagerstotrytoliveupto.”Thishappens mainlytofemaleteenagers Manyareobsessed withtheirbodyandwishedtheyhadthebest genericbodyshape.Further,manyalsowish theycouldgoonendlessholidaysandhavea perfectlifestylelikeinfluencers.Alotof teenagersfeellikeeveryoneislivingalifethatis betterthantheirsresultinginwhatistermedas holisticlifedissatisfaction.Apodcast mentionedthat30%ofteenageboysandgirls experiencesomekindofsocialmediarelated bodydissatisfaction.Teenagerstendtosay“I wishIlookedlikeher/him”Socialmediacan bethemaincauseofteenagershaving extremelylowself-esteemasaresultof benchmarkingthemselvesagainstunrealistic standardsportrayedonsocialmedia.

This same phenomenon applies to relationships. A lot of people who are in relationships tend to express how much they love each other on social media. However, thereisastrongtendencyfortheseexpressions tobesuperficialinnature Manycouplespost theirrelationshipsonsocialmediabecausethey wanttoreceivevalidationofwhattheyhaveto appeaseinnerinsecurities Thisalsoappliesto friendships: Robin Dumbar, a professor of evolutionarypsychologyatOxfordUniversity, found that out of 150 Facebook friends, an average user has only 15 who could be considered as actual friends, with only 5 actually being close friends. Most of a teenager’s friends on social media can be peopletheyhaveonlychanceduponthrough these platforms, with many followers associated with an account may not be personally known to the account holder Though social media is a place to express yourself,alotofpeopleareoftenlesstruthful thanwhattheyappeartobeonline

3.Cyberbullyingisverycommononsocial media

Cyberbullying can take on many different forms: personal attack, spreading private information,theuseofinappropriatelanguage andmore.Whenteenagersareonsocialmedia, theyareexposedtoaglobalaudienceandleave an eternal digital footprint- everything performed on social media will be recorded andkepttrackofbysocialmediacompanies Giventheirtenderage,someteenagersdonot know how to moderate content posted on socialmediaandhowtorespondtoreactions to these posts. Studies showed that 73% of teens aged 13 to 17 have experienced some kindofonlinebullyingorharassment

Even if teenagers put appropriate content on socialmedia,thereisstillapossibilityofbullies reactingnegativelyandabusively

A lot of teenagers turn to social media for online validation which is, in itself, an unhealthy behaviour. This can unfortunately be counterproductive as the more online validation you receive, the more offensive comments may come your way. Jade Wong was interviewed about online validation and cyberbullying Inherexperience,shehadafew TikTok videos that received several unnecessarily nasty comments While she got quitealotofvalidationfromotherpeople,the negativecommentsoutweighthepositiveones and severely affected her self-esteem This shows how extreme social media can be on one ’ s confidence and self-regard. Cyberbullying can completely change teenagers’ emotional well-being because there willalwaysbeapartofthemselveswherethey feel insecure about themselves following the traumatic experience. Cyberbullying for teenageinfluencershasoneofthemostserious consequences Influencers are constantly under a microscope and scrutinised by everyone. Everything they do and everything they post are analysed and judged by people

Having the teenage mind to cope with such scrutinyisextremelyhard 47%ofinfluencers felt that working as an influencer impacted theirmentalhealth.Thesementalhealthissues include depression, anxiety and even suicidal thoughts. Cyberbullying is one of the most severenegativeimpactsofsocialmedia.

Déjà vu: Déjà vu: A Journey Back Into 'The Past'

By Cindy Jiang

Have you been perplexed by a strange feelingoffamiliaritywhendoingsomething forthefirsttime?Suchasyouareinanew placebutfeelingcertainyou’vebeenthere before?Itissaidthatmorethantwo-thirds of the world's population has experienced déjàvuatsomepointintheirlives.Mostof us have come across the phrase ‘I’ve done/seen this before in the middle of a newexperience.Thisisamysteriousfeeling also seen as a neurological phenomenon commonly known as déjà vu. The term 'déjà vu ' is derived from French diction, and it stands for ‘already seen ’ . The dictionary definition of the phrase is ‘ a feeling of having already experienced the presentsituation’.Déjàvuoccurswhenwe feelthatanewsituationisfamiliar,evenif there is evidence that the situation could nothaveoccurredpreviously.Forexample, ifyoufeellikeyouhavewatchedthismovie before,butyouhaven’t,itisacaseofdéjà vu It is this type of eerie sensation that brings you a mixed feeling of dwelling on thepast,andforalongtime,thishasbeen attributed to everything from paranormal disturbancestoneurologicaldisorders.Déjà vuisusuallyverybriefandfleeting;thisodd sense can sometimes be unsettling and inexplicable because your brain is telling youthatyouhaverecognizedaplace,scene, or event that you know is brand-new to you. This can occur irregularly; an unexpected trigger brings you to this confusingfeelingthatcouldlastformonths oryears.

SowhatcausesDéjàvu?

Déjàvuisacomplicatedconcept,andthe psychology behind this phenomenon is verybroad Thereareroughlythreemajor theories that explain déjà vu through a scientific scope. The first explanation is dualprocessingtheorysuggestedbyRobert Efon. Dual processing theory stands for how our brain processes new information andstoreslong-andshort-termmemories. The dual processing theory suggests that déjà vu happens when two cognitive processes are momentarily out of sync when information from one of the stores hasbeendelayed.Efronsuggestsdéjàvuis notrelatedtopastmemories.Hefoundout the temporal lobe of the brain’s left hemisphere is responsible for processing information in two pathways if there’s a slight delay causing two events not to synchronise. Therefore, we assume one of theeventshappenedinthepastinsteadof the present. Thus, the feeling of déjà vu. Another major theory is known as the hologram theory, proposed by Dutch psychiatrist Hermon Sno. The theory is basedontheconceptthatourmemoriesare stored as holograms, and even a single fragment is enough to see the whole picture. This plays into the idea of reconstructive memory, where our brain reassemblesallfragmentsofinformationto formameaningfulwhole.

It is not just the feeling of familiarity but alsothefactthatknowingthefamiliarityis false.

For example, if I was looking up a particular word, say, déjà vu, my brain might summon up all the knowledge relatedtothisterm,butIcannotrecallthe moment I learnt this. Or if I walked past someone and conjured a false memory of having seen that person previously when they were a complete stranger in reality This occurrence can be explained in relation to the Hologram theory, which statesthatcertainthings,e.g.theclothesthe stranger was wearing, can trigger past memories to arise, which can easily be confused with the present event, leaving youfeelingfamiliarisedwiththeeventbut not being able to recollect the original memory.

One of the last major theories is divided attention(thecellphonetheory),proposed by Dr. Alan Brown. He has attempted to recreateaprocessthathethinksislikedéjà vu Dr Brown and his team showed photographsofvariouslocationstoagroup of students, with the plan to ask them whichlocationswerefamiliar.Theyflashed the photos onto the screen at subliminal speeds – around 10 to 20 milliseconds, which is long enough for the brain to registerthephotobutnotlongenoughfor the student to be consciously aware of it Later,theyfoundoutthestudentsaremore familiar with the pictures they have unconsciouslyregisteredinthebrain.

Alan Brown suggested when we are preoccupied with working; our brain will subconsciously accept the environment around it. The flower's scent and the pointy light of your digital device all contribute to our brain forming this big pictureandstickinginourmindsdeeply.

Howmanytypesofdéjàvuarethere?

We can have overlook on two distinct categories of associative déjà vu and biological déjà vu. Associative déjà vu is a fairlycommontypeexperiencedbynormal, healthy people. You see, hear, or smell something new, but it stirs up a feeling which reminds you of things you ’ ve seen, heard or smelled before. Many researchers thinkthistypeofdéjàvuisamemory-based experienceandassumethebrain'smemory centreisinchargeofthatfeeling.Biological déjàvuusuallyhappensamongpeoplewith temporallobeepilepsy.Peopleexperiencea strong feeling of déjà vu just before a seizure and truly believe they’ve been throughtheexactsituationinsteadofjusta fleetingmoment.Déjàvualsooccurswith some predictability in major psychiatric disorders, including anxiety, depression, dissociativedisordersandschizophrenia.

Orinmostcases,déjàvuisanormalhuman experienceandisnotcauseforalarm.Ifit happensmorefrequentlyorisaccompanied by other symptoms, it’s necessary to consultaneurologist.

Tosummarise,déjàvuisnotsimplyabout a temporary sense of familiarity From philosophers to psychologists to paranormal experts, there are lots of interpretations,andwestillhaven'tdrawna conclusion on déjà vu with evidence. I personallyliketheexplanationthatwehave donethesamethinginourpreviouslifeor in a parallel universe. It is all the uncertaintyandimaginativeaspectsofdéjà vuthatmakesitmysteriousandinteresting toexplore--‘likedéjàvualloveragain’.

The

f ff g Mental Disorders

By Ashlee Kwan

Illustration by Clarinde Sanft

Mentalhealthisanincrediblycomplextopic. TheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationdefines amentaldisorderasa“majordisturbanceinan individual’s thinking, feelings, or behaviour that reflects a problem in mental function”. Mental disorders are chaotic, ugly and difficult,impactingtheeverydaylivesofthose who suffer. Yet it is being glorified with idealistic phrases like “tragically beautiful”, used to describe heroines in movies. Coming across th h “t i ll b tif l” li seemed someo dopeo

AlbertBandura’ssociallearningtheoryasserts that humans learn new behaviours through observation, modelling, and imitation In the context of romanticizing mental illness on social media, an individual will likely romanticizementalillnessesifwhomtheyare imitating display the same behaviors and recieve positive reinforcement. Thus, the individual learns to romanticize mental illnessesbyseeingtheirmodeldojustthatand beingreinforcedpositively.

Many Pinter Dressi the sh compl whoar These concea creatin who h illness strugg streng extrem There beauty ways sufferi wantin eventu and conseq

The popular Netflix series “13 reasons why” cameoutin2017,anditdepictsateenageboy listeningtothe13tapesofhisfriend,ateenage girl,whomhehadacrushonwhocommitted suicide, describing events that led her to take herownlife.Shecommitssuicideasanactof revengeagainsttheclassmateswhocausedher to suffer- a dangerous glamorization of a real temptation for many teens. This only shows the temporal satisfaction of making her tormenters face the guilt of their actions but does not show the devastating permanent consequences on her family and friends, or how her tormenters will move within a relativelyshortperiod.

Theshowpassesadangerousmessagethatthe girl had gained power through revenge and suicide A2017studypublishedintheJournal of the American Academy of Child and AdolescentPsychiatryshowedthattherewasa significant increase in suicide amongst young Americansaged10–17inthemonthfollowing the series' debut, and the show has consequently been heavily criticized for its romanticismofsuicide.

Another theory that explains why people romanticise suffering is George Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory: “long-term exposure to media shapes how the consumers of media perceive the world and conduct themselves”. Thisgivesaninsightintowhyglamorizationis widespread on social media. In line with the theory, individuals on social media who have been repeatedly exposed to posts that romanticize mental illness and paint it as desirable are more likely to have their perception of mental illness warped from the truereality.

Derivingpsychologicalbenefitsfrom suffering:

1.Senseofsuperiorityfromsuffering

People may be willing to suffer as it makes themmore“unique”,usingmentalillnessesas ashowdisplaytodistinguishthemselvesfrom others because otherwise, they may see themselves as a mediocre person living a mundanelife.Manyalsobelievethereisalink between mental illnesses and being creative. However, as a psychology PhD candidate at the University at Albany, State University of New York, Christa Taylor performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of the researchonmooddisordersandcreativityand found no clear link between them She says “Popular misconceptions may mislead people toworrythatgettinghelpforamentaldisorder mayactuallystifletheirimagination” Shealso adds that “ many people may avoid artistic pursuitsbasedon“theideathatbeingcreative issomethingwehavenocontroloverandthat relativelyfewpeoplearecapableofbeingtruly creative, which current creativity research suggestsjustisn’ttrue”

2.Obtainingstrengthandmeaningfrom suffering

People may see suffering as a form of noble self-sacrifice, adding a purpose to their existence. They believe themselves to have morewisdomandaccesstothetruenatureof reality, which can result in more people wantingtosuffer.

I’msureeveryonehasheardorseenthephrase “pain makes you stronger”. However, this statementdoesnothingtoalleviatethefeelings of pain. That formula of putting pain and effort in and getting a return of growth has already been engrained into our minds, the ideaofpainhavingapositivecorrelationwith growthdisregardsthecomplexityinwhichwe experience emotions. We start to believe that pain is the only worthwhile way in which growthandlearningoccur

Ofcourse,thisisnottosaythatexperiencing an immense sort of pain cannot change you, but there is nothing unique about the pain that is better for growth. All experiences you harbour throughout your life can lead to changeandgrowth.

To conclude, the romanticism of mental health undermines the seriousness of mental illnesses It becomes harder for individuals to understandtheseverityofmentalillnesssince itisnowseenas“hipandquirky”.Individuals may develop an online persona of suffering, andthisisconsideredthenewwaytobecool andstandoutinamannerthatisconsidered desirable As a consequence, the misconception around it is further increased. Sotominimizethisissue,weshouldn’tfollow trends that romanticize mental illnesses, and weshouldalsomakesurewealwaystellright fromwrong.

