Fresh Perspectives: HPU Anthology of First Year Writing, Spring 2015

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Table of Contents EDITORS’ WELCOME ................................................................................................................3 THE POWER OF LANGUAGE: word and image The Bilingual Advantage (By Ash-Lee Tanaka) ..............................................................................5 The Flaw of Words: Wrongful Labeling of Those with Sexual Differences (By Chardei Costa) .13 Censorship: Making or Breaking Modern Art? (By Maria Nikulkova) ........................................20 THE CHALLENGE OF CHOICE: lifestyle and ethics Living Dolls Subculture (By Darlene Quito) .................................................................................27 Reconsiderations: Research on Consensual Non-Monogamy (By Elizabeth Hudson) .................31 Gay Neighborhoods: Beneficial to the LGBT Community (By Jack Blethroad) ..........................38 Respecting the Differences: Body Modification Culture (By Jenn Flores) ...................................44 Dinner Parties and Torture: Addressing Torture from All Perspectives (By Robin Faulkner) ......48 I Have a Jar of Treasures (By John Graef) ....................................................................................57 HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: challenges and opportunities Never Forgotten (By Gabrielle Reif) .............................................................................................60 The Negative Effects of Drunk Driving: Proposed Solutions (By Kerianne Noonan) ..................62 Spreading Awareness about “That” Mental Illness: Schizophrenia (By Marjury Cabanlit) ..........65 The Unintentional Stigma: The Misconception of ADD and ADHD (By Michelle Manganello) 70 Overworked: Americans Working Themselves to Death (By Newt Sanson) ................................74 EARTH AND ENVIRONMENT: consequences and complications De-Extinction: The Ultimate Second Chance? (By Victoria Dickey) ...........................................78 Invasive Algae (By Nicole King) ..................................................................................................85 Peanut Butter and the Rainforest (By Iri Robinson) ......................................................................92 POWER OF REPRESENTATION: pros and cons Online Gaming Subculture (By Alten Kiakona) ............................................................................96 Evaluation of Historical Bias through the Life of James Longstreet (By Kyle Bales) ..................99 Under Pressure: Media’s Effect on Young Women (By Zuleka Seth) .........................................107 Existentialism and Music: Influence in American Society (By Stephanie Martinez) ................. 111 Effects of Photoshop on Teens Today (By Terrald Hodges) ........................................................ 119 MEET THE WRITERS!.............................................................................................................125 MAHALO! ..................................................................................................................................131

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EDITORS’ WELCOME

Aloha! My name is Kiley Caswell and I’m a senior, majoring in English with a minor in Writing. I am born and raised in Hawai‘i, and have lived in He‘eia on O‘ahu all my life. In addition to being an editorial intern, I am a staff reader for Hawai‘i Pacific Review, HPU’s online literary magazine. In past semesters, I’ve been a managing editor for Hawai‘i Pacific Review and an editor for Wanderlust, HPU’s undergraduate student literary magazine. My experience at Fresh Perspectives has been unbelievably positive. The following essays have opened my mind to many topics that I have only been partially aware of. I hope readers enjoy them as much as I have!

Kathleen Cassity As Associate Professor of English and Chair of HPU’s English Department, I am pleased to introduce our fifth issue of Fresh Perspectives, featuring essays written for our first-year writing courses in the Fall 2014 semester.

Once again, essays were solicited from our full range of first-year writing courses, covering a range of topics, academic disciplines, discourse communities, and rhetorical approaches. Because these writers are relatively new to the academy, we do not expect disciplinary mastery. (Note that in some cases, pieces have been edited to be more audience-friendly than the typical college research paper.) Our goal is to provide a venue for publication and dissemination of ideas by the newest members of the academy—our first-year students, who may still be learning the nuances of academic discourse yet who have compelling things to say and who offer, in the words of our title, “fresh perspectives.”

Essays with potential were nominated by the students’ teachers and went through a full editorial process by our editorial intern, Kiley Caswell. The viewpoints expressed are the opinions of the writers themselves and are not necessarily endorsed (nor denounced) by HPU, the English Department, or the editors. Rather than selecting pieces that toe any particular “party line,” we have attempted—in the spirit of academic freedom—to present a range of viewpoints, some of which may be controversial. This is fitting for a first-year writing program that emphasizes argument, and we hope you will enjoy reading the arguments made by some of our most promising first-year students here at HPU.

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THE POWER OF LANGUAGE: word and image

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The Bilingual Advantage (By Ash-Lee Tanaka) Imagine you are at a local café, sipping your morning coffee. All of a sudden, you find yourself honing in on the conversation between the couple next to you. For a few moments it doesn’t register that they are speaking a language you never heard before because they look like a typical American couple. You start to wonder, “I wonder if they’re foreign?”

All while you try to analyze this trivial matter, one person says something and the other lets out a small chuckle then continues to build on the conversation, making both people rumble with laughter. “I wonder what they’re talking about?” you think as you mindlessly sip on your coffee.

All you can do is assume; and in actuality, you are left feeling a little disappointed that you could not enjoy that moment all because you could not understand them. As you continue to wonder, you notice the very same couple is now speaking in English. Perhaps a couple of thoughts are running through your mind, but what you probably did not notice was that the couple was suppressing their “English mind” up until now.

It is believed that around half of the world’s population is bilingual (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 240). That equates to roughly 3.5 billion people; the entire U.S. population multiplied by twenty-two. This may be a tad surprising to some; but nevertheless, with that enormous number in mind, it is important to study the bilingual mind and bilingualism’s consequences.

Over the years, many studies of the bilingual mind have been conducted, and it has been concluded that bilingual minds function differently from monolinguals’ minds because of the constant juggling of two languages. Not only are cognitive advantages created because information is processed differently between the two languages, but bilingualism also improves one’s overall well-being. The bilingual advantage affects not only individuals, but provides societal benefits as well.

One may be wondering, “Is there really that much of a difference between a monolingual’s and bilingual’s brain?” or, “Wouldn’t constant juggling of two languages stifle brain functions rather than encourage growth?” The latter question was actually the early consensus of many, including researchers.

Let us first step into the shoes of a bilingual person and look at the mechanics behind bilingualism. Bialystok, Craik, and Luk explain that it seems logical to think that bilinguals only use one section of the brain while engaging in one language. However, that is not the case.

Despite being engaged in only one language, fluent bilinguals have both languages activated simultaneously to some extent, which is known as joint activation (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 241). For example, Japanese-English bilinguals will seemingly only use their “English brain” while ordering Starbucks in America; but in actuality, their “Japanese brain” is simultaneously active, just not being applied.

How do we know? Simple. Numerous studies have proven that both the L1 (First Language) and L2 (Second Language) mind are both working all the time. Bialystok, Craik, and Luk support the notion of joint activation by presenting past studies—one in particular showing that participants are in fact engaged in the non-target language whilst using another language, the 5

target language. The task required English-Russian bilinguals to choose the named picture (in English). However, eye-tracking devices discovered that that the participants were distracted by the other choices because they had similar phonologies to Russian despite the picture having no relation in meaning to the said word (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 241). This proves that even though only one language is being pursued, the other temporarily irrelevant language is still active in a bilingual’s mind, which brings us to the concept of inhibition of language.

To combat the problem of one language getting in the way of the other while performing various tasks, bilinguals seem to have a cognitive function through which the non-target language is actually suppressed, or inhibited. There are two types of language inhibition: global and local.

These suppression methods are used in linguistic selection, which enable bilinguals to perform tasks in the target language. Bialystok, Craik, and Luk define global inhibition as the complete suppression of one language while local inhibition is disregarding distractors (i.e., translating words from one language to the other).

Not only do these inhibitions have different intensity levels, but they also have dominance in different functions. Global inhibition affects both linguistic and cognitive abilities, while local inhibition only affects linguistic performance. Although these two inhibitions decrease speed and fluency for bilinguals, they do not hinder their ability to complete tasks (Bialystok, Craik & Luk 242). Rather, as Bialystok and Kroll claim, joint activation forces bilinguals to process language(s) differently than monolinguals, which entails a reorganization of not only linguistic systems, but also cognitive ones (Bialystok and Kroll 504). This subsequently acts as a cognitive advantage when compared to the monolingual counterpart. While monolinguals do not do this, bilinguals must organize both cognitive and linguistic processes in a blink of an eye, which is arguably why their minds are more elastic.

There are of course those who will undermine inhibition by bringing up the concept of attrition, also a part of the “phase of loss,” which will be discussed later. Levy, McVeigh, Marful, and Anderson define attrition as “the forgetting of one’s native tongue during second language acquisition” (Levy et. al 29). While inhibition does in fact aid bilinguals both linguistically and cognitively, the brain can sometimes be tricked into thinking that one language is interfering with the other when in actuality, it is not. This usually happens during immersion in the L2.

Oftentimes when the L1 is disused, vocabularies are the most affected; but sometimes attrition can even seep into one’s L1 comprehension (Levy et. al 29).

Perhaps one has had the experience of this when coming back after a year abroad: instead of the L1 word/phrase coming to mind, the L2 is the only language that can be produced. Kroll, Bobb, and Hoshino present an example of this type of incident. English speakers studying Spanish were split into two groups: in-class learning and immersion. After the return of the immersed students, studies found that L1 retrieval tasks for those who were immersed in the L2 were slower than those who just studied in class. In addition to the reduced speed of retrieval, some students even had difficulties comprehending English for as long as six months (Kroll, Bobb, and Hoshino 161).

However, attrition is not irreversible. As seen from the previous example, students who had difficulties retrieving their L1 just needed time to readjust. In addition to that, without the disuse 6

of the L1, attrition is highly unlikely to occur. Inhibition can be seen as a double-edged sword: it can suppress one’s retrieval for the L1, but it also assists in joint activation, which is why the bilingual mind is unique compared to the monolingual counterpart.

Now that we have a general understanding of what it is like inside a bilingual’s mind, let us dig deeper into how the juggling of two languages facilitates one’s cognitive functions rather than stifles them. Contrary to the idea that bilingualism muddles the brain and cognitive functions, it is because of those constant alterations between one language and another that the brain is “working out” around the clock, enabling elasticity to the brain. This is actually how the effects of bilingualism are measured: “The context for examining how bilingualism affects cognitive ability is functional neuroplasticity, that is, the study of how experience modifies brain structure and brain function” (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 240).

It has already been established that joint activation creates more neuroplasticity, but what does that mean and what are the benefits? Are there benefits for having a more elastic brain? The short answer is yes; there are benefits. As Bialystok, Craik, and Luk point out, it was always thought that bilingualism had some sort of effect on a developing child’s brain.

However, the first thoughts were that those effects were negative because it was assumed that juggling two languages would be confusing for a child. In the early stages of studying bilinguals, various tests on metalinguistics, attention, problem solving, and more (verbal and non-verbal) were given to both monolinguals and bilinguals to see whose scores would be higher. The results showed that bilinguals were dominant in most tests (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 240). With this shocking discovery, numerous studies have continued to explore the bilingual mind and the “bilingual advantage”.

As mentioned previously, bilinguals must reorganize linguistic and cognitive processes in order to perform everyday tasks such as talking to their friends, ordering at a restaurant, and so forth.

It may seem as though the bilingual mind is reorganizing processes merely to adapt to one’s needs, but in actuality, there are higher consequences involved. As Bialystok and Kroll argue, “Bilingual minds are different not because bilingualism itself creates advantages or disadvantages, but because bilinguals recruit mental resources differently from monolinguals” (Bialystok and Kroll 498).

As it turns out, the way bilinguals gather these mental resources positively affects what is known as executive control. Bialystok, Craik and Luk define executive control as “the set of cognitive skills based on limited cognitive resources for such functions as inhibition, switching attention, and working memory. Executive control emerges late in development and declines early in aging, and supports such activities as high-level thought, multi-tasking, and sustained attention” (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 241). From this definition, it becomes clear that one’s executive control is imperative to one’s overall intelligence and wellbeing.

The benefits from reorganizing the brain are not only prominent in linguistic tests, but as Kroll, Bobb, and Hoshino point out, neuroimaging studies have recently found that during both linguistic and non-linguistic (purely cognitive) tasks, bilinguals seem to use control networks more efficiently than their monolingual counterparts. In addition, a non-verbal conflict7

monitoring task resulted in bilinguals being able to use less of the region in the brain associated with cognitive control compared to monolinguals (Kroll, Bobb, and Hoshino 161-2). With a more efficient cognitive network, energy does not need to be wasted on distracters.

Furthermore, Bialystok, Craik, and Luk add that studies have found that grey matter in bilinguals’ brains are denser than in monolinguals’ (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 245). Since grey matter is where information is processed, this also supports the notion that bilinguals have advantages in processing information more efficiently than their monolingual counterparts.

Bilinguals are also thought to have advantages in focusing on relevant information compared to monolinguals. This hypothesis ties in with the joint activation concept. One of the reasons bilinguals can process both linguistic and cognitive functions in such a short period of time is because of their superb attention control.

Bialystok, Craik, and Luk also address this concept, providing some interesting findings through various studies. One finding consists of inhibition showing itself in a non-linguistic task: participants in interference suppression tasks using stimuli with two responses (i.e. asking what color the word “yellow” is when written in blue). This study showed that bilinguals were always quicker to respond with the correct answer. This is in a sense “overriding a system” in order to stay focused on the relative cues/information (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 246). This is a prime example of bilinguals being able to ignore distractors, as they do while inhibiting one of their languages.

Bialystok, Craik, and Luk also provide interesting insight as to why the bilingual advantage may be apparent in cognition processes. Along with mediating two languages, bilinguals are also paying close attention to the context, speaker, and other environmental details. It is more likely for the bilingual advantage to appear in non-verbal tasks if any of the previous components mentioned are actively used and developed (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 246). With these advantages in mind, one could believe that because of the way bilinguals’ minds work and their sensitivity to their surroundings, details that monolinguals may not notice could be picked up by bilinguals. Increased sensitivity to minute details could also be a key skill when adapting to new environments, which is crucial in today’s complex society.

One may think that being proficient in a L2 is one part of acquisition, while becoming culturally aware of that L2 is the other part. Not only does biculturalism affect an individual, but it also creates connections between people of different cultures and ideas. Although being bicultural isn’t a bad thing, one who is trying to make the bilingual-bicultural jump can run into a dilemma.

There are those who will shift the focus of the cognitive processes involved with bilingualism and argue from a psycholinguistic standpoint that being bilingual (or multilingual) can lead to confusion and even a loss of identity.

Damon Verial hypothesizes that children and teens are most prone to losing their identities because during the adolescent years they are trying to figure out who they are (Verial). This “phase of loss,” as James Lantoff explains, is a five-stage process: “loss of one's linguistic identity, loss of frame of reference and the link between the signifier and the signified, loss of the inner voice, and first language attrition” (Lantoff 162). Lantoff includes excerpts from bilingual 8

authors’ biographies, painting a vivid picture of how a new culture can destroy all that one once knew. The loss of one's identity can be accomplished through merely changing one's name in order to suit the new environment/culture. Not only that, but words for objects no longer hold meaning; there are no conceptual meanings behind words anymore, just mere referents (Lantoff 162-64).

Progressing further into the “phase of loss” stages, one can even lose all sense of the self.

Lantoff defines the self as the entity that holds the memories and perceives experiences for a person (the vessel for self). It is an ever-changing system that advances as a person engages in a culture and its activities (Lantoff 163). Of course by engaging in a new culture, the self can subsequently be thrown into turmoil along with muddling the inner voice throughout the cultural transition.

Lantoff powerfully argues the repercussions of losing one’s inner voice by claiming that its loss also means losing the connection between oneself. The reason: during the early stages of crossing cultures, the L1 ceases to function in order to absorb the L2 (also known as attrition), which leaves the L1-self with no internal communication because the person is still building the L2 mind. This lack of communication can also prevent experiencing new things because the self is responsible for storing memories as well as perceiving the world around oneself (Lantoff 164).

In essence, losing communication with oneself can result in one not growing as an individual; rather, one will be trapped within a cage built by the L2 self. With all of these possibilities in mind, some may think that involvement with more than one culture is not beneficial, but instead destructive to one’s well-being.

However, despite these consequences, hope isn’t lost for a bicultural bilingual. Interestingly, the point where one loses oneself does not necessarily have to happen. As Lantoff claims, an individual can choose how deeply to immerse into and adapt to a new culture. Ultimate L2 acquisition entails the self-translation process, but adaption can be achieved by accepting one’s current environment while still preserving the L1-self (Lantoff 170-1).

In short, it is one’s choice to make the bicultural jump or not. However, if one does fall into identity crisis, there is also, as Lantoff states, the process of “recovery of self” (Lantoff 163).

This intriguing process can take time, but the in the end, a once very distraught individual can transform into one who successfully marries the two (or more) cultures and languages. Lantoff explains that the “recovery of self” process entails four stages: “appropriation of others' voices, emergence of one's own new voice, translation therapy: reconstruction of one's past, and continuous growth into new positions and subjectivities” (Lantoff 163).

The second step, arguably the most key, is usually obtained by reconstructing oneself by merging one's past and present in an appropriate manner (picking up on nuances, distancing oneself to an extent, and so forth) after “borrowing” the voices of others (Lantoff 163, 167-8). Perhaps bilinguals are able to do this because they are more sensitive to their environments. This is crucial to gaining a sense of self because the past L1-self is, in a sense, meeting their L2-self and making a compromise to merge into one entity. This can be thought of as the L2-self breaking down the wall that it created, allowing the L1-self through. Although bilingualism can 9

sometimes cause one to lose their cultural identity temporarily, there are ways to overcome that challenge.

Following the notion of bilingualism opening doors for self-improvement, let us explore the benefits of L2 from a slightly different standpoint. Aneta Pavlenko poses an interesting concept of “disembodied cognition,” stating that thinking in an L2 may actually lead to less biased opinions. The reason for this is because “a foreign language provides a greater emotional and cognitive distance than a native tongue” (Pavlenko 406). As previously discussed with regard to the loss of identity phase, there is in fact a time where the L2 (words/concepts) is seen as a distant entity. In a certain light, the notion of “disembodied cognition” can be seen as a positive outcome despite the chaos a loss of identity can create.

Pavlenko also notes a few experiments where bilinguals are more prone to switching to their L1 when emotions are heightened (both positive and negative). For example, participants’ responses revealed that the phrase “I love you” has greater emotional weight in their L1 than in their L2. In addition, the same experiment found that bilingual couples sometimes revert back to their L1 (even though their partner has little to zero knowledge of it) because they feel more satisfaction from using the emotionally laden L1 (Pavlenko 411). With less emotion attached to opinions, one can see ideas from a more objective point of view, which is sometimes the more effective way to make decisions.

As briefly touched upon earlier, bicultural bilinguals are not only affected by the benefits individually, but because of the newly opened communication networks, an exchange of ideas with others takes place. With this in mind, imagine if less biased opinions could also be translated to others using “disembodied cognition.” Is it reasonable to think that better decisions can be made as a society?

Interestingly enough, Pavlenko presents research exploring the idea of whether or not bilingualism can enable better decision-making. An experiment included four groups of bilinguals (English-Japanese, Korean-English, English-Spanish, and English-French) and presented ultimatums to each by using a “modified version” of the Asian disease task, which include scenarios where participants choose between saving/killing X amount of people if medicine A is used, as well as other similar tasks.

The results suggested that those who used their L2 while deciding showed less emotion as well as reduced biases during frame of loss, i.e., if you choose medicine A, X people will die (Pavlenko 422). With both of these experiments showing that the L1 holds more emotional weight than the L2, one can conclude that using L2 during decision-making may be a new way to see things more objectively when tough situations arise.

The reason for showing the connection between emotion and language is not only to support the idea that using a L2 can lead to better decisions, but whether one realizes it or not, a lot of times one makes decisions with one’s heart, not one’s mind. For example, if one finds oneself in a situation where anger arises, such as getting into a fight with a loved one, chances are emotions will be the leading force in one’s decisions. As suggested earlier, the use of one’s L2 is sometimes implemented in order to distance oneself from a situation. With being able to look at 10

a situation from a “third-person perspective,” rash decisions are less likely to happen. Returning to the situation of fighting with a loved one, there are countless times where decisions are regretted after the heat of the moment; and often times, one feels foolish for doing something or saying something that one would have not done with a level head. But with the aspect of the L2 distancing one from the situation at hand, this could be used as a tactic for avoiding unnecessary and unfortunate consequences.

The example above is not to say that emotions are the root of all decisions that go wrong, but simply that the use of L2 can help one control their emotions. Not only that, but it also shows how deeply bilingualism can run in a person’s life. If put on a bigger scale, the world could benefit greatly from all that bilingualism brings. It is also worthy to note that the advantages of bilingualism is not confined to just those who learn a L2 at a young age. As Kahn states, the bilingual advantage (to some degree) is obtainable to anyone of any age (Kahn).

The bilingual advantage is not only seen in language switching in conversation, but also in cognitive processing and non-linguistic tasks. Although studies have shown that the bilingual advantage seems to be most prevalent in young children and older adults, Bialystok, Craik, and Luk propose that perhaps these advantages are less apparent in young adults because that is when cognitive control development is at its peak.

However, it is also noted that young adults show bilingual advantages when challenged with difficult tasks (Bialystok, Craik, and Luk 243). It is quite interesting that this age group seems to show the least amount of advantage over their monolingual counterparts. One can conclude that it may be even more of a reason to promote bilingualism because young adults are typically more willing to take chances to experience different cultures via studying abroad, pursuing careers, or vacationing. Since young adults are trying to piece together who they are as individuals, it could be highly profitable to take advantage of the benefits that learning a second language has to offer.

With today’s society is becoming increasingly more global, it would not be surprising to have an increase in bilinguals in the future with the mix of cultures and discovery of new breakthroughs as to the benefits of bilingualism. As seen through the journey one can take during L2 acquisition, language molds the people who use it through the values and culture embedded into it.

Some will argue that being culturally aware is essential to add to one’s arsenal of skills in order to help shape the future. With bicultural/bilingual people running around, barriers in society could potentially be easier to break down because of the mutual understanding between different cultures. Bilingualism not only opens new communication channels between others, it also allows for a deeper understanding of others and of oneself and mind.

WORKS CITED Bialystok, Ellen, Fergus I. Craik, and Gigi Luk. "Bilingualism: Consequences for Mind and Brain." Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16.4 (2012): 240-50. Science Direct. Web. 6 Oct. 2014.

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Bialystok, Ellen and Judith F. Kroll. "Understanding the Consequences of Bilingualism for Language Processing and Cognition." Journal of Cognitive Psychology 25.5 (2013): 497514. Web. 22 Oct. 2014.

Kahn, Amina. "Learning a Second Language at Any Age May Slow the Brain's Decline." LA Times. n.p., 2 June 2014. Web. 12 Oct. 2014.

Kroll, Judith F. "Juggling Two Languages in One Mind." Psychological Science Agenda (2008).

Web. 22 Oct. 2014.

Kroll, Judith F., Susan C. Bobb, and Noriko Hoshino. "Two Languages in Mind: Bilingualism as a Tool to Investigate Language, Cognition, and the Brain." Current Directions in Psychological Science (Sage Publications Inc.) 23.3 (2014): 159-163. Academic Search Premier. Web. 6 Oct. 2014.

Lantoff, James P., ed. Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning. N.p.: Oxford University Press, 2003. 156-75. Web. 22 Oct. 2014.

Levy, Benjamin J., Nathan D. McVeigh, Alejandra Marful, and Michael C. Anderson.

"Inhibiting Your Native Language: The Role of Retrieval-Induced Forgetting During Second-Language Acquisition." Psychological Science 18.1 (2007): 29-34. JSTOR. Web. 22 Oct. 2014.

Pavlenko, Aneta. "Affective Processing In Bilingual Speakers: Disembodied Cognition?"

International Journal of Psychology 47.6 (2012): 405-428. Academic Search Premier.

Web. 13 Oct. 2014.

Verial, Damon. "Disadvantages to Children Learning a Foreign Language." Global Post.

Demand Media, n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2014.

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The Flaw of Words: Wrongful Labeling of Those with Sexual Differences (By Chardei Costa) If you had to describe yourself, the entirety of who you are, in one word, what would it be? It’s not easy to sum up everything you are as a person in one word. The problem is that one word can be too constricting, too definite to sum up an entire human being and everything they are.

The biggest problem is that we, as a society, do this every day to people. The “queer” community, or the community of people who are sexually “deviant” from society’s norms, gets labeled regularly. It’s the easiest way people know how to respond to them, but one problem is that society often places labels on people that don’t fit them. The words used to define the identities of others with differing sexual preferences are too narrow to sum up the entirety of those people and are based off of society’s heteronormative standards. These standards aren’t fluid enough to cover the sexual differences in each person, which can lead to misunderstandings between people with differing lifestyles.

Labeling sexual differences has been around for centuries. In 1860, Karl Ulrich developed a Sexual Orientation Classification. He used the term “Dioning” to describe someone who was strictly heterosexual. Those who were considered to be homosexual were called “Urning.” He described different degrees of Urning; for example, someone who was considered Dioning, heterosexual, but acted Urning, homosexual, was called “Uraniaster,” which is our version of a “metrosexual.” Urano-Dionings were bisexuals in his concept. There is no category for third sex, transgender, hermaphrodites, or any other sexual differences. Even then, Ulrich’s words are too constricting. Though possibly “cutting edge” for the time period, this still does not do justice for the variety of people attempting to identify by categorizing in this manner.

Homosexuality or “queerness” was common throughout history, but not commonly spoken of.

Even then, as shown by Ulrich, there were people attempting to come up with ways to classify them by using restricting vocabulary. Randall L. Sell, author of How Do You Define ‘Sexual Orientation’?, writes about how previous beliefs regarding homosexuality omit the behavioral component—meaning it was not the act, but the intent that was key to defining someone as a homosexual. A person was considered gay not only if they acted on their desires, but also if it was brought to light that they had homosexual thoughts that they may act upon.

Categorizing a person as homosexual based on their thoughts is inaccurate. The person having those thoughts may not be attracted to the same sex. Sell continues by pointing out that by looking at today’s standards, there is a compound of both psychological and behavioral components that can be used to define someone as being homosexual.

Judith Butler, author of Gender Trouble, would agree with Sell, adding that the way society defines identity is by using preexisting norms that use attributes of “male” and “female,” “masculine” and “feminine” to set the standards for those norms of sexuality. Butler states that the way our standards are set for defining identity is flawed; that by using said standards, certain identities cannot exist. This means that according to our cultural laws, certain identities like “third gender” that do not fit into those norms cannot exist because there is no way to categorize them (Butler 1999, Gender Trouble).

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Butler also states that gender identities that fail to conform are deemed developmental failures. Is that not a huge flaw in language? To exclude or incorrectly define people and place them into identities they cannot conform to, identities they do not feel accurately represent them, shows that there is a huge flaw in language and societal mindsets. To say, “If you do not fit into the identities set for you by people who don’t understand what it is like to be different, you are flawed” is ridiculous. Only individuals can identify themselves, if they choose to, and they are not flawed because of any standards set by others. We are all human and to sum a person up using simplistic, binary words is fundamentally flawed because it is not possible. People are more than just one word.

One major flaw consists of how categories are created. Sell includes a handful of terms used or previously used to describe homosexuality: uranianism, homogenic love, contrasexuality, sexual inversion, transsexuality, third sex, psychosexual hermaphroditism, and more (Sell 1997). We know now that transsexuality, third sex, and contrasexuality are not alternative words for homosexuality. Transsexuality is when a person is born male or female, but psychologically sees him or herself as the opposite gender. Third sex, or third gender, is when a person isn’t seen as male or female. In India there is a group of third sex individuals called hijra. They are biologically male, but live as females, without having a physical sex change. In this society, it is acceptable for men to be with a hijra without being considered homosexual. Lastly, contrasexuality is a person with personality traits of the opposite sex.

Though all of these terms help cover a wider variety, they are not seen as acceptable by the narrow-minded. Many people look down at a relationship that consists of a man and another man who lives as a woman. Because of the stigma attached to these words, many in society view them as lesser people.

Postmodern queer theorists such as Annamaire Jagose, author of Queer Theory: An Introduction, points out how those words were being used to describe homosexuality, but that they are limited in how accurately they represent someone’s entire identity. Jagose presents a new view on how to describe the indescribable: the entirety of human sexuality. Queer theory points out that attempting to categorize people based on socially acceptable norms is not an accurate way to create an identity for a person, especially if they feel like they don’t fit in any category supplied for them. Queer theory attempts to break previous norms and show that norms cannot be used to identify people, because they are limited in meaning and flawed in definition.

Jagose says, “Queer theory's debunking of stable sexes, genders, and sexualities develops out of a specifically lesbian and gay reworking of the post-structuralist figuring of identity as a constellation of multiple and unstable positions” (Jagose 3). Jagose uses “queer” as an umbrella term for different sexual identities. It is not orientation, to whom a person is naturally attracted, nor is it who a person chooses to have sexual interest in; it covers a wide range of people. Jagose argues that queer theory is resisting the model of stability, which has its origin in heterosexuality, something that Butler would also agree with.

Queer theory is by no means perfect, but if we are going to use words to address differences, we should at least use words that are not restricting. “Queer” is broad and covers a wide variety of 14

people who don’t fit into other set categories.

Not only is society using restricting words, but it is also using stereotypes to define the relationships of those with differing sexual orientations. Robert Heasley and Betsy Crane, both professors of human sexuality and authors of Sexual Lives: A Reader on the Theories and Realities of Human Sexualities, present past beliefs that lesbians in relationships were once perceived as taking on already established heterosexual gender roles. A lesbian who is seen as “manlier” would take on the household role of husband, while her partner, a more feminine woman, would take on the role of the wife (Heasley and Crane 2003).

This is an overgeneralization and stereotype about an entire group of people who may not see themselves in that way. Heasley and Crane observe that “lesbians have been portrayed as virtual men trapped in the space of women’s bodies: ‘mannish’ in appearance and masculine in their thoughts, feelings, and desires, rendering their existence compatible with the logic of gender and heteronormativity” (Heasley and Crane 373). Alfred Kinsey, creator of the Kinsey scale, states, “It is a characteristic of the human mind that tries to dichotomize in its classification of phenomena . . . Sexual behavior is either normal or abnormal, socially acceptable or unacceptable, heterosexual or homosexual; and many persons do not want to believe that there are gradations in these matters from one to the other extreme” (Kinsey 1953).

These authors, along with queer theorists, would likely agree that overgeneralizing any group is an inaccurate way to categorize or create some sort of identity that can define and separate who people are individually, not as a group. Overgeneralizing is not only inaccurate, it is also offensive. For society to expect and describe most, if not all, lesbian relationships to be between a manlier woman who plays the husband role, and a feminine woman who plays the wife role, would be offensive to most lesbians because while some may be manlier and some more feminine, not all would label their roles as more husbandly or more wifely. In fact, most would consider their relationship an egalitarian relationship.

Not all, or even most, lesbian relationships are between lesbians of opposing identities. There are a number of relationships between people who are both more feminine or both masculine.

The foundation for what is deemed acceptable is compared to western society’s heteronormative standards, which are based on a man and woman in a relationship and their specific roles. It is easier to compare what we don’t know to what we do know and come up with a model for all relationships that fit into what we understand. However, that is where the problem lies. This is where start to confuse ourselves because now we set a standard for relationships and people that don’t necessarily fit their relationships or their preferred roles.

Rictor Norton, author of A Critique of Social Constructionism and Postmodern Queer Theory, presents a flaw not in queer theory itself, but in how it is being written and presented to the public. This is a problem because queer theorists are trying to prove a point that will help people realize the flaws in labeling and words, but if no one can understand their message, then somewhere along the way, their ideas may be misconstrued. Norton describes authors of queer theory as using “verbal pyrotechnics” or “fancy footwork,” saying that postmodern queer theorists use terms that almost mean the opposite of what they are supposed to mean. By doing so, they muddle their own message and people may not understand their point. They may even 15

lose the interest of those they are trying to help. Queer theory presents a new way for society to understand others, using a more desirable term that isn’t as restricting. However, many won’t understand because of queer theorists’ poor choice of wording. Norton states, “The apparent unintelligibility of queer theory is often apologized for as being just another example of the difficult concepts and language necessarily employed by high-level abstract thought” (Norton) Norton explains that other writings such as philosophy, economics, and sociology use jargon as well as queer theory, but unlike queer theorists, they also take care to define their terms (Norton).

Other discourse also tends to be difficult rather than unintelligible.

Norton further believes that queer theorists may be using “fancy footwork” to distract readers from the fact that they don’t have a concrete definition. Norton poses the question, “Is it genuine theory – or is it just praxis without theory?” (Norton) He presents the idea that queer theory may not be so much an analysis as it is an attitude. It is a way of thinking or believing, with no actual evidence or explanations. It is an ideology rather than communication.

Norton also believes, however, that queer theorists may have a point even if according to him they aren’t presenting it in the best way. Norton believes that social control and power structures hide and ignore the reality of the queer person. He states, “The simple-minded notion that one must create homosexuals in order to have a boundary which is integral for the construction of heterosexuals completely ignores the long history of the suppression and censorship of knowledge concerning crimen nefandum or peccatum mutum, the mute sin” (Norton).

Butler would most certainly disagree with Norton’s first point about the unappealing quality of writing by queer theorists, but she would agree with what he later says about creating homosexual standards in order to define heterosexual norms. Norton is also right in saying that the heteronormativity construct ignores the history of suppression. In using the heterosexual relationship as the norm, society is allowing the homosexual community to be ostracized and by doing so, to deny them rights. Though most states have now passed laws to allow gay marriage, there are still a number of states that have not. Using heterosexuality as the norm is an inaccurate way to categorize homosexual differences, which is a point argued by queer theorists.

Butler brings forth the ideas of another queer and feminist theorist, Monique Wittig, who asserts that the “norm” defines the masculine as universal, the unchanging, while the category of sex, “compulsory heterosexuality.” is the feminine (Wittig, qtd. in Butler). Modern norms are similar in the sense that we live in a male-dominated society, where having power equals being the superior sex. This means that the norms created for everyone are based on male ideas of normality.

Many people assume that sex and gender are interdependent; you are what you appear to be and you’re not supposed to stray from that. If you are a man, you’re expected to look manly and act manly; if you are a woman, you’re expected to look womanly and behave in a feminine way.

These are outdated beliefs, forced upon people who are becoming more and more comfortable with who they are. Not only are these beliefs outdated for the queer community; they don’t even speak for the “dominant” heterosexual community either. Modern men shave their legs and bodies, as well as wax their eyebrows and moisturize their skin—behaviors that have been historically labeled as feminine.

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Furthermore, not all women conform to past beliefs. Many today have full-time jobs, raise children on their own if they need or want to, are college graduates, and even CEO’s. Times are changing and people need to change accordingly, rather than choosing outdated beliefs to cling to. The standards set by the supposed heterosexual majority need to be adjusted to account for the differences of the minority, as well as to adjust to how even the majority are changing. Old beliefs are no longer the norms; people are changing with the time.