The Accuracy and Validity of Popular Personality Categorisation

By Katie Lai

Do you know the difference between BehaviourandPersonality?Whataresome of the initial things you notice when interacting with an individual? Their posture? Their expression? Their accent? Theirattitude?Well,theseareexamplesof aperson ’sBehaviour.

Generally, behaviour entails the physical actions occurring due to the interactions between the mind itself and the environment. Rather than obtaining the stabilityofapersonalitytrait,behaviouris commonly defined as the response or reaction to an external stimulus in our environment. Various factors, such as our thoughts and feelings in specific circumstancesofourcurrentenvironment, constantlyinfluenceouractions.Whilstthe external environment is continuously altering, our behaviour is continually interchanging depending on the situation. The situation determines behaviour. It varies depending on the circumstance, whichinthiscase,isfrequentlyinfluenced byaperson'scurrentworkplace.

Haveyoueverexperiencedadaywhereyou completelyactlikeanotherpersonbecause you ’retootiredtoputupafakeattitude? Or,haveyouevercaughtyourselfoffguard commenting on something that you would’veneversaidinyour‘right’stateof might? Our environment is an immense factor affecting our build-up of unconsciousbehaviour.Outsideofour

consciousness,ideasandemotionscontinue to impact our behaviour, even though we are oblivious to these underlying influences. Repressed sensations, personal memories, habits, thoughts, desires, and reactions can all be found in the unconscious. The preferred way we respondtoastimulusandnaturallyexpress ourselves are examples of unconscious behaviour This level of behaviour is the mostnaturaltous,theoneweemploymost frequently,anditalsousestheleastenergy. In addition to being the behavioural style we employ most frequently, it is also the style we employ when we are under pressure or must act rapidly and with the leastself-control Toreiterate,unconscious behaviour is a more profound mental process that such mind events are almost impossibletomeasure.

On the contrary, Conscious behaviour is directly related to a circumstance or the persons involved It combines perceived needsandinnerbehaviouralmotivationto modify our behaviour in a particular scenarioorwithaspecificperson.Itisour decision and best approach to a stimulus. We intentionally alter our behaviour to different circumstances at this stage. Changing our behaviour frequently necessitatesasignificantexpenditureofour energy resources. If we deviate from our typical behavioural style, this adjustment mayforceustooperateundertremendous stress or pressure. In simple terms, consciousbehaviourisdecisions

made directly correlating to the current situation concerning the circumstances of thespecificsituation.

Anothertypeofbehaviourissubconscious behaviour,itisaparallelmindsystemthat controls every aspect of our lives, the subconscious mind. In psychology, the subconscious is the portion of our mind thatisnotactivelybeingthoughtaboutat the moment. Simply said, it's the mental barrier we create since our brains are constantlyrecievinginformationfromour senses, so our brains don’t get overloaded with‘unnecessary’information.

Butnoteverythingisbeingblockedbythis obstruction. For later recall, the information is stored in the brain the subconscious functions as a filter to prevent overstimulation from the environment. For instance, Subconscious behaviouristhatwecanactwithouthaving to think about it, but we can change our actions if we want Blinking is a prime example of a subconscious behaviour. We don'tneedtothinkatalltoblink,yetwe can alter the frequency of blinking if we wantto.

Fromaperson’sbehaviour,wecandeduce tonsofinformationontheirpersonality So similarly, we can also infer that our personality is correlated with our behaviour.TheLatinwordpersona,which describesatheatricalmaskwornbyactors toassumerolesorconcealtheiridentities,

is the root of the English word "personality" Personality is a distinctive way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Personality includes moods, attitudes, and opinions, and it is most evident in interactions with other people. It consists ofbothinherentandacquiredbehavioural characteristics that distinguish one person from another and can be observed in people's interactions with their surroundingsandsocialgroups.

Theterm"personality"describesaperson's intrinsiccharacteristics,developedviaamix of genetic and environmental variables. Thesetraitsallmanifestearlyinlifeandare hence relatively stable throughout a person ' s life. As a result, personality traits are constant. It enables us to grasp the "why" behind behavioural patterns in a certain situation. For instance, a person may act impulsively because they have a personality trait of being quite inconsiderate and enjoy the fascination of indulginginriskyandunplannedactivities

However, something to keep in mind is that numerous definitions of the word "personality"exist,buttwobasicmeanings haveemergedasapsychologicalconstruct. The first is related to the enduring distinctions among individuals; in this sense,thestudyofpersonalityisconcerned with categorising and understanding generally constant human psychological traits.Thesecondmeaningstressesthe

characteristicsthatunifyallpeopleandset psychologicalmanapartfromotherspecies Itinstructspersonalitytheoriststolookfor these traits among all people that characterise human nature as well as the variablesthataffecthowlivesdevelop.The examination of detailed human characteristics, and the search for the organised totality of psychological processes, emphasises the interaction between organic and psychological events that occur inside of individuals and those social and biological events that surround them;thiscanbeexplainedbythisduality. The majority of the below-discussed subjects involve elements of the dual conceptofpersonality However,itshould be noted that no clear definition of personality has gained widespread agreementintheindustry.

So what is the main difference between personality and behaviour? Aren't they all technicallythesamethingiftheyareboth utilised to show the characteristics of a being? The primary distinction between personality and behaviour is that we can identify a person ' s personality through actions,thoughtprocesses,andbehavioural patterns. We actually observe behaviour through analysing a person ' s patterns of actions and demeanour The way we respond to our environment is influenced byourpersonalities,whichalsodictatehow we act and think. We use our thoughts, feelings, and actions to show who we are. However,behaviourishow

we present ourselves to others. Our behaviour is communicated through our actions. In essence, personality is what we thinkandfeel,whilethebehaviouriswhat we do. Consequently, personality directly influencesourbehaviour.

Another important distinction between personalityandbehaviouristhatwhileour behaviour can change daily in reaction to oursurroundings,ourpersonalitytendsto remain fairly consistent. Early in life, genetic and environmental variables shape our personalities. In contrast, our behaviourvarieswithage,aswegrow,and inresponsetotheenvironmentaroundus.

Naturally,ashumans,wealldesirethebest outcome of things. Hence a constant reminder should be served to remind that your performance is determined by your behaviour,notbywhoyouarepersonalitywise. It is crucial to distinguish between behaviour and personality To reiterate: personalityiswhoyouare;yourbehaviour is what you do, and it is your behaviour thatcounts.Thoughitisdifficulttoalter anindividual’sbehaviourasitisconstantly affectedbytheirpersonalitytrait,everyone should be reminded that their personality traitdoesnotsolelydefinethemselves.Itis instead the actions and the alteration process that every individual experiences that truly defines the quality that they possess. Though a person may acquire a personality trait that is perceived as unfavourableinmodernsociety,altering

their actions and behaviour is what ultimately brings out the most beneficial outcome, as altering their personality withouttheaidofachangeofenvironment would be significantly more difficult than to change your attitude and behaviour towards a specific subject. For instance, a person may be well aware of the fact that they are a stubborn person(personality wise), and that is making their social life significantly exhausting; hence if they are willingtotaketheinitiativetochangetheir behaviour to be more docile and passive, they are evolving to be perceived as a modest person by society, as a result, this makes their life much more ‘easier’ in a sense

Although you can't alter who you are or howyouthink,youcanchangewhatyou do. Behaviour is the main factor influencing performance. People are interestedinpersonalitybecausetheywant to learn the secret to success that doesn't need hard work and effort The idea of categorising people based on personality types is appealing since it reduces the numberofdifferenceswemustmanagetoa manageablenumberratherthananalmost unlimitedvariety.Itiscommonlyassumed thatifyouhaveacertainpersonalitytype, youwillactsimilarlytoeveryoneelsewith thattypeofpersonality,butthatismostly inaccurate. There isn’t such a thing as ‘having the same personality’. Instead, it shouldberecognisedthateverypersonisa special

anduniqueindividualandthatweshould all embrace the best qualities in ourselves ratherthanmakingcomparisons.

Music & the Soul

Audrey Lam

Introduction

As Plato once said “music is a moral law. It givessoultotheuniverse,wingstothemind, flight to the imagination”. Music is able to touch our soul and create deep connections with our mind and body It is intrinsically meaningfultohumanityasarace:wethriveoff of it! In this article, we will discover the magicalphenomenonsofmusic,howoursoul connects with it and how it helps us heal physicallyandmentally.

Phenomenons

Haveyoueverwonderedtoyourselfhowyou wereabletomemoriseallthelyricstoTaylor Swift’s‘AllTooWell(10minutesversion)’in 2days,butstillcan’tmemorisetherespiration equationinBiologyevenafteranentireterm?

Ashumans,weallhave‘musicalmemory’:the means by which our brains are able to easily remember musical elements like melodies, rhythms or lyrics. Musical memory is caused byvariousfactorsincludingtheuseofrhythm, associative memory as well as repeated exposuretomusic.

Studies show that the use of rhyme and rhythminsongshelpsenhanceourmemoryof them Thisisbecauserelatingdifferentlinesof asongwiththesamerhymingpatternsmeans thatwhenwerememberoneline,welinkitto anotherandcanidentifywhatthewordswill soundlike.Thisallowsustoeasilyremember thelyricsinasong

Moreover, particular lyrics in songs make us feel certain emotions For example, one song maymakeusfeellonelyandsadwhileanother maymakeusfeelexcitedandhappy.Whenwe listen to songs, our brain associates certain lyricswithcertainemotions.

Thiscreateslinksbetweennervecellsandhelps usconnectlyricswithourfeelings,allowingus toeasilymemorisesongswithwordsorphrases thatsparkparticularemotions.

Like memorising keywords for a test, repeatedly listening and singing lyrics helps enhance our memories of songs. This is becauseitconstantlyforcesourbraintorecall the information, ensuring it is saved in our longtermmemory.Thisiswhyweareableto memorisethelyricstoourfavouritesongseven afteraverylongperiodoftimeofnothearing them.

Another interesting phenomenon associated withmusiciscalled‘ear-worm’.Earworm,also knownasbrainworm,iswhenashortpartofa song,typically3-4bars,isstuckinyourhead even when you are no longer listening to it.

According to psychologists, over 90% of peopleexperienceearwormatleastonceaweek and a quarter of people experience it several timesperday Usually,thisoccursduringdaily tasksthatrequirelimitedconcentrationsuchas brushing your teeth or walking home.

According to Dr Olive Sacks, a neurologist thatstudiesmusicandthebrain,earwormsare aspecialkindofinvoluntaryauditorymusical imagerythathavenoparticularstimulus

Although earworms may be fun at first, they can get very serious. Research indicates that nine out of ten people have experienced earworms that last for more than an hour Some have even reported having the same earworm for over a year. Those who suffer fromearwormsmaytrymanywaystoerasethe melodyintheirhead.Somemaytrytothinkof adifferentsong,somemaysingtheearworm song aloud, while some take on tasks of high concentrationtodistractthemselvesfromthe tune.

However, studies suggest that the harder peoplefighttoremovetheearworm,thelonger it tends to torment them Over the years, reported cases of severe earworm have increased largely. Data suggests that it is the increase in devices such as records, cassettes andCD’s which help you listen to the same musicandsoundsoverandoveragainthatis forcingourbrainstomemoriseandconstantly replaywhatwelistento.

ConnectingwithMusic

Musiclinksdeeplywiththelimbicsystem:a part of the brain involved in responses like emotion, arousal and memory. Due to this connection, people relate certain songs to memories of a specific time or place in life, stimulating strong emotions from the past. Becauseofthis,weoftenfeelreminiscenceof the past when listening to certain pieces of musicorsongs.

Besides connecting with our own minds, music helps us connect with others as well According to recent studies, scientists believe thatlisteningtomusicinagrouphelpspeople connect physically and mentally This is because musical rhythms help synchronise people’s brains and coordinate body movements Thishelpsincreasetheefficiency of completing tasks in a group. Scientists believe this suggests that rhythms in music promote social cohesion behaviours like teamwork.

ThePowersofMusic

Therearemanybenefitstolisteningtomusicnotonlydoesitimproveourmentalhealthbut it also improves our physical wellbeing and overall lifestyle. As psychologist Shilagh Mirgainoncesaid,“acrossthehistoryoftime, musichasbeenusedinallculturesforhealing andmedicine”.

It is scientifically proven that listening to musichelpswithphysicaldiseasesandillnesses suchasthe(cognitiveandmotor)recoveryof stroke patients,migraines and headaches, as wellascancer.

AccordingtoaninvestigationbytheAmerican Society of hypertension in New Orleans, 30 minutesoflisteningtoclassical,celticorroga musiceverydaydecreaseshighbloodpressure, reducing the risks of cardiovascular diseases like heart failure or stroke. This is because listeningtomusicincreasestheproductionof nitric oxide, a substance that causes blood vessels to dilate and therefore improves circulation.

Music also benefits our mental health Our favourite tunes help reduce anxiety by lowering cortisol levels, a hormone related to stress Moreover,studiesshowthatthosewith alzheimers, parkinsons, or autism spectrum disorder(ASD)canpartiallyortotallyrecover lostmemoriesandneurologicalprocessesafter listeningtomusicregularly.

Insomniaisaveryseveredisorderthatimpacts many age groups While there are many approachestofixthisproblem,studiessuggest thatrelaxingandclassicalmusiccanbeasafe, effectiveandaffordablecure Astudyfeaturing college students found out that participants who had listened to music before sleep had significantly improved sleep quality in comparison to those who didn’t. Similarly, researchersfoundthatfastpacedmusichelps motivate people to work out and exercise harder.Theexperimentcreatedmusictracksof normalspeed,10%increaseand10%decrease forrunnerstolistentowhileonthetreadmill. The study concluded that speeding up the musicincreasedtheirperformanceintermsof distancecoveredandpowerexerted.

Conversely, slowing down the music tempo reducedtheperformanceoftherunner.

Music also helps with cognitive tasks. Accordingtoastudypublishedbyscientistsin the University of Helsinki, music by Mozart activatestheleftandrightbrainhemispheres, increasing information processing and learning Lots of students like listening to music while working; there are many studies that support and oppose the effectiveness of this idea Research suggests it may help with studiesbutitdependsonvariousfactors,such asthekindofmusic,howmuchthepupillikes the music and how musically trained the personis.

Often,thosewhoarewelltrainedinmusicfind itdistractingtolistentotuneswhileworking; scientistsrecommendthemtolistentoneutral tracksorbackgroundmusicinsteadastheseare easiertoignore.

Conclusion

From Mozart's classical tunes to Michael Jackson's RnB to Olivia Rodrigo’s pop rock, music has dominated our lives and changed humanity as a whole. Music can inspire and entertain, but it also has many powerful physicalandpsychologicalbenefitstohumans. So, next time you listen to music, instead of pure entertainment, think of the magical phenomenons and healing powers of music thatwehavediscussedtoday!

Criminology: The Mystery of Recidivism

By Jordan Lau

Have you ever seen mystery movies or books where the criminal in the story usuallygoestoprisonandthencomesout afterafewyearsasabetterpersonreadyfor a new life? You might think that prison solved all the problems of that criminal. However, you might not be familiar with theterminology “recidivism”.Theword “Recidivism” refers to the relapse into criminal behaviour resulting in one or multipleillegalevents.Shockingly,therate of recidivism in 2022 has reached above 50%,whichisasignificantnumberandhas not seemed to decrease during these past few years. People go through stages of reconviction, re-arrest, and re-incarceration. So, how and why is the recidivism rate so high? How does the surrounding environmentaffecttheprisoners'recidivate actions?

First of all, the environment outside of prisonisoneoftheimportantfactorsthat influencestherateofrecidivism Justtakea moment to imagine yourself as someone who just came out of prison, you might have been finding a job or even trying to liveanormallifewithoutanyonenoticing. Well, that is not possible. Due to your criminalrecord,notonlyitishardforyou to find a job, you will also experience discriminationstartingfromoneperson,to evenagrouporacommunitybytheherd effectwherepeopleinfluenceoneanother on their behaviors. In their shoes, you woulddefinitelyfeeluncomfortable.

Let’s jump out of character and consider how big of an impact this contributes to recidivism.Justthinkaboutthisquestion: Doesprisonprovideanyservicesforpeople who’vejustbeenreleased?Notsurprisingly, the answer is: no. Due to this situation, people would experience lack of employment causing poverty, and discrimination, which causes self-isolation for self protection People will choose to avoidreintegratingintosociety,andstaying in the same environment as before. The results are, this unchanging lifestyle can influence rumination, a form of perseverative cognition causing repetitive focusonnegativeemotionsandmemories, leading to depression and anxiety causing them to form a new motivation for committingcrimeonceagain.

Here’s another question: What Is the purpose of prison? It is for punishment, but not really for rehabilitation. Researchershaveinvestigated50studieson how effective prison is for reducing recidivism rates with 300,000 offenders involved.And,noneoftheanalysisfound imprisonment to reduce recidivism. Can you believe it? I know you might be confused, but let's step back to the very beginning.Howarepeoplearrestedatthe verystart? Thereisalwayscauseandeffectinanycase takentocourtornot.Thismeans,people needtohaveamotivationforcommitting crime.Putsimply,this‘motivation’canbe

explained by two theories. The first one: failures in psychological development

Consider the person who’s about to commitcrimeasaballoon.Whenmoreair isblownintotheballoon,itgetsbiggerand bigger and bigger, until it eventually explodes.Isiteasiertounderstand?Think about this theory again: It is when the surrounding environment psychologically develops mental flaws in a person causing them to commit crime. The drive to commit the crime is the air. This development can also cause PTSD, which increases risk of violence. Let’s take the easiest example: someone helplessly suffering in poverty starving in hunger causingthemtohavenosenseofsecurity What can they do to solve this situation? Findajob.Butwouldpeopleacceptthem if they have low education? Then go to university. But do they have money to apply? The chances of establishing this is notzero,however,it'stimeconsumingand the anxiety cannot be solved In this case, peoplemaychoosetosteal,rob,orsoon

The second theory: learned behaviours of aggression and violence. Specifically, there arephysicalaggression(physicallyharming someone),verbalaggression(Verbalabuse), andemotionalaggression(extremenegative emotions); This concept usually happens mostfrequentlyforsomeoneundertheage of25asthebrainsofpeopleunder25aren't fullydevelopedandmatured,whichmeans thatwe

acknowledge less responsibility for our actions and decisions For example: learning aggressive behaviours from a parent, or learning negative behaviours such as stealing. I’ve come across a news report before from CBS News, where a parentteachesakidbelowtheageof15to steal in a restaurant in 2014, Ontario, Canada What do you think after hearing this?Somepeoplemightsaythatthisisn’ta significant event and the kid could have easily been educated to have a right worldview.However,thereismoretothis situationthanhowitlooks.Ifnooneisable to correctly educate adolescents and allow themtogrowupinthistreatment,thenit would be very hard for them to change such behaviours and worldview, and they can have a greater chance in committing crime.

After finishing this small introduction to the theories, let's finally get back to the maintopic Whydon'tmostprisonsreduce therecidivismrate?Well,thereasonis,the correctional counsellor, also known as the therapist that helps prisoners, who often doesnotacknowledgethementalissuesand ideas of the prisoners. If the fundamental problemcannotbesolved(suchasPTSD), there is a huge chance for the prisoner to commitcrimeagain Infact,someprisoners thinkthatlifeinprisonismuchbetterthan theenvironmentoutside,thereforeleading themtopurposelycommitcrimejusttogo toprison.

Luckily, there are ways for reducing recidivism rates, it’s not impossible For example, prisons can provide a system to help released prisoners to find a job to increasetheirqualityoflife.Somereviews have analysed that cognitive behaviour therapyprograms(alsoknownastheCBT) canbealsoveryeffective,asitwasreported that this type of program can reduce 2030%ofrecidivism Mostimportantly,let’s thinkaboutwhatwecando.Eventhough you might think that criminals are people you would never ever see in your life, alwaysremembertotakeresponsibilityfor youractions.LaurieBuchananoncesaid

“Never underestimate the influence you have on others” Think before you act Youractionsmightinfluencesomeoneelse, yourfriends,family,children.Youractions canmakewhotheyare.Eventhoughthey areunlikelytobecriminalsinthefuture,at leastyourpositiveactionscanmakethema better person and lower that chance further

The Phenomenon Of First Love

By Crystal Lee

The first time you fall in love brings a tsunamiofemotionsandfeelings.Allofa sudden,yourealiseyoucareaboutsomeone else in a way that you didn’t fully understand was possible. Even though we are aware of love, the first time you experienceitopensupaworldofpossibility andexcitement,coupledwithahintoffear It is unlike anything you have felt before, making the person associated with this discovery a permanent fixture in your memory.Yourfirstlovewaslikelynotthe onlyfirstyouexperiencedwiththeperson who captured your heart. They may have encouragedyoutotrynewthingsandtake on new challenges, and were at least partially responsible for some of your personalgrowth.Youalsoborewitnessto the changes you incited in them and saw howpeoplecouldsupporteachotherina positiveway.

AccordingtoastudycarriedoutbyHelen Fisherin2005onthefMRIofcouplesin love, romantic love is primarily a motivation system rather than emotion. Thiscanbesimilartowhatweexperience duringaddiction.Therearedifferenttypes ofHormonesthatareinvolvedorarebeing releasedwhenweareinlove.

Oxytocin, which is also called the ‘love hormone’ is responsible for feelings of attachment and intimacy. when in love, suchasoxytocin.”

It helps bond people closer together, it’s what keeps some people monogamous, it canloweryourinhibitions,anditcanhelp you become more open and trusting of others. It is also the same chemical that bondsamotherandchildren.

Dopamine, on the other hand, is a neurotransmitterthatisstronglyassociated with emotions (such as pleasure and reward) and in modulating the immune system.Thisiswherethe‘addiction’partof love comes in. When this hormone is released,itactivatestherewardcentreofthe brain that causes a ‘motivation-reward’ effect.Thus,weseekouttherewardoflove even through obstacles that may be dangerous or painful and affect us negativelythroughwayssuchascheatingor abuse.

Norepinephrineisthedrugthatisusedby medicalexpertstotreatlowbloodpressure (hypotension) and heart diseases It is similartoadrenalineanddopaminewhich produces a racing heart and feelings of excitement.Itisreleasedinthefirststageof love, either lust or infatuation. According to Helen Fisher the two chemicals dopamine and norepinephrine produce elation, intense energy, sleeplessness, cravingandfocusedattention.

Some researchers at UCL discovered that people in love have lower levels of serotonin, the hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter which helps relay signals fromoneareaofthebraintoanother.

Low levels of serotonin are found in peoplediagnosedwithOCDwhichmaybe thereasonwhythoseinlove‘obsess’about theirpartners

First loves are also unforgettable. . According to Dr. Holly Schiff, It doesn’t just open up a world of excitement and possibility for you,, it can also bring up feelings of fear. “This experience is unlike anythingyouhavefeltbefore,whichmakes thepersonassociatedwiththisdiscoverya permanentfixtureinyourmemory,”Schiff tellsBustle.“Nottomentionthechemical bondsyouexperiencewheninlove,suchas oxytocin.”

Firstloveleavesan‘imprint’onthesensory areas of the brain, There are multiple studiesthathaveconfirmedthatourbrains experience ‘addiction’ when we ’ re in love, fallinginloveforthefirsttimeisimportant because it is the foundation for future relationships and most of the time we experiencethiskindoflovewhenourbrain is still developing Some scientists at MIT explained that people experience peak processing and memory power at around age 18 and this is the time when we experience a lot of first things, including firstlove.Somepsychologistsalsosaythat mostpeopleexperiencea‘memorybump’ between the age 15 and 26 It happens when people are experiencing all kinds of firsts, such as a first kiss, the first taste of alcohol, and the first time being behind a wheel.

Thesememoriestendtobemoreimpactful because they occurred when our memory was at its peak. It also leaves hormonal imprintsthatcausethelife-longeffectswe all experience. Hormonal interactions are imprintedinthesensoryareasofthebrain at a time when the neurological developments we are experiencing are forming who we are as individuals Once you 'veexperiencedsomethingsogood,like fallinginloveforthefirsttime,you'relikely tochaseafterthatfeelingagainandagain. It'samajorreasonwhypeoplearehungup ontheirfirstlovelongaftertherelationship has ended.This leads us to recall our first lovewheneverweseethemonsocialmedia or whenever a certain song plays in your playlistthatmakesyourememberthem.

The impact of your first love also carries over to future relationships. According to Dr. Niloo dardashti, a couples therapist based in New York, the feelings we experience with our first love becomes a blueprint for how we approach future relationships.Inaveryrealway,justasour perception of platonic and familial love is forgedinourchildhoodbyourparents,our idea of romantic love is impacted by how we experience it for the first time. April Davis, a matchmaker and founder of LUMA,foundthatfirstloveoftenfeelsso intenseitcouldleadtosomeonebelieving that they loved their first love more than others.

They’ll long for the intense feelings they had when they were in their past relationship and look for that feeling in everyonetheymeetafter Whentheydon’t findit,theymightfindthemselveslooking to rekindle things with their lovers in the past. However, according to Davis, first love isn’t going to be the deepest or best love. It is because of the intensity of the firstlovethatcouldtranslatesomeonetoa feelingthattheylovedthatpersonmorein theirmemory.Firstlovewillalsoaffectall yourrelationshipsafterbecauseofwhatit teachesyou.You’lllearnforthefirsttime thatyouarelovedanddesired.You'llalso learn how you want to be treated by the otherperson.Ifthey’retreatingyourightor wrong Whentherelationshipends,you’ll slolearnwhatheartbreaksfeellike Andas peoplesay,thereisnoheartbreakthathits youlikethefirsttime.