There are those who firmly believe that things should remain the same; that a family can only exist when there is a marriage between a man and a woman who are raising their biological children. Such people believe that homosexual couples do not make a real marriage and that children raised in these homes are being denied a chance at growing into normal, productive adults. They also believe that heterosexuality is superior and is the only type of relationship that matters when it comes to maintaining a society that is thriving.

One such person is George W. Dent Jr., a professor of law and author of Straight Is Better: Why Law and Society May Justly Prefer Heterosexuality. Dent’s opinions about homosexuality and its abnormality are very strong. He claims, “Infertile couples do not reproduce because they are physically unable. Homosexual couples, however, have chosen a sterile relationship. Most people perceive the former as trying to uphold the norm of marriage, whereas a homosexual couple obviously flouts that norm” (Dent, 400). Dent continues to showcase his views on the flaws in homosexual relationships by saying, “Some gay men disdain monogamy as proper only for heterosexuals because they bear children, not a model gays should emulate” (Dent, 402).

Dent’s basis for tearing apart the authenticity of a homosexual relationship is that homosexuals cannot biologically bear children; therefore their relationship is invalid, immoral, and holds no foundation in claiming marriage rights. The previous authors introduced would say it is this type of mindset that leads to hate and prejudice. By not taking the time to understand what and who it is they are talking about yet to still have such a strong, negative opinion with no actual facts is what leads to mislabeling and unnecessary animosity between groups of people.

This type of thinking is also why the standards set for sexual differences are flawed. It is fine not to understand why someone is different, but it’s another story to twist differences into deviances to create your own ideas and spread lies. To say that people who fall into the heterosexual norm are the only people able to properly raise a child is a belief not backed by evidence. Dent does not produce any proof that homosexual couples are worse parents than heterosexual couples.

Instead, people who that don’t fit into the norm are deemed immoral and are harshly judged.

The prejudice caused by this gap can lead to serious personal issues for many. A study done by the Department of Social Work Studies, University of Southampton, England, on gay and bisexual males ranging in age from 18 to 27, showed they are at 13.9 times greater risk for a suicide attempt. The pressure of coming out is something heterosexual people could never understand, and not all family and friends take it well. There are many incidences of parents kicking their children out, or even worse, beating them. Many gay young adults are disowned and thrown out, forced to fend for themselves.

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If getting disowned by family is scary, imagine having to be wary of other people. Not everyone is accepting and there are many cases of homosexuals being beaten and murdered for being gay and telling the wrong person. One of the most famous cases of gay-hate murder is the case of Matthew Shepard, killed in 1998. Matthew was beaten with a pistol, tied to a fence, set on fire, then left to die. According to Julie Bindel, “President Obama finally signed the Matthew Shepard Act in 2009, a law which defined certain attacks motivated by victim identity as hate crimes” (Bindel). It’s bad enough that laws have to be made in order to protect those being bullied, beaten, and killed, and to make sure their attackers get the justice they deserve. How is this acceptable?

We should not be fighting with each other over differing lifestyles. To people with sexual differences, it is not a choice. They were born that way, and yet society is persecuting them for something that they cannot change. They continue having to fight for rights that should have already been given to them as human beings.

We need to solve the problem of hating and stereotyping people with different sexual preferences. It is a long-running problem, using societal norms to judge people who don’t fit into them. When will we learn that that isn’t how we create equality and eliminate hate? The queer community has to fight to eliminate heteronormative standards and the restricting and conflicting definitions that lead others to misinterpret their differences as deviances. It is not right to create misaligned prejudice towards a community that has done nothing to warrant any kind of hate.

Though times are changing, there are still a lot of decisions being made based on outdated assumptions about sex and gender, and the roles attached to those definitions. More progress needs to be made in order to allow for differences from society’s heteronormative standards because not everyone feels that their identities are accurately represented. Queer theory may not be a perfect vehicle for all the change that needs to be made, but though it is not perfect, queer theory is attempting to get rid of the restricting words we currently use in the hopes of finding a way to describe people without being so limiting.

We, as a society, need to understand that we cannot continue labeling people negatively. We cannot continue to isolate and allow prejudice to spread due to differences in lifestyles and in beliefs. To allow persecution of innocent people who cannot help who they are and how they were born is not respecting the basic human rights that we all deserve. Everyone is different and what works for one person may not work for another. We need to understand that the words used to define the identities of others with different sexual preferences are too narrow to sum up the entirety of those people.

When we stop trying to define people and start accepting the fact that one word is not enough to represent a human being, and when we get rid of setting norms based only on heterosexual relationships, we can move forward and get past an era of hate and misunderstanding. We cannot always understand things we can’t relate to, but we can accept our differences and treat others with the respect they deserve. As Kinsey stated, “Not all things are black nor all things white. It is a fundamental of taxonomy that nature rarely deals with discrete categories” (Kinsey).

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WORKS CITED Bagley, C., and P. Tremblay. "Suicidal Behaviors in Homosexual and Bisexual Males." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 Jan. 1997.

Web. 30 Nov. 2014.

Bindel, Julie. "The Truth behind America’s Most Famous Gay-hate Murder." The Guardian.

Web. 1 Dec. 2014.

Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge, 1999. Print.

Dent Jr., George W. "Straight Is Better: Why Law and Society May Justly Prefer Heterosexuality." Texas Review of Law & Politics 15.2 (2011): 359-436. Academic Search Premier. Web. 30 Nov. 2014.

Heasley, Robert, and Betsy Crane. Sexual Lives: A Reader on the Theories and Realities of Human Sexualities. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2003. Print.

Jagose, Annamarie. “Queer Theory: An Introduction.” Australian Humanities Review, Dec 1996 Web. 01 Nov. "Karl Ulrich’s Sexual Orientation Classification Scheme." LGBT Data. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Nov. 2014 Norton, Rictor. "A Critique of Social Construction and Postmodern Queer Theory." Against Queer Theory. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Nov. 2014.

Sell, Randall L. "How Do You Define 'Sexual Orientation'?" PBS. PBS, Dec. 1997. Web. 01 Nov. 2014.

"The Kinsey Institute - Kinsey Sexuality Rating Scale." Kinsey Sexuality Rating Scale. The Kinsey Institute, n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2014.

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Censorship: Making or Breaking Modern Art? (By Maria Nikulkova) On September 2014, police officers in Tokyo received calls from multiple people about a local art gallery, which was showing an exhibit that portrayed too much flesh for the callers’ liking.

Upon arriving at the gallery, the officers were confronted with gargantuan photographs of naked people, stretching from floor to ceiling. The officers demanded that something be done about the “indecent” photos, which were then covered with a white sheet, satisfying the people who made the initial call.

Despite the officers having done what was requested of them, their actions provoked an outbreak of negative reactions amongst the artist and gallery. This in turn led to more media coverage of both the art and its censorship, causing even more outrage from members of the general public.

Many of these members said that censoring artwork goes against an artist's right to freedom of expression.

This situation—law enforcement covering up art with disregard to the artist—presents the classic problem of censorship. Though situations such as this are becoming less prevalent, due to media coverage and increased public outrage, censorship is far from being something of the past.

Instead, those who uphold censorship have been taking on slyer tactics to hide their actions from public view. However, positive and negative consequences come from both censoring and not censoring art. Censorship, or lack thereof, affects not only the artist, but also the community in which the art is presented.

Censorship has become a form of taboo within society, conjuring thoughts of people being forcibly silenced and doing something against their own free will. Yet with art in today’s society becoming more risqué, the nature of censorship has also changed. Throughout different cultures, art isn’t as censored as it was in earlier decades, causing anti-censorship laws to become more prevalent.

For example, in the United States, one of the last major Supreme Court cases involving art was in 1992, Finley v. National Endowments of the Arts (NEA). This case abolished the “decency clause” which stated that “general standards of decency and respect are to be followed in rewarding an artist with a federal arts grants,” on the grounds that it was “too vague” of a concept to enforce (“Finley v. NEA”). Because of this, it seems that society is heading toward a state of true artistic freedom because the government is finding that many of the clauses censoring artwork don’t have strong enough legal bases. However, this makes one wonder whether society is truly more accepting of uncensored art, or if the artists are being influenced and censored in different ways.

Institutions such as schools and churches are two of the highest promoters of censorship. I recently conducted an interview with Linda Slobodin, a photography and visual arts teacher at Lakewood High School in Colorado, to discuss controversy in art and the potential effects of censorship on students. In the 1980’s, Slobodin encountered controversy with a photograph she took showing a trailer park home, but this was later put in the “Women in American Photography” exhibition in 1985. She was lucky to only face mild controversy on this piece, but 20

she now knows the importance of having the freedom of expression that artists crave—though she feels that students are limited, especially in the U.S., when it comes to their art. Slobodin graduated from high school in Europe and noticed the difference in the art environment when she moved to the U.S. a few years after.

Although much art is about maturity, such as in the case of nudity, one must grow into understanding it. Slobodin said, “I would never have my freshman class drawing full body anatomy as I would allow for certain senior classes.” This shows that a certified teacher believes that students must grow into appreciating the anatomy of the body before they are presented with the opportunity to draw one. But this can create a slippery slope of what one is “allowed” and “not allowed” to draw. This holds true when certain content is not allowed in artwork, specifically when the content doesn’t include “crude” or “indecent” aspects.

Slobodin also teaches an International Baccalaureate visual arts class—a college level course that is graded by people overseas. She states that most of the time, she teaches the final examination and “knows the standards and clichés that the graders have seen a thousand times before,” from which she has made a list of “cliché” subjects that she recommends her students not include in their artwork. The list includes things such as “clowns, balloons, sailboats, and sunsets.”

Although this kind of restriction may be helpful for an exam, it also puts the student into the constant mindset of “I can’t draw this” or “I can’t paint that,” and these ideas become integrated into their minds, potentially following them in their later artistic careers.

This interview has helped to show the negative effects of inadvertent censorship, though it leaves one wondering whether one would want to see little 14- and 15-year-old freshman drawing nudes, or an advanced senior art class filled with paintings of clowns with balloons on sailboats during sunset. Yet this censorship, particularly of the senior class, might actually push the students to draw new things and explore beyond certain popular images. This form of censorship might actually help students, despite unfavorable views on censorship in our current society.

Much censorship in art stems from church groups and religious affiliation. An example of this can be seen with a sculpture done by Casimo Cavallaro entitled, “My Sweet Lord,” a fully nude sculpture of Jesus hanging with his arms spread, made out of 200 pounds of milk chocolate; the exhibit was cancelled after “the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights called the exhibit an assault on Christian rights” (“Chocolate Jesus”). The artist is well known for making different forms of art out of food, and in this gallery there were other images of Christ naked, but the Catholic League specifically targeted this one piece.

Despite being successful in getting this piece taken down, the Catholic Church never gave a clear reason as to why this piece in particular was targeted. Cavallaro, on the other hand, justified his piece by saying that one eats the “body” and drinks the “blood” of Christ during church, so making a piece such as this should be consistent with that same set of beliefs. Despite the artist’s reasonable justification, the Church still won in the court case against him (“Chocolate Jesus”).

In this way censorship can be seen as an entire institution going against one person, with significant consequences to art. This type of censorship turned a representation of religious beliefs into a forbidden art technique.

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Censorship is often viewed negatively in our society because it is assumed that censorship takes away human rights. Despite this, censorship can also be seen in a positive way by some. There may be justifications for censorship, such as the example in the beginning of this essay about the Japanese artist whose works were censored by the police. The artist, Ryudia Takano, was showing his work in a public gallery, which allowed all ages to walk through. Despite having “put up a notice at the entrance warning visitors that nudity was evident in Takano’s photographs” and despite cordoning “the area where his works are displayed,” there was still controversy (Osaki).

Censorship is caused when opinions differ, and this situation shows that anyone can censor art.

In the 21st century, when democracy and the voice of the people are said to be highly valued, this idea of “censorship by the majority” could arguably be justified in situations where highly controversial art is displayed in public places.

Many people are trying to censor works that have already been created, are in the process of being created, or are going to be displayed in public settings. Yet the most devastating form of censorship is “self-censorship,” or the “suppression of ideas by artists or institutions” when it comes to “work that has not yet been made” (Farrington). In other cases, “self-censorship” occurs when artists take their own work away from public viewing due to fear of negative consequences or controversy.

One major case of “self-censorship” currently affects artists of all media in Singapore. This was first brought to light when the documentary To Singapore, With Love—about “regulating and even censoring the arts and entertainment industry”—was banned from being shown in public because it was said by the government to “threaten national security” (Palatino). A government organization known as the Media Development Authority (MDA) requires Singapore’s artists to classify their public artwork and performances that touch on certain issues such as “race, religion, or politics”; without a pre-approved permit, the artists are subject to fines and potential jail time (Palatino).

This looming force that threatens potentially “Dangerous” art is one of the main causes of selfcensorship. Due to the artists’ fear of what may happen if they were to create artwork that is considered controversial, they are creating art that is within the boundaries and limitations set by the MDA. However, the MDA’s fear about the influence of visual art is not unjustified. Just as art can inspire and act as a catalyst for positive change, it can also act as a dreadful influence, depending on what the artist is showing in a piece. In 1962, Anthony Burgess published A Clockwork Orange, which was set in the “near future” and depicted a “subculture of extreme youth violence.” It wasn’t until Stanley Kubrick released an adapted film version of the book in 1972 when mass controversy ensued. Although the book had many critics, the visual art of film inspired “copycat violence” by individuals who mimicked the movie’s “magnified teen violence” and “gang rape” (Hughes). After only two years, in 1974, “Kubrick and Warner Brothers quietly withdrew it from circulation, refusing to allow it to be shown under any circumstances” (Hughes), which is an ideal example of “self-censorship.”

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One could argue that since it was the artist himself who was retracting his work for the safety of the community, this form of “self-censorship” should be allowed. Yet, while it is important for artists to have full control of their work, in this type of situation making artists feel bad enough about their work to take it away seems quite drastic, and it can be just an easy way for society to blame violence on the art/artist rather than finding the root cause of increased violence.

Another form of censorship that is becoming more and more prevalent is “economic censorship,” which is business-based. This is the idea that people who donate large sums of money to places where artwork is displayed—such as museums, galleries, and schools—should have a say and influence in what should be shown or hidden. Such a case happened in May 2012 at the University of Wyoming when an artist’s sculpture was removed from where it was being displayed on campus. The sculpture, titled “Carbon Sink: What Goes around Comes Around,” consisted of “a large whirlpool of logs spiraling into a vortex of charred coal” (“USA: Climate”).

The University of Wyoming first claimed they took it down because of water damage, but after local investigation, it was found that the university “bowed to the local mining industry - a major university donor” (“USA: Climate”). When looking at the sculpture, nothing seems “indecent” or “obscene” about it, yet it was censored because a major donor to the university felt that it wasn’t sending the right message by their standards.

This example could also be seen as the university trying to protect the donor’s reputation by saying that “water damage” was the reason for the removal of the sculpture. This shows how censorship has often become more about company benefits rather than public safety. In this case money was used to censor artistic expression that was originally approved by the university.

Despite money having a great influence in what art is displayed, a lack of funding can also cause problems. Though America seems to be giving in to the larger donors, Canada “follows the more British or European tradition and looks to a balance of support for most arts organizations that represents nearly equal contribution from private and corporate contributions and government funding from all levels” (Margolis 6). This equal reliance on both government and corporate funds means that when there is not enough money in the system, the “luxury” of the arts is one of the first places where funding is cut.

The U.S. does rely on primarily private donations, but because of this there is more financial investment in the arts, which makes places like L.A. and New York cultural hot spots for people around the world. One such example of this is that in the U.S., a single company—HewlettPackard—“gave a single donation ($125 million) to Stanford University… that was larger than the University of Toronto could gather from all corporate foundations and private givers combined” (Margolis 7). There are certain things that the donors want to see (or not see) that could be considered “economic censorship,” although a few situations cannot diminish the importance of private investment in public art.

In some situations, particularly in conservative parts of the world, censorship plays a large role in producing and viewing artwork. In places like Dubai, censorship is actually in keeping with certain cultural traditions. During a yearly public forum for freedom of speech in Qatar, known as the The Doha Debates, an Iraqi American art historian, Nada Shabout, made the case that by 23

censoring something like nudity in a country that historically “isn’t obsessed with nudity as in western cultures,” one is keeping traditions and values that are held quite strongly by its people.

In certain countries without censorship, there could be a potential loss of culture because people might be exposed to and desensitized to certain things such nudity. In such cases the governing principles of certain countries may have a larger say in what art can be seen by its public.

Art has always been debated and there are many circumstances, such as the importance of keeping cultural values and economic funding of the arts, to argue in favor of different forms of censorship. The artist still needs to be wary of their audience and the public’s potential response.

Although art today has become so focused with the individuality of the artist, it is still important to realize that public art is made for the public, and an artist should keep that in mind.

When discussing censorship, it is important to consider the audience and potential arguments against certain pieces. However, that should not stop an artist from continuing their work, whether that be out of fear of reprimand or whatever else may come. This does not mean that public or private organizations should remain silent when it comes to artwork. Instead, there can and should be discourse about it.

Censorship is not the same thing as protest. While censorship tries to get rid of certain art, protest tries to enact change and potentially even change the artwork. In some cases, such as the photography censorship in Japan, this form of covering up art can actually draw extra attention to the artwork and make it better known by the public.

Though censorship can also have many negative consequences when it comes to art such as limiting artistic expression, from a cultural standpoint, in some situations censorship can be necessary. As previously stated in The Doha Debates: “Certain values are still held very highly, so if you offend them [society] will react strongly” (Shabout). This suggests that art is a natural procurer of controversy. But that doesn’t mean that it should be completely censored.

Despite all the different forms that censorship takes, art around the world continues because it is meant to break boundaries and make statements despite the censorship encountered by much controversial art. This breaking of censorship’s boundaries affects the entirety of the art community and future artists. Open discourse about disagreements in art is what will push art even further, while simply censoring an art piece will only lead to more controversy and negative consequences.

WORKS CITED "Chocolate Jesus Exhibit Cancelled." BBC News. BBC, 31 Mar. 2007. Web. 5 Dec. 2014.

Farrington, Julia. "Taking the Offensive – Defending Artistic Freedom of Expression in the UK." Index on Censorship. Index on Censorship, 1 May 2013. Web. 14 Nov. 2014.

"Finley v. NEA." Center for Constitution RSS. Center for Constitutional Rights. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

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Hughes, David. "A Clockwork Orange." The Complete Kubrick. London: Virgin, 2000. Print.

Margolis, Michael. "Arts Policy in Canada and the USA: A Comparative Perspective." Free Expression, Public Support, and Censorship: Examining Government's Role in the Arts in Canada and the United States. Lanham, Md.: U of America; 1994. Print.

Osaki, Tomohiro. "Artist Veils Photos Showing His Genitalia to Parry Police Censorship."

Japan Times RSS. The Japan Times, 4 Sept. 2014. Web. 14 Nov. 2014.

Palatino, Mong. "Why Singapore Artists Rejected the Government’s Self-Censorship Scheme Global Voices." Global Voices Overall RSS 20. 6 Oct. 2014. Web. 14 Nov. 2014.

Shabout, Nada. "Censorship Makes a Mockery of the Arts." The Doha Debates. Qatar Foundation for Education. Georgetown University, Qatar. 26 May 2012. Lecture.

Slobodin, Linda. Personal interview, 3 December 2014. "USA: Climate Change Sculpture Removed after Upsetting Donors." Artsfreedom. WordPress, 13 Dec. 2012. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

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THE CHALLENGE OF CHOICE: lifestyle and ethics 7

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Living Dolls Subculture (By Darlene Quito) Blonde hair, perfect complexion, small waists, tiny mouths and noses, and large breasts: These are all the physical characteristics of a doll. Looking “as good” as a doll has become a mission for some people. This subculture consists of women who live their lives as dolls; they are called “living dolls.” These women share an obsession for perfection and dolls. Women strive to look like a doll by either getting plastic surgery or using makeup. Society looks down on the living doll subculture because of its unhealthy lifestyle, lack of self-esteem among members of the subculture, and reliance on surgeries for women to feel confident about their bodies.

When developing subcultures, people with similar interests are able to find each other through the Internet. This is often the way some subcultures around the world are created. Imagination can be very powerful, especially when someone acts upon it.

A television series on The Learning Channel (TLC), called “My Strange Addiction,” discussed living dolls (Bolicki, Sarno, and Postmus, 2010). The episode featured Emily, a 19-year-old living doll who claims that she was constantly teased as a teen and has never liked the way she looked. Dressing up and wearing makeup like a doll made her feel beautiful and gave her confidence. She weighs herself three times a day, wears a corset to minimize her waist, and eats small portions of food in order to maintain her doll-like figure. Emily organizes tea parties to meet up with her friends who share this common interest.

Challenges also come with looking like a doll. Emily’s lifestyle has made it difficult for her to get a job. Employers do not approve of the way she looks; they are worried about how customers might react to a living doll assisting them. Emily has disregarded their opinions about her style, claiming that she will remain as a living doll for as long as she can.

Much of society views the living dolls subculture negatively because the living dolls’ lives revolve around perfection and nothing else. Most employers will not hire someone who dresses up like a doll because it may put customers in awkward situations. How are living dolls supposed to function normally in society?

I believe that most of these women are blinded by the fantasy world that they have created through imagination and social media. These living dolls are restricting themselves from living an adult life, including getting jobs. They are also risking their health for this lifestyle. For example, Emily’s poor dietary choices can affect her health in the future. She said that wearing her corset every day has already caused two of her ribs on each side to push in, giving her the tiny waist she wants. Women in this subculture are willing to do just about anything to achieve that perfect doll-like figure.

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This is not limited to women. Another living doll, 32-year-old Justin Jedlica, also known as the “Human Ken Doll,” serves as an icon for men within this subculture. Justin has admitted that he has had plastic surgery over one hundred times. Justin said that he did not want to be a real life Ken Doll at first, but after a few surgeries, he decided that that’s what he wanted to be. “I can treat myself as if I were my own sculpture, my own artwork,” Justin said in an interview (Walsh, 2014, para. 1). A few of his surgeries have included “a cranial brow bone shape and augmentations to his cheeks, lips, buttocks and chin. He also has had peck, arm and abs implants made of silicone” (Walsh, 2014, para. 2). This addiction to plastic surgery has boosted Justin’s self-confidence and he has grown to like the fact that he is different from the rest. Justin is similar to Emily in a way because they both lack self-esteem, and they go above and beyond with their physical appearances in order to feel confident about themselves.

Following this trend, Venus Palermo is a 15-year-old girl who is gaining popularity through YouTube tutorials on how to look like a living doll. Venus claims that she was inspired by Japanese anime culture, and dreams of becoming a model in Japan someday. She uses contact lenses with a full opaque color to make her irises look extra large—like a doll’s. This is very common in Asia. She then applies enormous amounts of bright concealer to her face to create that porcelain doll-like complexion.

Venus claims that she wants to look like a living doll because her fans adore her videos. “I was always like this, I liked to dress in frilly dresses and tie my hair in pigtails, then I discovered how and what I really want to be as a teenager. A lot of people like the look and I want to help them achieve it,” Venus said (Rawi, 2012, para. 6).

Margaret, Venus’ mother, not only approves of her doll-like lifestyle, but she also encourages her daughter to be a living doll. “Her face is already doll-like and if she likes the style I am fine with it, I would be more worried if she came home drunk or smoked,” Margaret explained (Rawi, 2012, para. 4). Although Venus shares the perfection obsession, she is different from Emily and Justin because she does not alter her body using corsets or plastic surgery. She maintains her figure by exercising regularly.

One large group in Japan is known as “Lolitas.” These women dress in Victorian-inspired clothing such as bell skirts, petticoats, bonnets, platform Mary Janes, and bows. Also, “Many young girls in Japan say that they love make up and that it allows them the ability [to] completely change how they look” (Walsh, 2014). The Lolita fashion style is slowly taking roots all around the world through social media, cosplay, and online boutiques that sell Lolita-inspired items.

Living dolls are often stereotyped as dressing “girly” and childish in order to attract men in a sexual way: “The underlying ideal is to appeal sexually pleasing to men by projecting an 28

extreme girlie, sweet and innocent appearance” (Lander, para. 3). Many people say that these dolls need more attention, so that is why they dress up in frilly clothes and put on tons of makeup. Since this trend started in Japan, Asians are often stereotyped as “weird” because they try to be creative with their appearances.

A Lolita fashion expert states, “The young women who adopt and wear Lolita are not catering to middle-aged men’s pornographic fetishes, but to their own desires to be ‘cute’ and non-sexual” (Neko, 2014). It is understandable that everyone dresses up in a way that makes them feel pretty or comfortable. The Lolita might have an unusual fashion sense and a way of living, but they are harmless. We should not be wary of them because they are just expressing themselves in a different way. Living dolls are still people and they deserve respect.

Still, while these young girls who resemble dolls might attract a lot of doll admirers, I believe that they are living a dangerous life. The Lolita style, a Victorian inspired baby-doll dress, uses lace and hosiery, which most of the living dolls wear. For some, this might be cute and attractive, but I think it is inappropriate for young girls to dress in fashion that adults wear. It sends mixed messages to the public. This type of fashion often attracts middle-aged men with perverted minds.

The fashion itself is not the only reason why this lifestyle is risky; the strict diet that women in this subculture follow is torturous. Also, the plastic surgeries that some of the living dolls undergo can cause health complications in the future. It is a great health risk for young girls to be influenced in this way.

Although admired by many, I believe that there are societal factors that pressure Venus and other living dolls to dress up a certain way: “The mindset that a person can never be ‘too rich or too thin’ is all too prevalent in society, and it makes it difficult for females to achieve any level of contentment with their physical appearance” (Serdar, 2014, para. 1). Whenever you read through fashion magazines, read blogs, and surf the Internet for beauty tips, you will notice that the models they use are either anorexic or super thin.

Perhaps the reason behind this is to motivate young women to alter their bodies in the hopes that they will be seen as “beautiful.” This tends to give people the wrong idea about beauty. By needing countless surgeries, ordering expensive costumes, and using tons of makeup, the living dolls finally feel “content” with themselves. Without having that ultra-thin ideal body or image that society has created, nobody will feel pressured to alter their body in any way.

Growing up, I loved playing with dolls because of how pretty and perfect they looked. Dressing dolls in many outfits made me feel like I was in control of who I wanted my toys to become.

Although I admired their beauty, there was no point in my life where I considered going through extensive plastic surgery to look exactly like a Barbie doll. That idea was just ridiculous to me.

There are various reasons why women and men chose this lifestyle. It is hard for outsiders to understand why they do this, but one thing is clear. The world that we live in today has changed dramatically over the years and it will continue to change. Beauty standards have become

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ridiculous and ultra-thin is now society’s “ideal” body image. We cannot control this evolving society and there is a possibility that other similar subcultures will develop in the future.

Therefore, living dolls have chosen a bizarre, yet unique, lifestyle. Emily, Justin, and Venus share a common obsession with perfection, but they use different methods in order to represent this fantasy world they have created. Society’s impossibly high beauty standards play a major part in why the people within the living dolls subculture want to look “perfect.” Society may look negatively upon this subculture but in the end, it is society itself who gave people the idea that it is necessary and okay to alter their body, regardless of how bizarre it may look to the eyes of the public.

REFERENCES Bolicki, J., Sarno, B., Postmus, B. (Writers). (2010, December 29). I’m a living doll [Television series episode]. Violet Media. TLC: My Strange Addiction.

Lander, M. (n.d.). Runway Fashion the Fashion Industry Blog: Asian American Living Doll.

Retrieved December 10, 2014.

Neko, N. (n.d.). Lolita and Japanese Society. Retrieved December 2, 2014, from http://www.lolitafashion.org/lolita_culture.html Rawi, M. (2012, April 5). ‘I would be more worried if she came home drunk’: Teenage Girl’s mother praises her obsession with looking like ‘living doll.’

Retrieved December 6, 2014.

Serdar, K. (n.d.). Female body image and the mass media: Perspectives on how women internalize the ideal beauty standard. Retrieved December 2, 2014.

Walsh, S. (Ed.). (2014, March 13). Life sized dolls or real life dolls?

Retrieved November 30, 2014.

Images retrieved from: http://slimcelebrity.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Human-Ken-Doll-Justin-Jedlica-PlasticSurgery-Before-and-After-Photos-muscle-implants-3.jpg http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/04/27/article-2136332-12C598D8000005DC337_638x1121.jpg

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Reconsiderations: Research on Consensual Non-Monogamy (By Elizabeth Hudson) “When we fall in love, we're not just saying, ‘My, what a wonderful mind you have, it'll be a joy to talk with you over the next fifty years.’ What we're actually saying is ‘My, what a wonderful mind you have; I'm also expecting you to be a great lover, a great father, a wonderful Friday night date, my comforter in times of sorrow, my social sidekick, my political compatriot, the person my parents will dote on, as well as my guru, my emotional crying towel, and my First Personal National Bank’” (Kingma).

This quote from Daphne Rose Kingma describes the mentality that is most often the downfall of modern monogamous relationships. The choice to have one’s sexual and emotional needs fulfilled by just one person results in the need for that person to be one’s “everything.” whether or not that one person can meet those needs. Consensually non-monogamous people recognize that one person cannot fulfill all of their needs. Instead of molding their relationships to fit the pre-defined relationship model of monogamy, consensually non-monogamous people communicate their needs to others and negotiate relationship styles that are personalized to their own needs.

Unfortunately, those who practice these alternative relationship styles face unwarranted stigmatization from most of the Western world. In my own experience in speaking about consensual non-monogamy in intellectual contexts, I am most often met with visceral reactions and negative comments. Because of this, I became curious about the validity of these negative assumptions and began to pursue the broader academic conversation about consensual nonmonogamy. I am now aware of its rising popularity in academic literature and have a better understanding of how it is perceived by psychologists, those who practice consensually nonmonogamous relationships, and the rest of Western society.

From my research, I have concluded that the stigmatization of consensual non-monogamy, based in the monogamy-dominated language of modern society, is unwarranted and problematic because it encourages cheating and does harm to those who choose to participate in consensual non-monogamy.

Recent discussions about the appropriateness of conversation regarding non-monogamy and the issues of monogamy in psychological practice have stirred controversy amongst psychologists.

Some psychologists believe that due to the increase in popularity of alternatives to monogamy, therapists should become educated and willing to talk about non-monogamous alternatives with their patients.

However, some therapists, such as Jerusalem-based sex therapist David S. Ribner, believe that all non-monogamous relationships are inherently harmful and do not deserve a place in clinical therapy sessions. Ribner’s claim was countered with positive testimonials of those who practice consensual non-monogamy, in interviews with non-monogamy researcher Christian Klesse.

Clinical psychologist and American Association of Sexuality Educators Counselors and Therapists Diplomat in sex therapy, Dr. Marianne Brandon, believes that it is critical for clinical 31

therapists to start addressing the challenge of monogamy. According to Dr. Brandon, “Technology is rapidly and eternally changing the face of intimacy,” making it easier for individuals to have private intimate connections via cell phones and computers (Brandon 272).

Dr. Brandon argues that rapid technological advances are likely to impact marriage and monogamy more and more over time (Brandon 273). Over the past decade, there has been a significant increase in the amount of literature published regarding the efficacy of monogamy in Western society (Ribner 279). This is a signal that there is an increased interest in consensual non-monogamy.

In response to this, therapists such as Dr. Marianne Brandon and Meg Barker are considering the possibility that consensual non-monogamy may be a good alternative for some of their patients.

Ribner disagrees, stating his belief that non-monogamy is hurtful and damages trust, honesty, and accountability in relationships (Ribner 279).

In this statement, Ribner makes no differentiation between consensual and non-consensual nonmonogamy. It is worth pointing out that while non-consensual non-monogamy erodes trust and honesty in relationships, consensual non-monogamy is based on trust and communication. There is still disagreement about the role of non-monogamy in the conversation between therapists and their patients.

Despite this disagreement, it makes sense for psychologists to become educated about consensual non-monogamy due to increased public interest. It would benefit both psychologists and their patients if they could discuss the advantages and disadvantages of both monogamous and consensually non-monogamous relationships. In doing so, psychologists can discourage stigmas and inform their patients about all of their options when forming relationships. By addressing and highlighting the positives and negatives of monogamy and its alternatives, psychologists can better meet the needs of our changing society.

A common debate about monogamy and non-monogamy addresses the “natural” vs. “unnatural.”

On the one hand, some, such as Brandon, believe that monogamous relationships are in fact an unnatural practice for primates, including humans (Brandon 272). This controversial statement is criticized by Ribner in his response to Dr. Brandon’s article. Ribner states that human relationships should not be compared to relationships between non-human primates (Ribner 278).

A third opinion, made by sex therapist Meg Barker, acknowledges that very few animals are actually monogamous, including “the ultra-monogamous seeming birds that were celebrated in the film March of the Penguins” (Barker 282). However, Barker also points out the irrelevance of this fact, stating: The tendency to turn to nature to support taking something seriously is problematic. To my mind it doesn’t matter whether people are struggling with monogamy because they are biologically programmed to be non-monogamous, because the social world around them makes it hard to be monogamous, or because they are choosing to be nonmonogamous … The point is that people are struggling with monogamy, therefore we 32

need to take it seriously. (Barker 282) Barker’s statement has validity. Furthering the irrelevance of the “natural” vs. “unnatural” argument in regards to monogamy and non-monogamy is the common use of fallacious argumentation. For instance, the idea that non-monogamy is “unnatural” and therefore, “bad” employs an “appeal to nature" fallacy. The “natural” vs. “unnatural” argument is a common topic in the discussion of monogamy. However, as Barker states, this debate does not negate the fact that non-monogamies in human populations do exist, nor does it imply that either relationship model is better or worse.

Although monogamy is the most common relationship model in the United States, many people struggle to remain monogamous with their partners. As a result, they engage in non-consensual non-monogamy, more commonly referred to as infidelity. Infidelity, despite being relatively common, is generally perceived as an immoral act. Defined by Wikipedia contributors, infidelity is “the subjective feeling that one’s partner has violated a set of rules or relationship norms …

Infidelity is a violation of a couple’s assumed or stated contract regarding emotional and/or sexual exclusivity” (“Infidelity”).

For monogamous couples, any sexual activity outside of the relationship can be considered to be infidelity. However, emotional infidelity outside of the monogamous relationship is harder to define and quantify. Infidelity’s classification as immoral is valid because it promotes dishonesty and distrust, often causing emotional harm to the cheater’s significant other.

A common topic of conversation between therapists Barker, Brandon, and Ribner is the prevalence of infidelity in American marriages. In her article on bringing the challenge of monogamy into therapy sessions, Dr. Brandon explains that “it has been estimated that up to 65% of men and 55% of women have had an extra-marital affair by age 40,” although she admits that the statistics on infidelity are difficult to obtain and verify (Brandon 271). Ribner, who is skeptical of these statistics, quotes a study estimating that “less than 25% of married spouses will be unfaithful over the course of their marriage” (Ribner 278).