Accordingtoa2017study,71%ofpeople areabletohealfromabreakupwithinthree monthsaftertherelationshiphasended.In this context, healing means selfrediscovery.Firstloveisoftenmarkedbya period of personal growth and development, a time of new experiences and facing different fears. As a result, the relationship helps shape who you are and how you can proceed through the world and may represent the first time you allowed someone else’s influence to have such a significant impact on who you are andinyourlife.

the phenomenon and true effects of first love on the human brain, but from what wehaveunderstoodsofar,lovedoesn'tjust affect us while we ’ re experiencing it. Its impact on our biology can be felt for the rest of our lives, and the power of the phenomenon can be really difficult to explain and understand. However, just becauseyourfirstloveishardtoforget,it doesn'tmeanthatit'stheonlytrueloveyou will ever have. For most people, it's a learning experience and something that theywillneverforget,needingmoretimeto get over someone is absolutely normal as peoplehaveattachmentissuesandit'shard to remove them from our lives in a short periodoftime

The phenomenon of first love is not so complicated after all. Take this experience asalessonandasasignpointingyouonthe right path in your journey of finding the rightperson.

Illustration by Reika Oh

EXTROVERTS, INTROVERTS,

By Justin Leung

and everything in between

Illustration by Clarinde Sanft

Doyoucravetheideaofbeingthecentreof attentioninalargecrowd?Areyouthetype of person to introduce yourself first at a party? Do you become reserved at gatherings where you might have to approach strangers? Or do you love being socialattimesbutalsofeeltheneedtoreenergize with some alone time? How you react to social and everyday life stimuli typicallydefineswhetheryouareperceived asanintrovertoranextrovert.Incontrast tointroverts,whoareusuallyseenasmore anti-social and solitary, extroverts are commonly thought to enjoy the spotlight andbeingthemainfocusofattention.

Extroversion manifests itself differently in different people to and can be seen as varying on an introversion-extraversion scale.Anintrovertisapersonwhoexhibits a lower level of extroversion. When socialisinginsmallgroupsandwithpeople they are comfortable with, introverts feel moreatease Theymightfindengagingin social gatherings exhausting and be reluctanttostandoutincrowds.

Thus, introverts typically have fewer friends and acquaintances but develop extremelyclosebondswiththosethatthey have. They get their stimulation from withinandarerathercontenttobealoneas opposed to seeking it out through social interaction, as they are generally more subdued, intellectual, and reflective than extroverts.

Contrastingly, extroverts are often enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregarious people who take pleasure in socialsituations.Beingaroundotherpeople gives extroverts huge amounts of energy and causes them to thrive, in ways like frequentlyperformingwellingroups.This isduetotheirpreferenceforspendingtime with others and finding less fulfilment in solitude;theytendtobeenergisedbyother people and are more prone to boredom whentheyarealone.

Extroverts and introverts also differ in a varietyofwaysfromoneanotherinterms of their behavioural traits, as well as their everydaylifestyle Astudyconductedinthe year1980discoveredthatintrovertstendto wear simplistic, comfortable clothing in hopesoffadingintothebackground,whilst extroverts tend to favour more decorative attire,aspiringtostandoutfromeveryone else.Comparedtointroverts,extrovertsare more inclined to lean towards trendy, mainstream, and dynamic music, whereas introverts tend to prefer classical, sophisticatedmusicwithmeaningfullyrics.

Our personalities also have an impact on how people set up their workspaces. Extroverts tend to have more elaborate workplaces, as they constantly leave their doors open, keep extra seats close by, and are more likely to place candy bowls on their workstations, in hopes of bringing coworkers together and promoting interaction.

On the other hand, introverts prefer to decoratelessandsetuptheirworkspacesin a way that discourages social engagement. Theytendtoprimarilyfocusontheirwork rather than joining in when conversations comeabout

Because we are such complex beings, humansmaynotfallneatlyoneithersideof thespectrum.Wemayfallanywhereonthis spectrum,andexhibitbothintrovertedand extrovertedtendencies,dependingonwhat kindsofthingsenergiseordrainus Itisa common misconception to look at introversion and extroversion as fixed concepts, rather than the spectrum that it is. In reality, these stereotypes are much more nuanced and complex than they appeartobe.

An old proverb states that " we are all the same, but different", implying that whilst we all possess the same human characteristics,eachindividualisuniquein their own way. In regards to this, it is evidentlyafactthatnotwopeoplearealike completely; how we think and act in contrast to others defines the person that weare

In the first decade of the 20th century, psychologist Kimball Young first used the term"ambiversion”.Hecameupwiththe thesis that everyone had to belong somewherealongthespectrumandwasn’t always necessarily classified under the two extremes,asthosepossessingboth

introverted and extroverted traits were confused as to where they identified and belonged. So what is ambiversion? An ambivert is described as a person that displays both characteristics of introversion and extroversion, a person that essentially modifies their behaviour according to the circumstances they are placed in, for examplearoundclosefriendsandfamilyor atapartythattheymightormightnotfeel comfortable in. For instance, they could become more animated and outgoing at times or reserved and quiet depending on their mood. They generally love hanging outwithotherpeople,butalsovaluetheir alone time and sometimes require downtime following social interactions. Research indicates that the majority of peopleareclassifiedasambiverts,although many tend to assume that they are either introverts or extroverts, either one or the otherandnotinbetween

Even though they have traits in common with both introverts and extroverts, ambivertsstandoutandareuniqueintheir ownwaysastheyareabletoembraceboth endsofthepersonalityspectrum,allowing them to become more flexible and adaptableasaresult Sincetheyareableto express their worries and feelings both verbally and inwardly, they can evaluate and process their emotions both publicly, likewithfamilyandfriends,andprivately, such as through writing or making videos aboutthemselves.

Acommonquestionpeopleponderoveris whetherextrovertedindividualsarehappier than individuals who identify as an introvert.Extroversionlevels,accordingto Oxford Brookes University researchers, don't determine pleasure and happiness; rather,theyinfluencetheactionswedoto achieve them. Unlike introverts who find social settings uncomfortable and actively avoid them, extroverts actively seek out social events, because the stimulation that they acquire from social interaction with friends, family, coworkers, and even strangersappealshighlytothem.

Another research project conducted by WakeForestUniversityinNorthCarolina concludedthatextroversionasapersonality attribute may not directly be the main sourceofhappiness.Instead,theythought that an introverted individual may feel higheramountsofhappinessasaresultof acting extroverted, by pushing their boundaries and forcing themselves to be more gregarious This was discovered throughaseriesofstudiesthatshowedthat individualsweremainlymoreoptimisticin situations that pushed them to possess extrovertedbehaviours.

Overtheyears,numerousresearchhasbeen conductedonthebraintoobservewhether there are biological distinctions between introversion and extroversion. According to a 1990 study by Stenberg, Risberg, Warkentin, and Rosen, they detected that introvertedindividuals

received more blood flow to their frontal lobes than extroverts Since both our memory and ability to problem-solve are governed and controlled by our frontal lobes, it is only logical to assume that introvertsperformbetterinthosedomains than extroverts. In contrast to this, extroverts were discovered to have an increased blood flow in various regions of thebrainlinkingtosensoryandemotional processing, according to a 1999 study by Johnson et al, explaining the reason why extroverted individuals may appear to be moreoutgoingandcheerfulasopposedto introverts.

Additional research investigating the differences between the opposing sides’ brains was carried out by the individuals Kehoe,Toomey,Balsters,andBokdeinthe year 2012, in which they designed an experiment using functional magnetic resonance imaging in order to examine brain arousal in both introverts and extroverts They discovered that extrovertedindividualshadlowerlevelsof cortical arousal, whereas introverts tended to become stimulated relatively quicker, suggesting why extroverts might feel the needtoacquireadditionalstimulationfrom theoutsideworldsincetheyaremoreprone toboredom

A renowned Swiss psychologist, Carl GustavJung,widelyknownasthefatherof the opposing beliefs of introversion and extroversion,popularisedtheseideasinthe

1921 edition of ‘Psychological Types’. He suggested that, in his words, “each person seem[ed]tobeenergisedmorebyeitherthe externalworld(extraversion)ortheinternal world (introversion)”, insinuating that whilst extroverts focus their energy outwards and toward other people, gathering energy from such interactions, introverts tend to direct their energies inwards, into more solitary and reflective hobbies.

According to Jung, no one is completely submergedtoeitherside,butweallhavea connection to one or the other attitude, statingthatanunconsciousmindispresent insideeachandeveryoneofus,onethatis not constantly aware of feelings and thoughts but is nevertheless capable of having a tremendous impact on our lives. Furthermore, Jung's early research on the dichotomous nature of the 2 extremes, which he regarded as the 2 major orientations of personality, revealed that extroverted people relied more on their external environment to make judgments, whereasintrovertedindividualsbasedtheir choices more heavily on their perceptions oftheworld.

Finally, it is critical to understand that despite the presence of the two opposing sides,wedon'thavetochooseoneoverthe other.Wemustmakethemostofourfree willtobewhoeverorwhateverwechoose to be, and not be trapped in an enigma, using the powers we possess to our advantage.ToquoteBobMarley,

‘Emancipate yourselves from mental slavery None but ourselves can free our minds”.

Illustration by Tiffany He

Is what you see REALLY what you see?

“Rosenhan experiment” a crazy and Whimsical idea during the 20th century, really challenged the effectiveness and purpose of psychiatric diagnosis, and shook the foundation of both psychiatry and psychology

By Angela Li

Isthediagnosisofpsychosis extremelylax?Howlaxisit?

Rosenham found that many people used psychosis as an excuse to escape conscription during the Vietnam War, therefore he questionedthediagnosisofpsychosis.

Experimentpreparations:

9participants

Pretendtopresentoutamessyappearance

Read a lot of psychiatric literature: Rosenham asked everyone to practise repeatedly how to communicate with psychiatrists.Ifthedoctorsaidhewould be hospitalised, he would say he is sane andhealthy

Pretendtotakemedicine:Pretendtotake medicine, hide the pills under your tongue,andthrowitinthetoiletafterthe doctorleft

After training, Rosenham selected 8 different psychiatric hospitals. Some of themarefullyequippedandclean,while othersarepoorlyequippedandhavevery messyenvironment.

Unexpectedly, when Rosenham asked the doctor when he could leave the hospital, the doctorjustsmiledathimasifhedidnotexist

Even though Rosenham's physiological indicators are mentally stable, he has been diagnosed as paranoid schizophrenic by doctors,andhehastobehospitalised.

Result:

Alltherescuerswerediagnosedwithpsychosis, 8ofwhomwerediagnosedwithschizophrenia, while the other was diagnosed with manic depressivepsychosis Allthefakepatientswere not found by the doctor during hospitalisation,andeventheirsanebehaviour was interpreted as pathological behaviour by thedoctors.

Scientificprogressand humanisticcare

Limitationsofhistoricalconditionsand medicallevel

Lack of care and observation for patients

In terms of historical conditions, more accurateandadvancedscientificresearchtools have not yet emerged. At that time, the medicalprofessionbelievedthatpsychosiswas essentiallyindistinguishablefromlungdisease and liver disease (both were pathological changesofhumantissues).Duetothelackof advanced technology for detecting and calculating Before going deep into the criticism, we need to understand that the medicallevelatthattimewasveryinsufficient comparedtothecurrentsociety

Withthedevelopmentofmedicalequipment: nuclear magnetic resonance, gene detection, theseinstrumentscanhelpdoctorsanalysedata much better than at an early stage. When a psychiatrichospitalidentifiespatients,itisnot scientific to analyse different patients only throughbasictestsorpopulartests.

‘Onlywhatyouseeorexperiencedcanreallygoes intoyoursubjectiveconsciousness’

From the perspective of humanistic care, the medicalenvironmentatthattimewashorrible, aswellastherelationshipbetweendoctorsand patients. Fromthe Rosenhan experiment, people found that there was little communication between the patient and the doctor.Whenpatientsdescribedtheirfeelings, doctorswerealwaysperfunctory,oractedlike patientsdidn'texist

Subjectivejudgement

Whenapersongoestoseeadoctor,thedoctor has assumed that you are a patient. At this time,youarealreadyintherangeof'patients', sodoctorswillfindoutwhatcasesmatchyou fromwhattheyhaveexperienced.

Why?

In the same way as above, in the opinion of doctors,amentallystablepersonwillnotgoto apsychiatrist.(e.g.Youwon'taskapersonwho enters McDonald's whether to buy shoes ） Sometimes people's subjective judgement can directlyhelppeopletosavesomeunnecessary thinking, but it also brings misleading psychologicalcues.

TheRosenhanexperimentquestionedthefield of psychiatry, on the other hand, it also questionedthesubjectivityofhumanbeings

Linking to the experiment: During the experiment,whentheriskofwhetherscientific ornotandthesubsequentactionstobetaken by Rosen Hansen were announced, the hospital wanted to protect its reputation More hospitals choose the most conservative evaluation method. In fact, at this time, the hospital has already been affected by psychologicalsuggestions.

Inseveralhospitals’subjectivethoughts,Rosen Hansen had already mixed some fake patient intothehospital,buttheyforgottheessenceof the existence of the psychiatric ward. When they subjectively believe that there must be fakepatientsinthehospital,theirpurposewill nolongerbetotreatpatientsbuttoproveto the outside world that they can distinguish between'realpatients'andfakepatients' This is also the purpose of the Rosen Hansen experiment. I hope that through this experiment, we can alert those psychiatric hospitals not to be easily confused by their own subjective thoughts, and determine that Patients need a more precise and rigorous methodandavarietyofdatastatistics.

Socialconnection

Labellingtheory-Pedagogy

ConnectiontoPedagogy： whenachild islabelledasa"badboy","poorstudent", "fool" and other labels that meet certain psychological conditions, that label will cover all his other qualities, even advantages

Illustration by Jennifer Zhou

(once medical staff believe that a person has schizophrenia, they will regard all his behavioursandbehavioursasabnormal)

Nomatterwhatthechilddoes,Thethoughts of teachers and parents will stay in this stereotype. People's discriminatory eyes and attitudes will force children's psychology and behaviortodeflectinthedirectionofpeople's prejudice-thelabel.

Carrying labels for a long time can change a person ' s self identification and cognition deeply inside: our negative views (or negative expectations) on children can become children'sselfdetermination,theprejudiceand words of people around will make children thinkthattheyarelikethis,leadingtoachild whomaynotbebadorbadatthebeginning graduallybecomea"poor"or"bad"child

Humantrafficking

‘Somecriminalsusepsychosisasacovertodo trafficking.’

Ifthekidnapperstellthepeoplesurrounding thattheyarehelpingtheonewithpsychosis,and that’syou,howcanyoubreakaway？

Usepsychosisasanexcusetoavoidcriminal responsibility

Thepremiseisthatpatientswithmentalillness maybemorepronetoviolenceiftheydonot receive adequate treatment, are actively experiencing delusions, or have long-standing paranoia.

When a psychosis patient attacks, he cannot control his body nor his behaviour, so he cannot be treated as a stable person with capacity to act, and cannot be held accountableforcriminalresponsibility.

However, with the development of medical technology, there is a more complete and rigorous system for identifying psychiatric patients. After combining various researches on psychiatric diseases, doctors will prepare somecarefullydesignedquestionsinorderto judge prisoners well, which can identify the typeofpsychiatricpatients,butalsoavoidthe possibility of prisoners pretending to be psychiatric patients. Of course, it is also possible to commute the sentence through mentalillness.Generally,whenajudgeseesan effective psychiatric identification certificate, he or she will still reduce the penalty for the prisoner even though the possible symptoms havenoimpactonthecrime.

Conclusion

Rosenhan proved that there are huge loopholes in the diagnosis methods of identifying psychiatric patients through experiments.Thatistosay,evenifdoctorsand nursesdiagnosepsychosis,thereisstillacertain possibilitythatthisconclusioniswrong.This is connected to the subjective assumption in ourdailylife Whenwethinkofapersonina negativevisionthefirsttimewemeetthem,the longer we think, the more convinced we will be. Even if this person does his best to show the good side, it will not change our conclusionaboutthisperson

“

Human Perc Perception of

Illustration by Clarinde Sanft

ception: The self vs. others

By Isabella Xu

Humansenjoyextraordinarilycomplicated social lives, therefore we must build perceptions of others in order to properly traverse this complexity. Accurate perceptionsofothersprovidethepriceless function of enabling us to foretell what other people are likely to think, feel, and do. The urge to perceive and use others prompts us to consider how our minds naturally compile our perceptions into practical,cohesiverepresentationsofother individuals.

Thegeneralconceptofperception

The phrase " person perception", in social psychology, refers to the various mental processes that we employ to construct impressions of other people. We create these impressions, as well as the many judgmentswedrawaboutotherpeople,in light of those perceptions. Although we generally have access to internal feelings when perceiving ourselves and our own behaviour,whenitcomestotheperception ofothers,onemainsenseisusedandthatis our vision. The process of perceiving oneselfissimilarinsomesensestothatof perceiving others. We gather knowledge about ourselves either through our own assessments or from the comments of others, compiling a list of our traits and qualitiestodevelopourself-image Wethen analyse what that self-image means to us, evaluating how much we value those characteristics,andbuildourself-esteemas aresult.

Implicitpersonalitytheory

Theimplicitpersonalitytheoryisaperson's preconceivednotionsaboutthepersonality traits that frequently co-occur in individuals.Forinstance,itisreasonableto assume that someone with a sense of humour is also intelligent. Bruner and Tagiuri (1954) coined the phrase "naive, implicitpersonalitytheory"torefertothe thesis that observers made associations betweenthecharacteristicsofotherpersons inthefirstsignificantoverviewofdataon how people perceive the personalities of others. Psychologists have developed numerous strategies for comparing the implicitpersonalitytheoriesoflargegroups of people and have argued over various methodsformeasuringthesetheories. However, the validity of implicit personality theories has been contested by psychologists. For instance, psychologists havedebatedwhetherpeople'sassociations such as those between leadership and dominance reflect the social world as it actually is or whether they are based on assumptionsthatareunsupportedbydata orculturalassociations.

There are two main traditions in the ImplicitPersonalityTheory.

1.Consistencytheory

According to this method, our implicit personalitytheoriesaboutotherpeopleare primarily influenced by what we already knowaboutthem.Itisfoundedontheidea thatpeoplewilldisplayconsistencyin

their personality traits. Therefore, if you notice a person has a positive trait, your opinionofthemmaybepositiveingeneral. You'll assume that they'll have characteristicsthatareconsistentandthat, in addition to the primary trait you ' ve already noticed, they'll also have other favourabletraits.

2.Attributiontheory

Thisstrategyimpliesthatindividualsthink their traits are constant over time. According to the attribution theory, once you have formed an overall opinion of a person, you will likely assume that it will holdtrueinavarietyofcircumstances.

ImplicitPersonalityTheorycanbeaffected byamultiplefactors,suchas:

theotherhand,peoplewhoareinnegative moods are more susceptible to being persuaded by what they discover later on about a person. The likelihood that their opinionofsomeonewillchangeincreasesas theygettoknowthembetteronapersonal level. An overall negative impression of other people is also associated with pessimisticmoods

Self-BasedHeuristic

Whichareseenascharacteristicsthathavea stronger tendency in terms of influencing howpeopleperceiveaperson'spersonality. The qualities that have the greatest influenceonhowweperceiveotherpeople areconsideredcentral.Thus,theinfluence ofperipheraltraitsistypicallylessthanthat ofthosecentralcharacteristics.

Centralvs.PeripheralTraits Mood

The impressions and judgments people form can be significantly influenced by their mood. According to research, when peoplearecontent,theytendtobasetheir judgments more on their initial impressions. If they are in a favourable mood, they are also more likely to have a favourableopinionofotherpeople On

People frequently use information about themselves to fill in the gaps in their knowledge when they have a limited amount of information to draw conclusions from. You are more likely to noticeacertaintraitinothersthemoreyou notice it in yourself and the more prominentyoubelievethattraittobe. This phenomenon might be connected to ingroup bias, which occurs when people believethatmembersoftheirsocialgroup aremoresimilartothemthanmembersof theoutgroup.

Effects of Implicit Personality TheoryTheHaloEffect

Social psychology has extensively studied the impact that a single trait's perception hasonhowsomeoneisperceivedoverallthehaloeffect.Thishappenswhenwefeel optimistic about people, businesses, and products in one area and carry those feelings over to another. Because of this cognitive bias, we frequently make decisionswithoutjustification.Weactively createanimpressionthatcorrespondswith whatwealreadyknowwhenweform.

impressions of others, rather than relying solely on objective information. This bias existsineverysphereofourlives.Thehalo effectcanimpairourcapacitytoanalysethe characteristics of other people when it influencesourdecision-making

Socialcategorisationandstereotyping

Social categorisation is the natural process of mentally classifying people into social groups. For the most part, social categorisation happens unconsciously and automatically

who belong to particular social groups. If yougotlostinacity,youmighttrytofind apolicemanorataxidrivertoshowyouthe way. Social categorisation would likely be helpful in this situation because a police officer or a taxi driver may be especially likelytobefamiliarwiththelayoutofthe city'sstreets.Usingsocialcategorieswill,of course, only be instructive to the extent thattheindividual'sstereotypesaboutthat categoryareaccurate.

Oneissuewithsocialcategorisationisthat itbiasesourperceptionssothatwetendto exaggerate the distinctions between members of various social groups while underestimating how similar they are to one another This tendency to overgeneralise increases the likelihood that we will view and treat every member of a groupinthesamemanner.

Thisisinfluencedbyfactorsincludingrace, age,gender,occupation,etc

Some benefits of social categorisation include: The propensity to classify other people being frequently helpful. We designatepeopletoparticularcategoriesin some situations because doing so tells us informationaboutthetraitsofindividuals.

Psychology In The Game 'Mafia'

By Gigi Mo

Introduction

ThegameMafia(alsoknownas“Werewolf Game”)isoneofthebestteam-building games, it requires the player to work together and use their group-working, leadershipandtheabilitytoobserveothers’ behaviourtodeducewhothewerewolves are.

In Mafia, players are separated into 2 groups, werewolves and other positions. Therewillbeahosthostingthroughoutthe game and the host cannot be killed or voted Themaingoalofwerewolvesisto killeveryoneelseandsurvivetotheend However,theotherplayersneedtofigure outwhothewerewolvesareandvotethem outtowin.Servalpositionsinthemafia alwaysappearedtobepresentinthegame, which includes werewolves, predictors, witchesandvillagers.Werewolvescanonly killoneplayereachnight(theycanalso choosetokillnobody),predictorscansee whether a person is “good” (not werewolves) or “bad” (werewolves), the witchcaneithersaveorkillapersonusinga potion each night and villagers can do nothingotherthanvoteanddiscussduring theday(whicheverybodyelsecanalsodo)

Beforethegamestarts,thehostwillgive everybodytheirpositions.Aftereverybody getstheirroles,thefirstnightcomesand the host will wake the werewolves, the predictorsandthewitches,groupbygroup.

Duringthenighttime,theplayerswhoare inspecialpositions(werewolves,predictors, witches)wouldusetheirpowerdepending ontheirgroup’sdecisions.Thenitwillbe morningandeveryonewillbeinstructedto wakeup.Thehostwillguidetheplayersto discuss who the werewolves are and the players will speak one by one to express theiropinions Theperformanceofplayers determineshowmanynightsordaysinper game,themoreefficienttheplayerswillbe, thequickerthegamewillend.

Hereisagameexamplethatmighthelpyou understand more about the psychology behind this game. Let’s assume that the ninepeopleinthegamearereferredtoasA to I in this scenario. In the last werewolf game, werewolf G and the villager F survivedtotheend,whichwasclassifiedas thevictoryofthewerewolfteams.

In the second game, G got the werewolf position again with her new teammate D. After many decisions from G and certain behaviour from other players, this ultimatelyledtothesecondvictoryforthe werewolfteam.

Inthefirstroundofthegame,werewolfG killed herself. She knew that if she wasn't saved by the witch, her teammate, who is newtoMafia,wouldhavetofightagainst6 peopletowinthegame

DecisionMaking

So what drove her to make such a risky decision?

Inthesecondwerewolfgame,werewolfG killedherselfinthefirstround.Youmight be confused about why she made such a risky decision, and this will be explained further in the article When people are makingdecisions,theyalwaysconsiderthe choice which is most likely to achieve as many goals as possible under their evaluation. A theory called subjective expected utility theory has become particularly influential. This theory distinguishesbetweenthedecisionmaker’s utilities and expectations To be more straightforward, people pick the best option and decision-making is about figuring out the best choice. In the fi roundofMafia,G,asawerewolfhas options. She can kill any person, herself if needed. Since this is the round of the game, there is only lim informationontheplayers’positions,soif shechoosestokillapersonrandomly,there is only a small probability of killing the predictor,whoisthebiggestenemyofthe werewolves. The worst situation is killing theleast“harmful”villager,asavillagerhas nospecialability.Ontheotherhand,ifG choosestokillherself,thereisa50percent chance to be saved by the witch, if the witchdecidestosaveG,itisasymbolofthe witch giving her trust in G, and this is a piece of powerful evidence to protect G frombeingvotedoutbytheplayers.

Moreover,decision-makingcanbedivided into 3 stages problem identification, selection development and selection evaluation. As the werewolves have to make a decision in thirty seconds or less, theyhavenotimetocompletethosethree stages. The werewolves have to identify their problem quickly and decide immediately The problem for G in this situationisthatshehastoclearherselfof others’ suspicion because as mentioned before,thereisahighpossibilitythatGwill be categorised as an out-group by most peopleduetoher“perfectperformancein the last game ” . However, this is not a problemwhichcanbeeasilyovercome,as the act of G killing herself gives her great insurance, since this group of players are i M fia,theycannotrecognize

In-groupandOut-groupBias

What decision made by the witch causes hertolosethegame?

According to previous research, much evidence of ‘in-group and out-group bias’ hasbeenshowninmanydifferentreal-life examplessuchasgroupwork,competitions and social games In the example of the Mafia game above, ‘in-group and outgroup theory’ is part of social psychology theory which is present throughout the gameprocess.Fromtheperspectiveofthe witch,thebiggestmistakethatshemadeis that she categorised werewolf G as an ingroup at the start without any suspicion andtheactionofWerewolfGstrengthened the bones of the companionship between themlater.