These strikingly different statistics show that rates of infidelity among married American couples are still debated. Although they do not take into account rates of cheating among unmarried monogamous couples, these studies show that infidelity is prevalent among America’s married population. This is evidence that for many Americans, monogamy does not work.

In these instances, it may be useful for these people to receive education about constructing consensually non-monogamous relationships. For those who struggle with monogamy, it might make more sense to construct a consensually non-monogamous relationship model instead of agreeing to be monogamous but having an affair regardless. By communicating with each other, individuals can develop relationship models that complement the realities of their needs and desires. For many, consensual non-monogamy is an ethical alternative to cheating.

Consensual non-monogamy is often compared to non-consensual non-monogamy and is consequently classified as immoral (Conley 14). However, consensual non-monogamy doesn’t have the dishonesty and communication lapse associated with infidelity (Klesse 568).

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Consensual non-monogamy promotes honesty, trust, and communication because it requires participants to develop and communicate their expectations in their relationships. This differs from infidelity because many monogamous couples assume their significant other knows the expectations of the relationship without communication. This lack of communication often leads to non-consensual non-monogamy. For this reason, consensual non-monogamy is morally superior to infidelity, despite its unorthodoxy and unpopularity in the Western world.

Despite significant rates of non-consensual non-monogamy in the American population, Western opinions towards consensual non-monogamy are largely negative. A study done by researcher and psychology professor Terri D. Conley found that in the United States, there is a strong stigma associated with consensual non-monogamy as well as a resulting “halo effect” surrounding monogamy in the minds of many Americans. Participants in Conley’s studies ranked monogamy as superior to consensual non-monogamy in terms of fostering trust, upholding morality, preventing jealousy, preventing possessiveness, promoting honesty, and preventing the spread of STIs (Conley 14).

Conley’s study also found that participants ranked monogamy as more likely than consensual non-monogamy to promote paying taxes on time, encouraging taking daily multivitamins, and promoting flossing daily (Conley 14). Conley suggests that this data supports the theory that there is a “halo effect” surrounding monogamy that causes people to believe that those in monogamous relationships will have other positive attributes unrelated to their participation in monogamous relationships. Conley also states that the results of her study verify that the strong stigma associated with consensually non-monogamous relationships has no basis in fact or empirical evidence.

Supporting evidence that stigma surrounds consensually non-monogamous relationships can be found in interviews described by sociologist Christian Klesse, Ph.D., between himself and many practicing polyamorists in the United Kingdom. In his article “Polyamory and its ‘Others’: Contesting the Terms of Non-Monogamy,” Klesse states, “Central elements of polyamory that are discussed in both the literature and the interviews are communication, negotiation, selfresponsibility, emotionality, intimacy, compression, all of which are closely linked to the dominant theme of honesty” (Klesse 572). These common principles of polyamory, a form of consensual non-monogamy, contrast with the opinions of the subjects of Conley’s study.

Conley suggests that the stigma toward consensual non-monogamy is likely unwarranted, stating, “One might assume that those who are engaging in CNM relationships would be less jealous and possessive of each other rather than more, given that they are openly allowing extradyadic relationships to occur” (Conley 25).

Logic would suggest that Conley’s statement is true. Those who willingly allow their partner or partners to experience sex and love with others likely have strong communication, trust, and confidence in their relationships. They are also unlikely to feel overpowering jealousy— otherwise, they would keep their relationships monogamous. Klesse’s work suggests that despite the significant stigma associated with consensually non-monogamous relationships, many of those who choose to participate in them find that they foster love, intimacy, and trust in their lives.

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Another common concern in regards to consensual non-monogamy is the perceived negative correlation with sexual health. In her study, Conley found that participants in her surveys believed that engaging in monogamy prevents the spread of STIs whereas engaging in consensual non-monogamy poses a much greater risk (Conley 24).

However, Conley brings to attention the flaws in sexual health precautions present in many monogamous relationships. Conley states, “Transitioning, sometimes rapidly, from one monogamous relationship to the next is the norm. Relationship partners often start by using condoms but switch to other forms of birth control when they feel that they trust each other often without any actual STI testing” (Conley 25).

In addition to this, those who practice consensual non-monogamy are more likely to be communicative with their partners, a practice that frequently results in increased usage and awareness of sexual health precautions. Conley concludes that monogamy, in practice, may not actually be superior to consensual non-monogamy (Conley 25). This contrasts with one of the most common misconceptions about consensual non-monogamy.

When discussing sexual health and consensual non-monogamy, it is important to recognize the different forms of consensually non-monogamous relationships. For instance, Christian Klesse explains that polyamory is a form of consensual non-monogamy that focuses on intimate, emotional connections and love relationships rather than sexual relationships. The distinction between sexual and emotional connection is reflected in Barker’s writing as well. She states that relationships can be more usefully defined in terms of two separate continuums. On the sexual exclusivity continuum, monosex is on one end and polysex on the other. On the emotional/love exclusivity continuum, monoamory is on one end and polyamory is on the other (Barker 285).

Barker states that the distinction between sexual and emotional relationships is more inclusive and useful when setting boundaries for relationships. Using Barker’s spectrums, people could define themselves as participants in consensually non-monogamous relationships that do not increase their risk for contracting STIs because they do not involve sexual contact with more individuals than those in monogamous relationships. This idea is echoed by one of Klesse’s interview subjects, who states, “Many people who are polyamorous would have fewer sexual partners than people who practice monogamy” (Klesse 568). This is because polyamorists focus on love relationships and deemphasize sexuality in their multiple relationships (Klesse 568).

However, consensually non-monogamous relationships as defined by Barker’s spectrum could take many forms, from sexually exclusive but emotionally open to emotionally exclusive and sexually open. Although they are more flexible than monogamous relationships, the idea in consensually non-monogamous relationships isn’t “anything goes.” The rules of a consensually non-monogamous relationship are up to the participants to define and redefine to suit their changing needs and desires. In doing so, participants create happy and healthy relationships and remain faithful to the agreements made for the relationship.

In Conley’s study, the stigma that surrounds consensual non-monogamy in Western culture is reflected through the opinions of her survey participants. Contrasting these negative opinions are 35

the overwhelmingly positive testimonials provided by those who actually practice consensual non-monogamy. In addition, it can be deduced that consensual non-monogamous relationships can be equally as efficient at promoting sexual health, love, trust, and faithfulness as monogamous relationships. These are strong indications that the stigma that surrounds consensually non-monogamous relationships is unwarranted.

This raises the question of why this stigma exists so strongly in Western society. It would seem as if people would be more interested in taking control over their relationships by constructing consensually non-monogamous relationships than accepting a pre-determined set of relationship standards. However, Conley’s studies suggest that for most people, this is not the case. I believe that the reason for this lies within the language that Westerners use to express their feelings and describe their relationships. Modern media is dominated by this language, which further solidifies its existence in society. According to sociologist Ani Ritchie and psychologist Meg Barker: Mainstream media are saturated with depictions of such romantic love relationships: people finding “Mr./Miss Right” and staying “together forever.” Jealousy is constructed as the ‘natural’ response to any threat to this relationship, and relationships outside this partnership are categorized as “infidelities,” leading inevitably to break-up. These representations serve social functions, maintaining monogamy in a position of hegemonic dominance. (Ritchie 597) This description of the romantic narrative can be found in every corner of Western society.

Despite being immensely limiting, this language of monogamy makes social roles easy to determine and social interactions easy to predict. Sociologist Ani Ritchie describes this phenomenon in her article “There Aren’t Words for What We Do or How We Feel So We Have To Make Them Up: Constructing Polyamorous Languages in a Culture of Compulsory Monogamy.” She says, “People are expected to have one ‘lover’ and anyone else should fall into the category of ‘friend’, with strict cultural rules around what behavior is appropriate in a friendship” (Ritchie 592).

This simplification, while not always accurate, is an attractive social narrative because it categorizes relationships in ways that are easy to understand. Unfortunately, this narrative has led to the stigma surrounding consensually non-monogamous relationships and those who participate in them.

Discussions about consensual non-monogamy are increasing for many reasons, including frustrations with monogamy and the increased ability to spread ideas via the Internet.

Psychologists are beginning to recognize the importance of having knowledge about consensual non-monogamies, as rates of divorce and infidelity remain steady. However, the general opinions about consensual non-monogamy in Western culture remain negative. In general, people believe that consensually non-monogamous relationships are inferior, and misconceptions about consensual non-monogamy are prevalent in the minds of the public. This unwarranted stigmatization is unfortunate because it limits possibilities and causes harm to those who choose to participate in consensual non-monogamy.

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There are two main issues with the stigmatization of consensual non-monogamy. Firstly, for those who have trouble maintaining monogamous relationships, secretive non-consensual nonmonogamy is the most common outlet. This results in emotional harm and betrayal of trust. It is unfortunate that consensual non-monogamy is not a more commonly utilized ethical solution to the struggles and pressures of maintaining monogamous relationships. Secondly, the stigmatization of consensually non-monogamous relationships unfairly ostracizes and causes harm to those who choose to lead such lives. If people can take the time to learn about the benefits of consensual non-monogamous relationships, they can become more accepted and those who practice consensual non-monogamy can love without the fear of judgment or harm.

WORKS CITED Barker, Meg. "Monogamies and Non-Monogamies: A Response to “The Challenge of Monogamy: Bringing It Out of the Closet and Into the Treatment Room." Sexual & Relationship Therapy 26.3 (2011): 281-287.

Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. Web. 22 Oct. 2014.

Brandon, Marianne. "The Challenge Of Monogamy: Bringing It Out Of the Closet and Into The Treatment Room." Sexual & Relationship Therapy 26.3 (2011): 271-277. Academic Search Premier. Web. 14 Oct. 2014.

Conley, Terri D, Et Al. "The Fewer the Merrier?: Assessing Stigma Surrounding Consensually Non-monogamous Romantic Relationships." Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 13.1 (2012): 1-30. Web. 1 Nov. 2014.

"Infidelity." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 29 Nov. 2014. Web. 04 Dec. 2014.

Kingma, Daphne Rose. http://www.daphnekingma.com/.

Klesse, C. "Polyamory and Its 'Others': Contesting the Terms of Non-Monogamy." Sexualities 9.5 (2006): 565-83. Web. 1 Nov. 2014.

Ribner, David S. "A Response To: “The Challenge of Monogamy: Bringing It Out of the Closet and Into the Treatment Room.” Sexual & Relationship Therapy 26.3 (2011): 278280. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. Web. 22 Oct. 2014.

Ritchie, Ani, and Meg Barker. "‘There Aren’t Words for What We Do or How We Feel So We Have To Make Them Up’: Constructing Polyamorous Languages in a Culture of Compulsory Monogamy." Sexualities 9.5 (2006): 584-601. Web. 1 Dec. 2014.

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Gay Neighborhoods: Beneficial to the LGBT Community (By Jack Blethroad) Throughout the course of human history, people have traditionally tended to seek out others similar to themselves. When deciding where to live and who to socialize with, people often look within their own affinity groups (“Affinity Group”). People with shared identities, interests, or common goals can express and grow more effectively when they live and work in a community that supports them. The LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) community, which has historically experienced violence, hatred, and oppression, is an example of a group that has stuck together through adversity. Gay neighborhoods, or areas with a high concentration of gender-sexuality minority people, offer residents safe spaces to live and socialize with likeminded people (Carpiano 74).

However, gay neighborhoods do statistically present higher risks in other areas, namely in relation to drug abuse and sexually transmitted diseases. Despite these unfortunate trends, I strongly believe that gay neighborhoods are essential cornerstones of the LGBT community.

There should be places where people can be free and open about their sexual orientations and not be judged, and these benefits outweigh the risks.

Before writing this paper, I had doubts as to whether or not gay neighborhoods were even necessary or positive influences on the community. In the process of researching and talking to others about my topic, I have been reminded of the ignorance and lack of acceptance of the gay community. To kick-start my writing process, I was required to create a proposal on my topic that would present my thesis and ideas to other students in the class. For my proposal, I got comments such as, “What are LGBT?”, “Isn’t this an example of gays alienating themselves?”, and “[Gay neighborhoods] could be seen as discrimination against heteros.” Hence, we see an oppressed group often being portrayed as the perpetrator of oppression. This line of thinking leads to the belief that LGBT folks deserve the oppression they experience. In addition, gays are often scolded for wanting to network and connect with each other, an attempt to invalidate the existence of queer culture. Because of the prevalence of these heteronormative ideas in mainstream society, it is no surprise that gays find solace in socializing with each other.

On this note, it is first important to understand what draws people to live in gay neighborhoods.

One of the most crucial reasons is physical and psychological safety. According to Carpiano, “Like ethnic communities, gay neighborhoods can be considered places where marginalized people come to find resources (i.e. safe spaces)” (Carpiano 75). LGBT people tend to be happier in these areas because they are in more accepting environments. Studies have been done to illustrate this concept, leading some demographers to subscribe to the “subcultural theory” that people who live in close-knit urban areas with people similar to themselves can create “viable subcultures that serve as meaningful environments for urban residences” (Carpiano 75).

According to studies done by Richard Florida, a global research professor at NYU, gay men in particular like to live close to their friends and to each other (Florida). Friendship has been found to be a vital part of a gay man’s psychological and social development (Carpiano 77). Gay neighborhoods provide more opportunities to make queer friends that live within a small radius.

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For many residents of gay neighborhoods, the freedom that comes with living in a trendy, young, accepting, and urban environment is one of the best aspects of living there. For example, most LGBT youth grow up in homes and schools that may be accepting at best, but are often homophobic. According to surveys done by the Anti-Bullying Network, LGBT youth are five times as likely to miss school or fear going home because they are afraid of anti-gay bullying and harassment (“Gay Bullying Statistics”).

The sense of freedom that comes with living in an area where your identity is affirmed is difficult to articulate, but Jane Ward and Beth Schneider do a good job in their article “The Reaches of Heteronormativity.” Ward and Schneider say that gay men have brought about new “ideas about the meaning of sexual freedom and fluidity, authentic intimacy and desire, and ‘melting-pot’ diversity” (Ward 437). The gay culture that cultivated both in the first gay neighborhoods and in recent ones has been shaped around a shared feeling of liberation. Building on this, LGBT groups began to vocalize their opinions, leading to chants such as “We’re here and we’re queer,” to get their message out to the broader community. As Ward and Schneider mention, the community has to rally together to overtake the oppressive systems in place.

Contrary to popular belief, gay neighborhoods are not isolated from their surrounding areas.

Oftentimes, they are built up in poorer and affordable areas. According to Richard Florida, “Gays often pioneer the revitalization of disadvantaged, crime-filled urban neighborhoods – and their presence can be seen as an early marker of gentrification and a precursor to a jump in housing prices” (Florida).

Although gay neighborhoods can change an area’s racial and socioeconomic makeup, the economic advances brought on by new investments are beneficial for the neighborhood itself and the surrounding areas. And the economic benefits aren’t just from attractions such as gay bars.

In most cases, an increase in the average housing prices in a neighborhood will increase the quality of its schools, parks, and economic development (Florida). According to a study done by Trulia, one of the largest online real estate websites, “Home prices are rising faster in major U.S. cities than in their suburbs, especially in neighborhoods that have larger gay and lesbian populations and are more racially diverse. Asking prices, on a per-square-foot basis, for houses in urban neighborhoods have risen by 11.3 percent in the past year” (Trulia), compared to a price gain of 10.2 percent in suburban neighborhoods. This is a clear sign that diverse neighborhoods are on the rise, and many cities containing so-called “gayborhoods” are starting to see the potential economic benefits in developing them.

Simply Google the phrase “gay neighborhoods diverse” and it will show just how cities have been able to cash in on gay-friendly areas. On the first page of results, one will find links to tourism websites for major cities catering directly to gay travelers or anyone who appreciates a diverse neighborhood. These cities include Atlanta, Salt Lake City, San Diego, Eureka Springs, and Columbia. This list of cities is regionally and culturally diverse in itself, and shows how widespread gay neighborhoods are.

Even in the most conservative and anti-gay regions of the country such as the South, cities like Eureka Springs are trying to encourage change and become a safe haven for oppressed LGBT people. Eureka Springs is the only city in the entire state of Arkansas that allows domestic 39

partnership registry. They are also the only city statewide that has officially come out in support of marriage equality in Arkansas (“Out in Eureka”). As far as attractions, they advertise “gayowned and gay-friendly B&Bs, hotels, restaurants, bars, nightclubs, art galleries, and shops” (“Out in Eureka”). All of these businesses provide jobs in a variety of industries which are beneficial not only to the neighborhood but to the overall economy as well. These jobs are especially crucial to LGBT folks in areas where employment discrimination is more prevalent and jobs are harder to come by.

Another important factor about gay neighborhoods is that they provide supportive environments for same-sex and same-gender couples to raise a family. Due to explicit discriminatory adoption laws throughout the United States, same-sex couples have to jump through legal and financial hoops to adopt a child (Black 57). Same-sex couples looking to start families also have to worry about how their children's peers will treat them and their children as a result of the parents’ sexual orientation: “One common theme of this analysis is that neighborhoods with a higher than average density of gay residents are by definition more diverse and open-minded, with a wider range of racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups as well” (Florida).

Because of these limiting factors, the percentage of gay and lesbian couples with children is significantly lower than that of straight couples. Often, families with one father and one mother are seen as “traditional” families, even if the parents are separated. Ward writes of heterosexuality in the dominant culture: “The force of sexual normalcy cuts across multiple systems of privilege and oppression [and] is used to regulate all people” (Ward 433). Outside of LGBT neighborhoods or neighborhoods that are especially liberal, there is no guarantee that queer people and their families will find acceptance and safety.

Finally, since gay neighborhoods are typically in or near areas with affordable housing, they are sensible places to live for LGBT families who are just starting out. Unfortunately, workplace discrimination leads to same-sex couples earning less income on average compared to their heterosexual counterparts. Thirty-five percent of LGBT adults have an income of less than $24,000, compared to just twenty-four percent of the general population (Black 62). Therefore, an accepting and affordable neighborhood makes sense for LGBT families.

That being said, defining the term “family” can become problematic. To some, family could mean simply two people living together with no children. Similarly, not all consider marriage to be a necessary component of a family. This is especially true of same-sex couples, who still cannot get married in many states. Thus, it seems unfair to judge LGBT families against a standard of heteronormative dynamics. In heterosexual households, it is more common for the woman to stay at home or limit her career in order to take care of family; conversely, same-sex couples are more likely to not have a stay-at-home parent (Black 62). However, that does not necessarily lead to less involved parenting. Fortunately, a study done by the University of Oregon showed that “an increasing number of people, especially those under the age of fifty, are quite open to calling all sorts of committed relationship combinations ‘family’” (A “New” Definition). While the progress is heartwarming, the reality is that out of all types of “nontraditional” families, some still negatively stigmatize same-sex couples.

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Sadly, there are downsides to LGBT neighborhoods that cannot be ignored when assessing resident health and risk exposure. One of the downsides is the relatively high concentration of drug abuse in gay neighborhoods. According to Carpiano, residents of gay neighborhoods have been found to be three times as likely to abuse recreational drugs on a regular basis (Carpiano 78). The most common drugs are so-called “club drugs” and “sex drugs.” Club drugs such as ecstasy and cocaine were most prevalent among white gay men with a bachelor's degree or higher (Carpiano 80). This is likely because these drugs cost more on average than drugs in the sex drug category. Examples of these include poppers, marijuana, methamphetamine, and Viagra. These drugs are popular because users feel that they make sex more pleasurable, intense, or long-lasting.

One of the most dangerous aspects of the LGBT community’s drug use is its underground and cutting-edge nature. According to EURAD (Europeans Against Drugs): “[Members of] the LGBT community were the most likely to be ‘early adopters’ of new drugs and may experience problems and side effects before the rest of the population” (“New Study”). The study also found that LGBT people were less likely to be able to find or afford adequate medical care than heterosexual people, making for a dangerous combination.

Another major challenge facing the LGBT community is the ongoing struggle against HIV and AIDS. Despite research indicating that HIV was originally spread via sex with animals, gay men in particular have historically been portrayed as the perpetrators of the disease. The association of sexually transmitted diseases with the gay community has perpetuated stereotypes of gays as dirty and morally unsound people. Ultimately, this leads to dehumanization and marginalization of the community as a whole.

That being said, HIV is most certainly an epidemic that the LGBT community must face: “In 1995-6, two-thirds of male AIDS cases were gay and bisexual men, including drug-using MSM (men who have sex with men)” (Gorman 506). Today, most HIV/AIDS cases in the eastern United States are amongst I.V. drug users, a majority of whom are heterosexual. Unfortunately, on the West Coast where gay neighborhoods are more common, most of these cases are a result of unprotected sex. Although Gorman did not make this regional distinction, it is a possible correlation that could be studied in the future.

These issues faced by the LGBT community are challenging yet not incapable of being solved.

Without understanding the roots of these issues, outreach, education, and other efforts to remedy them will not be effective. Jerome Hunt, a research associate for LGBT Progress, wrote an article for ThinkProgress in response to a study that examined three possible reasons for higher drug use among LGBT people. One of the most influential and overarching reasons is the stress that comes with being an oppressed minority: “As a result, gay and transgender people turn to tobacco, alcohol, and other substances as a way to cope with the challenges” (Hunt).

Another contributing factor is insufficient and improper medical care for many LGBT people.

For example, transwomen have a particularly difficult time finding a doctor who understands and does not reject their medical needs. According to a study done by the National Association for Transgender Equality, twenty-eight percent of trans people said the care they received was discriminatory and did not satisfy their needs (for example, being denied access to hormones). A 41

devastating twenty-two percent of the study’s participants were refused altogether (Grant). This lack of medical advice can lead to self-medication and poor health due to health issues going unchecked.

Lastly, “Targeted marketing by alcohol and tobacco companies are exploiting the fact that bars and clubs are not only safe spaces for socialization for gay and transgender individuals but provide easy access to tobacco products and alcohol” (Hunt). Furthermore, LGBT community events such as Pride parades are usually unable to turn down sponsors due to a lack of adequate funding. Sadly, the lack of funding is often due to corporations’ fear that association with the gay community (or even advertising at gay events) will tarnish their image for the heterosexual majority. This results in major alcohol companies having a major presence at what could otherwise be family-friendly and sober events (Hunt). The more people become exposed to this type of advertising, the more susceptible they are to using alcohol and eventually other drugs.

Even with these challenges to overcome, there are plenty of success stories of thriving gay neighborhoods. The most famous example is the Castro District in San Francisco. Since the 1940s, the area has had a high concentration of LGBT people, specifically gay men who were dishonorably discharged from military service during World War II because of their sexual orientation (“Castro District”). From then on, it has been a gay cultural center and it marks important milestones in the LGBT rights movement.

In the 1970s, Castro resident and camera storeowner Harvey Milk became one of the movement’s biggest leaders. According to PBS Northern California, the way the neighborhood has evolved into what it is today would have made Milk proud: “Lesbians have become more visible and involved in the gay rights movement. The races are less segregated. The emerging Asian American gay presence has made itself more visible. The popular clubs are less gendersegregated than in the 1970s. It is estimated that 20 to 25 percent of San Francisco's voters are comprised of educated and committed lesbians and gay men” (“The History”).

This shows how gay neighborhoods such as the Castro are on the forefront of many social equality issues, both within and outside of the LGBT community. Today the neighborhood continues to grow, seeing increased property values and an influx of premium shopping, restaurants, bars, and clubs (“The History”). Gay theaters, gay-owned businesses, and drag/trans* culture also thrive in the Castro’s accepting atmosphere. The Castro District is probably the most shining example of a gay neighborhood success story, and it can serve as a model to other cities and neighborhoods across the country.

Gay neighborhoods are a cornerstone of the gay community and have been a fixture in the progression of LGBT rights for decades. They provide residents with places to live, work, and socialize with like-minded and accepting people. Although it is difficult to quantify this cultural effect, gay neighborhoods have created safe havens for LGBT people for decades. However, the effects of gay neighborhoods are not always seen as positive. The underlying question here asks whether or not gay neighborhoods are good, safe places to live. For some, the negatives outweigh the sense of acceptance and networking opportunities for networking that gay neighborhoods provide. However, these downsides do not diminish the fact that gay neighborhoods are primarily places where LGBT people can be happy, healthy, and successful.

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WORKS CITED "Affinity Group." Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 27 Oct. 2014. Web. 30 Nov. 2014.

Black, Dan A., Seth G. Sanders, and Lowell J. Taylor. "The Economics of Lesbian and Gay Families." The Journal of Economic Perspectives21.2 (2007): 53-70. JSTOR. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.

Carpiano, Richard M., Brian C. Kelly, Adam Easterbrook, and Jeffrey T. Parsons. "Community and Drug Use among Gay Men: The Role of Neighborhoods and Networks." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 52.1: 74-90. JSTOR. Web. 9 Oct. 2014.

"Castro District, San Francisco." Wikipedia. Wikipedia. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.

Florida, Richard. "Why Gayborhoods Matter." CityLab. The Atlantic, 14 Feb. 2014. Web. 4 Nov. 2014.

"Gay Bullying Statistics." Bullying Statistics. 1 Jan. 2013. Web. 28 Nov. 2014.

Gorman, Michael E., Ben Dr. Barr, Anthony Hansen, and Caleb Green. “Speed, Sex, Gay Men, and HIV: Ecological and Community Perspectives.” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 11.4 (1997): 505-15. JSTOR. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.

Grant, Jamie. "National Transgender Discrimination Survey Report on Health and Health Care."

Trans Equality. National Gay and Lesbian Task Force, 1 Oct. 2010. Web. 30 Nov. 2014.

Hunt, Jerome. "Making Sense of the LGBT Community’s High Rates of Substance Use." ThinkProgress. Center for American Progress Action Fund, 12 Mar. 2012. Web. 4 Nov. 2014.

"New Study: Drugs and the Gay Community." Europe against Drugs. European Commission's Drug Prevention and Information Programme, n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.

"Out in Eureka." Gay Eureka Springs. City of Eureka Springs, 1 Jan. 2012. Web. 26 Nov. 2014.

"Sociologist Finds Gay Neighborhoods Are Getting Straighter." NBC Chicago. NBC, 4 Aug. 2014. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.

"The History of the Castro." KQED: Public Media for Northern California. PBS, 1 Jan. 2009.

Web. 28 Nov. 2014.

Ward, Jane, and Beth Schneider. "The Reaches of Heteronormativity: An Introduction." Gender and Society 23.4 (2009): 433-39. JSTOR. Sage Publications. Web. 13 Nov. 2014.

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Respecting the Differences: Body Modification Culture (By Jenn Flores) “Yikes, look what that person did to herself! Why would she ever do that to her body?” Leone (2010) states that body modification means to deliberately alter one’s physical appearance.

Whether we are talking about tattoos covering people from head to toe or piercings in unusual places, many people do this without caring about what other people think. There are many types of body modification: for example, piercing, tattooing, scarification and branding, implanting, and hardcore modifications. No matter what modification one chooses to get, they should be treated with the utmost respect regardless of society’s standards and personal opinions.

When I walk around, I see many people with different types of tattoos. I think people who get any type of tattoo try to tell a story, but there are other people who only get tattoos because they’re trendy or decorative. However, tattooing one’s face is a whole different story. Why would someone ruin his or her face by putting a tattoo there?

I follow a tattoo artist, Bong Padilla, on Instagram and the first thing you notice while on his page is that his entire body, or what’s visible, is tattooed—including his face. To some, this can be scary and or intimidating. Being a tattoo artist means one must have tattoos, right? I believe so because seeing a tattoo artist with tattoos builds trust between the artist and client. Being able to see what kind of tattoos your artist has will give clients a sense of what their tattoo artist likes.

It will shake off that feeling of uncertainty.

Based on the tattoos that Bong Padilla has, we can see what kind of tattoos he designs for his clients, which are tribal. Does having tattoos cover his body change the way people look at him?

Some may, but based on his Instagram, many people see him as a normal person. There is no hate or discrimination based on the number of tattoos he has. Instead, he receives love and respect from his followers.

Padilla loves to tattoo and is a loving family man. His posts include pictures of his finished work on clients as well as family pictures. Padilla is a good example of why people should not judge others by their body modifications. He may look like a tough, and possibly angry, man, but he’s actually a sweet guy who has a passion for artistry.

Having a lot of tattoos may give some people the wrong idea like, “Oh, look at that guy, he has so many tattoos. I wonder if he has a job.” Many statements discriminate against those who have tattoos. For instance, my uncle has a full sleeve tattoo on his right arm. This affected his life negatively because most places do not allow visible tattoos in the workplace. So when my uncle went to his interview he wore a collared shirt, not bothering to cover the tattoo on his arm. He ended up not getting the job because of his careless mistake.

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Whether having tattoos will affect where you work depends on occupation. For example, Bong Padilla works as a tattoo artist, so it is reasonable for him to have a lot of tattoos. As for my uncle, he didn’t get the salesperson job because he failed to cover his tattoo.

Society may consider having tattoos a valid excuse for not hiring someone, but management cannot fire somebody for having tattoos. Icon (n.d.) wrote an online article, “Tattoos and Piercings in the Workplace,” giving advice to employees who have tattoos: To give you an idea of their rise in popularity here are a few figures. Thirty years ago, 1 in 100 people in this country had tattoos. Now 1 in 10 Americans have them, and onethird of those aged 25 to 30 have tattoos. While society is becoming more liberated and expressive, and piercings and tattoos have become part of mainstream culture, some employers are still having a hard time wrapping their heads around body art in the workplace. (Icon, n.d.)

Today, more employers are embracing tattoos in the workplace. Depending on your occupation, there may not be a problem with having your tattoos showing. However, tattoos that are offensive or gang-related are cause for concern. Those tattoos should be covered because they can raise questions from an employer, and many will think twice about hiring someone. Some people still associate tattoos with bikers, sailors, criminals, and gang members, who are the pariahs of society. Those with tattoos related to certain groups get them to be in the group, but once that person leaves the group, they still have that tattoo forever.

Even people you wouldn’t expect to have tattoos often have them. For example, Dr. Dave, a medical doctor with a private general medicine practice in New York, has both arms covered in tattoos. His tattoos convey a medical theme, which connects him to his occupation. Without his white coat, would you trust him as your doctor? Many wouldn’t because of his tattoos. Appearance and the way people perceive you often matters most. Without his white coat, he looks like a criminal to some, but once he puts his white coat back on, he’s a doctor.

Most people today are quick to judge a person based on appearance, but this doctor has proven that you can still be a professional with tattoos. In “Tattoo Psychology: Art or Self Destruction? Modern-Day Social Branding” by Reef Karim, Karim, Karim talks about how people perceive others with tattoos: I vividly remember the first time I saw a "tramp stamp." A woman was reaching for something in the front row of a large auditorium and a few rows of men and women witnessed her walking artistry. Everyone had a reaction. And once she left the room, we all talked about it. (Karim, 2012 November, 9)

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They judged the woman saying she was a “party girl who drinks a lot and had a hard childhood.”

How can someone judge a person based only on the tattoos they have? Sometimes the tattoos that people have tell a story that only they understand. Before people judge a person based on their tattoos, they should listen to the tattooed person.

I myself want to get tattoos someday, but not to the point where it will stop me from having a job. In the future I’m considering tattooing my entire back. I don’t judge a person based on what kind of tattoos they have, but sometimes people go too far. I believe that tattooing the face as well as getting meaningless tattoos is going too far. I say this because in the future, the feelings you have about tattoos may change. Some people may regret it for the rest of their life.

People may think that tattooing your whole body is crazy, but that doesn’t compare to the “hardcore” body modifications that some may undergo. Some of these modifications include: tongue splitting, ear pointing (i.e. elf-like), ear stretching, transdermal implants (i.e., Frankenstein bolts), and 3D implants (i.e. hornlike). Alphasiren (2013 July 16) spoke with Russ Fox, a body modification artist who specializes in precision piercing and advanced modification.

Russ did some hardcore body modification as well such as tongue splitting, punched nostrils, a large scarification piece on his chest, and horns on his head. Russ says that hardcore body modification is a way to separate people from their friends who only have tattoos or piercings.

Although his modifications are more extreme than tattoos and piercings, Russ still deserves to be treated respectfully.

While some people modify their bodies to look different from others, others do it to escape their past. One example is (Brady, 2013 October 31) Maria Cristerna, who is known as “The Vampire Lady.” Before modifying her body, Cristerna was a lawyer from a very religious family in Mexico and a mother of four children. She is a victim of domestic abuse and after modifying her body, she says she now feels like her real self. Nothing has stopped her from becoming who she truly wants to be.

Just because a person modifies their body to look different, that doesn’t mean that he or she is a freak. Such people just want to express themselves in their own way. Just because Maria Cristerna has tattoos from head to toe doesn’t mean all people run away from her. Instead, the opposite often happens. She speaks to others about domestic abuse because she is a victim.

Maria Cristerna still believes in God and others praise her as though she is a goddess with powers. She has proved that past experiences shouldn’t stop anybody from being who they want to be.

In conclusion, tattoos and hardcore body modification are ways for a person to be different from everyone else. People with body modifications may look different than others, but they are just like us. They don’t do it to scare people; it’s a way to show others something about themselves.

It’s important to respect a person’s decision to modify their bodies. As a society, we must not judge people just because they don’t fit our standards or opinions.

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REFERENCES Alphasiren. (2013, July 16). Body modification: Shit’s Gotten Real, para. 4-5, Retrieved by: http://hushmagazine.ca Brady, T. (2013, October 31). ‘I have always been different’. MailOnline. Retrieved by http://www.dailymail.co.uk Corbis [Online Image]. Retrieved from http://www.corbisimages.com/images/Corbis-4242753273.jpg?size=67&uid=a5495a18-af31-4149-95a3-91498c51120b Icon, E. (n.d.). Tattoos and piercings in the workplace. Working World. para.1-3. Retrieved from http://www.workingworld.com Karim, D. (2012, November 9). Tattoo psychology: Art or Self Destruction? Modern-Day Social Branding. para. 2-4,13. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com Santoso, A. (2007, September 23). The tattooed doctor. Neatorama. para.3. Retrieved from http://www.neatorama.com Tattooed Doctor [Online Image]. Retrieved from http://doctoraveronica.blogspot.com/2014/01/can-doctors-have-tattoos.htm Vampire Woman [Online Image]. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2481092/I-different-Mexican-lawyerundergoes-extreme-body-modification-Vampire-Lady-complete-titanium-horns-insertedhead.htm.

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Dinner Parties and Torture: Addressing Torture from All Perspectives (By Robin Faulkner) In today’s age, the word “torture” evokes a mixture of feelings. Whether it’s immediate repulsion by those who have studied the recent events at Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib, or accepting that violent practices are just a necessary part of our government, torture is controversial.

After reading the book Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrand, I was immediately intrigued with the idea of human dignity and its relationship to torture. As one who has grown up in a post-9/11 world, I’ve always been on the fence about torture. While researching the topic, I often wondered if my position was result of the era I grew up in. Am I a part of the “torture culture” created by post-9/11 paranoia? One thing that absolutely shocked me and aroused my curiosity was how common citizens could treat other human beings in such dehumanizing ways. Where is the line that one crosses from the standard societal values to being able to strip another person of their humanity?