As the witch is a person who stands, ‘acting’and‘lying’iscompletelyreasonable in social games like Mafia, she gains sympathyforGonceshesawGhadbeen killedbyawerewolfonthefirstnight Even thoughGmighthavebeencategorisedasan ‘out-group’ by other people (the ‘public outrage’afterthefirstgameandthefactG is killed in the first round), due to the cunningactionsshemadeduringthegame, itsentawarningmessagetoallthepeople thatGcouldbedangerousandcraftyandis willing to threaten their interests in the games afterwards, so most people will choose to set a boundary between themselvesandGbeforetheyknowGison theirside.

In-groupbiascantakemanyformsand,on many dimensions, are both evaluative and behavioural. The categorisation of the witchagainstGshowsthatthewitchthinks Gisapersonwhocanbenefitherinterest thevictoryofthegameistheinterestinthis case. This is the basic idea behind the realistic group conflict theory, which explainssuchbiasintermsofrealconflicts of interest between groups that are competingforscarceresources(e.g.,people whocanleadtoavictoryinthegame).

IntergroupRelationships

In addition to this, there is another important reason that causes the consequences of the witches, known as “intergrouprelationships”.Humansbelong to different social groups, ranging from smaller groups like one ’ s circle to bigger social categorisations such as nation and gender. According to the investigation, people tend to accentuate similarities betweenthemembers BecausebothGand thewitcharepresentedaspeoplewhoare lookingforexcitementinthegame,thereis abondformedimmediatelybetweenthem fromthewitch’sperspective.Peoplealways evaluate people in their group differently dependingonwhethertheyaremembersof theirgroup Thestatementsaboveindicate thewitchishighlylikelytoevaluateGmore positively and make more positive attributions for her behaviours, even though it is quite obvious that G is the werewolffromthelastfewrounds.

IInside this big group of people, the individualsarenotfamiliarwitheachother sincethisisanewsocietyformeddaysago.

However, there are situations where siblingsarealsopresentinthegroup.The mostdramaticthingisthatGisthesisterof the witch As G is the only acquaintance availableforthewitch,inthiscase,anytiny message that shows G’s willingness to cooperate with her brings her enormous security. This further explains the witch’s choiceofcategorisingGintohergroupin anenvironmentfullofunfamiliarpeople

Thepsychologicalfactswhichledtosome actsoftheplayersincludedecision-making, socialin-group/out-grouptheoryandsocial intergroup relationships. Many more fantasticstrategiescanbeusedinMafiabut they are not mentioned in this article.

Mafiaisaninterestinggamewhichrequires psychologicalinteractionswitheachother; feel free to find out more fun facts about Mafiaonline

Illustration by Amelia Rodriguez

Lacan’s “Borromean Knot”: Understanding the Human Psyche

By Benjamin Qin

Illustration by Reika Oh

Thehumanpsycheisacomplexinstrument,and ouractionsandthoughtsaredrivenbyavariety ofdifferentsources,includingsocialmoresand ourindividualselves [1]Hence,thereisaneed tofindaexhaustivesystemthatwillallowfora simple yet complete understanding of the human psyche.If this is achieved, we will not only have a better understanding of ourselves, butalsoofhowtheworldaroundusfunctions.

This system is the psychoanalytic theory of JacquesLacan(whoisoftennicknamedas“the FrenchFreud”) [2] MuchofLacan’sideascan be linked together in a diagram known as the “Borromean Knot”, which borrows from a topological structure in mathematics that one canseebelow:

The map shows that the human psyche is composed of three orders: the Imaginary, the SymbolicandtheReal.Thesethreeordersareall equallyimportantandtheyareallco-dependent ononeanother,thereforeifoneismissing,this would result in the entire Borromean Knot failing.

TheImaginary

The first order of the Borromean Knot is the Imaginary. The Slovenian philosopher and psychoanalyst Slavoj Žižek defined the Imaginary as “ our direct lived experience of reality,butalsoofourdreamsandnightmares-it isthedomainofappearing,ofhowthingsappear tous.”[4]Hence,theImaginaryisalltodowith interpreting and imagining a world around us, deception, narcissism, and the dichotomy betweenfantasyandreality

Lacanwasfamousforhisideasthattopologywas not just a metaphorical way of showing the structureofthings,butthatitwasthestructure itself. [3] The Borromean Knot shows three circlesthatareallinterconnected,andheadapted ittocreatehismapofhumansubjectivity:

TheoriginoftheImaginaryliesinanotherone of Lacan’s famous concepts - the mirror stage. The mirror stage is when an infant sees themselvesinamirrorforthefirsttime(which canbebothliteralormetaphorical) Beingable to observe all their internal feelings of incompleteness and anxiety collected in the stableformoftheirappearanceinthemirror,as well as having total control over what the reflectiondoescreatestheideaofan“IdealEgo”. The“IdealEgo”iswhattheinfantbelievestheir specular image in the mirror to be - a perfect versionofthemselves-sotheinfantstrivestobe like their notion of the “Ideal Ego” By interpreting their reflection as someone other than themselves, the infant gains a better understanding of who they are, based on who they would view themselves to be if they were anotherperson.

Figure1

Figure2

Soon, however, the infant identifies themselves withtheirspecularimage,andwhatthismeansis that the infant realises that the reflection is a representation of themselves, which allows for theImaginary(therealmofrepresentationsand appearances)tobepossibleintheinfantandalso the “ ego ” or identity of the infant to become actualised (as the infant can only know of themself by recognising their specular image) [5]

Lacan also thought that the Imaginary Order wasthepartofthehumanbeingthatisclosestto animal psychology, as animals live only in the Imaginary (concerned with luring other organisms into traps, as well as quickly perceiving and understanding the natural environment around them, which involves the knowledgeofwhatdifferentsoundsandscents mean) However, the human Imaginary still differs from the animal Imaginary, which is evidentinhowhumansaremadetoexperience theImaginaryinacertainway,whereasanimals experience the Imaginary in a way that is arbitrary. Thus, Lacan wrote, “In man, the Imaginary relation has deviated from the realm ofnature.”[6]

TheSymbolic

The“certainway”bywhichhumansexperience theImaginaryisanotherorderoftheBorromean Knot - the Symbolic These are the rules, ideologies,andprincipleswhichgoverntheway we see and interpret the world around us Lacan’s notion of the Symbolic derived mainly from the anthropology of Claude Leví-Strauss, which suggests that any culture around the world is just a set of “symbolic structures”, includingthelawsandstandardscontrollingthe arts, language, and customs (such as the exchangeofgifts).

Leví-Straussthenaddedtothisideaandshowed thattheverynatureofanindividual’sconscious experienceoftheworldaroundthemisregulated andlimitedbythesesymbolicstructures.[7]

Lacan’sSymbolicissimilartothis,butonekey difference is that these symbolic structures can transcend the cultures themselves, and the relationship between individuals and the symbolicstructuresiswhatLacancallsthe“big Other” (which is analogous to the idea of reflectioninthemirrorstagefromearlier).[8]

TheReal

The final order of the Borromean Knot is the Real,whichisperhapsoneofthemostdifficult Lacanian concepts to grasp. This is mainly becauseLacan’sowndefinitionoftheRealhas changednumeroustimesovertheyears,andin someofthesedefinitions,theRealdoesnoteven exist,yetis,inaparadoxicalway,stillimpactful on our lives. One of the generally-accepted definitions of the Real is “what resists symbolizationabsolutely.”[9]Inotherwords,it istheremainderwhensomethingissignifiedor represented (which is composed of the Imaginaryastheformitisdoneandunderstood in and the Symbolic as the way in which it is done).Forexample,let’ssaythatsomeonestubs theirtoe,andtheyutter“ouch!”astheImaginary representation of the pain, and with Symbolic structures(possiblyasocialcustom)makingthe person believe in the necessity of uttering “ouch!”

Lacan would argue that the pain can never be fully represented with the linguistic expression “ouch!”,becauseifitcould,thentheexpression ofthepainandthepainitselfwouldbeidentical. Yet this results in a contradiction because an expressionpresupposestheexistenceofthething beingexpressed,andsomethingcannothaveits existence presupposed in its very concept. Therefore, there is something “left over ” from theexpression-anotherpartofthe“pain”which isnotfullycontainedwithinlanguage-theReal

From this, one can understand that the Real is unknown (because we don’t know what we don’t know), and the definition of the Real implies that it must be beyond human understanding entirely. This is why Lacan suggestedthatwecanneverhaveknowledgeof theRealdirectly,andwecanonlyknowofthe “traces”itleavesbehind These“traces”arejust howitstructurestheothertwoorders,aslinking to our example, what language can express can be defined through what language cannot express, and the two are closely-related to each other.[10]

DesireandJouissance

While the three orders of the Imaginary, the Symbolic and the Real are the different dimensionsofthehumanexperience,whenthe ordersconvergeandintersectwithoneanother, fourotherpsychoanalyticconceptsarederived:

ThemeetingoftheImaginaryandtheSymbolic createsmeaning,andiswhereweunderstandthe world around us. The Imaginary by itself is nothing but the appearances of objects in the world, and only with the Symbolic can we be given a framework to understand what those appearancesmean

Jouissance is a French word which translates to “enjoyment”. Lacan thought that an individual isplaguedwiththeanxietythattheirjouissanceis never enough, and that individuals will always desiremoreandmoreofwhattheyalreadyhave Thisjouissancewhichfailsusandonlymakesus more dissatisfied with our current condition is sometimes referred to as the “jouissance of death”, and is marked as Jφ in the intersection betweentheRealandtheSymbolic-becausethe rules and laws of the Symbolic make us feel limited in our jouissance (which is part of the Real, as Lacan thought an “unlimited jouissance”,orajouissancepriortotheSymbolic, wasimpossible,soitwouldonlybepossiblein the Real) [11]Jouissance of death links to the Freudian idea of the “death drive”, suggesting that individuals are driven towards death and destructive behaviour towards themselves and others This is mainly due to the fact that our feelingsofdissatisfactionandinsufficiencywith our jouissance (the jouissance of death) are created through our own experience with the “bigOther”.[12]

Contrastingwiththejouissanceofdeathiswhat Lacancallsthejouissanceoflife(orjouissanceof the Other). This is symbolised with JA in the intersectionbetweentheRealandtheImaginary in the Borromean Knot, because instead of limiting one ’ s jouissance to satisfy Symbolic structures, it is limited to satisfy the “Other” (which can refer to other people or an individual’s imagination of what other people wantfromthem).

Figure3

Thislimitingofjouissanceistypicallydoneinthe most mangling and destructive ways possible, like metaphorically amputating a limb from a bodyinhopesoffulfillinganImaginaryideaof thejouissanceoflife.[13]

Inbetweenallthese,andastheintersectionofall threeorders,isthe“objetpetita” or “object-cause of desire”, which is represented by a in the Borromean Knot, and refers to all desire in general Objet petit a can be considered a “lost jouissance”,whichisajouissancelimitedneither bytheSymbolicnorbytheOther Lacanargued that this type of jouissance cannot really exist, becausehethoughtthatourenjoymentofthings arounduswasonlypossibleiflimitswereplaced ontheenjoyment.Thisisevidentifyouconsider the opposite - that an infinite, unrestrained enjoyment of something existed. If you could haveanunlimitedenjoymentofsomething,then the enjoyment of that thing would no longer haveanyvalue(sinceyoucanhaveasmuchofit as you want). Hence, he also calls this the “object-cause of desire” because he thought all desire is essentially the desire of this “lost jouissance” orobjetpetita,soitisalsothecause andbeginningofallourdesires.Becauseofhow objetpetitaistherootofdesireyetitdoesnot exist, this means that we can never attain what we think we desire, yet we still experience jouissance (which is only possible after some desire is actualised and more of it is wanted), implying that as humans, we can never know whatwereallydesire.

Aswecanneverknowwhatwereallydesire,and thatourobjetpetitacanneverbeattained,the actofdesiringneverends,andso,

partofthehumanconditionisbeingcursedwith the fact that “the only end of desire is more desire,”thuswecanneverfullybefulfilled.[14]

Conclusion

Insummary,thehumanpsychecanbereduced totheinterplaybetweenthethreeordersofthe Borromean Knot These orders are the Imaginary (the world of fantasies and appearances),theSymbolic(therulesandsocial structures being followed to make an individual’s Imaginary possible), and the Real (which is anything that cannot be categorised, andissimplytheresiduethatremainsafterthe symbolisationofsomething).Whentheseorders intersect, we are met with the creation of meaning, two types of jouissance or enjoyment (which are limited by the Symbolic and the Imaginaryrespectively),aswellastheobjetpetit a,whichistheunattainableobjectofdesirethat causesdesire

Therefore, by using the Borromean Knot, we can understand how the human mind experiences the world around them, and how every part of reality (stretching from the uncharted corners of the Real to the way societies and languages function in the Symbolic)islinkedtogether.

The Evolution Behind our Love-sick Brains

By Clarinde Sanft

Asoursocialmediafeedfillswithbeloved celebrities cheating scandals this year, we interrogate our once idols' ethics and examine our species’ relationships. We question whether humans are monogamousandwhy?

Throughoutthisarticle,themajorityofthe content will be related to cisgender and cissexualresearch

Theevolutionofattraction

To understand the centuries of evolution responsible for this behaviour, we must firstunderstandtheevolutionofattraction.

Throughout history, poets have believed loveasthisindescribablyspontaneousevent fromtheheart;however,itisallduetothe brain running a complex series of calculations and pattern recognition responsible for attraction- sadly, not as poetic.

Westartfirstwithoureyes Allfiveofyour senses play significant roles within the attraction process, each able to emphasise or erode. Visual beauty standards have greatlyvariedthroughoutculturesanderas; however,signsofyouthfertilityandgood health,suchaslonglustroushairorsmooth skin, have had a consistent theme as they aresignsofreproductivefitness.

Our ears also have significant preferences. A2013studyshowedthatmenpreferred

females with higher-pitched voices and wide formant spacing, while women preferred low-pitched voices with narrow formant spacing- a format is a concentration of acoustic energy around particular frequencies in the speech wave. Unsurprisingly touch is also crucial to attraction. Warmth has been shown to be associated with more positive correlations inyourperceptionofsomeone

Next, the nose contributes more than noticingawearer’sperfumeorcologne;it’s able to pick up on pheromones, your body's natural chemical signals, which conveycrucialgeneticinformationandare capable of activating a physiological and behavioural response in recipients. In a studyfromFloridastateuniversity,women atdifferentpointsoftheirovulationcycles worethesamet-shirtforthreenights.Male subjects were then tasked with smelling either one of the worn shirts or a new, unworn shirt; results from saliva samples showed an increase in testosterone levels which has been correlated with elated confidencetopursueapotentialpartner.

Genes that result in a greater variety of immunitiesgiveoffspringamajorsurvival advantage.Women’snosesareparticularly attunedtoMHC(majorhistocompatibility complex), the DNA that codes for cell surface proteins essential for an adaptive immune system. In Wedekind’s study, when women were asked to smell t-shirts thatdifferentmen

had worn, they showed a clear preference for men whose MHC molecules most differedfromtheirsbecauseofevolution.

Neuropsychologybehindattraction

Sexual reproduction is fundamental to passing on our genes; multiple emotions facilitate this process which together can createthefeelingoflove

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland controlearlyhormone-ledbondingphases; the prefrontal cortex then mediates the emotionalcontrolinvolvedinattachment.

Oxytocin which is released by the hypothalamushaslongbeenknownasthe hormonethatinduceslabourinmammals; itwasthenfoundtobecrucialformotheroffspringbondingandlatertobecentralto forming long-term attachments in sexual andsocialrelationships.

The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin havemultipleeffects-includingmakingus feel more protective of our object or attractionandattentivetotheirneeds;they stimulate long-term bond formation but canincreasedistrustofothers.

Two fundamental things to understand aboutevolution:

Thetraitsselectedforanorganismby evolution don’t always make the organismhappy.Thetraitsthatevolve in a population are the ones that are the best at getting genes passed on to thenextpopulation,nottheonesthat

make the body of those genes the happiest Whatevertraitgetsgenesinto thenextgenerationwins.

The ‘evolutionary goals’ of males and females in any species are opposed in almosteveryspecies.(occurswhenthe two sexes have conflicting optimal fitness strategies concerning reproduction, particularly over the mode and frequency of mating, potentially leading to an evolutionary armsracebetweenmalesandfemales.)

These two facts lead to many unpleasant evolutionary traits that are good for the genes but bad for the bodies that house those genes As we talk about human evolution, we need to keep in mind that what is natural for a human is not always whatwillmakethemhappiest.

Monogamyandevolution

Yes, monogamy is ‘natural’ for humans. But in the case of humans, monogamy doesn’tmeansexualdesirethatislimitedto oneperson.Humansevolvedtobe‘socially monogamous, ’ meaning that we choose onepartnerwithwhichwepairbondwhile retainingadesireforothersexualpartners. Wemaywanttocopulatewithothers,but at the same time, we feel intense jealousy and possessiveness over our bonded partners.

Essentially, humans evolved to be jealous cheaters.

Becausetheancestorsofourspeciesstarted walkinguprightsowecouldstandupand

scanthesavannahforenemiesorpreyand free our arms for other purposes like throwing or signalling. However, this had negativedrawbacksforwomen;anupright gait required narrower hips, constricting the birth canal, and just when our species weredevelopinglargerandlargercraniums, babies'headswerebecomingbigger.Death in childbirth became an immense hazard forfemales Womenwhogavebirthearlier, whentheinfant’sbrainandheadwerestill relativelysmallandsupple,faredbetterand lived to have more children. Natural selection consequently favoured earlier births, and humans, compared to other animals, are born prematurely; they’re helplessanddependentformanyyearson theireldersforsustenance,protectionand education.Thisfacthascontributedgreatly to both humankind’s extraordinary social abilitiesanditsuniquesocialproblems.

Human babies require two humans (or more) dedicated to raising them due to their high caloric needs and the fact that they need to be carried and nursed for a very long time. Evolution thus favoured thosecapableofformingstrongsocialties.

But pair bonding evolved in humans for other reasons, too. Pair bonding made competitionformatesamuchlessviolent affair.Mostprimatesexistinsmallgroups due to same-sex conflicts. Monogamous pairbondsallowedancienthumanmalesto coexistpeacefully.Thefamiliesofthepairbondedpartnerscametogetherasa

band.Thegroupworkingtogetherwasable to gather many more resources than just twoindividualhumanstravellingtogether.

Psychologyresearchbehindit

First, I must state that controlled experimentsontheneurobiologicalbasisof sociosexual behaviours in humans are not possible-andmoststudiesrelyonanimals toprovideprinciplesthatmightgeneralise tohumans.

A recent medical examiner, Larry Young, conducted bonding studies on a monogamous rodent, the prairie vole. Becausethecrittersarestubbornlyloyalto their mates socially, that is, sexually, is another story Prairie voles are miserable whenseparatedfromtheirbondedpartner for a very long. A stress-related chemical calledcorticotropin-releasingfactor(CRF) acts in males separated from their female mates.“

The neurochemical dopamine is motivational Itdrivesustoacttoappeasea desire,suchasforfoodorsex,andwhenwe do, we get a reward, typically a burst of endogenousopioids.

So our brains are organised according to chemically-controlledcircuits;whenwesee anattractiveperson,rewardcircuitstellus howincrediblecopulationwiththatperson would be. But oxytocin- and vasopressinrelated circuits tell us that we love our partner,andCRFishelpinguspicturehow miserablewe’dbewithout

our mate. The rational part of our brain, primarily the prefrontal cortex, weighs all thesefactorsandsituations.

Conclusion

This presents a problem for modern humans. They don’t want to be cheaters. Those who want to make monogamous commitments wish to keep those commitmentshappily Thosewhowantto benon-monogamousorpolyamorouswant to do so in a way that causes everyone involved happiness, not pain. But our evolutionary history gives them mutually conflicting feelings of jealousy and possessiveness in a relationship while also drivingustofeelpennedinbymonogamy

In addition, cultural influences work on humans in a way they don’t on any other species,andthewaywegrowupwillalmost certainly have a permanent effect on our attitudes about these things in adulthood. Whatever configuration you choose, there are going to be trade-offs There is no perfectoption;thisisthechoiceevolution hasleftus.

Illustration by Clarinde Sanft

The Freudian Theory of Aggression

By Aston Tam

Design by Reika Oh

Freudarguedthatallhumansarebornwith aggressive impulses in his theory of aggression. These impulses are then suppressedbytheego,aportionofourmind responsible for our perception of reality, as we learn to conform to societal norms. However,aggressiveimpulsescanstillbreak through in certain situations, leading to aggression

While Freud's theory may provide insight intowhypeopleactaggressively,itiscrucial toevaluateitsclaims Doesaggressionalways haveanegativeeffect?Aretherebenefitsto aggression?Isaggressionalwayscontrollable? These questions help us understand when andwhyaggressionoccurs

Aggression is a natural, though sometimes destructive, human emotion. It's characterisedbyhostilityandangerandcan manifest in physical or verbal outbursts. Thoughit'sanormalpartoflife,unchecked aggressioncanleadtosevereproblems both for the individual and for those around them.

There are many theories about what causes aggression, but Freud's is one of the most well-known theories According to Freud, aggressionisaninnateresponsetofrustration or pain. When we experience negative emotions,ourfirstinstinctistolashoutto relievethem Thistheoryhasbeensupported by research that shows that aggressive behaviour follows periods of stress or hardship.

While it's not always possible to prevent aggressionentirely,somethingscanbedone tominimiseitseffects.Forexample,teaching people how to manage their emotions in healthywayscanhelpthemavoidlashingout when they're feeling overwhelmed. Additionally, providing outlets for positive expressions suchasthroughsportsorart cangivepeopleanoutletfortheirenergythat doesn't involve violence or harm. Or by releasing pent-up aggression or negative thoughts through catharsis, typically done through physical acts such as punching something.

Freud's theory of aggression posits that aggressive impulses are innate and universal and are the root cause of many human conflicts. While it is certainly true that aggression can often lead to adverse outcomes, such as violence and property damage,itisnotalwaysthecase.Sometimes, aggression can be used positively, such as whenitisdirectedtowardsachievingagoal or protecting oneself from harm It is also worth noting that not all aggressive behaviour is motivated by negative intentions;sometimes,peopleactaggressively out of fear or anxiety without intending to hurtanyone

nature of the display of aggression being impulsive, it is developed gradually Lorenz’s theory of aggression suggests four stages of aggression:anticipatoryanxiety,displacement, instrumental aggression, and consummatory aggression. Anticipatory anxiety refers to the feelings of tension that build up in an individual before they engage in aggressive behaviour. Displacement occurs when an individual redirects their aggressive impulses towardsamoreharmlesstarget.

Instrumental aggression refers to violence perpetratedtoachieveaspecificgoal,suchas obtaining money or drugs. Consummatory aggression is the final stage of aggression, characterised by gratuitous violence and destructionforitsownsake.

Therefore,thisapproachtounderstandingthe dynamics of aggression prompts an entirely differentwaytoaddressaggressivebehaviour Rather than expressing catharsis to release stress, Lorenz’s theory of aggression would suggest that this is an incorrect means of placating aggressive traits, instead intervening during the first signs of aggression“anticipatory anxiety” - such as comforting them.

Inconclusion,Freud'stheoryofaggressionisa controversial topic with many different interpretations However, it is important to consider all sides of the argument when deciding whether or not it is valid. Although aggression can sometimes have negative consequences,therearealsotimeswhenitcan bebeneficial.Additionally,whileaggressionis oftenthoughtofasbeingoutofourcontrol, therearewaysthatwecanlearntomanageit.

Are self-diagnosis of mental health disorders and increased mental health awareness beneficial?

By Tracy Zhang

On the trend of people faking and/or “self-diagnosing” disorders and increased mental health awareness in general, why this can be beneficial, and why this can be harmful to people who have these disorders.

Self-diagnosis of mental health disorders hasbecomemorecommoninrecentyears, to the point that some may even call it a trend.Thishasbeenparticularlycommon among young people, especially teenagers andithasexpandedfromonlinesearching topeoplepostingcontentthatinvolvesselfdiagnosisonsocialmediaplatforms.When itcomestothis,oneplatform,inparticular, stands out with self-diagnosis becoming a trend,TikTok.

It might not come as a surprise that TikTok, an app that is sometimes negatively known for spreading misinformationhostssuchactivity.TikTok is an app that allows users to watch and share videos that are around 15 seconds long.Itisextremelyeasytouse,withbarely any skills or equipment required to create and edit videos. As a result, TikTok has accumulated 2.6 billion downloads, 689 million monthly active users and over a billion users in total Out of the over 1 billion videos viewed per day, there are manyvideosfromexpertsinmultiplefields, but with that being said, there are also creatorswhopostcontentinareasinwhich theydon’thaveexpertisein.Inmostcases, this is completely harmless, but occasionally,misinformationcanbespread topeoplewhomaynotbeabletoverifythe validityoftheinformation.Oneexampleof this happening can be traced back to the topicofmentalhealth.Oneineightpeople in the world live with a mental disorder, and in the past, mental illnesses were not widelyrecognizedatall,

illnesses were not widely recognized at all, despitetheirsignificance

The invention of the internet turned that situation around; it has made communication many times easier than it was before, and with this, came more sharing of information between people online This is when mental health awarenessgraduallystartedbecomingmore prominent. Until the modern day, more andmorepeoplearepostingmentalhealthrelated content on platforms like TikTok. Aspeopleknowmoreaboutmentalhealth disorders,theircauses,theirsymptoms,and much more, many start thinking about whether they themselves have a particular disorder. At this, many videos came out withatitleorcaptionlike“signsyouhave ” .