Unable to answer the questions myself, I decided to host an imaginary “dinner party,” inviting “guests” with a wide variety of backgrounds on the subject. The guests include philosophers, journalists, scholars, and those who have experienced torture first-hand. What connects them all is their mutual familiarity with torture. My goal for the party is to have my guests talk me through the various debates on torture, resulting in a better understanding of why torture has such a taboo placed upon it. Before any deep conversations begin, introductions are in order.

Simon Wiesenthal introduces himself as the author of The Sunflower, which details his personal experiences with torture in a Nazi concentration camp during World War Two. Wiesenthal brings his personal account of torture and his unique take on forgiveness to the table. The next guest is John McCain, who gives his personal account of his five-and-a-half year stay as a prisoner of war during the Vietnam War. As a POW, McCain endured torture both physically and mentally, and his time as a POW details a different type of torture and its effects on victims.

Among the guests are five philosophers, the first being David Luban, author of “Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Bomb,” published by Georgetown University Law Center. Luban is an expert on the subject of torture with a PhD in Philosophy from Yale University. His publication deals with the ethics of torture, whether it can be justified or not, and attempts to dismember the Ticking Bomb Theory. The second scholar is Uwe Steinhoff, author of On the Ethics of Torture.

Steinhoff has a Ph.D. in Philosophy from a German university and his book discusses the idea of torture as a method of self-defense while also working to disprove the Ticking Bomb Theory.

The third scholar is Alan Clarke, author of “Creating a Torture Culture,” published by Utah Valley University. He has his Ph.D. from Osgood Hall Law School, York University, and his article deals with the social aspect of post-9/11 societal views on torture. The next guest, James Rachels, is the author of “Kantian Theory: The Idea of Human Dignity” and is a distinguished philosopher. Rachels received his Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; “Kantian Theory: The Idea of Human Dignity” is a chapter in the textbook The Elements of Moral Philosophy, which examines the definitions of human dignity.

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The final scholarly philosopher is Seumas Miller, a professor of philosophy at Charles Stuart University, who received his Ph.D. from the University of Melbourne. Miller is the author of “Torture,” which can be found in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The article focuses on the definition and morality of torture, and includes the Ticking Bomb Theory.

The last guest is Dana Priest, a journalist who is quoted in the book, The Torture Debate in America, edited by Karen J. Greenburg. In The Torture Debate, Priest, an investigative reporter, gives her perspective of how torture has changed after 9/11. Her experience includes covering the Pentagon for six years and intelligence agencies for five years, for which she has won a Pulitzer Prize and the George Polk Award.

Now that the customary introductions have been made, I wish to discuss what each of my guests has in common with the other—knowledge about torture. How would they define torture? Each description varies because of the different forms. For example, there is torture as experienced by Holocaust victims, POWs, and torture used to gain information. However, it can be mutually concluded that torture is the intentional dehumanization of victims to meet a certain end. Having read BBC Ethics’ definition of torture, I begin the conversation: torture is a way in which torturers intentionally dehumanize their victims to use them as a means to an end, a slight obstacle to reach a larger goal (BBC).

Simon Wiesenthal, as a Holocaust survivor, agrees with my definition. He has endured the cruelest forms of torture in which Jews were made to feel like anything but human: “Jews were strung up, trampled underfoot, bitten by trained dogs, whipped and humiliated in every way possible” (Wiesenthal 11). James Rachels adds the idea that animals are treated as a means to an end, specifically to a man’s end (Rachels 1). He means that animals are used solely to benefit man, to feed man, or to clothe man.

Tragically, victims of torture are used by the torturer for a larger goal, and all basic human rights are thrown aside. John McCain explains that his experiences with torture were intended to break his spirit. These torture methods included “withholding medical treatment … near-starvation, [his] nails being pulled off, being forced to stand for long periods of time, and being grotesquely tied up with ropes” (McCain 2). McCain agrees that he was being treated as an end by the Vietnamese. As the admiral’s son, they wanted him to speak to reporters, renouncing the United States and lie by saying the Vietnamese were treating him well.

Seumas Miller defines torture as the intentional infliction of extreme physical or mental suffering on a defenseless, non-consenting person with a purpose of breaking that person’s will. David Luban and Uwe Steinhoff, both scholarly philosophers, define torture as a method through which to gain valuable information, perhaps a necessary evil, yet there are many counter-arguments as to why torture isn’t necessary.

Listening to the descriptions of torture, I find myself repulsed. How can individuals be treated in such horrific ways, only to fulfill a larger goal? Having listened to McCain and Wiesenthal discuss their personal experiences with torture, it makes one want to hear more. What forms of torture did they experience? What got them through it all? How did they survive?

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The guests who have experienced torture firsthand are sitting at my table not only because they are victims, but also because they are survivors of torment. What methods did they use to survive in the face of certain death, or extreme pain and suffering?

John McCain is the first to begin his account. McCain explains to the guests how communication was key for the survival of the men in the POW camps: “The most important thing for survival is communication with someone, even if it’s only a wink, tap on the wall, or to have a guy put his thumb up. It makes all the difference” (McCain 3). On top of daily beatings and interrogations, McCain was kept in solitary confinement for about two and a half years. To cope with complete isolation, he kept his mind occupied. For example, he would “lapse into fantasies where he would write books and plays in [his] mind” (McCain 3).

Wiesenthal adds that those in the concentration camps were treated as anything but human, and the best way to survive was to be mentally strong. Wiesenthal “[lost] himself in fantasy merely in order to escape from the appalling truth” (Wiesenthal 37). One such example of the “appalling truth” was a story Wiesenthal heard from some fellow prisoners describing how three Jews were hung in a courtyard baring signs that read, “Kosher meat” for the Germans to laugh at (Wiesenthal 57). With little hope in his survival, Wiesenthal often found himself daydreaming to escape his harsh reality.

An idea struck me while listening to McCain; perhaps the POWs remained so mentally strong because they were able to fight their captors with their silence. The men in POW camps were still fighting for their country, their family’s freedom, and the hope that soon they would be liberated. Those in concentration camps had little or no hope. With no way to fight against their captors, realization that their family members were most likely dead, and little to no hope for their own survival, the only thing they could do was escape their reality with daydreams, or their reality would consume them.

Although the two men experienced different forms of torture, each found a way in which to combat the dehumanizing effects of their circumstances, including escaping into daydreams to keep the mind occupied, and communication. Because physical survival depended on food, water and health—something the men had no control over—the way they adapted to survive depended on their mental strength.

After hearing such horrendous accounts of torture, I find myself fairly critical of the defense of torture. How could someone even commit such crimes against fellow humans? The Jews in the Holocaust were killed almost for amusement, the goal being to kill the most Jews in the fastest possible manner. How can this torture be in any way moral?

I open my question to my guests with the hope that they can better explain the relationship between morality and torture. David Luban opens the conversation, telling the guests, “Liberalism incorporates a vision of engaged, active human beings possessing an inherent dignity regardless of their social station. The victim of torture is in every respect the opposite of this vision” (Luban 1433). Taking away every right to self-autonomy and being completely robbed of one’s own free will is the sole intent of torture, so if it goes against every aspect of liberalism, why is it used?

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Uwe Steinhoff answers my question with his idea of self-defense as a justification of torture. He states, “People have the right to defend themselves or others against wrongful aggression, in particular if the aggression is life-threatening” (Steinhoff 11). Steinhoff believes that using torture is a form of protecting ourselves from potential attacks, but only if it falls under categories of rationality and morality (Steinhoff 12).

I ask: What forms of torture fall under self-defense? Is torture in any way moral? Rachels interrupts with the ultimate law of morality, that humans have intrinsic worth and we should never manipulate or use another human for our own end (Rachels 1). I understand that torture intentionally violates the rights and human dignity of its victims, including the legal right to remain silent when questioned (BBC). So I ask the table: If you had a known terrorist captive, and they may know of a potential plot to kill innocent lives, would it be more morally wrong to violate the rights of the terrorist by bringing forth the information through torture, or to not interrogate the prisoner at all and risk the innocent lives? Can torture then be justified?

Luban, Steinhoff, Miller, and Clarke are all bursting with answers since the question I just asked is the basis for the Ticking Bomb Theory, a topic heavily debated among the four philosophers.

“Imagine a nuclear bomb set to go off on Manhattan, and you have the terrorist in your hands.

What would you do?” asks Clarke (Clarke 25). Luban first identifies the major flaw in Clarke’s question: How do you know the terrorist is the one who planted the bomb?

Luban immediately jumps into his argument as to why the Ticking Bomb Theory is invalid, with Steinhoff nodding his head in agreement. Luban questions: How do you know the terrorist is guilty? Luban gives an example in his publication “Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Bomb Theory” in which a man was captured by Philippine agents, and tortured to the point that the agents were surprised that he survived, before he gave up a plot to bomb an airline full of people.

The agents had no prior knowledge of any existing plot, and had been torturing him for weeks before the plot was revealed.

Although innocent lives were saved, what if there had been no plot at all and the man was tortured to near death for no reason (Luban 1441-42)? Luban, feeling strongly, provides his reasoning behind the Ticking Bomb Theory: “The real debate is not between one guilty man’s pain and hundreds of lives. It is the debate between the certainty of anguish and the mere possibility of learning something vital and saving lives” (Luban 1444).

With Luban’s time up, Steinhoff begins his arguments to disproving the Ticking Bomb Theory.

He explains how the theory creates an unnecessary emergency where the government is constantly using torture to find potential terrorists who are going to attack at any second: “True cases in which torture is actually needed are extremely rare … nearly all—but not absolutely all—cases of torture are unjustified” (Steinhoff 45).

Having listened to Steinhoff and Luban argue the cons to the Ticking Bomb Theory, Miller approaches the subject differently. Miller discusses how, should police find and torture a terrorist into giving up the location of a hidden bomb, they would be tried and if found guilty, sentenced to prison for their actions (Miller). He doubts the morality of this situation. In the hypothetical case that the police do find the terrorist that planted the bomb, and they save lives in 51

the process, is it not morally permissible? Should they have to go to jail for their “crime”?

Unlike Luban and Steinhoff, who find that torture should never be used because it violates the rights of individuals held so dear to liberals, Miller disagrees and believes that “it is plausible that there are some imaginable circumstances in which it is morally permissive to torture someone” (Miller).

Hearing the justification of torture, I unexpectedly find myself agreeing with each point made.

Unnecessarily torturing someone who “might” be a terrorist seems wrong in every sense. This being said, I can’t say I disagree with torture either because would it be more morally wrong to risk one life, or thousands? My thought process leads me to wonder if the post-9/11 time I grew up in has influenced my position on torture.

I ask my guests, “Does my view on torture reflect the time I grew up in?” Priest speaks her part, bringing up the idea of the 9/11 effects: “After 9/11, the CIA was told ‘go ahead,’ not many people said ‘put constraints on’” (Priest 16). After 9/11, the government decided to fight terror with terror, believing they needed to use “extraordinary interrogation techniques” in order to fight the War on Terrorism (Priest 15). Because of the tragedy of 9/11, anger and sadness swept the nation, leading to a call to action to stop those who attacked us.

Luban, agreeing with Priest, explains how in our history, America has always strongly disagreed with the nations who have used torture. Our Bill of Rights strictly forbids any “cruel and unusual punishment” and is thus against our American values (Luban 1425). But everything changed after 9/11; discussion on torture increased, and by mid-November, “thirty-two percent of surveyed Americans favored torturing terror suspects,” a huge increase from pre-9/11 attitudes (Luban 1426).

Does a difference in generation explain a difference in attitudes on torture? Being five years old at the time of 9/11, I vaguely remember life before the increased airport security, or amplified government paranoia. Torture has always appeared to be something we do to stop other terrorist attacks. This method of violence weighs heavier on those who remember pre-9/11 life in comparison to my generation. Likewise, Alan Clarke agrees that the torture culture of the United States was only “started by the Bush Administration after 9/11” (Clarke 59-60). Therefore, is torture becoming a social norm?

Clarke states, “I think it is very, very important that we always assert that our system of values is different from those who attacked the U.S. and killed British citizens on 11 of September, and that’s something we’d always want to stand up for” (Clarke 12). Although it’s a respectable value, is that necessarily the case in the United States today? We condemn nations who use torture, whether on their own citizens or our soldiers and civilians, but are we not using similar strategies?

I support my questioning with a quote from BBC Ethics. Torture is a slippery slope fallacy: “Once started, torture and other abusive practices spread” (BBC). After we do one bad thing it begins to feel more acceptable, leading us to continue the same habits in the future. For example, using torture more frequently has led the United States to be more open and accepting 52

of violent practices. Has this slippery slope led the United States to become a torture culture?

Alan Clarke respectively attempts to answer this question for the guests and me. He describes Nazi Germany as an example of such a culture, in which not all the people agreed with what Hitler was doing, but went along with what was happening to the Jews because they were following Hitler and feared retribution (Clarke 23). Wiesenthal agrees with the statement; many people in Germany had disapproved of Hitler and his methods in treating the Jews, but were too afraid of being put in concentration camps to do anything.

The relationship between a torture culture and the citizens living in such a society embodies my original question on how normal citizens can go to the extent of seriously harming another in a torture situation. Having been enrolled in an Intro to Psychology course, I recently studied social psychology and obedience. For this reason, I ask my guests if they have heard about the New Haven, Connecticut Shock Experiment, conducted by Stanley Milgram. In this experiment, volunteers were gathered to help in a “memory” test, in which they were acting as the “teacher” and another subject was the “learner.” Their role in the experiment was to deliver electric shocks to the “learner” whenever a question was answered incorrectly, with the voltage levels increasing with each wrong answer. Unknown to the subjects, the “learner” was actually a tape recording of the person giving the wrong answers who would scream in pain when the “shock” was administered.

The result of the test was astonishing; a vast majority of the participants, about 67%, “shocked” the “learner” with the maximum voltage—450 volts, believing that the “learner” was either unconscious or dead. Milgram’s experiment proved how easily ordinary citizens could follow orders and obey an authority figure. Clarke would add to my summary of the experiment, saying, “Milgram’s research does not show how a culture of torture comes about, but it does show how, once started, ordinary people can so easily participate” (Clarke 16).

Ordinary citizens may find it easy to obey the government and the torture culture that has been created, but is there a boundary that the common citizen crosses from behaving according to regular social norms, to being able to hurt another individual to the point of death, as shown in the Staley Milgram experiment? Another example of ordinary citizens crossing a line to torture another is Abu Ghraib, a recent scandal at a prison camp in Iraq. United States military soldiers were shipped to Abu Ghraib and told to act as prison guards to Iraqi detainees. Pictures surfaced of the treatment of the prisoners: men with bags over their heads, prisoners being whipped and forced to behave like animals, with the guards smiling and posing in the background. How can people be capable of such atrocities? It is a daunting thought, and I’d like to discuss those whose job it is to inflict pain—the torturers themselves.

I would like to hear what some of my guests have to say regarding the torturers. Are they doing it out of obedience? Are they obligated to follow orders or do they have a choice in the matter?

I use some of my knowledge gained from BBC Ethics, to say that perhaps the torturers are also victims as well, not in a physical sense, but that they are being forced to harm other people, becoming “brutalized” and “desensitized” by the acts they commit (BBC). John McCain agrees that the guards he encountered may have been trapped in their situations, and from his personal experience, were simply “following orders” from authoritarian figures higher up (McCain 5).

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BBC Ethics makes it seem as though the torturer is also a victim, but I wonder: do the torturers not know what they’re signing up for? Both Wiesenthal and McCain had kind guards who risked their lives to give the men extra portions of food, left them alone to sleep, or would talk to them to keep them company; yet both men also had guards who took a sadistic pleasure in making the prisoners’ lives as hard as possible.

David Luban has a unique take on the issue of the torturers; he believes that one who knows the best ways to manipulate another human with pain or humiliation would not know where to draw the line as far as morality goes (Luban 1447). Instead of a torturer/interrogator making the judgment call, Luban proposes the idea that “judges, not torturers, should oversee the permission to torture, which in his view must be regulated by warrants” (Luban 1447).

An intriguing idea, but with the court system so backed up, how would such warrants be given out? How would you even know which men to get warrants for without the information gained by torture? Perhaps the difference between torturers and say the soldiers who acted as torturers at Abu Ghraib is that trained torturers are able to react to certain situations; they know when they have reached the limit, but untrained citizens acting as torturers can be easily caught up in the situation.

Having discussed the various types of torture, the torturers themselves, torture cultures, and means of survival, I find myself still torn on the issue. So I ask my guests their opinion: Can torture ever be justified? Again, to start out the conversation I give the perspective from BBC Ethics, a strong opponent against torture, which states: “Torture is an ineffective interrogation tool” that “damages the humanity of torturers” and “violates the rights of the individual” (BBC).

Luban gives his view on torture, that justifications such as the Ticking Bomb Theory fall flat, and as a liberal, in which the preservation of the rights an individual are valued over anything, torture is proven immoral. Luban finishes by explaining how torture is a “dangerous delusion” in which we are disillusioned into believing that we are constantly under attack (1461).

Miller is next to give his opinion on torture, which differs slightly from the opposition from Luban and BBC Ethics. He says, “It is plausible that there are some imagined circumstances in which it is morally permissive to torture someone” (Miller). He describes such a permissible situation as one in which saving multiple lives at the expense of one individual’s pain would be the more morally correct option—a “necessary evil.”

Wiesenthal, as one who experienced the pain of torture, states that torture to dehumanize victims is in every way morally wrong. Yet the torture he experienced was not to gain any information; it was simply because being a Jew made him “inferior” to Germans, and thus an animal lined up for extermination. McCain, a victim of torture for information, explains how torture is wrong, but the difference is that McCain is also a politician, and as a politician would be involved in the various CIA operations that use torture to gain information from terrorists.

Unfortunately torture is such a broad a subject that I’ve been saving one topic until the end of the party. Although not related to the broader topics of the morality, I cannot help but wonder about forgiveness and torture.

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Hillenbrand’s Unbroken and Wiesenthal’s book The Sunflower greatly impacted my views on the issue. After finishing each book, I spent an entire week thinking, “Could I ever forgive someone who has abused me or other humans?” I turn this question over to my guests and ask what they would have done.

Wiesenthal further explains the situation he was thrown into where he was asked the unthinkable—to forgive a man who murdered innocent people. Wiesenthal simply got up and left the German soldier’s bedside without giving an answer. Since Wiesenthal and McCain are the only two guests who have experienced torture firsthand, McCain begins the conversation.

During his time as a POW, he hated the soldiers who abused him: “You get to hate them so bad it gives you strength” (McCain 5). Yet years later, McCain states that he no longer hates the guards who were merely doing their job, but he hates the leaders giving the orders (McCain 5).

Forgiveness on McCain’s part was about moving on from his experience, yet Wiesenthal was still living in the despair of knowing he was most likely going to be killed at any time. Yet here is a man who risked Wiesenthal’s own well-being to summon him to his dying bedside and ask for forgiveness. My guests are likely appalled at the scenario, and hopefully would spend a great deal of time after my party thinking about what they would do. Personally, had I been in Wiesenthal’s position, and I’m sure that most would agree with me, I would most likely do as Wiesenthal did and leave the soldier’s bedside without giving an answer.

My dinner party represents my journey through the topic of torture. Having read and understood various justifications, views, and sub-debates on torture, it challenged my opinion on the matter.

At the beginning of my party, a vague understanding of torture meant that my opinion wasn’t fully formed, yet I found myself sitting on a fence, seeing how immoral and despicable torture was and disagreeing with all that comes with it. But after looking at the other side and seeing how torture is the fastest and most efficient way in which information is gained to save thousands of lives, my perspective became even more complex.

Spending time with my guests, going through my questions, trying to understand what makes a person able to commit such atrocities against another, and whether or not torture is ever justifiable, I still am sitting on the fence. With a greater knowledge on torture, completely agreeing with each end of the debate is impossible. I still believe that torture is repelling, and I wish that there were more appropriate ways to gain information without dehumanizing an individual. This being said, I do think that in some extreme cases, torture is necessary. Although it has been a long journey, my dinner party has allowed me to more clearly understand the issue of torture, and I now feel like I’m no longer just going along with what everyone else believes because it is the “culture” I was raised in. I feel and think like a member of society who has a voice in what is going on in the world around me, and can add my voice to the debate on torture.

WORKS CITED Clarke, Alan. “Creating a Torture Culture.” Selected Works of Alan Clarke. Utah University, July 2008. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

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Luban, David. “Liberalism, Torture, and the Ticking Bomb.” (2005). Georgetown Law Faculty Publications. Paper 148.

McCain, John S. “John McCain, Prisoner of War: A First-Person Account.” U.S. News 28 Jan 2008. Web. 30 Oct. 2014.

Miller Seumas. “Torture.” Stanford University. 7 Feb. 2006. Web. 24 Nov. 2014.

Priest, Dana. The Torture Debate in America. Ed. Karen J. Greenberg. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print.

Rachels, James. “Kantian Theory: The Idea of Human Dignity.” The Elements of Moral Philosophy. Eds. James Rachels and Stuart Rachels. Random House Inc (1986): 114-17, 122-23.

Steinhoff, Uwe. On the Ethics of Torture. Albany: State U of New York, 2013. Print.

“Why is Torture Wrong?” BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

Wiesenthal, Simon. The Sunflower. New York: Schocken, 1976. Print.

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I Have a Jar of Treasures (By John Graef) I have a jar of treasures—a medium-sized glass mason jar with raised lettering. The kind mothers use for applesauce and peaches. Not blue-tinted like some; it is clear, clean, and at the moment empty.

I am at my grandmother’s cabin, built by her father. It is my favorite place to be, that cabin, and I, a sailor soon to cast off, am in need of a thing to take along with me: an organic vessel, a memento.

Hearing a voice I know well, I stand from the wooden rocking chair and look through the wide, paneled glass window, white with trim, refracting the sunlight across the room. And there, my grandmother, is seated on the porch cross-legged and at ease, adorned by a greenish Whidbey sweatshirt with faded and cracked lettering, denim, and a ball cap from New York. She converses with lightness and wit, marveling at some little thing, laughing with her whole self, and emphasizing each phrase by the movement of her hands with a grace and elegance unrepeatable. Her discourse takes root in her heart’s deep love and her voice is like the great music of the world. And I smile. She makes me want to laugh, too.

Less than twenty paces from the cedar wood deck, across an open yard of soft overgrown grass and a one-lane road, lies our own stretch of sand, logs, shells, and cold Northwestern sea. The kitchen of my grandmother’s cabin is walled with cedar panels that are stained a roasted chestnut—the autumn maple brown of an Irish setter. The wood in the floors is old and groans.

Somehow the warmth of it gives the place a feeling of the holidays all year. Up a single set of stairs no wider than a suitcase sits a loft, a communal sleeping area of six beds where changing clothes is an art in the pursuit of privacy. The vaulted ceilings, cross hatched by wooden beams and nailed into place when my grandmother was very young, is dark, yet inviting. There is an aroma of old timber and Pacific moss and I think, “I could sleep here for the rest of my life.”

But today the cabin surrounded by deep evergreen is empty, save for me. This day I possess the rarity of solitude, and there is no one to see me take a jar from the shelf in the kitchen, not even my grandmother.

Like all of those jars, the lid has two parts and one of them has gone missing. The threaded ring I have, but the flat piece, which would otherwise keep all its contents in, seems to be gone. So I tear a small sheet of wax paper and form it with my fingers to match. I slide the makeshift lid gently into my shirt pocket and, with jar cradled in the crook of my arm, stride across the creaking floor and out the red front door. I make my way across the deck and soft green grass, beyond the single lane road, to the shore; the overgrown grass rippling in the offshore breeze.

The many childhoods of my family, filled with skinned knees and wonder.

Miles across the water, the craggy outline of the Cascade Range stands stoic against a darkening twilight, painted in dusk hues of violet and salmon pink. Two ferries glide in their opposing routes from dock to dock in the distance, their beam lights cascading across the glistening ripples of Puget Sound. I keep my balance along the spines of old dead trees. The high winter tides chose to leave them in no particular order, packed tightly along the shoreline. The thought drifts 57

through my mind and onto the wind, “I could hop from one to another for thirty minutes and never touch the sand.” I step down from the sleeping trees and kneel, sifting my fingers through the damp, cold sand and funnel a few handfuls into the jar, leaving it half empty. The ferry horn drones miles across the water.

Salt, kelp, and the dead shells drift their aroma around me and it is one of the most beautiful smells I could imagine experiencing; it exists nowhere else. I find half an oyster shell, a lifeless crab the size of my thumb, a few twigs, stones, and small shells rounded by the sea and picked at by the gulls. I also came across a sliver of beach glass, white, flecked, pitted, and translucent. It had been in the sea a while and the edges are soft and rounded. It must have been clear at some point, like the mason jar. The gulls call their song as well, harmonizing dissonantly with the ferry and joining the ever-present crumble of waves against the millions of smooth, grey stones and barnacles. I stand still and let the cool evening wind whip gently at my cheeks. There is no urgency, no need for a hurried mind.

When all these things were found for my jar, when it felt complete, I pulled the wax paper lid from my shirt pocket and sealed it with the threaded ring. Tilting it on its side, I shook it gently, letting the white glass and twigs and the thumb-sized crab drift to the surface. I rolled and tilted it in my chilled hands until inside lay a scene which I knew would help me to remember: remember the smell and the salt mist, the way the evening would glow across the Sound, the music my grandmother made when she laughed. I walked carefully with it so as not to upset it; for my most favorite place in the world was now a thing I could take everywhere.

Yet all of this is merely a story, and although true, all took place many years ago on an evening passed on the canyon’s edge of my own maiden voyage to foreign seas. For I was a sailor and the jar came sailing along with me. It always stayed on its side, always preserved as I had made it that day. Through long voyages and lonely months rocked to sleep in a steel hotel at sea, the half-filled jar endured as a token of my most favorite place, with me, halfway around the world.

And holding it, looking through the glass at the slivers of twig and crushed clamshell, I would remember her as well. She passed from this world but a year ago yesterday, my lovely grandmother, whose love was deeper than the salt sea, which fell so gently along her cabin’s shores. And my jar, too, is now gone from a careless moment, and with it the sand and white glass and the thumb-sized crab.

I once had a jar of treasures. And I once had a grandmother who contagiously laughed, and moved her hands with grace and elegance.

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HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: challenges and opportunities

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Never Forgotten (By Gabrielle Reif) I have learned many things, from many different people, but one person stands out from all the rest. He is a man that I’ve come to know well, when I was a Certified Nursing Assistant (CNA).

Before joining the Navy, when I was a CNA, one of my jobs was to take care of a family friend.

His name was Allen, Al for short. Al was the uncle of my brother’s girlfriend. During the years working for him, we became really close. Al was no ordinary 47-year-old quadriplegic. He chose to live on his own, in an apartment, and even though he couldn’t feel anything from his waist down, he still had some but not all feeling from his waist up. Al felt pressure from the waist up, but could not sense hot and cold. Sometimes lacking the sensation of heat, he would accidentally hurt himself.

Although he was disabled, Al always found a way to make things work. No matter how hard the task was, he was up for the challenge. There was only one thing that Al could not overcome, which was the fear of being in an emergency situation where he could not get help. Al taught me a lot about life, but it wasn’t until something terrible happened that I realized the impact he had on me.

The moment that changed my life was on February 3, 2013. At the time, I was attending Master at Arms “A” school in San Antonio, Texas. While asleep in my barracks room, my phone began to ring, so I reached for it on the side table and looked at the caller ID, which read “Nick.” It was about nine in the morning and my first thought was, “Why is my brother calling me so early?”

I answered the phone not knowing what to expect. In a broken and uneasy voice, Nick said, “Hey, what are you doing?” The last time Nick sounded like that was when our grandma passed away. Something was terribly wrong. I sat up in my bed and told him that I just woke up. When I asked him what was wrong, he paused and then said, “Gabby, Al passed away.” Nick started to cry, and I went into a state of shock for a long time. Tears began to fill my eyes, and when I got up the courage, I asked, “How?” “A fire.”

I started crying. So many questions came to my mind. How could this happen? What went wrong? Was he alone? How did the fire start? Did anyone try to save him? Between crying and sniffling, I managed to ask how the fire started. Nick told me what he knew. Apparently, Al’s lamp on his nightstand got knocked over and started the fire. I had told Al that his makeshift lampshade was a horrible idea, but of course Al was stubborn and didn’t listen to my advice. Disappointment rushed through me, not because he passed away, but at him for not listening to me.

By the time the paramedics got to him, he was unresponsive. We found out later, that he died from smoke inhalation and they were almost certain that he died in his sleep. He was the only person who lost their life in the fire and no one else was injured. I couldn’t believe that this actually happened. I’d just seen Al five weeks ago and gave him a hug. After I calmed down a 60

little, I got off the phone with Nick and cried until I was exhausted.

Three weeks later, I went home on leave. The first thing that I did, after I stopped by my house, was drive to Al’s apartment. I had to see the devastation for myself. I pulled up to where he had lived, and the moment I saw his apartment, it hit me square in the chest. The windows were all boarded up, the bottom third of the brick building was black, and the dumpster next to the apartment was filled with charred wood and appliances. After seeing all that destruction, it started to sink in. Al was gone and there was nothing that I could do to bring him back.

While sitting in the car absorbing all of this, I started to think of all the good times we had together. Like the time we went to the grocery store and he sped down the aisle in his electric wheelchair, almost taking out an entire display case. Some nights, we sat right next to the door to his apartment and used his slingshot to scare people across the parking lot. Other times, we sat on his bed and ate overly buttered popcorn (the way he liked it).

I have so many good memories of Al, but the one thing that I remember the most about him is that, even when he had a bad day, he was always happy. He never let a bad day bring his spirit down.

Personally I learned a lot from Al, not only lessons from his death, but from everyday experiences with him. The main thing I learned from Al is that life is too short, and you have to live the time you have on earth to the fullest. Even though Al was a quadriplegic, he never let it get him down. He lived every day as if it were his last, and there was never a dull moment with that man. There was nothing that could stop him; Al was high on life.

After he passed away, I noticed how big of an impact he had on me. Consequently, I try to live every day as he did, to the fullest. I try not to worry about the little things, make the best of what comes at me, and I live and have fun just as Al would have done.

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The Negative Effects of Drunk Driving: Proposed Solutions (By Kerianne Noonan) According to the Centers for Disease Control, in the United States alone, almost 30 people die in alcohol-impaired driving accidents every single day (“Injury Prevention”). Drunk driving accidents are not only the cause of death statistics, but also the cause of heartache among too many families and friends. Something other than bringing awareness needs to be done. As a community, we are in dire need of a concrete solution to this problem and I believe that I have found one. I propose that we place a permanent Breathalyzer inside all new cars, and take a more hands-on approach in educating our youth about the dangers and consequences of drunk driving.

Driving while impaired is not the only problem we have; it is also a problem that people continue to drive while impaired even after they get caught doing it. The problem is that 50 to 75 percent of convicted drunk drivers continue to drive on a suspended license (MADD). It is a good thing that we try to prevent drunk driving from ever happening. However, we need to realize that people do not stop their bad habits just because they got in trouble once or twice. There needs to be a law that actually prevents someone from starting their car and driving while impaired.

People often tend to overlook this gaping problem simply because it has never affected them. If you are one of those people, then you are lucky and rare. I say rare because two out of three people will be involved in a drunk driving accident in their lifetime (MADD).

Although that statistic is pretty scary, driving while impaired can easily be prevented. In this day and age, there are more ways to prevent drunk driving than ever before. There are car services that will pick you up for free if you are intoxicated, friends who will be the designated driver, and court-issued breathalyzers that make people aware of their blood alcohol levels. Everyone knows about these options, yet the problem still occurs.

Why is it that people drive drunk? Well, it is often because they are already drunk and are not able to make a good conscious decision. It is also due to people making rash decisions based on a temporary emotion of passion, anger, or sadness. For those reasons, a device that eliminates a bad decision needs to be invented.

My proposal to help fix this problem is not only to educate, but also to take action. Educating young people on the realities and consequences of drunk driving is a good start. If we teach the younger generations about how to prevent drunk driving, then we can hope that it will stick with them as they become adults. I personally will always remember one specific learning experience.

I was a senior in high school and I had recently been hearing about some program called, “Every 15 Minutes.” This was a drunk driving awareness program that took students from my school and faked their deaths. All of their deaths had something to do with drunk driving. Three of the students were very close friends of mine, so it really hit home for me.

We came to school on a Friday and were all told to go to the front of the school where the main road was. There were about 400 students sitting in the bleachers ready to watch a simulated 62

drunk driving accident involving our friends. I was sitting next to some friends casually joking and laughing about the whole program, and then the crash happened. It was all staged, yet it felt so real. It felt like I was actually watching my friends get killed in an accident that was caused by drunk driving. There were helicopters, ambulances, cop cars, and hysterical bystanders.

All the students who were “killed” in the accident did not go to school for three days. There were also memorials held for each of the students, which included their families reading eulogies that they had written. I cried and felt cold as I watched my best friend’s parents talk about her and recall her life as if she were really gone. That is when it really hit me; drunk driving is not a joke. I had never truly understood how impactful drunk driving could be to you and the people around you. I had always thought, “It will never happen to me.” Luckily, drunk driving has not impacted my life up to this point, but many others do not have the privilege of saying that.

We also had guest speakers talk to us about how drunk driving has affected their lives. One young man told us his story about how he was drinking and having fun at a bar, then decided it was a good idea to drive the five miles back to his house. He killed a mother and her young daughter that night. He ran a red light and never saw them coming. He told us that his life will never be the same and he will never be able to get rid of the guilt he has from taking two lives.

He not only carries those two lives on his shoulders, but he carries the heartache of the people they left behind. Fathers, mothers, aunts, uncles, husbands, grandparents, and many more people will mourn the loss of the two he killed. One rash decision left this man with the guilt of knowing that he took two innocent lives away from their friends and families.

Along with educating people, I want to propose a practical solution to this problem. There needs to be a device that is required by law to be put into all cars produced after the year 2020. This device is a Breathalyzer that will be placed in the center of the driving wheel. For anyone who has a previous charge related to impaired driving, it will be mandatory. For everyone else, the car company will deactivate it after you have given proof of your clean record. If someone blows a blood alcohol level above the state law, his or her car will not turn on.

There is actually a proposal in Congress that is very similar to my proposal. In Craig Howie’s article about making in-car Breathalyzers law, he says, “A new bill, backed by Senator Charles Schumer of New York, would allocate $12 million to car makers to bring forward technologies that sense alcohol in a driver's breath or contained in their sweat” (Howie). Doesn’t it make sense to use $12 million to fund this idea? It would make more sense than spending $199 billion a year on drunk driving costs in the United States alone (CDC). Action needs to be taken, and it starts with getting powerful people in local and federal government to propose this solution on a large scale.

This problem is clearly something that needs to be dealt with. If the statistics and stories haven’t convinced you, then it would be a good idea to talk to someone who has been personally affected by drunk driving. This can no longer be something that is overseen by both the public and the government. My proposal is the action that needs to be taken. It is something that both educates and takes away the decision for people to drive drunk; it physically does not allow them to.

Without a drastic measure like this, people will continue to be affected by drunk driving.

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WORKS CITED Centers for Disease Control and Prevention "Injury Prevention & Control: Motor Vehicle Safety." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 17 Apr. 2013. Web. 30 Sept. 2014.

Howie, Craig. "Should Cars Have Built-In Breathalyzers?" Aol Autos. N.p., 14 Feb. 2010. Web. 07 Oct. 2014.

MADD - Drunk Driving Statistics “GET INVOLVED." N.p., Mar. 2012. Web. 05 Oct. 2014.

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Spreading Awareness about “That” Mental Illness: Schizophrenia (By Marjury Cabanlit) As quoted from Morbidity and Mortality in People with Serious Mental Illness, “People with a serious mental illness (SMI) die, on average, 25 years earlier than the general population. State studies document recent increases in death rates over those previously reported. This is a serious public health problem for the people served by our state mental health systems” (Mauer 5). The public needs to pay attention to this issue. Although the mortality rate of serious mental illness (SMI) has been publicized, there are still many citizens, unaware of every detail of the said issue, spreading false beliefs about a mental illness called schizophrenia, which that have spread as a result of minimal knowledge. According to some people, schizophrenia is hopeless; people who have it never recover (Myths and Facts).

While there is no cure for schizophrenia, health authorities say that there are in fact effective treatments. Medications, recovery-oriented psychosocial treatments, and rehabilitation practices are increasingly helping schizophrenics to have productive, successful, and independent lives (Myths and Facts). In addition to that, some people mistakenly characterize schizophrenia as a split or multiple personality disorder, which it is not. In fact, historians acknowledge that the myth of people with schizophrenia came about because the word “schizophrenia” actually comes from a Greek term that means "split mind" (Myths and Facts).

Lastly, some people think that everyone who has schizophrenia knows that they have an illness.

According to physicians, that is not true because many people with schizophrenia actually wait months, even years to receive initial treatment or to obtain diagnosis for the illness (Myths and Facts). This prolonging is a result of being unaware of what is really wrong with them. Some people tend to overgeneralize and mis-conceptualize the issues around schizophrenia because of the lack of information. In most cases, one can hardly determine the reason why such illness would occur.

Due to the fact that neither doctors nor scientists can accurately predict who will become schizophrenic, mental health authorities should educate the members of the community about schizophrenia. By doing this, it can spread awareness; it can help to save lives; and it can orient people on how to deal with the illness.

By educating the community about schizophrenia, people will become better aware of the illness’s defining characteristics, possible symptoms, and probable causes. As defined on the website of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), schizophrenia, a chronic, severe and disabling brain disorder, is characterized by “hallucinations, disordered thinking and speech, and emotional unresponsiveness” (Schizophrenia).

A person with schizophrenia hallucinates when he or she sees, hears voices (the most common symptom), smells or feels things that nobody else does. Not only that, a person with schizophrenia also suffers from disorganized thinking and speech. The former is when the person has some trouble organizing his or thoughts, leading to illogical connection, while the latter is when the person has trouble speaking, leading to others misunderstanding the words coming from the schizophrenic’s mouth. Lastly, a schizophrenic’s normal emotions and 65

behaviors are being disrupted or blocked, which leads to emotional unresponsiveness (Schizophrenia).

While much previous research has focused on hallucinations, there is growing recognition suggesting that problems with working memory, advanced decision making, and social skills are equally disabling (Burling). If people are unaware of schizophrenia, they might just look at the condition as a different illness such as a multiple-personality disorder, split personality (bipolarity), or psychopathy. This misconception needs to be cleared by educating individuals about schizophrenia, which can possibly lead to saving someone’s life.

To determine some probable causes, researchers analyze genes and brain images, biological backgrounds, neighborhood environment, and early life experiences as well as measures of perceptual and cognitive abilities and emotion processing (Burling). Moreover, the National Institute of Mental Health mentioned that experts think schizophrenia is caused by several factors such as genes, environment, and brain chemistry and structure. An example of a genetically caused schizophrenia can be found in the Nash family. John Nash Jr., an American mathematician who formerly worked as part of the faculty at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has schizophrenia.

“I would not dare to say that there is a direct relation between mathematics and madness,” said mathematician John Nash, “but there is no doubt that great mathematicians suffer from maniacal characteristics, delirium and symptoms of schizophrenia.” (qtd. in Bano). Now, his son, Charles, has schizophrenia, and is believed to have inherited some of John’s psychological issues along with his mathematical and creative mind. In fact, his interview with Discovery Channel was featured and uploaded to the social media platform, YouTube.

It can be concluded that schizophrenia runs in families, as studied by scientists. But based off the general population, researchers say that the disorder occurs only in 1 percent of it. What is more intriguing is that the disorder occurs in 10 percent of those who have a first-degree relative affected. Take a look at a case of identical twins. Interestingly, the risk of inheriting and possible chance of developing the illness is very high at 40 to 65 percent (Schizophrenia).

Other cases of the disorder are caused by the chemical makeup and structure of the brain.

Today, scientists continue to study the linkage of neurotransmitters, brain cells, and their chemistry to schizophrenia. (Ever wondered about the variety of how everyone’s brain looks?)

According to the NIMH, the brains of people with schizophrenia look different than those of healthy people. For example, a staff of the NIMH said, “Fluid-filled cavities at the center of the brain, called ventricles, are larger in some people with schizophrenia” (Schizophrenia). The staff added that the “brains of people with the illness also tend to have less gray matter, and some areas of the brain may have less or more activity” (Schizophrenia). This differentiation suggests the possibility of developing such a disorder, but because every person with schizophrenia is different, cases vary and sometimes their causes can’t be determined.

If members of the community become aware of the characteristics of schizophrenia, they can possibly help save a life. For instance, if an educated person notices another person who appears to be hallucinating, thinking/speaking illogically, or being emotionally unresponsive, then the 66

educated one can reach the community’s health contact and inform them about someone who appeared to be suffering from schizophrenia. Only then the ill person can be diagnosed and receive proper treatment or any form of medical attention.

Scientists now view schizophrenia as a neurodevelopmental condition that begins years before its most disturbing symptoms appear, in much the same way that heart disease begins long before the first heart attack (Burling). That means that before there is any massive or intensive occurrence brought about by the illness, health authorities must work to prevent that from happening, and start diagnosing and prescribing initial antipsychotic drugs or any form of medication. This can change the trend of schizophrenics dying early. Perhaps the lives of those mentally ill will be extended if they are helped, diagnosed, and treated early.

People with schizophrenia shouldn’t only rely on medicine. The NIMH says there are other methods to help those with schizophrenia, such as group therapy and brain training. In group therapy, patients will be able to channel and communicate their conditions, especially in dealing with everyday challenges, and simply forming and keeping social relationships. Through this way, patients will gain information about coping. Moreover, a therapist can help patients better understand and adjust to living with schizophrenia. The therapist can provide education about the disorder, common symptoms or problems patients may experience, and the importance of staying on medications (Schizophrenia).

Besides group therapy, patients can participate in brain training. Sophia Vinogradov, a psychiatrist and researcher at the San Francisco VA Medical Center, conducted a study to see whether the brain of a schizophrenic can be retaught. The study utilized computer games designed to train schizophrenics to tune out distractions and focus on simple instructions. For example, a schizophrenic participant was instructed to drag and match images from column A to those of column B. Another exercise repeated words and asked the user to click on the emotion that best described how the word was said (Brain Training). The idea is not to replace antipsychotic drugs with computer games. Vinogradov said that many schizophrenics whose voices are extremely destructive and violent needs to be turned off, and one way to fight them is by training the brain (Brain Training).

If a schizophrenic has a tendency to be violent, he or she might be admitted into a rehabilitation center. Rehabilitation emphasizes social and vocational training to help people with schizophrenia function well in their communities. The NIMH stresses that the advantage of rehab is that it offers programs such as job counseling and training, money management counseling, help in learning to use public transportation, and opportunities to practice communication skills. In addition, rehabilitation programs work well when they include both job training and specific therapy designed to improve cognitive or thinking skills. Programs like this help patients keep jobs, remember important details, and improve their functioning skills (Schizophrenia).

At the end of the day, people with schizophrenia are still human beings and should be treated as such. Just because they must undergo extensive therapy and rehabilitation, they should not be ridiculed or shamed for something they cannot control. It is the collective responsibility of the community to come together, educate each other, and help and support those with schizophrenia.

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Schizophrenia isn’t easy to deal with. In fact, schizophrenics suffering from the illness cannot help themselves, alone. Therefore, health authorities and educational institutions should educate individuals about schizophrenia. People should be taught how to interact with schizophrenics, and eventually learn how to live with a schizophrenic in a calm environment.

Say, for instance, a family member has schizophrenia who resists treatment. He or she may not think they need help because they believe their delusions or hallucinations are real. In this case, family and friends may need to take action to keep their loved one safe by contacting the local health officials and admit them to a hospital. What family and friends can also do is help the patient set realistic goals and learn to function in the world (Schizophrenia). Each step toward these goals should be small and approached slowly. The patient will need support during this time.

The technicians at the NIMH mentioned that it could be difficult to respond to someone with schizophrenia who makes strange or false statements (Schizophrenia). Again, it is important to remember that he or she is just hallucinating. However, instead of going along and accepting the fact that he or she is hallucinating, it is better to say that in reality, things are different.

Maintaining respect, continuing to support and be kind, without tolerating dangerous or inappropriate behavior to avoid triggering the worst-case scenarios of a schizophrenic, are important. Indeed, if community members are educated about this mental illness, they will know the best possible way to approach them.

If members of the community are educated and knowledgeable about what is going on in their society with regards to this mental illness called schizophrenia, people will be more vigilant by being aware of the characteristics, symptoms, and probable causes of said illness. If they are aware of those things, they can share this information with others. With this information they will be able to differentiate between schizophrenia and more common psychological disorders.

With schizophrenia better understood, members of the community can also help save a life and even extend their lifespan. With right, ample knowledge, they will be able to refer mentally ill people to the right physicians, who will administer proper medication.

The last benefit of spreading awareness is that one will know how to interact and live with schizophrenia. He or she will be more prepared than those who do not know anything about schizophrenia. Looking back at the first fact, “People with serious mental illness (SMI) die, on average, 25 years earlier than the general population, in which state studies document recent increases in death rates over those previously reported” (Mauer 5).

Community involvement can decrease the mortality rate of people with serious mental illness.

But before that happens, mental health authorities should first educate the members of the community about schizophrenia. While people with schizophrenia receive medical treatment, they can also approach another treatment—therapy. Therapy treatments also aid schizophrenics in recovering from their illness. Although there is no cure and it is hard to determine what causes schizophrenia, educating the community and those with schizophrenia will help more schizophrenics have and live normal lives.

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WORKS CITED Bano, Timothy. "The Madness of Mathematics." The Oxford Student. Oxford's Newspaper, 25 May 2012. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.

"Brain Training May Help Calm The Storms Of Schizophrenia." Health News from NPR. NPR, 3 Nov. 2014. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.

Burling, Stacey. "How Schizophrenia Starts." Philly.com. Interstate General Media, LLC, 2 Nov. 2014. Web. 4 Nov. 2014.

Mauer, Barbara. "Morbidity and Mortality in People with Serious Mental Illness." Executive Summary 13 (2006): 5. National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors.

NASMHPD Medical Directors Council. Web. 25 Nov. 2014.

"Myths and Facts about Schizophrenia." Northeast Ohio Medical University. NEOMED. Web. 18 Nov. 2014.

"A Brilliant Madness�. People & Events: John Nash (1928). PBS. Web. 15 Nov. 2014.

"Schizophrenia." NIMH RSS. National Institute of Health. Web. 4 Nov. 2014.

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The Unintentional Stigma: The Misconception of ADD and ADHD (By Michelle Manganello) “Try harder.” It still boils my blood and stings my eyes. I grit my teeth at my teachers and just about anyone else who has ever had the ignorance to tell me that. Try growing up hearing that you need to try harder when you are doing your absolute best; going beyond your limits every day and hearing that it is still not good enough.

A mental or behavioral disorder such as ADD or ADHD carries an unintentional stigma not just from society as a whole, but by parents, teachers, and the affected individual. Kids with this disorder grow up with a negative sigma placed over their heads; it is up to the community to make every child feel equal. Teachers need to go through extensive training for special education just as they do with general education. Parents who have a child with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder should take the time to educate themselves about the disorder for the benefit of their child.

Teachers wrote “whirlwind,” “not up to potential,” “not working hard enough,” on every report card in each quarter of every year. Not one teacher bothered to consider that maybe the little second grader is actually trying; that maybe if it was a continuous issue, it should be addressed instead of pushed to the side. My first grade teacher, Mrs. W., decided it would be most beneficial to put my desk in the back corner of her room facing the wall, with the other classroom delinquent, with cautionary tape around the perimeter on the floor. Steven sat next to me that year; he was in “The Corner” because he liked to throw desks at people when he was mad and had a penchant for calling the teacher “fat.”

I had the pleasure of sitting with that little gem because I talked too much to the other kids and liked to play with all of the contents on my desk during class. Oh, what a productive year that was. Thanks to Mrs. W. for diligently keeping me unprepared for the following year. In our small town in Connecticut, if you were any sort of a disruption you were tossed to the side.

All of my teachers were traditional in the sense that they mistook a student with ADHD for a disruptive child. My teachers had this mentality that ADHD is a big fad and an excuse for bad parenting. My freshman year in high school, a substitute teacher put on an educational video about drugs. Right after the section on meth, the next segment moved to Methamphetamine, or Adderall. The video explained how this drug is a big problem in schools, stating that students can go to their doctor complaining about focusing issues and get this medication “easy peasy.”

It went on to tell how students would then sell the medication around the school, $10 a pill for an easy A. The substitute began to say how awful Adderall was, and how Adderall was used for cheating purposes. Kids would pop it, spit out an essay or ace a test, and it was all the product of the pill; the individual had nothing to do with it. I had never been more insulted in my entire life. There I was, sitting in class while this teacher preached to everybody about how the one thing that gives me what I need to focus in school is a means of cheating. She was claiming that I was a cheater, and that everything I worked so hard for was only the doings of 25 milligrams of amphetamine salts.

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Any educator with a mindset like that should find a new occupation. Those 25 milligrams of prescribed attention are not a form of cheating. I take that pill and still have to try twice as hard as the average student to concentrate, and at least ten times as hard just to look like I am trying.

In our town, disorders like dyslexia or ADHD were not “Special Ed. Enough” for the teachers to care. To them, if they couldn’t see or understand it, it was not there. To me, “No Child Left Behind” was a hoax; I did not receive any accommodation that was required for me, by law, until my junior year of high school. I had only waited this long because I grew up under the care of my mother, one of the best Special Education teachers in the country. Her school district sent her and one other renowned Special Education teacher to China to teach the Chinese education system how to properly accommodate disabled children.

Growing up with my mom, I had a huge leg up for myself. If it weren’t for her, I wouldn’t have gotten a 3.7 GPA, a high honors award every year since 6th grade, a class rank of 27, nor would I have gotten into one of the best private colleges in the western side of the world. You see, my mom got me diagnosed as soon as symptoms of my disabilities were detectable, and at my young age she explained that nothing was wrong with me, that I was not stupid. She made sure I knew I had disabilities, but I was not disabled.

I have never met another kid who grew up with these disabilities who fully understood that they are not stupid. I had many friends who had ADHD. They were not all as lucky to have a parent who took the time to understand their child’s disability. Their teachers treated them the same way as they did me; as someone they had to deal with, a nuisance. The kids believed it; they believed the things they were told because no one at home reassured them otherwise. You cannot tell a child that they need to give more when they have already run themselves ragged.

My friend Taylor was diagnosed in third grade with ADD. She was put on a medication and as a result she was doing remarkably better. Due to her progress her parents took her off her medication, as they believed that she had grown out of her disability—as so many parents believe. Taylor progressively suffered in school, she failed many classes, and she tried just as hard as I did, with no payoff. For every midterm and exam we had, we studied eight or nine hours a day for weeks; we did everything in our power to do well. However, I would do well, but she did not. During junior year midterms, after days of studying together, she took a test with such confidence, only to find out that she failed. That day she gave up. Her teachers figured she was another kid who didn’t review a single page of notes; she disappointed her parents and was grounded for not trying harder.

According to a well-known African proverb, “It takes a village to raise a child.” You can’t expect children to flourish if you don’t support them or give them the resources they need. If Taylor’s parents had only taken the time to understand ADHD as a disability and not a fixable issue, she would not have responded how she did. They saw it as if she worked harder, if her phone was taken away, if television privileges were taken away, she could learn to fix how her brain worked. They figured that you’ve grown out of ADHD if you show improvement and get good grades. This put Taylor in a position where she struggled because they thought the effort she was putting in wasn’t enough, but actually her brain was working against her. She did not 71

grow up with the mentality to manage ADHD, to find what worked best for her. No child deserves to grow up thinking and believing there is something wrong with who they are.

It is not fair how a normal functioning student can look someone in the eyes and say, “You are so lucky. I wish I took Adderall. I am looking for a hook-up. I swear I have ADD, I can never focus.” They have no idea. Most likely, they do not have Attention Deficit Disorder; they most likely suffer from Being-Young-And-Not-Wanting-To-Sit-In-School-Doing-Work Syndrome. Take research from Paul Marshall, a clinical neuropsychologist with Hennepin Faculty Associates, a medical group that provides services at Hennepin County Medical Center in Minneapolis. Marshall says, "A lot of people think they have it because they are struggling, but it's not because of ADHD" (NBC News).

His research goes on to say that some patients fake symptoms to get stimulant medications. The issue was prominent especially with college students. In some cases he found that college students sought to be diagnosed with ADHD to get access to this “magical” focus boosting medication as well as the accommodations that can be added to a child’s IEP (Individualized Education Plan). Marshall validates his argument with reports that say, “Responding to the text message survey, 38 percent of doctors said they suspected a patient of exaggerating or faking symptoms to get a prescription for ADHD drugs” (NBC News). Marshall reported, “Some said that a red flag would go up when patients got the symptoms right, but seemed to be exaggerating their severity” (NBC News).

So yes, there is a reason for some to assume ADHD is not real or as big of a deal due to the fact so many people take advantage of the disorder for the medication. It is true that many people fake the symptoms of ADHD to get Ritalin or Adderall.

But what about the kids who truly suffer, continuing to believe that they are stupid because they are constantly told that they are not trying hard enough, or the reason they are struggling is not even an “actual disability”? Just because some people fake this disorder does not mean the entire disorder is fake. Daniel Koretz and Laura Hamilton from UCLA’s National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing, found that in Kentucky, 28.8% of children with learning disabilities received no accommodations (CRESST). In New York, up to 50% of children with learning disabilities also did not receive accommodations (excluding extra time or alternative locations). James H. Wendorf, Executive Director of the NCLD, states: Stigma, underachievement, and misunderstanding of LD continue to be stubborn barriers for parents and children to overcome. The data in this 2014 report reveal that, left unaddressed, as many as 60 million individuals risk being left behind, burdened by low self-esteem, subjected to low expectations, and diminished in their ability to pursue their dreams. (Wendorf) No matter the disability, no matter how severe a teacher, parent, or any individual in society perceives it to be, the United States enlisted the No Child Left Behind Act to ensure that no child gets left behind, not to ensure that some children don’t get left behind. Parents need to educate themselves about ADHD and how they can help their child excel and feel “enough” rather than not up to par with their peers. Student teachers need to spend equal time in a special education 72

room, not just with the general education rooms. They need extensive training to incorporate all learning styles and speeds in one classroom. Teachers need extensive training that is not just centered on general education; there has to be equally extensive training for special education.

Only when these two ideals come together and all variety of students can flourish in a shared classroom can we say that no child is truly left behind, and certainly not left in the caution-taped corner to be forgotten.

WORKS CITED Bleiberg, Joshua, and Darrell M. West. "Special Education: The Forgotten Issue in No Child Left Behind Reform." The Brookings Institution. The Brookings Institution, 18 June 2013.

Web. 07 Oct. 2014.

Carroll, Linda. "Adults Who Claim to Have ADHD? 1 in 4 May Be Faking It." MSNBC. NBC News, 25 Apr. 2011. Web. Cortiella, Candace. "The State of Learning Disabilities." National Center for Learning Disabilities. The Advocacy Institute, 2014. Web. Koretz, Daniel, and Laura Hamilton. The Performance of Students With Disabilities on New York's Revised Regents Comprehensive Examination in English. Tech. Los Angeles: UCLA National Center for Research on Evaluation Standards and Student Testing, 2011.

Print.

"Special Education: A Better Perspective." Center for Public Education. Center for Public Education, 15 Oct. 2009. Web.

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Overworked: Americans Working Themselves to Death (By Newt Sanson) It’s the “American dream”: get married, buy a home, raise a family, work twenty to thirty years for a company, and retire in absolute comfort.

Wait, what? What do you mean I cannot retire when I planned? Sadly, the American dream has become increasingly harder for Americans to achieve. In today’s economic times many American workers are simply trying to make ends meet to keep a roof over their heads and food on the table.

I for one have realized that my American dream will have to have some modifications if it is ever to come to fruition. Certainly the financial situation I currently find myself in, along with many other American workers, is in part self-induced by our own choices. Corporate greed is also a major factor simply because while the overall cost of living has steadily risen over the years, wages and salaries paid to workers have not achieved the same growth. American workers find their life expectancies low and stress levels high because they must work longer and harder in order to achieve a livable income.

In an effort to be financially stable, American workers have started working additional hours, with some even taking on two or three additional jobs to attain a livable income. In most families, both parents must work in order to boost a family’s income, which can lead to additional issues in the home and the early development of its youth. To place a numerical figure on this growing problem, G. E. Miller, a writer for 20 Something Finance, mentions in his article “The U.S. is the Most Overworked Developed Nation in the World –When Do We Draw the Line?” that today over seventy percent of children live in a household in which both parents work. If both parents are required to work long hours, the children may not get the adequate attention needed to grow healthily.

When people have to work additional hours or multiple jobs, it leads to a considerably more fatigued workforce. When a workforce is fatigued, the opportunity for work-related injuries increases substantially. Also, work productivity drops dramatically, which leads to a loss in corporate income. The stress from trying to ensure that you and your family are taken care of can begin to weigh heavily on one’s overall health. According to WorldLifeExpectancy.com, a search engine containing data compiled from the World Health Organization, the United States is ranked thirty-seventh in the world in life expectancy.

Considering that the United States is one of the richest nations in the world and has some of the best health care available, thirty-seventh seems extremely low. Stress is the number one leading cause of poor health, both mentally and physically. As the data shows, some of the biggest killers of Americans can be attributed to conditions and diseases brought on by high levels of stress. Some of these include heart disease, cancer, stroke, and diabetes. Although many of these conditions can be blamed on genetics, one can argue that they are also brought about by the way we deal with stress.

When people find themselves with a great deal of stress their decision-making capabilities are put to the test. Some tend to drink, smoke, or overeat in order to cope with the stress of 74

overworking. Dealing with stress in this way can lead to the health problems listed previously.

Instead of a healthy diet, more and more Americans are grabbing something from McDonalds or some other fast food establishment on their commute to and from work. This places them and their family’s health at even more risk for diseases. Overwhelming stress can even cause mental health issues, and without treatment, which is often expensive, it can have devastating effects on an individual, and their family.

The International Labor Organization has compiled data that reflects Americans as working more, on average, than any country in the world. Over 85 percent of American men and over 66 percent of American women work more than 40 hours per week. America is also the only industrialized nation in the world that does not have a mandatory leave law in place. This law is to ensure that workers are able to take paid time off from work—the global average being 20 days of paid vacation (ILO). As the worker unions in America continue to decline, who will protect the rights of the worker, fight for adequate pay, ensure they are given paid time off to relieve some of the stress, and ensure a safe working environment?

There are some outstanding companies that are completely behind their workers, ensuring that workers receive adequate pay and benefits, and are allowed time off. However, the majority of corporations are only concerned with their bottom line, and that is to make as much money as they can in a short amount of time. For example, Walmart is a company that has achieved worldwide success to the detriment of their workers. Employees of Walmart are paid low wages with minimum increase (Resnikoff). Wal-Mart also does not offer health insurance to their workers. These practices are in place in order to achieve what Walmart claims to be a method of keeping the costs of conducting business to a minimum in order to pass those savings on to their customers.

Many would argue that perhaps the employee should seek employment elsewhere in order to receive the aforementioned adequate pay and benefits. However, in too many cases that is not an option in places such as Middle America. This means that many employees are forced to accept the wages they are given and work extra hours or take on additional jobs in order to make ends meet.

The rising cost of living, combined with the practices of greedy corporations, is the main cause of stress on American workers, who in an attempt to provide for their families are required to work more hours than the other countries of the world. Most American families simply want to live a comfortable and enjoyable lifestyle. But the lifestyle that many Americans must lead in order to make a living causes huge amounts of stress, which can lead to physical and mental issues that can also affect those around them. If Americans are forced to continue living this way, they will succumb to poor health and disease that will send them to an early grave.

WORKS CITED "Americans Work Longest Hours among Industrialized Countries, Japanese Second Longest.

Europeans Work Less Time, but Register Faster Productivity Gains New ILO Statistical Volume Highlights Labour Trends Worldwide." International Labor Organization. ILO, 06 Sept. 1999. Web. 75

"Health Profile: United States." World Life Expectancy. LeDuc Media, n.d. Web. 5 Oct. 2014.

Miller, G.E. "The U.S. Is the Most Overworked Developed Nation in the World – When Do We Draw the Line?" The U.S. is the Most Overworked Nation in the World. 20 Something Finance, 12 Oct. 2010. Web. Resnikoff, Ned. “Leaked Document Shows What Walmart Really Pays Its Workers.”

MSNBC.com. NBC News Digital, 13. Sept. 2013. Web.

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EARTH AND ENVIRONMENT: consequences and complications

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De-Extinction: The Ultimate Second Chance? (By Victoria Dickey) Just a few centuries ago, small dodo birds swarmed Mauritius, an island set in the Indian Ocean.

When humans set foot on the island, they took advantage of the dodo birds’ vulnerability by hunting them and exposing them to rats and disease until they quickly became extinct (Kasnoff, 2014).

The dodo birds’ tragic story is one of many that exemplifies how humans have been directly responsible for the extinction of an entire species. Our irresponsibility with the livelihood of other species has gotten out of control because we have not yet realized the consequences of overhunting and exploitation of natural resources on the environment until recently. What if we were given another chance at reviving a species that went extinct due to human interference?

Surprisingly, this could be possible in the very near future. Scientists are in the process of using fossils and preserved tissues to revive certain extinct species using de-extinction.

De-extinction can give entire species, like the dodo bird, a second chance at survival on earth.

Humans will also get a second chance at preserving previously extinct species. On the other hand, de-extinction gives humans a “God-like” power that we could very easily take advantage of. The re-introduction of certain extinct species can also prove to be beneficial to current environmental issues. If we are not careful with the selection of which species to de-extinct, current species could start to die off with the re-introduction of the previously extinct species.

The current species have adapted and evolved to an environment without that extinct species.

After scientists have developed the advanced technology that could produce enough of a previously extinct organism for the reintroduction of an entire species, they must follow many precautions to make sure that species and the species sharing their ecosystem have a good chance of survival. Because technology has only been recently developed to carry out de-extinction, few academic articles have been written about it. The shocking reality of possible de-extinction excites news and media sources, causing an abundance of available news article sources. The science behind de-extinction includes the methods of cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer, genetic engineering, and artificial selection.

If scientists follow precautions, de-extinction can provide humans with the hope of giving extinct species another chance at survival. The revival and reintroduction of certain extinct species can also help to solve current environmental issues because we lack what some extinct species have to offer.

On the other hand, de-extinction can be seen as unnatural because scientists are synthetically creating these organisms. De-extinction also gives humans a huge responsibility to maintain the previously extinct species, which has proven to be difficult. We must also consider how deextinction can play a part in current conservation practices because the reintroduction of these species could have an adverse effect on current species and because people might get the impression that we don’t have to practice conservation if we can just bring the species back from extinction.

Scientists can accomplish de-extinction using a number of different methods, but none of them 78

can produce the exact genotype and phenotype that the species had. The method that will produce an organism most like the extinct species is “cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer” (Carlin 6). In this process, scientists introduce an extinct species’ DNA into the egg of its living relative. Norman Carlin, an environmental lawyer explains in his paper, “How to Permit Your Mammoth: Some Legal Implications of ‘De-Extinction,’” that “the best (and perhaps the only) candidates are species which became extinct very recently” (Carlin 6). Recently extinct species have more living relatives, which can produce better results using cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer. This also takes out the hope, and fear, of creating a real Jurassic Park.

Australian scientists used this method to resurrect a rare type of frog called the gastric brooding frog. ABC news reported, “After locating a few carcasses stored in a deep freezer, they have been able to recover tissue from the gastric brooding frog” (Clarke), transferring the cell nucleus from a sample into the egg of a related frog and create an embryo (Clarke). This process does not produce an exact clone of the extinct species because scientists use the egg from a living relative.

While cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer produces the closest looking organism to the target extinct species, the process of genetic engineering is a little less challenging. In genetic engineering, scientists take the gene sequence of an existing relative of the extinct species and, using genetic splicing, they insert gene sequence that codes for the “traits that distinguish the two species” from the extinct species (Carlin 9). This creates a hybrid of the existing relative of the extinct species and the extinct species.

Genetic engineering would work for the gene sequences that code for the physical appearance of the species, but not for their behavior. Stewart Brand, president of Long Now, the leading nonprofit organization for de-extinction, gave a TED Talk presentation called, “The Dawn of DeExtinction: Are You Ready?”, in which he discussed how his colleague and one of the leading genetic engineers, George Church, used band-tailed pigeons to genetically engineer the extinct passenger pigeons. Brand explains, “Genetically, the band-tailed pigeon is a living passenger pigeon. There are just some bits that are band-tailed pigeon. If you replace those bits with passenger pigeon bits, you've got the extinct bird back, cooing at you” (Brand). The genetic engineering method produces an organism that looks similar to that of the extinct species and the technology used is not as complex as cloning, but the characteristics of the produced organism will not be the same. The de-extinct organisms will have to develop characteristics over time in order to create an organism exactly like the target extinct species.

Another approach to de-extinction is artificial selection, which could produce an organism with similar characteristics, but over a long period of time. In the method of artificial selection, scientists fast-forward the process of natural selection by breeding two species that are closely related to the extinct species for generations until the organism produced resembles the extinct species.

As an example, on the Galapagos Island of Pinta, the last tortoise of its kind, Lonesome George, died a few years ago. Recently, scientists have found tortoises from other Galapagos Islands that have very similar DNA to that of the Pinta tortoises. According to Gisella Caccone, senior research scientist at Yale University, “In four generations we can have 90% of the Pinta tortoise 79

genome restored” through the artificial selection process (Caccone). This could prove that artificial selection easily and efficiently allows scientists to develop their target organism.

Artificial selection requires less technology and more patience, but the results could potentially produce an organism most like the extinct organism.

After producing a healthy organism that resembles an extinct species, scientists have to consider what to do with the organism. Assuming the next step is to make a larger population of the organism, scientists have to go through the process of creating that organism multiple times, while altering its genome each time to create genetic variation within the species. Environmental and technological historian Dolly Jørgensen discussed how the next step, reintroduction, should be carried out in her paper, "Reintroduction and De-Extinction." She argues that “because the natural extension of de-extinction is the reintroduction of the species to the wild, at a minimum, the species should be targeted for de-extinction only if the original causes of extinction are removed and the habitat requirements of the species are satisfied” (Jørgensen).

Scientists must consider whether the environment for the previously extinct species is both suitable for, and can also benefit from, the reintroduction of the species. Once scientists have been approved by the government and regulatory agencies in charge of the area where the species will be released, de-extinction can be completed for the target species. Scientists might consider training the new organisms to behave like their extinct ancestors in order for them to survive. Strategies to reintroduce species must also consider how to preserve the species to make sure humans cannot make them go extinct again.

When an entire species goes extinct, the world suffers at a much larger scale than when one organism dies. Sometimes entire ecosystems have to adapt to the absence of that organism, which can take decades. The food chain that once provided a special niche for that species becomes unbalanced. De-extinction has the potential to re-stabilize the environment that is missing extinct species.

Through cloning, genetic engineering or artificial selection, extinct species can come back to life, get another chance at survival and stand in their rightful place in the environment. In his TED Talk presentation, “De-extinction: A Game-Changer for Conservation Biology”, Stanly Temple, Beers-Bascom Professor Emeritus in Conservation in the Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, explains that “for fifty thousand plus years, our species has been an agent of extinction and we’ve been forced into a defensive posture where all we can do is try to slow the rate of loss.

De-extinction, perhaps to some extent, let’s us go on the offensive” (Temple). De-extinction can give us humans the hope that we can fight against the death on our one and only planet. It can serve as a purpose to clear our conscience by reviving species that our ancestors killed off. Deextinction is a symbol for hope for the future and the present.

Bringing certain species back can solve current environmental issues. When dodo birds roamed the island of Mauritius, a species of tree, later coined the dodo tree, also lived abundantly. Dodo birds were the only species that could germinate the tree, so when dodo birds began to die off, the dodo tree began to follow. Fortunately, Mauritius still has a few dodo trees left, but the deextinction of dodo birds could bring the dodo tree back in full abundance as well (Kasnoff).

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The effects of de-extinction could potentially help with larger environmental issues such as global warming with the revival and reintroduction of key plant and herbivore species. Yet, while de-extinction excites and creates hope for the scientific world, it is important to consider the ethics, disadvantages, and challenges of reviving extinct species.

Currently, synthetic processes are the only ways to revive and reintroduce an extinct species.

Many people, including those who believe that a higher power created earth and everything on it, have a fairly negative response to de-extinction. Creating living organisms that could multiply into an entire species using technology forms a Dr. Frankenstein or an Almighty creator image.

Scientists could easily take advantage of this power. They could also choose to de-extinct organisms that could be extremely harmful to other species or the environment.

There is also the possibility of using cloning, genetic engineering or artificial selection to bring back Neanderthals. Carl Zimmer, journalist for National Geographic, discusses the ethics behind bringing back Neanderthals: “Neanderthals were humans, and research on humans requires informed consent, which is hard to get from someone who belongs to an extinct lineage” (Zimmer).

Scientists must recognize their responsibilities when deciding which species to revive. While deextinction produces organisms unnaturally, it does produce viable organisms that can help solve the extinction problem on earth if scientists do not take advantage of this opportunity.

The excitement surrounding the topic of de-extinction might lead scientists to focus more on developing the technology instead of theorizing what they will do with the revived species.