Therearemanybenefitstothisnewrisein mentalhealthawarenessandself-diagnosis. In the past, in fact, for most of history, peopleweremistreatediftheyshowedany signsofmentalhealthdisorders,aspeople believeditwasduetosupernaturalfactors, such as witchcraft or demonic possession. Now that new scientific advancements have been made, and more common knowledge and understanding are spread on the internet about mental illnesses, misconceptions arise less and less about people who are mentally ill. Even though thestigmaofmentalillnessesisstillanissue insocietytothisday,ithasmostdefinitely decreased, and direct discrimination has alsobecomeless

prominent.

Self-diagnosis of mental health disorders hasbecomemorecommoninrecentyears, to the point that some may even call it a trend.Thishasbeenparticularlycommon among young people, especially teenagers andithasexpandedfromonlinesearching topeoplepostingcontentthatinvolvesselfdiagnosisonsocialmediaplatforms When itcomestothis,oneplatform,inparticular, stands out with self-diagnosis becoming a trend,TikTok.

Another benefit is a potential correct selfdiagnosisfrominformationontheinternet. About 50% of severe mental disorders go undiagnosed, usually from lack of knowledgeorawarenessonthesubject,but withsomuchnewinformationcirculating ontheinternet,withcontentcreatorsthat specialize in posting about mental health awareness,withcountlessblogsandhealth information websites, many people discoverthepossibilityofhavingamental illnessthemselves,fromthesymptomsofa particulardisorder.Asurveyconductedby John Powell and Aileen Clarke to collect data on internet information seeking in mentalhealthshowedthat10.6%ofpeople had used the internet to seek information on mental health Since then, that figure has likely increased. With this awareness, many people go to see a professional for help. This shows that self-diagnosis from the internet could help reveal underlying disorders.

However, the self-diagnosis of mental health disorders poses threats as well as benefits. Linking back to earlier, even thoughalotofreliableinformationcanbe found on the internet, misinformation is still a common occurrence, especially on non-official websites and social media platforms. Even though misconceptions have decreased in recent years, some new misconceptionscanarisefromtheinternet too. This is the opposite of the intended effect.Thiscouldnotonlyleadtoincreased prejudicebutcouldalsoleadtoanincorrect diagnosis. People could be misled into thinkingtheyhaveamentalhealthdisorder whenthat’snotthecase,notonlythrough misinformationbutunpreciseinformation too, for instance, a short video that summarizesorgeneralizesthesymptomsof aparticulardisorder.

Additionally, increased mental health awareness could be exploited. As people start paying more attention to mental disorders, and as more awareness leads to more acceptance for people with these disorders, there are naturally people who fake mental health disorders. Recently, therehavebeenmultipleonlineinfluencers being called out for faking serious disorders, possibly for temporary internet fame or attention Not only is exploiting the sympathy of others for fame and attention morally wrong, but it is also extremely insensitive to the people who have these disorders, and it could impact them greatly to see someone faking a disorder that genuinely makes them

struggleinday-to-daylife

Another recent occurrence features a celebrity using their mental disorder as an excusefortheirbehavior.KanyeWestisa celebrity who has been previously diagnosedwithbipolardisorder,andmany brands,includingAdidas,haverecentlycut ties with him due to his antisemitic behavior and hate speech, including him wearinga“WhiteLivesMatter”T-shirtat Paris Fashion Week In Kanye’s response, hewasnotonlyunapologetic,butusedhis “bad mental health” as an excuse for his actions as he did multiple times before. Eventhoughlessandlesspeoplearebuying intohisexcuseof“badmentalhealth”,this is still an example of an instance where internet mental health awareness has been exploited.

To conclude, increased mental health awareness and self-diagnosis of disorders havehadapositiveimpactonsociety,with decreased discrimination against people with mental health disorders, and some people discovering underlying disorders through the internet. However, internet misinformation can have many negative effects, like people potentially getting an incorrect diagnosis, and as these concepts becomemorewidespread,therehavebeen more people exploiting the sympathy for people with mental illnesses by faking a disorder or using it as an excuse, and this canbequiteharmfultothereputationof people with mental disorders, and even hurt them. So even though mental health awareness and self-diagnosis of disorders fromtheinternetcanbepositiveinmany

ways, people, especially teenagers and young people, have to approach mental health-related topics on the internet cautiously,anditshouldn'tbeaproblemas longastheylearntotellrightfromwrong.

Family-of-origin : Formation of the cycle of violence

By Jennifer Zhou

Themainthemeofthisarticleistoexplore thecycleofviolence,orinmoretechnical term – intergenerational transmission of violence (IGT). Intergenerational transmission of violence means that childrenofviolentoffendersaremorelikely to become violent. This transmission of violencealwaysstartswitheitherwitnessing interparental violence or suffering maltreatmentfromparentsintheirfamilyof-origin. The effects are long-term which wouldaffecttherelationships,careersand other aspect of the children in his/her adolescenceandadulthood.Thechildwith violent family-of-origin, being a victim in childhood, are more likely to become a perpetrator of violence or remain as a victim in future relationships. Which formedthecycleofviolencethatishardto break.

Theoreticalexplanations

Inthefirstpartofthisarticle,wearegoing todiscussseveraltheoriesthatattemptedto explainhowtheintergenerational

transmission of violence – how exactly children become aggressive under the influenceoftheirparents.

Sociallearningtheory

Sociallearningtheoryisprobablythemost often used theory to explain the intergenerational transmission of violence. This model suggests that children acquire behaviours through modelling and reinforcementcontingenciesinthecontext of social interactions They learn how to behave, either completely or partly by imitating other people’s behaviour. Behaviour observed is particularly salient whenthemodelissomeoneofhighstatus and present regularly, such as a parent. Thus, physical aggression within a family providesapowerfulmodelforchildrento learn aggressive behaviour and gives the messagethatsuchbehaviourisappropriate. As evidence for social learning theory, researchhasfoundthatchildrenexperience corporal punishment that may not necessarily abusive (an example would be spanking) have higher chance to view aggression and violence as an effective strategyforresolvinginterpersonal

conflicts.

Additionally, Patterson et al expanded uponsociallearningtheorytoincorporate theroleofpeersinthe‘coercionmodel’.

Theysuggestthatthecoerciveinteractions perceived from parents foster aggressive behaviourinchildrenandleadstocoercive interactionswithpeersandassociationwith deviant and aggressive peers In this trajectory,peerinteractionsprovidefurther social learning modelling and reinforcement of aggressive behaviour initiallylearnedathome.

Attachmenttheory

TheattachmenttheorybyBowlbyhasalso playedanimportantroleinunderstanding the IGT. Attachment refers to the early bond that an infant develops with a caretaker. Three factors that disrupt attachmentandleadchildrentodevelopa hostile view of the world and people surrounding are: abuse, inconsistency or rejection This hostile view results in aggression and can develop into violent behaviourinadulthood.

Another attempt to explain the cycle of violence is the social information processing, which is similar to the attachment theory as both suggest that abused children tend to perceive hostile intent in ambiguous and harmless interactions.Theideaisthatseverephysical harmbeforeage5causeschronicaggression by bringing about the development of biased and deficient social-informationprocessingpatterns.These

biased social information processing patterns are associated with aggressive behaviour as such children perceive ambiguous, harmless interactions wrongly andrespondindangerousways.

Neurophysiologicalmodels

The key mechanisms explain the connectionbetweenchildhoodtraumaand maladaptiveoutcomesarethephysiological effects of stress. Repetitive activation of physiological stress response processes can have a global and adverse impact on neurological development, impeding capacities related to stress response and coping, managing emotional arousal, planning, and decision-making

Physiological response to stress involves coordinationofmultiplesystems,including thecatecholaminesystem,thesympathetic nervous system (SNS), and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal(HPA)axis. Typically,theinitial“fightorflight”HPASNS response dissipates as an elevation in cortisoltriggersthereturnofthebraintoa stateofhomeostasis,andcorticalprocesses are engaged to manage the stressful situation.However,dysregulationofthese systems and related deficits in prefrontal cortex functions inhibit an effective response to stress. Chronic exposure to stress,suchaschildabuse,mayresultinan elevatedstressresponse,whichisthoughtto prime individuals to act aggressively in stressful situations, or to a diminished responseassociatedwithdesensitizationto stress.

Studieswithnon-humanprimateshavealso found changes in central nervous system neurotransmitter activity associated with rearing experiences. Rhesus monkeys that wererejectedbytheirmothersinthefirst6 months of life had lower levels of the serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA. Low levels of5-HIAAinthecerebrospinalfluidhave been associated with aggressive behaviour and suicide by violent means, correlating withdiminishedserotoninlevels.

Behaviouralgenetics

Avarietyofbehaviourgenetictheoriesthat havebeendevelopedrecentlytoexplainthe intergenerationaltransmissionofviolence. Thefirstandsimplesttheorysuggeststhat the cycle of violence is explained, at least partly by transfer of the inherited traits fromparentstotheiroffspring.Thistheory reckonthatsharedgeneticsinthefamilyis thekeyfactorcausingviolentandaggressive behaviours rather than the environmental effectsofviolence

A second perspective suggests that aggressive genotypes in children could bring about abuse from parents. Nevertheless, twin studies have not supported these hypotheses but instead confirm a direct relationship between rearing environment and antisocial behaviour

A third hypothesis suggests that maltreatment leads to epigenetic changes thatpredisposeindividualstoantisocialor violentbehaviour.EvidencefromRoth

and Champagne (2012) describes that epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation and histone modifications establish changes in the activity of genes. Which may be observed as a consequence ofearly-andlater-lifeadversity.Resultsare drawn from neglected, abused, traumatic andchronicstressedanimals.Althoughthis can’t completely support the theory as differencebetweenanimalandhumanare hardtoignore,ithaveprovenadversityhas a lasting epigenetic impact in some ways. Furthermore,theysuggestthatthisimpact may not be limited to those individuals whohavebeendirectlyexposedtoadversity but may also be evident in subsequent generations–thusthereisan“inheritance” of stress susceptibility that may involve epigeneticratherthangeneticvariation.

Typesofviolentexposure

Theexposuretoviolenceinthefamily-oforigin has consistently been linked to intimate partner violence perpetration in adulthood IPVstandsforintimatepartner violence,itisarepeatedpatternofphysical, psychological, and/or sexual abuse against an intimate partner to gain control or compliance over a victim through fear tactics.Itisaglobalphenomenon,withan estimated lifetime prevalence of victimization among males and females between11%and71%.

Although a large body of research has found an association between exposure to violenceinchildhoodandIPVperpetration onadulthood.However,the

majorityofindividualsexposedtoviolence in childhood do not become violent

Therefore, it is important to notice the different types of violent exposure to understand whether certain types of violence are more likely to be transmitted acrossgenerationsthanothersandwhether the transmission of violence is role- or gender-specific

Role-specific

According to the social learning theories, violence is transmitted through vicarious observations or direct experiences. If the processesarerole-specific,thenitwouldbe expected that only observational exposure to violence should be associated with perpetration IPV in adulthood. Most findings suggest a stronger effect of observational learning compared with direct experiences, which is suggestive of role-specific modelling whereby children learn to become violent against intimate partners by observing the patterns of behaviour used by their parents For example, a meta-analysis of 52 studies published between 1970 and 1984 found thatwitnessinginterparentalviolencewasa consistent risk factor associated with IPV perpetrationamongmales. Nevertheless,otherstudieshavefoundthat exposuretochildabusehasasimilareffect on IPV perpetration in adulthood compared with observing interparental violence. In the study conducted by Li Eriksson and Paul Mazerolle, respondents whoreportedacombinationofobserving

and experiencing direct exposure to violenceweremorethan4timesaslikelyto report perpetrating IPV compared with individuals who reported no exposure to violence in childhood. This result demonstrates that experiencing the combinationofchildabuseandobserving interparental violence as a kid has the strongesteffectsofviolencetransmission

Gender-specific

Another factor that determine the intergenerationaltransmissionofviolenceis gender-specific quality of modelling patterns.Althoughtheinitialacquisitionof behaviour is learnt from either parent, socialisation and gender role expectations resultingender-specificmodelling.Inthis case,thebehaviourofthesame-sexparentis imitated to a greater extent that the behaviour of the opposite-sex parent. For example, a son observing violence perpetrated by his father would lead to largerpossibilityofperpetratingIPVinhis adulthood that a son observing violence perpetratedbyhismother.

Distinction between patriarchal violence and common couple violence has to be recognised. One means of allowing for moregender-sensitiveanalysewouldbeto comparefather-onlyviolence,mother-only violence, and bidirectional parental violence. One study found that observing same-sex only and bidirectional interparental violence was associated with theperpetrationofdatingviolenceamong undergraduatestudents,whereas

observing opposite-sex interparental violence was not Nevertheless, although that particular study provides a more gender-sensitive means of examining integrationalprocesses,thesamplegroupof undergraduate students limits the generalizabilityofthefindings.

InthestudyconductedbyLiErikssonand Paul Mazerolle, results show observing bidirectional interparental violence was associated with a fivefold increase in the likelihood of IPV perpetration, whereas observing father-only violence was associated with an almost threefold increase. In contrast, observing motheronly violence was not found to be predictiveifIPVperpetration.Otherthan the gender-specific proves, the results also suggestthatrespondentswhowereofnonWhiteethnicbackgrounddisplayedahigh probabilityofIPVperpetration.

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