Many extinct species’ habitats have disappeared or changed drastically since they have died out.

Without their natural habitat, revived species will be forced to live in zoos. The most popular candidate for de-extinction, the woolly mammoth, lived in a time when they could migrate via ice caps. Because of global warming, the woolly mammoths that scientists want to bring back will find difficulty in migrating through melting ice caps. Brian Switek, a blogger for National Geographic, wrote a blog post arguing against de-extinction called, “The Promise and Pitfalls of Resurrection Ecology.” Switek speculates, “We’d only repeat our mistakes if we brought back a species without consideration of the creature’s future survival on a changing planet” (Switek).

In order to gain public support for and relieve concerns about de-extinction, scientists must consider the precautions they have to take to reintroduce an extinct species by working with conservationists and governments. While the concept appears exciting and revolutionary, deextinction must be handled with extreme care and dignity, especially when considering its place in the world of environmental conservation.

By reviving and reintroducing key species, conservation efforts could either depreciate or thrive, depending on the species and how scientists go about reviving and restoring them. In “Review Potential Effects of Passenger Pigeon Flocks on the Structure and Composition of Presettlement Forests of Eastern North America,” Joshua Ellsworth, Professor of Sustainable International Development at Heller School, and Brenda McComb, Dean of the Graduate School at Oregon State University, explain the effects of the extinct passenger pigeons on the areas they migrated to and from. They write, “Disturbance intensity and frequency would have ranged from 81

frequent, low-intensity crown thinning, which would have released established, shade-tolerant vegetation, to severe, stand-initiating disturbances caused by widespread limb and stem breakage and heavy nutrient loading characteristic of long-term pigeon roosts” (Ellsworth 10).

If scientists reintroduce passenger pigeons and other key species to their original population, their environment could potentially suffer. Before scientists fully delve into de-extinction, it is important that they research how the reintroduction of their target extinct species will affect their environment.

Additionally, many conservation scientists fear that de-extinction might take the place of methods to prevent species from going extinct. The resources and money used for de-extinction could be used to save endangered animals from extinction through education, implementing legislation, and taking action. While using conservation methods to prevent endangered animals from going extinct is essential, de-extinction is a luxury. Director of Ethics Institute at Northeastern University, Ronald Sandler, covers this issue in his paper, “The Ethics of Reviving Long Extinct Species. He writes, “It is fine to pursue if people want, so long as it does not interfere with or compromise ethically important things” (Sandler 359).

Scientists are not doing any harm to current endangered species or environments by spending their time and money researching and testing de-extinction. If they do produce an entire species synthetically and they wish to reintroduce it to the wild, they must take necessary precautions as discussed above to continue to prevent damage to environments and organisms.

Extinction rates have increased substantially ever since man evolved into a more intelligent species. It is a shame that this realization has only come recently. De-extinction can relieve some of the strain of constant damage we humans put on this earth Temple mentions in his TED talk. Many current environmental issues, large and small, can also be solved with the help of deextinction. In his paper about dodo birds, the journalist Craig Kasnoff assesses how the revival and reintroduction of the dodo bird can bring the dodo tree back from near-extinction. While deextinction carries the promise of hope for the future and relief of our self-inflicted burdens, the disadvantages of de-extinction are equally important to consider.

De-extinction methods are entirely synthetic, which brings up the issue of ethics. In his blog post, Zimmer discusses how using de-extinction on certain species including Neanderthals, would be unethical. Scientists must keep in mind that de-extinction requires them to take on large responsibilities and deal with the possibility of major consequences that they might not be ready for. Switek, a fellow blogger for National Geographic, argues that in order to carry out deextinction properly, scientists must confirm the availability of habitat for the species and the sustainability of that habitat. Sustainability of habitats comes into question when conservation methods become affected by de-extinction.

When considering conservation practices, de-extinction should not be a substitute for conservation. According to a paper on the effects of passenger pigeons, if reintroduced, the birds can potentially pose a great risk to the environment. Scientists must research whether or not deextinction of a particular species can help conservation efforts and make their decisions about which species to revive based on this protocol. As discussed in his paper regarding the ethics of 82

de-extinction, Ronald Sandler argues that de-extinction efforts should be entirely beneficial to the organism itself and its environment so that current conservation efforts are not undermined.

De-extinction has great potential to give many extinct species a second chance at life on earth and hope to humans with a guilty conscience. Evaluating risks and responsibilities to the environment is an extremely vital protocol for scientists who are developing de-extinction procedures. If scientists can develop enough healthy organisms that resemble an extinct species through the means of cloning, genetic engineering, or artificial selection, the scientific community and entire environments can change. Even with the introduction of de-extinction, conservation efforts should continue to improve the sustainability of endangered animals around the world.

If governments and environmental agencies respond negatively to de-extinction, the scientific community can still celebrate the scientific and technological achievement of reviving a species from complete extinction. If the response to de-extinction is positive, the island of Mauritius will someday be swarming with fat dodo birds and dodo trees.

WORKS CITED Brand, Stewart. “The dawn of de-extinction. Are you ready?” TED. TED Conferences, Feb. 2013. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Caccone, Gisella. “Galapagos.” Tim Howard. Radiolab. National Science Foundation. Web. 2 Dec. 2014 Carlin, Norman F., Ilan Wurman, and Tamara Zakim. "How to Permit Your Mammoth: Some Legal Implications of "De-Extinction." Stanford Environmental Law Journal 33.1 (2014): 3-58. GreenFILE. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Clarke, Sarah. “Bizarre Extinct Frog Brought Back to Life.” ABC Australia. ABC, 16 Mar. 2013. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Ellsworth, Joshua W., and Brenda C. McComb. "Review Potential Effects of Passenger Pigeon Flocks on the Structure and Composition of Presettlement Forests of Eastern North America." Conservation Biology 17.6 (2003): 1548-1558. GreenFILE. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Jørgensen, Dolly. "Reintroduction and De-Extinction." Bioscience 63.9 (2013): 719-720.

GreenFILE. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Kasnoff, Craig. “Bagheera.” 2014. Website. 19 November 2014.

Sandler, Ronald. “The Ethics of Reviving Long Extinct Species.” Conservation Biology 28.2 (2013): 354-360. Wiley Online Library. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Switek, Brian. "Phenomena." 12 March 2013. National Geographic. Web. 29 November 2014.

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Temple, Stanly. “De-extinction: A Game-Changer for Conservation Biology.” TED. TED Conferences, April 2013. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

Zimmer, Carl. “FAQ”. Revive & Restore. Long Now Foundation, Mar. 2013. Web. 12 Nov. 2014.

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Invasive Algae (By Nicole King) It is common for science and politics to clash when it comes to various issues. One recent such conflict has been over the problems that come with the invasion of foreign marine algae. This issue is not common knowledge, according to Linda Preskitt, algal biologist and conservation educator at the University of Hawai‘i, in her article, “Understanding the mechanisms and impacts of biological invasions remains crucial to preserving marine biodiversity and biocomplexity” (Preskitt). Politicians emphasize the importance of other issues, such as climate change and deforestation, which overshadow other crucial problems by deeming them unimportant.

Yet the destruction and negative impact on the ocean’s ecosystem by invasive algae needs more attention. Invasive marine algae should be discussed and reviewed, and a resolution should be reached. There are several possible solutions, such as introducing a new species or new technology, proposed by different scientists and different groups.

Several factors play into the decision of what areas are in danger and how the algae should be removed. First, it is important to know what happens when invasive algae are introduced to an unfamiliar environment. There are several ways that invasive species show up in other areas.

One of the most common invasive species is the fire ant, but few realize that it is an invading species from South America. Fire ants were transported by ship from South America to the United States. Once there, the fire ants spread wildly across the land. Today, fire ants can be found all over the world and have several impacts on the environment.

Invasive species can also occur by human intervention. One well-known invading species is the domestic household cat. The Galapagos Islands have species of animal native to those islands.

When humans introduced cats to them, the cats began hunting the native birds, especially finches, which are now endangered with some species already extinct. In an article discussing the effects of invasive cats in the Galapagos Islands, Carrion states, “Both domestic cats as those in the wild (or feral) are aggressive predators that attack native wildlife, including birds, lava lizards, and juvenile iguanas in areas of the National Park as well as in populated areas” (Carrion, 2009). With the human introduction of the cat to the Galapagos Islands, native species had a limited chance at survival.

Invasive species aren’t only found on land; land and marine organisms also have significant effects on the environment. Species that can easily affect the environment such as birds, marine organisms, and insects are more likely to venture out of their original habitats. Organisms such as plants that move from cold regions to warm regions do not adapt well. Algae are one of the more unknown invaders, but are equally as dangerous, or possibly more dangerous, than any other species we know. Algae have massive impacts on the surrounding organisms and environment.

One of the biggest negative effects created by invading algae is a crisis called “bleaching.” Coral reefs are a main source of photosynthesis in the ocean. They are vital to the health of the water and its inhabitants. They produce oxygen and shelter for fish, octopi, sharks, and other marine 85

organisms. They also provide food for its dwellers. Overall, coral reefs are essential.

When algae cover the coral, smothering it from the sunlight, photosynthesis cannot take place ("Algae"). A page from the website Reef Resilience entitled “Algae,” discusses this problem, saying, “Invasive algae can quickly invade and take over coral-dominated habitats. They can overgrow and kill coral by smothering, shading, and abrasion, and can cause reduction in biodiversity and coral cover” (Algae). The coral’s tissue decays and leaves behind the calcium carbonate skeleton, which turns the reefs into plains of white with no life. The more coral reefs that disappear, the unhealthier the ocean gets.

There are three major choices for addressing this problem. These include doing nothing, bringing in new species, or using new technology to remove the algae from the infected areas.

There are risks and benefits with each of these choices. Long-term and short-term contributions are also needed to solve the issue. Taking on the task of preventing and clearing all invasive algae is too difficult and controversial. However, part of the problem can be solved by getting rid of the invasive algae in the most affected areas.

Something needs to be done about the invasive algae, whether it’s by using technology or native species. Mark McGinley (2010), the author of “Invasive Species,” found in the Encyclopedia of Life, says: “Invasive species are a major threat to our environment because they (1) can change habitats and alter ecosystem function and ecosystem services, (2) crowd out or replace native species, and (3) damage human activities, costing the economy millions of dollars” (McGinley 2010). Invasive species create too many risks for the environment to be ignored. The three general options posed are broad, but each has specific applications.

First, doing nothing about the invasive marine algae is the easiest and most inexpensive, passive inactive option. However, in the long run, the effects of doing nothing will cause many areas to become invaded, and a much larger problem will develop soon after. It would be more expensive to eliminate all of the algae once it has covered a large area instead of dealing with the smaller invasions when they start. If the problem gets out of hand in the future, there could be no coral left and the oceans would suffer, which in turn would affect many on land. Coral reefs play an important role in maintaining the biodiversity of the coastal regions. Many species would not be able to survive near coasts if there were no coral reefs to protect and feed them.

Doing nothing about invasive algae would cause more problems now and more problems in the future. It is the most illogical option for addressing this problem.

Another solution that has been presented is the introduction of a new predator to the invasive algae. In some situations, predators that live in the habitat favor the algae. However, not all predators in that are feed on the invasive algae. In those cases, it has been proposed that an organism that already eats the algae should be introduced to the invaded habitat. There are benefits and risks with this solution, and many see the risks outweighing the benefits.

The benefits include controlling the population of the invading algae, inexpensive methods of control, and little necessity for observation and maintenance. It’s the cheapest version of action towards the removal. However, a major risk of this action is that the new species may find a different prey that it enjoys more than the intended invader. It could also thrive in its new 86

environment, which would create two threatening species that needed to be removed from the habitat.

This method of control and removal is better than doing nothing, but it could pose a greater problem. Yet sometimes a native species adapt their eating habits to include the invader. This is currently happening in Hawai‘i with the battle against invasive algae in Kāne‘ohe Bay and other areas in danger (“Hawai‘i Marine Sea Urchins”). However, this is not a common solution.

Invading species typically have a much more devastating effect on the native organisms.

Scientists must notice harmful invaders before the population gets out of their control.

When determining the threat that a new species will cause to eradicate a dangerous, invading one, it is important to consider how it interacts with the habitat it will be introduced to. Since the fire ants did not drive out other populations, they simply joined. The native organisms did not resist the incoming species. Instead, they allowed it to happen and the fire ants became a part of the food chain.

However, this does not always happen, which increases the risk of the invading species. In the article “Invasive Marine Algae: An Ecological Perspective” by David Chapman, Marla Ranelletti, and Shalini Kaushik, a team from the Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystems and the University of California, stated, “Littorina obtusata, L. littorea, and Idotea granulosa do not feed on the invader if they have the choice of feeding on native species instead” (Chapman, p. 11). The Littorina obtusata and the Littorina littorea are found on the east coast of North American. The Idotea granulosa is a small arthropod found around Britain and Ireland. Since the invasive algae do not become the prey of the native species, the algae have the chance to multiply without interruption. This is one of the problems with the invading algae of Kān‘eohe Bay. The Nature Conservancy, an organization that dedicates itself to the conservation and protection of nature, has been looking into the issue of invasive algae in Hawai‘i. An article on their website describes past attempts and recent achievements in the removal of the invaders. The article says, “An early success was the development of the Super Sucker, an underwater vacuum system … It sucks invasive algae off the reefs, but it is not a permanent solution. They tend to grow back” (“Hawai‘i Marine Sea Urchins”).

The researchers attempting to rid the coral of the algae had to try a different method when they realized that the previous was not as successful as they hoped. The new idea was to combine the Super Sucker and the native sea urchin species. After using the Super Sucker, researchers would place sea urchins in the cleaned area. They realized that this method was a success: “The portion of patch reef without urchins grew back in five to six months, with 35 percent alien algae cover, while the urchin side has been kept to 3 percent cover for the past 12 months” (“Hawai‘i Marine Sea Urchins”).

The fight against the invading algae in Kāne‘ohe Bay continues. Many organizations, scientists, professors, and volunteers have been working together to return the coral reefs to their original state and health before the effects of the invading algae become irreversible. The Super Sucker and the native sea urchins have worked so far, and they have increased hope in the efforts.

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Despite this success, this is not a reliable long-term method. It cannot be predicted that the native species will take any stand against the invaders. It is up to the scientists to come up with methods that they know will work for every problem. There are other ways that we can attempt to remove the alien species.

The last of the methods is new technology. Machines and experiments have been created in an attempt to remove algae from water. One of these methods is called the dissolved air flotation method. This method involves “filtration, flotation, centrifugation, precipitation, ion exchange, passage through a charged zone, and ultrasonic vibration” (Babe, Jones, and Middlebrooks, p.

153). This process is complex and involves many steps that most people would be baffled by.

In “Algae Removal Using Dissolved Air Flotation,” W.F. Bance Babe, Norman B. Jones, and E. Joe Middlebrooks begin by describing what their method is used for. They say their system is used for removing the algae to reuse the water or as a part of the process of growing algae to use for food (Babe, Jones & Middlebrooks, p. 153). Even though the method cannot be directly applied to the removal of algae from coral reefs, it supports the idea that we can remove algae and efforts continue to progress. Since algae are small organisms, it is promising to know they can be removed in large quantities without having to use native sea urchins or volunteers that have to gently vacuum algae from coral for hours.

Another piece of new technology that removes algae is called the Overland Flow Process. This system, discussed by Jack L. Witherow and Bert E. Bledsoe (1983) in their article, “Algae Removal by the Overland Flow Process”, involves the flow of water over a decline that filters out the target organism(s). This system is commonly used to remove algae from ponds that don’t pass the Public Owned Treatment Works minimum requirements for pollutants. This process can be used for large or small organisms that are found in the water.

During the warmer months, the algae are under perfect conditions for reproducing and do so in abundance (Bledsoe, Witherow, 1983, p. 1). It is very common to see green coatings of algae on the top layer of ponds. When these layers form, it can either become a very good source of food for insects and fish, or it can cause problems for tadpoles and insect larvae. There are always positives and negatives to invasive and native algae.

When conditions become perfect, the algae will take the opportunity and multiply at their maximum speed. Invasive algae are not only a problem for coral but for other environments as well. Many people have problems with the removal of invading species, whether they have damaging effects or not.

There are some ethical problems with the removal of invasive algae. These views are easier to understand when put into context with something people recognize. Logging has created another environmental crisis because of its impacts on surrounding species. Habitats are destroyed and several plant and animal species must find other places to live. This problem has affected one species in particular: the northern spotted owl, which lives in the northwest part of the United States and the southwest regions of Canada. Another species of owl, the barred owl, began moving into areas where the northern spotted owls reside. The barred owl took over the territory of the northern spotted owl, causing the northern spotted owl to be even more endangered.

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The article, “Should We Kill One Species to Save Another?” by Andrea Aust, Science Education Manager for KQED, states, “To help recovery of the northern spotted owl, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has begun conduction experiments to kill barred owls in some areas where the threatened birds live, in hopes of increasing the northern spotted owl population” (Aust, 2014).

Yet many animal activists believe that saving an endangered species is not a good reason to kill a competing species. They believe more justification is required when considering the killing of dozens of barred owls in an attempt to save the northern spotted owls.

This also brings up another point. How do we know which species to save first? Or in the context of alien algae, how do we know which corals to save first and which algae pose the biggest threat?

Even though all invasive species pose some sort of threat, some have more effects than others.

Some algae can invade an ecosystem and live among the native species with only subtle changes, such as a shift in diet of the fish to include the alien species. Other species invade an ecosystem and completely take over other species, such as the algae invading Kāne‘ohe Bay, Hawai‘i.

A system of knowing which algae is the most dangerous or could become the most dangerous is required to remove algae productively. In the article “Assessing the Global Threat of Invasive Species to Marine Biodiversity” by Molnar, Gamboa, Revenga, and Spalding (2008)—a team of scientists from The Nature Conservancy—a system was developed for identifying the most dangerous species to a habitat by using several steps: “Each invasive species was assigned a score (where data allowed) for the following categories: ecological impact, geographic extent, invasive potential, and management difficulty” (Molnar et al., 2008, p. 2).

In other words, this system discusses how the invader affects the ecosystem, how many ecosystems it has affected, the possibility it has of invading other ecosystems, and whether or not it is easy to remove the algae once it has invaded. This could be used by scientists to determine which species or areas should be cleared of the invasive algae first.

Invasive algae are a serious issue for our environment, even though it is not a popular topic, and many people don’t want to acknowledge that the planet’s health is depleting. Invasive algae cause coral bleaching, drives out native species, and is very expensive to remove. The three general choices for dealing with invasive algae species are doing nothing, introducing a known consumer of the alien species, or creating or modifying technology, such as the Super Sucker. In any choice that is made, a large amount of money will be spent.

The effects of alien algae on coral reefs are too severe to ignore. The invading species causes a long negative chain of events that ends with severe negative consequences. It is difficult for scientists to estimate what could happen to coral reefs or the ocean in general if invasive species are free to do as they please. I believe the best solution is to do something aggressive and quickly, such as the new technology combined with the Super Sucker to remove as much algae as possible in a short amount of time. If we let the invading algae continue on their current path, there would be no coral reefs left and our oceans would be in danger.

If scientists wait too long to solve this problem, coral reefs could disappear completely. Because 89

of a reef’s sensitivity, a slight change in the nutrients, sunlight, oxygen concentration, or organism population shift can cause dramatic changes. The algae will affect more than coral reefs. Several marine species rely on coral reefs and algae as shelter and food sources. Sea turtles are often found meandering the reefs in search for food or a safe place. Sea turtles are an endangered species and need the reefs for survival. Dozens of species of fish need the coral reefs for protection from sharks, large predatory fish, and other dangers. A large number of shellfish require coral reefs for shelter as well. Shrimp, sea anemones, sea urchins, sea slugs, sea cucumbers, and many other organisms live in coral reefs and would be forced to leave if invasive algae took over. Coral reefs are essential not only to other marine life, but to humans as well.

When a person breathes out, carbon dioxide is released. The same happens when starting a car, as well as the emission of a factory containing carbon. As most people know, carbon is a main reactant in photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and ground are used by plants and coral reefs to create oxygen. As the ocean moves, carbon dioxide is incorporated into the water and used with sunlight by the coral reefs to create oxygen, an element required for all life on Earth. Without coral reefs, we lose a major part of the carbon-oxygen cycle. Carbon levels are getting higher every year; losing an essential player when the stakes are high is detrimental. Coral reefs need to be saved because they have such a high benefit for all the organisms in the sea as well as on land.

Scientists, organizations, and researchers should be combining their efforts to solve the problems of the destruction and negative impact on the ecosystems by invasive algae in the most logical way possible. It is difficult to know what would happen if we let the invading algae continue uninhibited. All we know is that it will be dangerous for habitats and will have long-reaching negative effects on the globe.

Invasive species are not a problem that lies solely under the surface of the water. Other invading species have been known to disrupt habitats such as the fire ants, the barred owl, and cats. No one can determine what will happen when a species invades, but we do know that something has to be done about it. Limiting the negative ecosystem effects of invasive algae needs more attention, study, and successful solutions. It is not a main topic in the media, but it is main concern for the health of our planet.

REFERENCES Algae. (n.d.). Retrieved December 7, 2014, from Reef Resilience.

Aust, A. (2014, February 4). Should We Kill One Species to Save Another? Retrieved November 11, 2004, from KQED Education.

Carrion, V. (2009, June 29). Control and eradication of feral cats (Felis catus). Retrieved December 7, 2014, from Parque Nacional Galapagos Ecuador.

Cohen, A. N. (2011, September). Littorina littorea. Retrieved December 7, 2014, from The Exotics Guide: Non-native Species of the North American Pacific Coast.

Hawai‘i Marine Sea Urchins to the Rescue. (n.d.). Retrieved November 11, 2014, from The Nature Conservancy.

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Inderjit, D. C. (2006). Invasive Marine Algae:An Ecological Perspective. Botanical Review , 153-178.

Jack L. Witherow, B. E. (1983). Algae Removal by the Overland Flow Process. Water Pollution Control Federation , 1256-1262.

Jennifer L. Molnar, R. L. (2008). Assessing the Global Threat of Invasive Species to Marine Biodiversity. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 485-492.

McGinley, M. (2010, July 25). Invasive Species. Encyclopedia of Life.

Meet the Team. (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2015, from Eyes of the Reef Hawai‘i.

Pizzolla, P. (2008). Littorina obtusata. Retrieved December 7, 2014, from Marine Life Information Network.

Preskitt, L. (n.d.). Invasive Marine Algae of Hawai‘i. Retrieved November 11, 2014.

Rowley, S. (2005). An isopod-Idotea granulosa. Retrieved December 7, 2014, from The Marine Life Information Network.

W.F. Rance Bare, N. B. (1975). Algae Removal Using Dissolved Air Flotation. Water Pollution Control Federation, 153-169.

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Peanut Butter and the Rainforest (By Iri Robinson) Imagine yourself coming home from a tiring day of school. You are very hungry, so you decide to devour a creamy and delicious peanut butter sandwich with some cold ice cream on the side and wash it all down with a tall glass of fizzy Pepsi. Besides all the calories and sugar you just consumed, it sounds pretty harmless, right?

Have you ever checked the ingredient list on your food package and stumbled across an ingredient that threw you off? Listed on the ingredient list of certain food packages is a life-threatening ingredient. Is it calcium propionate, thiamine mononitrate, or citric acid? No, it’s not any of these. I have found that the killer ingredient is palm oil.

It is known that palm oil accounts for 35% of the world’s edible vegetable oil production, and about 80% of palm oil is used in the food industry as vegetable oil or embedded in other ingredients in food (USDA 2013). It can also be found in processed food such as ice cream, margarine, chocolate, chips, peanut butter, soda, and many other products (BOS 2012).

So what exactly is palm oil and how is it harmful? I have questioned this as I dug deeper into the world of palm oil production and found that the most important effect of using palm oil in food is the destruction of the rainforest.

The rainforest provides us with many natural benefits such as oxygen, and shelter for people and animals to live in. However, the forest is under threat from deforestation due to fires, clear-cutting for agriculture, ranching, unsustainable logging for timber, and the collection of palm oil (WWF 2014).

Yes, palm oil. I, too, was shocked to hear that collecting a simple food ingredient was this problematic.

Investigators have found that palm oil is extracted from the palm fruits that grow on the palm trees in plantations in rainforests. First, the fruits are harvested from the trees by the local workers and are then loaded onto carts to be taken to the processing facility. From there, they are steamed at high temperatures and the oil is collected (MNN Holding Company 2014). It is said that these facilities and plantations are extremely problematic because they destroy the rainforest.

In a particular rainforest region in Indonesia, the annual rate of forest loss due to the demand for palm oil was 498,000 hectare from 2000 to 2010, which is the equivalent to 55 football fields per hour (BOS 2012). The expanding palm oil industry is the leading cause of rainforest deforestation. The rainforests in such places as Indonesia and Malaysia are being cleared in order to build palm oil plants and factories to produce them. The rainforests in Brazil and Papua New Guinea are being threatened as well.

So why do we use palm oil?

According to my studies, palm oil has many unique qualities that other vegetable oils do not have. It is known to “maintain its properties under high temperatures, the smooth texture and absence of smell is seen as useful, it has a natural preservative effect that extends the shelf life of food, and it is the least expensive plant oil that is produced” (RSPO 2014). This is why many food companies use palm oil as an ingredient in many of their products.

I believe that it is, of course, the goal of food companies to ensure that the customers are satisfied with the taste and quality of the food products they consume. While palm oil is not found to be harmful to consume and isn’t unhealthy for humans to consume, I do not believe that it is satisfying to know that 92

the environment and the animals are being threatened for the collection of palm oil.

The rainforest, whether it is in the Amazon in Brazil or the deep forest in Indonesia, it is home to many beautiful species of animals and irreplaceable plants and wildlife. The rainforest is home to about 50% of the Earth’s species, and many rainforests in certain areas of the world have plants and wildlife that are not found anywhere else in the world (The Nature Conservancy 2014). Investigation shows that many species and people indigenous to rainforests of certain countries are gradually becoming extinct.

Jaguars, Amazon River dolphins, the Sumatran tiger, orangutans, the Javan rhinoceros, and the Sumatran elephants are just some of the many animals that are dying out, while the indigenous people of the Amazon in Brazil are losing homes as well. Around 6 million people lived in the Amazon before the 1900, and now there are currently only 250,000 people remaining (WWF 2014).

Research also revealed that orangutans are being threatened the most, and many are predicting that orangutans will be the first rainforest species to go extinct in the future with the current rate of rainforest destruction (WWF 2014). I found another appalling fact that in Indonesia, orangutans are losing their homes to the production of palm oil plantations due to the high demands for it. It is believed that since orangutans live in areas that are favored for establishing plantations as having fertile lowland soil close to rivers, they are being cleared out. It is stated that forest fires are set to clear the land for plantations, and while the fire destroys vast areas of the orangutans’ homes thousands of these slow-moving apes have been burned to death who unable to escape the flames. In some areas in Borneo and Sumatra, orangutans have also been shot by farmers and plantation owners. It has also been estimated that there are only 60,000 orangutans remaining in the wild (WWF 2014).

Plants in the rainforest have also been seen as important to the world. An estimated 40,000 different species of plants are found in the many regions and areas of the rainforest. It also has been found by the U.S. Cancer Institute that 70% percent of plants found in the rainforest may be useful in the treatment of cancer, while there are 2,000 different species of plants that may have anti-cancer properties.

It is well known that the plants in the rainforest not only provide homes and oxygen to both people and wildlife, but they also provide many useful and important products such as coffee, cocoa, and medicinal products, while the trees are important for absorbing greenhouse gases (The Nature Conservancy 2014).

The continuing of deforestation of the rainforest means that we will be losing the plants that are precious and important to the wildlife as well as us. I’m going to propose strategies to help decrease the rate of the destruction of the rainforest, along with a list of companies to avoid purchasing food products from.

I have identified 20 large, well-known companies in the U.S. that use palm oil, called the Snack Food 20. The following companies are: Campbell Soup Company, ConAgra Foods, Inc., Dunkin’ Brands Group, Inc. (Dunkin Donut company), General Mills, Inc., Grupo Bimbo, Hillshire Brands Company, H.J. Heinz Company, Hormel Foods Corporation, Kellogg Company, Kraft Food Group, Inc., Krispy Kreme Doughnuts Corp., Mars Inc., Mondelez International, Inc., Nestlé S.A., Nissin Foods Holdings Co., Ltd. PepsiCo, Inc., The Hershey Company, The J.M. Smucker Company, Toyo Suisan Kaisha, Ltd., and Unilever (RAN 2014). The products from these companies must be closely observed and it would greatly benefit the rainforest to refuse to buy anything from the Snack Food 20 companies.

Refusing to buy the products from these companies would not, unfortunately, eliminate the production of palm oil in the rainforest. However, it may gradually slow down because of reduced demand. It would also be beneficial to email these companies to tell them to stop using palm oil in their foods and to create pressure by letting them know that we will not buy anything from them if they do not cut palm 93

oil from their ingredient list.

When I first found about the heartbreaking effects caused by the production of palm oil and the deforestation of the homes of many helpless species, I took action by joining an organization called Rainforest Action Network (RAN). RAN sends me emails from their representatives, informing me of what is currently going on in the rainforest and about any news concerning the Snack Food 20 companies. At times, they would ask me to email certain companies that use palm oil in its products, to let that company know that I will not be buying any products from them while they are using palm oil.

We should all take this action together. By emailing the Snack Food 20 companies, your voice is being heard because you, as a customer, are important to the company’s business. If you tell those companies that you will not be buying any products from them unless they reduce their use of palm oil, they may take that into consideration.

At one point, a company changed the use of palm oil in its product after thousands of concerned activists, including myself, emailed them and continued to demand a change. Your voice is important in the fight against the use of palm oil. By boycotting these companies, we could possibly change the future and save lives.

The rainforest is an important and beautiful part of this Earth, which is home to thousands of unique and precious wildlife; we cannot afford to lose it. So, the next time you eat a peanut butter sandwich, be sure it is palm oil free and take action.

WORKS CITED "Deforestation." WorldWildlife.org. World Wildlife Fund, n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

"Deforestation Facts, Deforestation Information, Effects of Deforestation.� National Geographic.

N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

"Palm Oil." Rainforest Action Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

"Palm Oil." Topic. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

Szalay, Jessie. "Deforestation: Facts, Causes & Effects." LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 06 Mar. 2013. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

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POWER OF REPRESENTATION: pros and cons

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Online Gaming Subculture (By Alten Kiakona) As we enter an era filled with technology and rapid growth, teens and young adults are finding themselves and developing a sense of self-proclamation by means of putting others down. This is prevalent in the subculture of online gaming. Throughout the online gaming world, you will find many acts of sexism, homophobia, and racism. These words that are said through the screen and over the microphone of the video games sweeping the nation are some of the strongest indicators of major conflicts within our society.

While online gaming starts off as a simple way for people to interact with fellow gamers, allowing players to accomplish stories and side quests in order to improve their understanding of the game as a whole, the amount of people who take things to the extreme is almost overwhelming. Some of the most derogatory remarks are made over microphones and chats in public gaming rooms. Players make sexist and homophobic remarks to people whom they have never seen or met in person.

In an interview conducted by Chagmion Antoine (2009), a woman named Theresa, a lesbian gamer, plays under the Xbox 360 platform. She describes numerous accounts of sexist and homophobic remarks. Theresa says that she and her partner were subject to verbal abuse and stalking from other gamers who knew that she is a lesbian. According to the interview, “They basically said, just like, who do you people think we are?” and “They, uh, also did, I guess you could say almost sexual acts like a simulated … like a sexual assault” (Antoine, 2009).

Not only did Theresa undergo this “simulated sexual assault,” but when she complained to Microsoft about the issue, they instead suspended Theresa’s account, saying that the profile information that she had posted was “offensive.” The interview goes on to say, “Microsoft knows that this hate and homophobia is prominent, but I don't feel like they are doing anything to try and change this” (Antoine, 2009). Because nothing is being done, it has come to the point where homosexual gamers must be playing at their own risk until the issue can be resolved.

Homophobia is not only found among the console games that can be found on Xbox; it is found in other places such as online PC gaming as well. Online PC gamer David Hollingworth wrote an article on homophobia in gaming and why it hurt him since he is homosexual. Hollingworth has seen a considerable amount of gay hate since his early days playing Counter Strike, a FPS (“First Person Shooter”). The article says, “If someone’s hacking, their actions will be called gay; if you’re annoying someone, you could be called a fag. Basically, if it’s bad and unpopular … that’s so gay” (Hollingworth, 2012).

Derogatory terms such as “faggot” or the more commonly heard “fag” have become staple terms for anybody who may be doing actions that are looked down upon in online gaming. Because the term “fag” is often associated with the homosexual orientation, it not only demeans the person being called that name, but it also harms those gamers who are in fact homosexual. If a person responds with something along the lines of being offended by what a player is saying, players respond in various ways saying that it is “your own fault.” Associating a sexual preference with the virtual “worth” that revolves around video game action, such as shooting

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other people for the sake of “stopping terrorists” or “retrieving packages,” basically comes down to gamers calling somebody’s sexuality offensive and not right based on “human standards.”

Currently, one of the most popular games is League of Legends, a MOBA (Massive Online Battle Arena) created by Riot Games. As of January 2014, League of Legends has nearly 27 million active players daily and 67 million active monthly players, grossing a revenue of $642 million in 2013 (Tassi, 2014). With such a large amount of active players, there is bound to be a large amount of negativity within the community. After interviewing three active League of Legends players Chadd Fajota, Chris Yuen, and Justin Elmore, it is clear that the gaming community, regardless of the game played, proves that hate speech can be found everywhere.

When asked if they had had encounters with hate speech/racism/sexism/homophobia, all responded with yes—Yuen even going so far as to say, “All the time, I hear people saying things like ‘go kill yourself.’ The most common word I hear is ‘faggot’” (Yuen, 2014). These acts of hate speech seem to be prominent in most games, as Fajota and Yuen mention.

Elmore says, “Not every time; I feel like it’s more once in a great while.” This might be due to him playing at a lower level than Fajota and Yuen. The possibility that this “toxic” behavior can be due to the amount of experience and time put into the game is a large factor that comes into play, as people just starting out won’t know much about the game, whereas people who have been playing the game for a longer period of time will have a better understanding and therefore expect people to be on the same page as them.

After asking what forms of hate speech are most prominent, it was clear that the largest amount comes from racist and homophobic remarks. Elmore expresses “Homophobia, there are many people that should out ‘fag’ or ‘faggot,’ or people saying things like ‘that’s gay.’” While a large amount of homophobic remarks are made, other slurs include “you’re fucking retarded” and “noob.”

While not as common, acts of sexism also occur. As Fajota mentions, “Usually the gender of a person isn't disclosed, but if it is known, then there would be acts of sexism” (Fajota, 2014). So, gender isn't as large a factor unless it is made known by the players themselves. Yuen says that if there is a female in the game with them, they are more easily forgiven if they make a mistake, whereas if it were a male who made a mistake, then they would be shunned. They would be told things such as, “You suck, uninstall the game already.”

The final question asked was if they had ever given hate speech to other players, and while difficult to admit, all have engaged in some form of hate speech. Fajota says, “I have, but it wouldn’t leave my Skype calls, the only time I would give hate speech is jokingly to my friends” (Fajota, 2014). This is a common thing among players, to say things jokingly to friends with no intention to harm them. Elmore says: The worst I’ve ever said was ‘suck my ass.’ One time I felt like I was being targeted by the enemy team, not only in game but also in the things they said like ‘you suck, noob. Get the fuck out of here.’ I would think that for most people,

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they say these things because they believe it is all fun and games and that it wouldn't actually hurt people. (Elmore, 2014) Yuen admits that he actually says a lot of bad things in game. He says: Yes, I commonly tell people to uninstall the game, but I also call people, ‘Jews’ ’Fuck-face,’ telling them to ‘Go fuck themselves,’ ‘Are you retarded?’ ‘Do you have Down Syndrome?’ ‘Did your mom drop you as a baby?’ and many more.

(Yuen, 2014) Even though Yuen does have this history of saying hate speech to others, he mentions a valid point: “Even though I say these things, I think that people say these types of things because they don’t see a face behind the screen; they feel free to say whatever they want. They are hiding behind the virtual environment” (Yuen, 2014).

When asked if there is a possible solution to the issue, Yuen and Elmore say that there may be some form of temporary fix to the issue, but there is no way to completely stop the problem, Yuen (2014) even says, “I don't think there is a real solution to the issue. I think it would mainly revolve around the ethics and morals of the person saying these kinds of remarks.”

The online gaming community is filled with so much hate speech and prejudice expressed against people in and outside of their community. While we can go so far as to address specific offenses made toward people, there is no way to truly stop the entire behavior. While we as a people can do our own part personally to promote positive behavior amongst gamers, it ultimately comes down to the behavior and choices made by the player of the game.

REFERENCES Antoine, C (2009, March 13.) Gay gamers play at own risk.

Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Bj52-nKKvM#t=34 Hollingworth, D (2012, Wednesday 18,) U R so gay! Homophobia in gaming, and why it hurts.

Retrieved from http://www.pcauthority.com.au/Feature/287429,u-r-so-gay-homophobiain-gaming-and-why-it-hurts.aspx Tassi, P (2014, January 27) Riot’s ‘League of Legends’ reveals astonishing 27 million daily players, 67 million monthly.

Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/insertcoin/2014/01/27/riots-league-oflegends-reveals-astonishing-27-million-daily-players-67-million-monthly/

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Evaluation of Historical Bias through the Life of James Longstreet (By Kyle Bales) Human history is inevitably viewed through a filter of beliefs and motivations. A clear understanding of how past events influence the future can help us to anticipate the results of current decisions and policies. Unfortunately, historical truth is illusive. Our understanding of the past is shaped by the passage of time and the biases of the writings upon which historians depend.

The case of Lieutenant-General James Longstreet, ANV (Army of Northern Virginia), CSA (Confederate States Army), provides a vivid example of this principle. A successful propaganda campaign during Longstreet’s lifetime poisoned his reputation both then and long after his death.

Longstreet was respected during the war, controversial following the war, and became a scapegoat for over a century thereafter. Only in the last twenty years have his accomplishments and place in history been reevaluated. Examination of this pivotal figure at the Battle of Gettysburg clearly demonstrates that historians cannot accept writings as truth simply because they are contemporary with past events, but must instead try to understand the motivations of the writers.

The Battle of Gettysburg, which took place from July 1 to July 4, 1863, is probably the most analyzed battle in American history because of the number of Americans who died and its identification as a critical battle of the Civil War. Lieutenant-General Early was leader of a movement of writers who are now known as the Lost Cause writers. Those who followed this group promulgated the idea that the South had not truly been defeated and that the Civil War was actually a war for Southern values that would eventually be won. Lost Cause writers claimed that Longstreet’s actions led directly to the Southern defeat and that his actions after the war merely proved him a traitor. Historians now question these claims, but history has its own weight and momentum. We can reexamine the past and draw new conclusions, but the events that resulted from these claims cannot be reversed.

It is extremely unlikely that Longstreet’s place in history can be restored to the level of Confederate Generals Robert E. Lee or Stonewall Jackson, as his accomplishments arguably deserve. It is now, however, possible to understand how propaganda stole Longstreet’s triumphs, and to apply those lessons to our own times.

In order to understand the controversy surrounding Longstreet, it is necessary to have a clear picture of the events of the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1, 1863. The basic events of the battle are set forth cogently in The Maps of Gettysburg by Bradley M. Gottfried. In June 1863, to relieve the burden on war-torn Virginia, General Robert E. Lee, Commanding General, ANV, CSA, resolved to engage the Army of the Potomac, under Major-General George Meade, USA (United States Army). The Army of Northern Virginia therefore turned north into Pennsylvania. Apprised of this movement, Meade also moved north in order to avoid being cut off from Washington, D.C. In fact, because many roads converged at Gettysburg, both armies were inadvertently moving toward the same destination. Lee’s cavalry force, his primary scouting unit, was separated from 99

his army and as a result, Lee was unaware of the proximity of Union forces. As the lead elements of Confederate Lieutenant-General Ambrose P. Hill’s Corps reached Gettysburg, Union Cavalry, scouting for the Army of the Potomac, opposed them and an unintended engagement ensued. The Union cavalry was quickly reinforced by the U.S. First Corps. Confederate reinforcements under the command of Lieutenant-General Richard S. Ewell responded. Ewell and Hill forced Union forces to retreat through Gettysburg and up onto the hills surrounding the town. The arrival of the Union Second Corps stabilized the battlefield and set the stage for the events of July 2, 1863.

The evening of July 1 is the first example in this narrative of an event where later accounts sharply diverged. Lee is alleged to have planned and promulgated a dawn attack for two divisions of Longstreet’s First Corps to assault the far right of the Union lines, up a hill known as Little Round Top, in an attempt to flank the Army of the Potomac. Lieutenant-General Jubal Early (CSA) (Major General under Lieutenant General Ewell [CSA] at Gettysburg) supported this in his autobiography Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early, Confederate States of America: General Lee came to General Ewell’s headquarters, and after conferring with General Ewell, General Rodes and myself, we were given to understand that if the rest of the troops could be got up, there would be an attack very early in the morning on the enemy’s left flank, and also on the right, at the wooded hill [Culp’s Hill] before named. (Early, n.d., p. ch. 24) Colonel Walter Taylor, aid to General Lee, concurred in his memoir in 1878, Four Years with General Lee: The prevailing idea with General Lee was, to press forward without delay; to follow up promptly and vigorously the advantage already gained. Having failed to reap the full fruit of the victory before night, his mind was evidently occupied with the idea of renewing the assault upon the enemy’s right with the dawn of day on the second. (Taylor, 2013, p. ch. 8) Taylor’s assertion, however, conflicts with a letter he wrote in 1875 to Longstreet, in response to a similar charge made by Brigadier-General Pendleton, Lee’s chief of artillery: “I can only say that I never before heard of the ‘sunrise attack’ you were to have made as charged by General Pendleton” (Longstreet, n.d., p. ch. 27). This statement brings into question the veracity of Jubal Early’s account, and is one of the clearest instances in which Longstreet’s former comrades appear to have actively embellished or altered their accounts in an attempt to disgrace Longstreet.

Early’s claim that Longstreet was aware of Lee’s intentions that evening also clashed with Longstreet’s own recollections: “When I left General Lee, about seven o’clock in the evening, he had formed no plans beyond that of seizing Culp’s Hill as his point from which to engage, nor given any orders for the next day” (Longstreet, n.d., p. ch. 26). Culp’s Hill was on the opposite side of the battlefield. Any attempt to take it would not have involved Longstreet’s troops.

Additionally, none of Longstreet’s troops could have arrived at the battlefield before the morning and certainly not in time to participate in a dawn attack.

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Longstreet asserted that Lee did not give the orders for the attack until eleven o’clock on July 2.

His claim is indirectly supported by the observations of British military observer, LieutenantColonel Arthur Fremantle. Many countries had sent observers to both sides of the conflict to study how the new longer-ranged rifles affected tactical thinking. Fremantle observed: Colonel Sorrel, the Austrian and I arrived at 5 am, at the same commanding position we were on yesterday, and I climbed up a tree in company with Captain Schreibert of the Prussian army. Just below us were seated Generals Lee, Hill, Longstreet, and Hood, in consultation. (Fremantle, 1863) If an attack had indeed been planned for dawn, it is difficult to imagine that Lee would have still been in meetings with the commanders involved at five o’clock.

Longstreet did not agree with the decision to fight at Gettysburg. He believed that the Union position at Gettysburg was too strong to attack without prohibitive losses. Additionally, many of the Confederacy’s previous victories had come while its army was in a defensive position and the Union was forced to attack. Longstreet desired to conduct a flanking movement and occupy ground between Meade and Washington. Meade would then be forced to attack the Confederate Army instead of vice versa.

Lee disagreed, fearing an attack while the Army of Northern Virginia was moving and vulnerable, which could lead to the destruction of the entire army. Early in the morning Lee ordered a reconnaissance of Little Round Top by one of his staff officers, who reported no Union troops present. Lee directed two divisions of Longstreet’s Corps, commanded by MajorGenerals Lafayette McLaws and John Bell Hood, to flank the Union forces on Cemetery Ridge by going up Little Round Top. Lee ordered the attack at eleven o’clock, but Longstreet delayed till early afternoon, to allow Hood’s final brigade to arrive.

Additionally, on the way to Little Round Top, Longstreet realized that his troops were about to be exposed to Union spotters. According to Longstreet, “General Lee ordered his reconnoitering [sic] officer to lead the troops of the First Corps and conduct them by a route concealed from view of the enemy” (Longstreet, n.d., p. ch. 27). He therefore chose to backtrack. While this decision was in keeping with orders, it delayed the attack further.

The Confederate attack finally started at 4:30 pm. John Pullen, in his book The Twentieth Maine, describes the events from the point of view of the Twentieth Maine Regiment of the Army of the Potomac. When the attack commenced, Union officers realized that part of the Union line was out of position, inviting a flanking attack at Little Round Top. The First Division of the Union Fifth Corps arrived at Gettysburg as the fighting began and was therefore immediately diverted to Little Round Top. They arrived at their positions in time to block the attack, and the flanking attempt turned into a head-to-head charge (Pullen, 1957, p. ch. 7).

Hood and McLaws succeeded in taking the base of Little Round Top as well as putting troops onto Big Round Top next to it, but they were unable to flank the Union lines. As a result the Union troops repulsed the attack, and Longstreet’s men suffered heavy casualties for little gain.

A simultaneous Confederate attack on Culp’s Hill on the opposite flank was supposed to confuse 101

the Union response, but delays and lack of coordination resulted in an unsupported attack, leading to a failure of the entire Confederate strategy.

While the outcome supports Longstreet’s contention that the Union’s positions were prohibitively difficult to assault, the time it took to move just one fifth of the army for the attack also gives credence to Lee’s concerns about moving the entire army in the face of the enemy.

The Twentieth Maine’s account, though, emphasizes that even if the attack had been executed earlier in the day, the Union forces had time from the moment the attack started to send forces to Little Round Top in advance of the Confederate’s arrival. While Longstreet may have delayed, it appears likely that his delays had no significant effect on the outcome of the battle.

Longstreet claimed that on July 3, 1863, Lee originally planned to repeat his attack of the previous day against the left center of the Union line, committing Longstreet’s entire First Corps, now reinforced by the arrival of his third division commander, Major-General Pickett.

Longstreet argued with Lee not to try again where fresh divisions had already failed.

Additionally, Longstreet believed that there was a significant Union force on his flank and he also argued that the removal of Hood and McLaws would allow the Union to flank the Confederacy (Longstreet, n.d., p. ch. 28). Longstreet had already started moving troops to counter the potential threat. Therefore, they were unable to reposition in time for Lee’s planned attack.

Lee then settled on an attack in the center of the Union lines, to be led by Major-General George E. Pickett. Lee decided to leave Hood and McLaws positioned on his flank, and combined Pickett’s division with two more from the Second and Third Corps for a total of fifteen thousand men. The attack was supported by all remaining Confederate artillery under the command of Longstreet’s Chief of artillery, Colonel E.P. Alexander.

Once again Longstreet protested. In his memoirs, Longstreet writes that he told Lee, “The fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle.” Additionally, Longstreet objected because the Confederate Army would be under “enfilade” artillery fire [artillery fire directed along the line of troops from end to end] (Longstreet, n.d., p. ch. 28). In Military Memoirs of a Confederate: A Critical Narrative, Colonel Edward P. Alexander relates that the objection was answered by Colonel Long of Lee’s staff to the effect that the Confederate guns would be able to suppress the Union guns.

Alexander, who was not at this meeting but who was the officer to command the proposed artillery barrage, goes on to state categorically: It seems remarkable that the assumption of Col. Long so easily passed unchallenged that Confederate guns in the open and inferior position could ‘suppress’ Federal Artillery fortified upon commanding ridges. Our artillery equipment was usually admitted to be inferior to the enemy’s in numbers, calibres, and quality of ammunition. (Alexander, 2014, p. ch. 18) Longstreet describes Lee as impatient; the attack was ordered to go forward. Despite some initial success, Union reinforcements turned it into a slaughter.

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As noted earlier, the writings of Colonel Taylor show a clear contradiction between his correspondence with Longstreet soon after the war and his memoirs published later. During the intervening time, certain key events had taken place. After Lee’s death, Jubal Early was unrelenting in his attacks on Longstreet’s record. However, only after Longstreet made the critical error of claiming that Lee had made mistakes at Gettysburg did Early find support for his version of events from other senior Confederates.

Early’s response to criticism of Lee was simple and direct: “This battle of Gettysburg has been much criticized, and will continue to be criticized. Errors were undoubtedly committed, but these errors were not attributable to General Lee” (Early, n.d., p. ch. 24). While Lee himself would publicly take responsibility for the loss, eventually this was seen as an act of deliberate martyrdom and proof of Lee’s character.

Nothing can indicate better the effectiveness of the propaganda against Longstreet than to look at how history has viewed him. Historian Douglas Freeman’s book Lee’s Lieutenants: A Study in Command, written in 1942, and Edwin B. Coddington’s The Gettysburg Campaign: A Study in Command, written in 1979, are both considered seminal works on the Civil War. Freeman accepts unconditionally the assertion that Longstreet was fully aware of Lee’s intention to attack at dawn on July 2. He ascribes to Longstreet an active attempt to prevent carrying out Lee’s orders. When Lee fails to relent, Longstreet is described thus: “Old Pete said nothing to expose his thoughts, but his every important act for the next few hours showed that he had resolved to put on Lee the entire responsibility for what happened. In plain, ugly words, he sulked” (Freeman, 1998, p. ch. 26).

This is a quote from an article by Early who represented himself as quoting Lee. As Lee never wrote any memoirs, due to his desire that the South move on from the war, direct quotation is unlikely. The value of Jubal Early’s uncorroborated “quote” therefore must depend on our judgment about his objectivity or bias. When Hood’s troops reached Little Round Top and found it manned by Union troops who had not been present earlier in the morning, Freeman accused Longstreet of refusing to inform Lee or countenance a change in plans (Freeman, 1998, p. ch.

26).

An alternative opinion is presented by William Piston, a more recent biographer of Longstreet.

In Piston’s Lee’s Tarnished Lieutenant: James Longstreet and his place in Southern History, published in 1987, Piston contends that Longstreet was in communication with Lee shortly before the assault commenced but after the new Union troops had been discovered (Piston, 1987, p. ch. 3). This is an important point on which the available documentation is contradictory. Both historians used different sources to prove their points.

Coddington agrees with Freeman regarding Longstreet’s communications with Lee but goes on to castigate Lee for not maintaining control of a complicated operation that had little room for error (Coddington, 1997, p. 384). There is simply no way to know which accounts were accurate and which were mistaken or worse.

On July 3, Lee is said to have expected Longstreet to be ready to attack early in the morning, but found that Longstreet, instead, was planning the movement of the entire army. Longstreet tried 103

again to convince Lee to maneuver between Meade and Washington, and when that failed, argued that McLaws and Hood’s divisions were too badly depleted for the proposed attack.

Freeman states that Lee made a mistake in trusting his generals to take care of the details of the attack and that Longstreet’s depression about his failed attempt to redirect the army caused him to sabotage the attack by not advancing with his entire Corps (Freeman, 1998, p. ch. 27).

However, the claim that Longstreet was ordered to advance his entire corps was based on another unsupported quote by Jubal Early.

In Piston’s analysis, Freeman’s unconditional acceptance of Jubal Early’s criticisms of Longstreet are noticeably absent. Piston concludes that no orders were passed on July 1 regarding the timing of the proposed attack on July 2. This is based upon reports written at the time or closely following the battle, as opposed to the memoirs written after Lee’s death.

Regarding criticisms of Longstreet’s speed in reaching his attack point, Piston points out that a similar flanking maneuver by the beloved Stonewall Jackson at Chancellorsville had taken eight hours, so Lee would likely have been aware of the time required.

Piston concurs that when the lengthening of the Federal lines onto Little Round Top was discovered, Longstreet initially denied the evidence, but was finally convinced that instead of a flanking maneuver, he would have to make a frontal assault. Hood objected to the frontal assault both to Longstreet and to Lee himself at a meeting observed by Fremantle, but Lee was adamant that the attack remain unchanged.

Piston agrees with Freeman that Longstreet understood that he would be taking offensive action early on July 3, though no specific action had yet been planned. He also concurs that Longstreet prepared his troops for a flanking maneuver to move between Meade and Washington, as he had been advocating for, without informing Lee. Upon discovery in the morning, Lee canceled these orders, but the preparations had left Longstreet’s troops badly positioned for Lee’s own plan to use Longstreet’s entire Corps in the assault.

While Longstreet had had no way of knowing what Lee’s plans would be, he certainly had an obligation to inform Lee prior to commencing major troop movements. Instead Lee had little choice but to leave Hood and McLaws where they were and settle upon Pickett, Pettigrew, and Trimble (Piston, 1987, p. ch. 3).

Both Piston and Freeman agree that Longstreet did not have confidence that an attack on the center of the Union lines would be successful. When it became time to give the order to advance, Longstreet was unable to do more than nod to Pickett to proceed.

Longstreet was consistently thought well of by the men under his command. He led his men from the front and always sought battle. This was the primary reason that Lee always considered him his most reliable commander. It is true that Longstreet questioned some military decisions, but it is also clear that he viewed this as his duty as Lee’s second in command.

While the events of July 2 now appear clear, however, it is also true that the slowness of his approach to Little Round Top did not match his well-known speed of movement on the battlefield. His changes in his order of march were approved by his commanding officer; but 104

they nevertheless may well have been due to his reluctance to carry out the attack at all.

The accusations of Jubal Early and the Lost Cause writers have some credible basis in fact. They are badly compromised, however, when the reasons for their accusations are examined. Early, as the leader of the anti-Longstreet campaign, was not seeking to promote an unbiased account, but to immortalize the struggle of the South by attaching it to the divine. He compared Lee to Christ and by association made all Southern soldiers part of a holy struggle for Southern values. For Early’s purposes, Lee had to be perfect; therefore any failures of the Army of Northern Virginia had to be blamed on someone else. It is telling that the attacks on Longstreet did not start till Lee was safely dead and unable to refute the charges against his most trusted subordinate.

James Longstreet was an exceptional soldier who suffered from political naiveté and a blunt attitude towards society that clashed with expectations of the Southern gentleman. After the war, he was not notably sensitive to public opinion in the South, nor aware of his tenuous position in the public eye. He was a strong proponent of moving on to quickly rebuild the South. He joined the Republican Party, Lincoln’s Party—the ultimate sin as far as his compatriots were concerned—leaving him wide open to criticism.

All this, along with an unscrupulous manipulator with his own agenda, is what led to Longstreet’s prolonged disrepute in history. Piston concludes that: “In the final analysis the antiLongstreet faction had no greater ally than Longstreet himself” (Piston, 1987, p. Epilogue). It took more than a hundred years for historians to recognize the distortions for what they were.

We cannot know how a more balanced view of Longstreet’s role at Gettysburg might have colored the South’s subsequent understanding of its defeat—whether it might have encouraged a less exalted understanding of the struggle and helped to shape a different post-war culture. If nothing else, one man would have had his place in history.

But Longstreet’s tarnished legacy also carries a lesson for both the historian and the layman. The history of his reputation demonstrates powerfully the importance of examining the context in which histories or representations of events are produced—their sources, possible motives, and choices made—just as carefully as the context of the events themselves. Indeed, the lesson applies as vitally to reports and interpretations of current events as it does to those long past.

REFERENCES Alexander, E. P. (2014). Military Memoirs of a Confederate: A Critical Narrative. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, Inc. Coddington, E. B. (1997). The Gettysburg Campaign: A study in Command. New York: Touchstone.

Early, J. (n.d.). Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early, Confederate States of America. Acheron Press.

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Freeman, D. S. (1998). Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command. (S. W. Sears, Ed.) New York: Simon & Schuster.

Fremantle, A. J. (1863). Three Months in the Southern States, April-June 1863. Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood and Sons.

Gottfried, B. M. (2013). The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3July 13, 1863. El Dorado Hills, California: Savas Beatie LLC. Longstreet, J. (n.d.). From Manassas to Appomattox: Memoirs of the Civil War in America.

Acheron Press.

Piston, W. G. (1987). Lee's Tarnished Lieutenant: James Longstreet and His Place in Southern History. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.

Pullen, J. J. (1957). The Twentieth Maine. Stackpole Books.

Taylor, W. (2013). Four Years with General Lee. Pickle Partners Publishing.

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Under Pressure: Media’s Effect on Young Women (By Zuleka Seth) We have all been there: standing in line at the grocery store in anticipation of purchasing a few things and then heading home, only to turn around and suddenly be faced with racks upon racks of magazines bombarding us with what they deem to be important news. More often than not, that “news” turns out to be a celebrity in a bikini with a caption praising her for losing weight and advertising new ways for you to get such a great body, too. If it happens to not be praise, perhaps another magazine on the next shelf has another model of larger size, accompanied by a headline laced with horror at her apparent weight gain and how her life is supposedly spiraling out of control.

It is not just in the magazines that the need to be thin is emphasized. Television commercials follow the same line, showing one advertisement after another of products and programs that will “help” you to be thin and to be so much happier with your life. Hollywood tends to portray bigger women as women to be ridiculed unless they undergo some form of transformation that will help them win over the perfect man and live happily ever after.

But what is the effect of all these representations in the media? What kind of message is being sent to young girls about the way they need to look in order to be happy? The answer is that it is a negative message. People come in all sorts of different shapes and sizes, and the selection of a few stick thin models to show in the media is an unrealistic representation that leaves people, especially young girls, feeling inadequate. These unrealistic portrayals of body image can lead to effects such as eating disorders, as well as other negative impacts on the lives of people everywhere.

Eating disorders are complex mental and physical illnesses that have many contributing factors.

The three most general and widely known disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. According to the National Eating Disorder Association (NEDA), the symptoms of anorexia nervosa include insufficient food intake and obsessive fear of weight gain that lead to extremely low body weight. Bulimia nervosa involves bouts of excessive, uncontrolled eating followed by purges such as vomiting in order to keep from gaining weight.

Binge eating disorder involves the same initial actions as bulimia nervosa, with episodes of unchecked eating, but without the purges afterward to prevent weight gain (“Types & Symptoms”).

Eating disorders may start on their own, without obvious outside cause, but there are also many external factors that may bring them about. NEDA lists some of the social factors that contribute to eating disorders, such as: “Cultural pressures that glorify ‘thinness’ or muscularity and place value on obtaining the ‘perfect body’”; “Narrow definitions of beauty that include only women and men of specific body weights and shapes”; and “Cultural norms that value people on the basis of physical appearance and not inner qualities and strengths” (“Factors That May Contribute”). These are only a few of the factors that may be involved, although they are certainly ideas that are commonly dealt with by people everywhere. Perhaps the pressures may seem to feel amplified when a mental illness is present.

An article on PBS entitled "Perfect Illusions,” which talks about eating disorders and the impact 107

the media can have on them, defines body image as “How you see or picture yourself,” “How you feel others perceive you,” “What you believe about your physical appearance,” “How you feel about your body,” and “How you feel in your body.” People who have negative body images do not see themselves as beautiful; often they are disgusted by their bodies and try to take it out on themselves or go to extremes in order to be satisfied with their image. It has been estimated that five to ten million women in America have an eating disorder, and it is believed that a good deal of cases are kept secret by those suffering from them because eating disorders naturally lend themselves to secrecy and shame (“Perfect Illusions”).

One survivor of anorexia, Evanna Lynch, overcame her struggles and went on to play a role in the Harry Potter films. She speaks out about negative body image: We feed ourselves negative thoughts about our body, thoughts like “I’m too fat,” “I’m too short,” “I’m too ugly.” Very quickly we glumly accept them as the truth, and thus we become imprisoned in our own body. We use them as excuses NOT to fulfill certain ambitions and lock ourselves into a cosy self-contained prism of isolation and fear.

(Lynch, 2011) This perspective from someone who has experienced anorexia shows that those with eating disorders tend to shut themselves off from the rest of the world. In some cases, according to Spettigue and Henderson, they even turn towards more media as a way of fueling their feelings of inadequacy and continuing the vicious cycle of their disorder (Spettigue & Henderson, 2004).

Media may often be used by those already struggling with a disorder, but what about those who have not yet reached that point? It is hard not to be influenced by media when it constantly surrounds us every day. Media use in recent years has exploded. According to a study done by the Kaiser Family Foundation, eight to eighteen year-olds spend an average of seven and a half hours per day using some type of media (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). In that media, according to an article examining this issue from the National Center for Biotechnology Information, “Over time the cultural ideal for women’s body size and shape has become considerably thinner and leaner and men’s body size and shape has become stronger and more muscular” (Morris & Katzman, 2003). A study cited in that same article goes on to say that 70% of the female models who were measured for the study were underweight (Morris & Katzman, 2003).

These representations that people, especially adolescents, are being exposed to are suggesting that women must be small and thin in order to be anywhere near “perfect.” Young girls who want to be accepted by both themselves and their peers are willing to go to great lengths to achieve such “perfection”, and the negative impact begins to show itself in the real world.

Studies done in 1996 showed that approximately 40% of girls between the ages of nine and ten were already trying to lose weight (Schreiber, Robins, Striegel-Moore, Obarzanek, Morrison, & Wright, 1996).

If such a high number existed at that time before the media had as great an influence as it now does, imagine the effects on young girls today. Another look at the previous article from the National Center for Biotechnology Information shows that “Many young women believe that 108

they are overweight and want to weigh less. In one study, 44% of adolescent girls believed they were overweight and 60% were actively trying to lose weight even though the majority of these young girls were within normal weight ranges” (Morris & Katzman, 2003). The article goes on to state, “The factor exerting the strongest pressure to be thin was the media” (Morris & Katzman, 2003). The media places such importance on the need to be thin that it affects nearly everyone in its attempt to promote the beauty industry. In a study on the role of the media on eating disorders, it is reported that women and girls who are already less certain in their perception of themselves have an even greater risk of being negatively influenced by the words and images being presented to them on a daily basis, and forming greater body dissatisfaction as a result (Spettigue & Henderson, 2004).

One argument that may be made against this viewpoint is that the media is not the true cause of eating disorders. It is true that in most cases, reading a magazine alone will not cause someone to develop anorexia. However, multiple studies have been done that show a direct correlational effect between media exposure and body dissatisfaction, which may lead to symptoms of eating disorders. An example of this correlational situation develops from an experiment done in Fiji— a country that until somewhat recently did not have much exposure to the media. Data taken before and after the introduction of mainstream television showed a “significant increase in disordered eating attitudes and behaviors” after the culture was exposed to media (Spettigue & Henderson, 2004).

Some suggest the introduction of media literacy as a way to combat and eventually stop harmful effects of media. Media literacy is, according to Spettigue and Henderson, “teaching people to think critically about different forms of the media, increasing awareness of media use, and analyzing the content and intentions of the media producers” (Spettigue & Henderson, 2004).

This idea is great in theory, although attempting to use it as a balance to the problem does not solve the problem or cause it to cease existing. This is simply a method of coping with the issue that has been met so far with limited success (Spettigue & Henderson, 2004).

While awareness of the issue may be a good first step, it is time for people to step up and respond to the misrepresentations around them. Recently, more and more women have expressed that they are fed up with the constant manipulation of images in magazines and advertisements. People and companies are speaking out about the need to stop false presentations of what real beauty should be and how it should be achieved.

This is what is truly needed—a refusal to accept what is being shown to us, and a call for a change that brings us back to reality. Body image should not be something that is a topic of pure negativity, but instead should be something that can be worked with and accepted. Young girls especially find themselves dealing with the negativity, and the media should be something that is used to help them, not hurt them.

The issue of body image is one that has been around for a long time, and it is an ever-changing matter that necessitates new ways of handling it. Currently, the problem is the media and its non-stop presentations of what the “perfect” body is and how we are all expected to achieve it.

The constant reminders all around us can be harmful if we are not careful, leading to general unhappiness and dissatisfaction that can eventually become something as serious as an eating 109

disorder.

Positive body image should be something everyone strives for; without it, it is easy to fall into patterns of isolation and negativity. True and accurate images and messages throughout the media may not be possible to achieve completely, but progress can be made and mindsets can be changed to handle the negativity in the meantime. The fact is that the media’s main goal is to sell their products, and their representations toward doing that are not incredibly accurate. This is a good thing to thing to remember when you are standing in line at the grocery store, looking at those magazines.

REFERENCES Factors That May Contribute to Eating Disorders. (2014). Retrieved November 15, 2014, from nationaleatingdisorders.org.

Lynch, E. (2011, January 18). Why the Body Bind is My Nightmare. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from thehpalliance.org.

Morris, A. M., & Katzman, D. K. (2003, May-June). The Impact of the Media on Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Retrieved November 15, 2014, from ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

Perfect Illusions: Eating Disorders and the Family. (2003). Retrieved November 5, 2014, from pbs.org.

Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, D. F. (2010, January). Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds. Retrieved November 15, 2014, from kff.org.

Schreiber, Robins, Striegel-Moore, Obarzanek, Morrison & Wright (1996, July). Weight modification efforts reported by black and white pre-adolescent girls. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved November 15, 2014, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

Spettigue, W., & Henderson, K. A. (2004, February). Eating Disorders and the Role of the Media. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.

Types & Symptoms of Eating Disorders. (2014). Retrieved November 15, 2014, from nationaleatingdisorders.org.

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Existentialism and Music: Influence in American Society (By Stephanie Martinez) From the first time humans were able to form cognitive thoughts about the world and the people around them, there has been a need to create meaning in life. Philosophers, those who study the ideas about knowledge, truth, and the nature and meaning of life, have always searched for answers that plague the thoughts of humanity—questions not easily answered by contemporary scientific theoretical principles. “What is the purpose and meaning of life?” and “Why were humans put on earth?” are some questions that are yet to be answered.

With a multitude of varying opinions, several philosophical schools of thought have developed.

These schools of thought attempt to explain their views on the world, and why their approach to living a full life is the best way to lead a satisfying life. Although some theoretical principles have similarities, great thinkers such as Descartes, Plato, Aristotle, Sartre, and Nietzsche all had differing perspectives and opinions about the world and the lives we live. Out of the many schools of thought, existentialism emerged as a frontrunner in terms of groundbreaking ideas.

Existentialism has also had a significant influence in psychiatric treatment, using its emphasis on anxiety to serve as a key topic in psychotherapy. Existentialism emphasizes personal freedom and the ability to choose one’s own path in life. It speaks to the individual trying to make his or her way in the world. Although very liberating, it is often argued that this type of thinking has created a self-centered, modern society; as a result, some say, members of society have become individualistic, diminishing the true meaning of a collective community.

Existentialism, like other philosophical schools of thought, has influenced literature, paintings, cinema, and music, touching people’s lives of people in more ways than one. Stanley Kubrick’s anti-war film Paths of Glory, released after World War II, highlights the horrors of war and examines existentialist issues highlighting whether or not objectivity is possible. The philosophical principles of existentialism are also demonstrated in present-day films such as Shawshank Redemption and A Clockwork Orange. Existentialism found its way into literature as demonstrated in novels such as Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut and Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk.

Among the arts, music has been described as one of the most unifying mediums in the world, and has always played a key role in bringing people together. Famous American bands such as Nirvana, The Classic Crime, and Young the Giant have been specially noted for their heavy existentialist undertones. The message in their music is one of freedom and self-responsibility for one’s own actions and, ultimately, individual happiness. The message of existentialism, disseminated through music, is embraced by many members of society, enhancing the individualistic culture found in contemporary America. However, this individualistic standpoint may have negative effects on modern society.

Before looking at the artists and their messages individually, it is important to understand the origins of existentialism, and the main ideas put forth by the founders of this school of thought.

The foundational underpinnings of existentialism originated with Soren Kierkegaard, commonly referred to as the “Father of Existentialism” in the early nineteenth century. Kierkegaard was 111

one of the first philosophers to develop some of the key ideas essential to existentialism. One of these was the idea of angst (Sackman, 2014).

Existential angst is “a condition of dread or anxiety that is related to the philosophy known as existentialism” ("What is existential," 2014, para. 1). Angst stems from the idea that life has no meaning except what people bring to it ("What Is Existential," 2014, para. 3). Because all of our choices, and thus our consequences, lie in our hands, angst is a natural consequence of the freedom we have as individuals not only to make good decisions, but terribly destructive ones as well. People understand that they have a choice to either make or break their own paths in life, and this realization causes the anxiety expressed through angst. Kierkegaard made it apparent, however, that angst does not always have to equal despair ("What Is Existential," 2014). He argued that this is what “also made it possible for people to set boundaries and make moral choices” ("What is existential," 2014, para. 5).

In the early twentieth century, Jean-Paul Sartre is said to be one of the most important existential philosophers. A true man of individual thought, Sartre denied the Nobel Peace Prize awarded to him for his work (Sackman, 2014). Despite this, he is best known for championing the idea of humanism. According to Warburton (1996), humanism emphasizes “the dignity of human beings [and] stresses the centrality of human choice to the creation of all values ... despite the absence of pre-established objective values we are entirely responsible for what we become, and this puts the future of humanity in our own hands” (p. 2).

It is this ideal that solidifies self-accountability, a central and identifiable tenet at the core of existentialism. Self-accountability emphasizes the fact that all wants and needs in life are attainable. It also reinforces the ideology that individuals are not victims of circumstance, but masters of their own destiny.

Another founding member of the existential school of thought is Albert Camus. Although never truly identifying himself as an existentialist, this French philosopher’s work with absurdism closely relates to the idea of existentialism, and his work significantly influenced the ideology of existentialism. According to Sackman (2014), absurdism is the “idea that people are looking for rational meaning in the universe only to find that there is no meaning” (p. 3).

Although not entirely in line with existentialism, absurdism allows for ideas such as humanism and angst to find more prominent standing in existentialism. Since absurdism states there is no true rational meaning in the universe, people must take personal responsibility for making their own meaning. This ideology gives freedom of interpretation to each individual, leaving the fate of humanity in each person’s hands. Good or bad, moral or immoral, it is the individuals who determine their paths and each of their decisions.

The Classic Crime’s song “Abracadavers” focuses on the existentialist idea that everyone is naturally selfish because of the immense amount of emphasis on individuals choosing their own path and finding their own meaning in life. The song recognizes that all people are essentially the same, as demonstrated by the lyrics, “[W]e’re all the same, made of hair and bones and water and blood cells” (MacDonald, 2008, para. 4). This idea that all beings share similarities contradicts the ideology of independence, as emphasized in individualistic cultures (Leake, D., & 112

Black, R., 2005). This is also reinforced as suggested in the following lyrics: “We’re all to blame for spending way too much time on ourselves” (MacDonald, 2008, para. 4).

An alternative band from Seattle, Washington, The Classic Crime’s song “Abracadavers” was produced as a part of their album, The Silver Cord, in 2008. Although not an incredibly popular band, they still found fame during their fourteen-plus years in the music business, signing with Tooth & Nail Records. Two of their albums reached the Billboard top 200. They toured with big-name bands such as Relient K and Owl City; they also headlined the world-renowned Warped Tour in 2006 and 2008 with world famous bands such as Anberlin and Emery ("The Classic Crime," 2014).

Existentialism focuses primarily on the personal responsibility every individual has to create their own path and develop meaning in their own lives. With this kind of responsibility comes existential angst. People become ridden with anxiety as they realize the weight of the power they hold over their own lives. Unfortunately, as this song states, this can create an overemphasis on the individual, as people become “wrapped up” in life and its meaning. Consequently, people may forget about others around them, as illustrated by the lyrics, “spending way too much time on ourselves.”

American society can be said to focus too largely on the self rather than the community as a whole. Characterized by “self-sufficiency, individual achievement, and individual choice,” American society is clearly represented within the lyrics of this song (Leake, D., & Black, R., 2005). As suggested by Leake and Black (2005): American individualism highly values the freedom to choose for oneself. People are assumed to have free will, and from an early age they may be reminded that each choice has consequences for which they will be held personally responsible. In collectivist cultures, the ideals of individual choice and free will are less likely to be highly valued, and less emphasis may be places on personal responsibility for outcomes. (Leake, D., & Black, R., 2005, para. 15) Whether similarities as a collective society are prevalent or not, people are programmed to focus on themselves in order to thrive in American culture. Unfortunately, some musicians, and the lyrics they produce, reinforce these negative messages.

It can be argued, however, that there appears to be an innate need to focus on the self rather than the group as a whole. Looking at retail, the individual will buy more than groups as a whole.

People have different tastes and preferences, which fuels individual buying rather than coming to a general consensus. This could imply a need in the music business, for instance, to focus on individualistic undertones to appeal to a single customer, which generates sales. The final lines of the song state: “I have been blessed and now I’m blind/A veil’s been pulled over my eyes/ Now every bad season that kept me believing seems so contrived/There’s more glory to be seen and savored through suffering than ever was through self-serving escape (MacDonald, 2008, para. 5).

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This section recognizes the dangers of selfishness, and while being blinded by society, there appears to be little hope of change. Although there is recognition of the faultiness of individualistic thinking in the existential quest to find one’s own path, the lack of call to action proves to be the ultimate disservice. It is said that there is strength in numbers, but with such a heavy focus on the self, negative and positive progress is stifled because existentialism and individualism go hand in hand: “A widely shared value in American mainstream individualism is that people should continually be improving themselves and advancing in their educations, careers, and other endeavors” (Leake, D., & Black, R., 2005, para. 16).

Instead of joining together to progress as a whole, American culture promotes many existentialist ideals. The ideals of existentialism expect the individuals to harness their own responsibility in order to better themselves, thus advancing collective progression. This, however, creates too much independence, promoting an individualistic culture within American society.

One example can be seen with Young the Giant, an Indie rock band that hails from Irvine, California. Starting out as The Jakes, four men came together in 2004 to form the now successful and world-renowned indie rock band. They originally signed to Roadrunner Records in 2009 before signing to Fueled by Ramen. (Fueled by Ramen has signed world famous bands such as Paramore! and Fall Out Boy.) Young the Giant released their first album in 2010, featuring songs such as “My Body” and “I Got.” Many of the songs on this album landed them on the Billboard Alternative Songs Chart, peaking at number 42. After performing on the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, Young the Giant began their tour with Incubus, as well as finding themselves on the main stage of the greatly acclaimed music festival, Lollapalooza.

Young the Giant continues to influence the youth and adult world alike with their song “Cough Syrup,” one of the many songs that has found its way onto the radio of millions of Americans ("Young the Giant," 2014). This song, one of Young the Giant’s first big singles, encompasses the existential idea of finding one’s own way in the world, and how that can actually be a bad thing. The premise of the song tells the story of a man trying desperately to cope with the struggles he is facing while he tries to find his way in life: “Life’s too short to even care at all, oh. I’m losing my mind losing my mind losing control, oh” (Gadhia, 2010, para. 1). Burdened by the struggle to find a purpose, the man in this song is slipping from reality, unable to handle the responsibility for his own happiness that is said by existentialists to be in the hands of every individual.

As MetroLyrics states, the song continues: “Life’s too short to even care at all, oh. I’m coming up now, coming up now out of the blue, oh.” These lyrics exemplify existential thought—a focus on one’s self to find one’s own purpose and not to worry about anyone else. These lyrics can also be interpreted as a man’s understanding that not worrying about others is the true key to happiness. Consequently, this creates an emphasis on one’s self, promoting individuality rather than collectivism.

The lyrics continue, “These zombies in the park are looking for my heart, oh. A dark world aches for a splash of the sun, oh” (Gadhia, 2010, para. 4). The man, in a desperate search for happiness, feels depression (seen in the metaphor of the zombies) coming back to consume him.

Everyone, not just the man in this song, is trying to find their own “splash of sun,” or happiness, 114

in the dark world they live in. However, he is unable to do this, and ends up having to “run to the things they say could restore me” (Gadhia, 2010, para. 6).

Unable to deal with the individualistic manner of the existential quest to find his own happiness, the man in this song buckles under the pressure of trying to find his meaning in life. This significantly contributes to the problem of existentialism: promoting individualistic culture in America, creating a society in which people are more prone to feeling alone. It is collectivist cultures, not individualistic, that value group achievements and reliance upon other group members (Leake, D., & Black, R., 2005). Leake and Black further suggest: In some collectivistic cultures, great importance is placed on maintaining the family reputation by not shaming it. This perspective can delay or prevent getting help if conditions such as mental illness or disabilities are viewed as sources of shame.

Furthermore, family members in a collectivistic culture may desire or feel obligated to care for relatives in need, so accepting help from others may be viewed as evading family responsibilities. In American mainstream culture families also take care of their own, however, often people feel they should take care of their own needs and only turn to their families as a “last resort.” (para. 16) This song takes these problems and masks them with “cough syrup,” and the man is seen “waiting for [the] cough syrup to come down” (Gadhia, 2010, para. 3). The cough syrup can be interpreted as a metaphor describing the drugs people abuse to mask their problems—things they find to be too difficult to deal with on a daily basis. However, the cough syrup can also represent anything that an individual uses to run away from their problems. In essence, the cough syrup is a temporary fix for the problems that one might face, feeling as if they have no one to support them.

Apart from creating a society in which people may feel more alone and unable to ask for help, issues arise with regard to masking problems with drugs and other means when people are unable to find their own way in life. Drug abuse still plagues the youth of our society.

Approximately one-fifth of all 12th graders have confessed to having used illicit drugs ("Drug facts: High," 2014). Although a direct correlation has not been established linking young adults feeling alone and developing a need to mask their feelings of sadness and loneliness, it is something that must be considered.

With over 30% of college students being said to have some sort of depression, a point must come where it is questioned how much of their depression stems from the typical college transition, and how much comes from drugs they may be using to mask their problems (Eisenberg, Gollust, Golberstein, Hefner, 2007, pp. 534–42 ). According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH): “Students with depression do not necessarily drink alcohol more heavily than other college students. But students with depression, especially women, are more likely to drink to get drunk and experience problems related to alcohol abuse, such as engaging in unsafe sex” (Eisenberg et al., 2007, pp. 534-42).

Depression is also a major factor in suicide rates, as it is the third leading cause of death for teens and young adults between the ages of 15 and 24 (Eisenberg et al., 2007, pp. 534-42). The 115

individualistic mentality of existential thought poses risks to the mental health of individuals within America, and puts into question people’s ability to cope with the stress of finding their own way through life.

One of the most striking examples of this is Kurt Cobain, one the most influential rock stars of all time and a leader in existential music. An unfortunate member of the “27 Club,” a term used for musicians who passed away at the age of 27, Cobain found fame in the band Nirvana, sending him on a roller coaster ride of fame. His band released several albums before Cobain’s untimely death, selling over 75 million records, and he was recently inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2014. Kurt Cobain is without question an extremely influential rock star, and his music continues to influence the world.

Several of Nirvana’s songs encompassed existential ideals, but the song “Sappy” stands out as it satirizes religion—a major point of the existential school of thought. Many existentialists do not identify themselves with religion because “Existentialism believes in the total autonomy of a person from a world and life view apart from a God of sovereign authority, whereas Christianity acknowledges the existence of an all knowing, all powerful, and all present personal Creator who revealed Himself for the purpose of giving human life meaning ("Christian Existentialism” 2014, para. 3).

Existentialism can be thought of as the “antithesis of faith,” in that existentialism continuously reiterates that there is no absolute truth, which many Christians would ascribe to God. Nirvana’s song “Sappy” epitomizes this clash of ideals with its satirical take on religion. A rather simplistic song, the main portion of the lyrics read: “And if you save yourself, you will make Him happy/ He’ll keep you in a jar/And you’ll think you’re happy/He’ll give you breathing holes, and you’ll think you’re happy/He’ll cover you with grass, and you’ll think you’re happy now “(Cobain, 2014, para. 1).

This song is sarcastically noting the restricting qualities of religion and how the idea of an entity, in this case God, keeping you alive, will fool an individual into accepting life “inside of a jar.”

Nirvana is poking fun at Christians and all religious individuals, criticizing them for losing their own individuality and ability to think on their own, because they put their lives in the hands of something that they cannot see. This clearly embodies existential thought as it fights the idea of one absolute truth, promoting the necessity to think for one’s self for fear of becoming trapped in a monotonous place that the song calls the “laundry room.” Along with pursuing one’s own path and discovering one’s own happiness, one must free oneself from the restrictions of religion.

Although this call for individualistic thinking can be thought of as beneficial for the individual, dispelling religion by default also dispels a collectivist community. Religions, especially larger ones, all claim millions of people who are affiliated to their religion. Nirvana’s existential message pushes people away from these collectivist groups, which have been a part of society for centuries. This further drives individualistic thinking in American society. An extremely influential pop punk band, Nirvana has influenced the lives of millions of teens. This could potentially spark existential thinking, which in turn may spark individualistic thinking. Young, malleable minds have now become the parents of today’s society; thus it is plausible that

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individualistic ideals have been passed on to today’s younger generation, creating a cycle that could push American culture even further away from collectivist culture.

It is hard to say whether or not a collectivist culture is more beneficial than an individualistic culture. American society, which identifies strongly with individualistic culture, appears to have thrived throughout the course of history, and some believe that America has thrived because of our individualistic thinking. Living in an extremely competitive country, people are given the opportunity to create their own great fortune every day. Great entrepreneurs like Steve Jobs might have never had the chance to rise above everyone else had it not been for being born in America where attributes of individual achievement and self-determination are so heavily valued.

However, there is also a question about what life would be like today if we lived in a strongly collectivist community such as Sweden. Sweden’s culture rests in the idea that the country as a whole should live equally amongst each other, with no true urgency to be better than the rest.

They live in harmony, satisfied with being held at a middle ground.

After carefully analyzing the existential music of The Classic Crime, Young the Giant, and Nirvana, I would suggest that more harm is done than good by existential thought. For those who are able to take a hold of their lives and attain meaning, existentialism is a liberating way to approach life. However, for those who fall off the beaten path, there could also lie depression, loneliness, and a feeling of being lost within this world and their own community. Pushing towards individualism, there is less emphasis on seeking help from others, creating a vicious circle of loneliness.

Collectivism, however, focuses on the greater picture: society is about the whole community, rather than a single person alone. Strength will always be found in numbers, and it would therefore be beneficial for American society today to move away from individualistic culture and toward a more collectivist standpoint.

REFERENCES Christian Existentialism - is it compatible? What is the Christian worldview toward Existentialism? (n.d.). Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/christian-Existentialism-faq.htm Drug Facts: High School and Youth Trends. (2014, January 1). Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/high-school- youth-trend Eisenberg D, Gollust SE, Golberstein E, Hefner JL. Prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and suicidality among university students. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2007 Oct; 77(4):534–42. PubMed PMID: 18194033.

Gadhia, S. (2010). Cough syrup lyrics. Retrieved October 31, 2014 from http://www.metrolyrics.com/cough-syrup-lyrics-young-the-giant.html

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Nirvana. (n.d.). Sappy (Late Version). Retrieved October 30, 2014, from http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/nirvana/sappylateversion.html Pew Research Religion & Public Life Project. (2013). Retrieved October 31, 2014 from http://religions.pewforum.org/reports Leake, D., & Black, R. (2005). Essential Tools: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity: Implications for Transition Personnel. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration, National Center on Secondary Education and Transition.

MacDonald, M. (2008). Abracadavers. Retrieved October 31, 2014 from http://www.lyricsmania.com/ abracadavers_lyrics_classic_crime_the.html Sackman, J. (2014). The History of Existentialism. Retrieved October 20, 2014 from http://www.tiki-toki.com/timeline/entry/18173/The-History-of- Existentialism The Classic Crime. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.toothandnail.com/artists/12/The_Classic_Crime/ Warburton, N. (1996). A Student’s Guide to Jean-Paul Sartre’s Existentialism and Humanism.

Retrieved October 20, 2014 from https://philosophynow.org/issues/15/A_students_guide_to_Jean_Paul_Sartres_Existential ism_and_Humanism What is Existential Angst? (2014). Retrieved October 20, 2014 from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-existential-angst.htm Young the Giant. (2014). Retrieved October 31, 2014 from http://www.youngthegiant.com/

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Effects of Photoshop on Teens Today (By Terrald Hodges) Over the past few decades, technology has experienced a significant boom in advancement and productivity. It has made life simpler and more efficient. We now have devices such as smart phones, which make taking pictures, gathering information, and communicating over great distances a breeze. We have electric cars, which lighten the burden of buying gas, make transportation eco-friendly, and best of all are tax-deductible. We also have programs such as Photoshop, which can make flawed pictures look flawless or an already fine picture look perfect—sometimes too perfect.

Over the past couple of decades the media has been taking advantage of this software to make their models look beautiful, sometimes so beautiful to the point where the body figure or facial features proposed aren’t even humanly attainable. Many credible sources and authors of books, news articles, and editorials explain how Photoshop and the media have negative effects on teenagers in America today. Due to this, the media should be forced to appropriately label pictures published through television, magazines, or billboard posters as having been tampered with using Photoshop—accompanied with the original picture, because many young teens today are falling victim to disordered eating, low self-esteem, loss of money, and false advertising.

Many teenagers today are overly exposed to the forms of media mentioned previously. These forms of media portray both men and women who look youthful, flawless, and like teenagers themselves. The only catch is that the person in these pictures and videos has a perfect body with pretty much zero to no flaws. You see women with thin yet curvy figures and men with a chiseled face and abs as well. Although it is possible to have a perfect body, half the models in these promotional pictures do not actually have the body they do in the picture, and the culprit behind this reasoning is the program Photoshop.

Hayley Phelan, Senior Editor at Fashionista.com who was previously an Assistant Editor at Teen Vogue, says: “Absolutely 100 percent of what’s in fashion magazines is retouched … You can never have no retouching across the board” (Phelan). Cynthia L. Baron, Associate Director of the graduate program in Digital Media at the Northeastern University in Boston and author of Adobe Photoshop Forensics: Sleuths, Truths, and Fauxtography, claims: “Some of the editing changes should be ludicrous, but they are accepted without comments” (Baron 206).

This further proves the point that nearly every picture released in the media has been retouched

by Photoshop no matter what it is. It happens so often that drastic changes are not questioned anymore. Although it may not always be drastic, there is always room for improvement in the eye of the photographers and editors. This constant use of Photoshop can help fuel the mind of a teenager with thoughts that he or she will never be perfect because the models in the media are beyond what could even be perfect.

As mentioned previously, the magazine, television, and billboard media suggests that all men should have chiseled faces and will use Photoshop to give men that desired face shape with a well-structured jawline and chin. For women, the advertising businesses uses Photoshop to give them flawless skin and soft cheeks. Unlike dieting and exercising to get an ideal body, not much can be done about the shape of your face, as it is all genes. Tamara Abraham, Editor for 119

MailOnline and Daily Mail, says, “Thanks to Photoshop in the click of a mouse, the model’ complexion is smoothed and given a doll like sheen” and “Her eyes are made wider, her nose slimmer and lips fuller” (MailOnline). This explains and shows just how easy it is to Photoshop the “perfect” face for someone and how it is done as well. Overexposure to these kinds of images can easily cause a sense of insecurity and anxiety.

The Before (Left) & After (Right) of a model who had been Photoshopped to be given longer legs, doll-like smoother skin, a longer neck, bigger eyes and other minor fixes (Photo from Tamara Abraham of MailOnline).

In addition, exposure to thousands of images of skinny and thin women has conditioned women to believe that to be accepted, they have to be thin and skinny as well. This has encouraged many to diet and exercise. This doesn’t sound bad if it’s done in a normal and healthy way, but some women have resorted to starving themselves and exercising excessively. Lynn Grefe, President and CEO of the National Eating Disorders Association, says it is hard to escape the messages of body image that the media sets and that “[these] messages that can make us believe that reshaping our bodies to attain a certain “ideal” can bring us happiness, success, and popularity” (Grefe 2). However, Grefe goes on to say that “these messages can affect or body image and self-esteem, and, in some cases, lead to unhealthy eating and exercising behaviors, even eating behaviors” (Grefe 2).

Dieting and exercising are indeed important parts of being fit and having a nice body, but the images that the media portray are images of body figures that are scientifically impossible.

David G. Myers, Ph.D. and author of Psychology, says, “Those most vulnerable to eating disorders are also those who most idealize thinness and have the greatest body dissatisfaction” (Myers 454). These thoughts can easily come from overexposure to models in media who have had Photoshop done excessively. This makes teenagers think that their own weight is not good enough, which encourages poor dieting and exercising habits. This can ultimately lead to anorexia or bulimia nervosa in extreme cases.

Some kinds of images that thousands of teenagers are being exposed to today are advertisements promoting lingerie and clothing. Many advertisements make statements saying that you need a thin and skinny body in order to sport this underwear or bra. It’s ironic because the models in the advertisements can barely sport it naturally themselves, having been retouched by Photoshop.

Baron states, “Photo retouchers with marching orders and no previous experience in figure drawing, churn out hundreds of ads for everything from shoes to lingerie. A body can lose its internal organs to sell underwear” (Baron 207). She then shows an image of a DKNY model where “the retoucher made the model thinner by cutting off her ribs and creating a ruler-sharp line from the bottom of her bra down to her undies” (Baron 206).

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Baron explains how Photoshop can be used to market things that look good on models in magazines when they do not even look the same in reality. This gives the consumer a false sense of hope into thinking that they can look like the model. In reality it just isn’t possible, and when the consumers finds out, they develop insecurities.

An advertisement in a magazine page shows this retouched model sporting underwear with a thin body. She had been Photoshopped to have a couple of rib bones removed and was given a “ruler-sharp line from her bra to her underwear”. This picture is from Cynthia Baron's Adobe Photoshop Forensics: Sleuths, Truths, and Fauxtography.

Not only does extreme use of Photoshop encourage bad eating and exercising behaviors, it also creates a sense of insecurity and low self-esteem. People who cannot attain that “doll-like sheen” with full lips and wide eyes begin to feel insecure because this look is imposed so often in advertisements. When teenagers are constantly exposed to pictures and videos of models with not only perfect bodies but also perfect faces, they begin to feel a sense of insecurity knowing that their face will never be as perfect as a model’s.

Yet in reality there is nothing wrong with natural looking faces. Psychotherapist Emily Roberts says, “Study after study has shown that when we see perfected, altered images it leads to anxiety and low self-esteem” (Roberts). Furthermore, she says, “It can even play a role in many mental health disorders, as it sets up an unrealistic ideal and creates feelings of ‘I’m not good enough’” (Roberts). It is not hard to see the connection between anxiety and low self-esteem due to Photoshop and the media.

Another consequence for the mental health of American teenagers is how often they cave into buying beauty care products. For example, in many magazines promoting cosmetics, images have been retouched using Photoshop, enhancing the effects of the actual product to the point where the product can’t function the way it is advertised. This becomes false advertising. There have been cases where advertisements were pulled because of excessive use of Photoshop to promote a product. Dave Barnard, a first-hair lawyer who has litigated false advertising claims, explains how in 2011, “ASA also pulled L’Oreal ads featuring Julia Roberts and Christy 121

Turlington for digitally manipulating photographs in connection with ads promising better looking skin” (Barnard). Barnard explains how Photoshop is being used in cosmetic commercials promoting products that promise better-looking skin, while in the advertisement the model has actually her skin retouched by Photoshop to look flawless. At some point it seems like cosmetic advertisements no longer care about what their products do, but more so how well they can Photoshop a picture to make it look like their products are effective.

When people see perfect faces of models in magazines or televisions, it encourages viewers to do something about their appearance in order to feel accepted by society. If diet and exercise will not help with facial features, women and some men can turn to cosmetics. It may not be an obvious correlation, but the more someone is exposed to images altered by Photoshop, the more they feel insecure about their self-image and in order to feed their insecurities, they spend money on makeup and cosmetics to look desirable.

Jennifer Sams, a contributing author to Divine Caroline, states: “Cosmetic companies are profiting from our insecurities” (Sams), and “television and magazine advertisements [promote] selling youth in a jar, line-smoothing foundations, lip-plumping lipsticks, and lash-thickening mascaras” (Sams). All of these are products promoting the beauty that Photoshop artists edit into pictures of models. Sams is saying that cosmetic companies know women are insecure and they promote their products by promising to counter a woman’s insecurities. As mentioned previously, many women’s insecurities come from the overexposure to perfect models in images that have been heavily altered by Photoshop.

Along with spending money on cosmetics, some people who are insecure may even resort to plastic surgery. Like buying cosmetics, resorting to plastic surgery results from feeling too insecure about your looks and worrying about not being able to fit in with society. Also, as mentioned previously, Photoshop has set standards way too high for the public. Plastic surgery is definitely an extreme, but when someone already has a weak mind, cash, and multiple insecurities, it is a possibility that they may turn to plastic surgery Many people will resort to plastic surgery because they want the features that the pretty people in the media have, but half the time whatever is seen in the media has been altered. An author of SmartBeautyGuide.com, a site specializing in beauty techniques and makeup, explains how Photoshop helps promote and inspire people to undergo plastic surgery. The author asks, “Does Photoshop prompt plastic surgery?” and goes on to answer, “One organization reported that while the obsession with ‘selfies’ could be greatly influencing the number of people seeking plastic surgery, another image-focused application might also be a contributing influence: Photoshop” (SmartBeautyGuide).

There are a few who say that Photoshop brings good into our lives. As mentioned in the beginning of this essay, Photoshop can make flawed pictures look flawless. Sometimes, pictures of milestone events in your life have been ruined by an extra person in the back, or maybe it just looks awkward. Photoshop can also take a lot of weight off the cameraman’s back, knowing that if there ever is a mistake, there are programs that can fix it with the click of a mouse. Lastly, it can also make marketing clothing, cosmetics, supplements and other things a breeze.

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However, aren’t flawed pictures of family events what also help to create the story? Although Photoshop can fix pictures and make them look perfect, sometimes a not-so-perfect picture is worth even more words. When viewers see models or celebrities today posing without any makeup or retouching, they may immediately feel a lot less insecure and a lot more confident.

This is because they know that if someone with lots of popularity and fame can be on the cover of the magazine without anything to hide with makeup or Photoshop retouching. This may help them to go outside and live life without makeup or plastic surgery themselves.

In the end, there are many different advancements that we have had over the past few decades.

Many of them are beneficial to the human race. They do indeed make life a lot easier and simpler, but some do more damage than good. Although Photoshop has a lot of pros, it does come with a pretty big list of cons as well. Credible authors of books, editorials, and news articles agree that Photoshop does a lot of harm to American teenagers, not just affecting mental health through as disordered eating or insecurity, but also encouraging over-spending money by promoting products with empty promises to boost self-esteem.

If the public and consumers knew more about how extreme Photoshop can be, we could prevent a lot of negative effects of being overly exposed to pictures retouched by Photoshop. This is why it is important that any form of media, whether it be television, magazines or billboards, should be forced to label pictures with a warning sign and have the original un-retouched version of the image on the advertisement as well, so that consumers know to what extent Photoshop was used.

WORKS CITED Barnard, Dave. "Litigation: Photoshop-the next False Advertising Risk?" Litigation: Photoshopthe next False Advertising Risk? Summit Professional Networks, 22 Nov. 2012. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.

Baron, Cynthia. Adobe PhotoShop Forensics: Sleuths, Truths, and Fauxtography. Boston: Thomson Course Technology, 2008. Print.

"Does Photoshop Prompt Plastic Surgery?" SmartBeautyGuide. ASAPS, Inc., 20 May 2014.

Web. 20 Nov. 2014.

Eisenstock, Bobbie, and Lynn Grefe. Get REAL! A Digital Media Literacy Toolkit. Northridge: National Eating Disorders Association, 2013. Print.

MailOnline, Tamara Abraham for. "Who IS That Girl? Time-lapse Video Shows the Radical Effect of Photoshop on a Model's Body." Mail Online. Associated Newspapers, 30 Oct. 2013. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.

Myers, David G. "Chapter 11 Motivation and Work." Psychology. 9th ed. New York: Worth, 2004. 443-93. Print.

Phelan, Hayley. "Anonymous Retoucher Says '100 Percent' of Fashion Images Have Been Altered." Fashionista. Breaking Media, Inc., 20 July 2012. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.

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Roberts, Emily, and Fay Agathangelou. "Don't Let the Media Make You Insecure." Building SelfEsteem. HealthyPlace.com, In., 30 Jan. 2013. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.

Sams, Jennifer. "About Face: Why Some Women Can't Go Without Makeup." Divine Caroline.

Meredith Corporation, n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2014.

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MEET THE WRITERS! I grew up in Shaker Heights, Ohio, which is a suburb of Cleveland.

After serving ten years in the United States Navy Submarine Force, I returned to civilian life at HPU. I am majoring in History with the intention of becoming an educator. HPU is extremely supportive of veterans like me. My favorite thing about Hawai‘i is the consistently comfortable weather.

Kyle Bales I'm originally from St. Louis, Missouri. I am a Business major and I would like to go into retail marketing. I love communicating and working with others. My favorite thing about HPU is the people I have met. My professors are helpful and interesting, and most have extensive experience in their fields. The classes are small, which facilitates interaction and group work. HPU has introduced me to a smart, fun, and extremely diverse group of students unlike any I could find at another school. It's small, eclectic, and quirky, but I feel like that's what makes HPU a good fit for me.

Jack Blethroad

I was born and raised in a Philippine province. I am currently majoring in Management Information Systems, and I plan to become an MIS professional. However, I am open to anything that will come my way, such as studying for software engineering. What I like about living in Hawai‘i is that it is a very nice and beautiful place. Many tourists from other countries and the U.S. mainland visit Hawai‘i for its beauty. It has nice, white-sand beaches, and loving people who treat everyone as a part of their family or ‘ohana. Whenever I need to work on projects or ask for inquiries, the school’s staff is there to help. I am satisfied with what I am getting from attending this school, and I am looking forward to more great opportunities.

Marjury Cabanlit

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I was born and raised on the island of O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. My major is Psychology and I'm hoping to enter forensic psychology in the future. Hawai‘i is my home and I love the beautiful hikes and great beaches. I've always enjoyed that part of HPU is on the windward side, and the diversity on campus is great. I've had the opportunity to meet people from all over the world. I can't wait to learn more and meet more people.

Chardei Costa

I am originally from San Diego, California. I am majoring in Marine Biology and I would like to become a researcher who protects and conserves marine species. I love exploring the island and getting to know and appreciate all it has to offer.

Victoria Dickey

Hello! My name is Robin Faulkner and I am a freshman at Hawaii Pacific University. Originally from Spokane, Washington, I am a Biology and Human Health Sciences major, and I intend to go to med school to become a Neurologist. One of my favorite things about living in Hawai‘i is how many hiking and other outdoor activities there are yearround. Coming from a northern state, I’m not used to seeing much sun for about five months of the year, so having frequent warm weather and sunny days has been absolutely wonderful. I also love the diversity HPU has to offer; meeting friends from all over the country and world has been an experience I’ll never forget.

Robin Faulkner

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Jenn Flores

I was born and raised in the North Shore town of Waialua on the Island of O‘ahu, a community with a population of about 4,000 residents. I attended Waialua High and Intermediate School and studied hard to get into college. I am currently majoring in Pre-Nursing in hopes of becoming an ER Trauma Nurse or a Registered Nurse, locally or somewhere on the mainland. My favorite things about living in Hawai‘i are the beaches. Living on the North Shore gives me easy access to the beach. I can play in the water, play in the sand, or simply bring a book and read. My favorite thing about HPU is the diversity of students. Meeting people of different cultures and ethnicities is a great way to learn about the world.

(NOT INCLUDED: JOHN GRAEF) I was born in Hawai‘i on the island of O‘ahu, and I am an Accounting major. I do hope that one day I can acquire my CPA Certificate and begin my career as a Certified Public Accountant.

The one thing I always loved about Hawai‘i is our consistent and steady weather. Although we also have our fair share of crazy weather, it is definitely something the entire state can get through together. I also really enjoy the scenery in certain parts of the island. What I love about HPU is its diversity. Although I did not go away for college, I am meeting people from all over the globe, which is almost as good. I get to meet many different people from many different cultures and learn a bit about their lifestyles.

(NOT INCLUDED: ELIZABETH HUDSON) Terrald Hodges

Alten Kiakona

Hello, my name is Alten Kiakona. I was born and raised in Kailua, Hawai‘i. I am currently a Chemistry major and a Theatre minor, and I intend to pursue a career in cancer research or live out my dreams of being on Broadway! One of my favorite things about living in Hawai‘i is the sense of aloha and respect that people have here. Many families here teach their children that respect is one of the utmost important things to have. It is our kuleana, our "responsibility," to teach and give respect to all we meet.

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My name is Nicole King. I am completing my freshman year at HPU, majoring in Oceanography. My future career plans involve research in ocean acidity and coral preservation. I was born in Ketchikan, Alaska, and raised in Laramie, Wyoming. Wyoming offers great outdoor activities such as skiing, sledding, and hiking. I enjoy living in Hawai‘i and partaking in new outdoor activities without snow!

Nicole King I am from Vernon, Connecticut. I have no clue what I am doing yet and I am currently an undecided major; I'm hoping to find something that makes me happy. I love living in Hawai‘i because of its atmosphere and vibe, but mostly I love the adventures and life I have here.

Michelle Manganello I am originally from San Diego, California, and I am majoring in English with a minor in Computer Science. Although I do not have any concrete career plans, I am very interested in becoming a grant or technical writer, with aspirations to be an editor.

My favorite thing about Hawai‘i and HPU is being able to play soccer for the university, which helps pay for my schooling, and being able to play in paradise. The people I have met here changed my life and I hope to keep them in my life after I depart from the island.

Stephanie Martinez Hello, my name is Maria Nikulkova and I am originally from Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, but I grew up in a Russian household. I lived in Colorado for a few years and this is my first year in Hawai‘i. I am currently a Biology and Human Health major and I hope to enter the medical field.

Hawai‘i is lovely because of its warm beaches, especially during the winter. I particularly like the lack of daylight savings time here.

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Maria Nikulkova

(NOT INCLUDED: KERIANNE NOONAN) I was born in the Philippines. At the age of 9, I moved to Maui and lived there for 8years. I am majoring in Hospitality and Tourism. At the moment my career plans are undecided, but I want to be part of the hotel or restaurant industry one day. My favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is the hospitality of its people and feeling the presence of the aloha spirit all around.

Darlene Quito

I am originally from Huntley, Illinois. My major is Nursing. I plan to stay in the Navy, and once I get my nursing degree I am going to try and become commissioned to be an officer. My favorite things about Hawai‘i are being near the ocean and going on hikes. However, my all-time favorite thing to do is travel to the other beautiful islands of Hawai‘i with my boyfriend, Cole.

Gabrielle Reif Iri Robinson (Not Pictured): My name is Iri Robinson and I'm from Okinawa, Japan. My major is Environmental Studies. One day, I hope to find a way to save Indonesia's orangutans and rainforest. Attending HPU, I enjoy meeting other students from around the world.

Newt Sanson I am originally from Mayflower, Arkansas. I served in the Marine Corps for twenty-two years. Upon retirement, I decided it was time to complete my education so I can move on to the next chapter in my life. I am currently seeking my degree in Business Management. While I enjoy the diversity that Hawai‘i Pacific University has to offer, what I like most is that you are not simply a number or face in the classroom. The instructors know each student by name, learn your strengths and weaknesses, and when available, cater to your specific needs in the learning environment.

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I'm from O‘ahu originally; I was born and raised in Honolulu. My major is Pre-Nursing, and I hope to combine my interests in nursing and psychology by entering the psychiatric nursing field. My favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i and going to HPU is that I am close to home, but still able to meet people from around the world.

Zuleka Seth

I am from O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. I’m majoring in marketing with a minor in Japanese. I plan on pursuing a marketing career that is both enjoyable and challenging. If possible, I’d also like to experience Japanese corporate life. Ironically, I’m not a nature person at all; so I’d say my favorite thing about Hawai‘i is probably the food and diverse culture.

Ash-Lee Tanaka

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MAHALO! The editors and contributors would like to acknowledge the contributions and support of the following people: David Lanoue, Dean, HPU College of Humanities and Social Sciences William Potter, Associate Dean, HPU College of Humanities and Social Sciences Shane Teranishi, HPU Web Services Kiley Caswell, Editorial Intern Lily Nazareno, Cover Artist

Nominating Instructors Kathleen Cassity David Falgout John Kahle Lisa Kawai Deborah Ross Micheline Soong

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