Fresh Perspectives vol 11 Fall 2017

Volume 11: Essays selected from Fall 2017 HPU First-Year Writing Courses 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS EDITORS’ WELCOME .................................................................................................. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. 4 NEGOTIATING IDENTITIES ....................................................................................... 5 Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo ............................................................................... 6 Dori Nakayama Homosexual Disposition in Males Examined In the Context of the Nature vs.

Nurture Debate .................................................................................................................. 12 Kyle de Leon My Pet Peeve .................................................................................................................... 18 Raena Anderson To Texas and Back............................................................................................................ 20 Katherine Felix FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS ........................................................................................ 23 My Role Model ................................................................................................................. 24 Samantha Guyer Another Day in Pair-adise? A Study of Identical Twins .................................................. 29 Kale’a Broker The Culture of Homelessness ........................................................................................... 33 Mikaila Beeler Life is Not a Perfect Recipe .............................................................................................. 36 Jacqueline Santos The Psychology of Adultery in Fences ............................................................................. 38 Joseph Roberts MEDIATING COMMUNITES ..................................................................................... 41 Setting a Student Up for Failure ....................................................................................... 42 Katarina Mueller Violent Video Games Are Not “Just Games” ................................................................... 45 Cherlyn Kay Alejandro The Psychedelic Movement: An Era of Influences .......................................................... 50 Rosamaria Torres Finnish-Swedes ................................................................................................................. 54 Katriina Rinter-Jouppi

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TRANSFORMING SOCIETIES................................................................................... 59 Age and Maturity .............................................................................................................. 60 Leee Miyahira Euthanasia in Later Life .................................................................................................... 69 Hanako Adachi Gun Policy Sweeps the Nation ......................................................................................... 76 Lyka Mae Corotan Pit Bull Controversy: The Truth Behind the Breed .......................................................... 83 Cherisse Alexander Black and Muslim Stereotypes Increase the Prevalence of Racial Profiling .................... 91 Ashley Iseri GLOBAL PRIORITIES ................................................................................................. 96 Residential Mobility versus Residential Stability in Adolescent Social Development .... 97 Ciarra Kirby The Importance of Cross-Cultural Training for Short-Term Missions ........................... 102 Sydney Weeks The Girl Who Stood Up for Girls’ Right to Education................................................... 110 Emilie Johannesen Waste & Conscientiousness ............................................................................................ 117 Wilma Oernberg Factory Farming: The Detrimental Impacts Factory Farms have on Humans and the Environment .................................................................................................................... 120 Catherine Wehage Beyond Now ................................................................................................................... 126 Katelyn Sun MEET THE WRITERS .............................................................................................. 134 MEET THE EDITORS ............................................................................................... 139

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EDITORS’ WELCOME We are pleased to introduce our eleventh issue of Fresh Perspectives. Once again, we solicited essays from our first-year writing courses, covering a range of topics and approaches. Because these writers are relatively new to the academy, we do not expect disciplinary mastery. Our goal is to provide a venue for dissemination of ideas by our first-year students, who may still be learning the nuances of academic discourse yet who have compelling things to say and who offer, in the words of our title, “fresh perspectives.” Promising student essays were nominated by the students’ instructors and underwent a full editorial process by our interns. You will notice a wide range of views here, some of them perhaps contradictory; these pieces represent the opinions of the writers alone and are not necessarily endorsed (nor denounced) by HPU, the College of Liberal Arts, the Department of English and Applied Linguistics, or the editors.

Rather than selecting pieces that toe any particular “party line,” we have attempted—in the spirit of academic freedom—to present a range of perspectives, some of which may be proactive. This is fitting for a first-year writing program that emphasizes argumentation. Whether you agree, disagree, or have a complex reaction, we hope you will enjoy hearing from the newest members of our HPU ohana!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editors and contributors would like to acknowledge the support of the following people: Allison Gough, Dean, College of Liberal Arts William Potter, Associate Dean, College of Liberal Arts Joan Ishaque, Assistant to the Dean Mikael Ladegaard, HPU Web Services Christy Williams, Faculty Editor David Falgout, Faculty Editor Julie Flores, Editorial Intern Kylie Cummings, Editorial Intern Nyna Dies, Editorial Intern Jun Dennis Sadang, Editorial Intern Lorraine Jimenez, Cover Design Nominating Instructors: Debito Beamer David Falgout Angela Gili Lisa Kawai Laurie Leach Tad Matsunaga Micheline Soong Sean Thibadeaux Christy Williams

Contributing Artists: Raena Anderson Ramon Brockington Ryan Cimatu Samantha Guyer Dori Nakayama

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NEGOTIATING IDENTITIES

Secrets Under My Umbrella by Dori Nakayama

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Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo

By Dori Nakayama Novelist and essayist Sir Salman Rushdie once stated, “Vertigo is the conflict between the fear of falling and the desire to fall.” The only people who would understand this quote are people who have or had vertigo. One particular type of vertigo is Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV). BPPV is a spinning sensation and dizziness involving certain head movements. It is very common for people over the age of fifty to have it, but rare in adolescents. Although “benign” means not harmful, it is still dangerous for those unaware of its effects. Cases of vertigo in adolescents are increasing, which is especially dangerous because many do not know the symptoms or how to identify it. In “Period Prevalence of Dizziness and Vertigo in Adolescents,” Langhagen et al. (2015) discuss this increase of vertigo cases in adolescents. The concerning portion of the article focuses on the fact that many of these kids and teens have signs and symptoms of vertigo without realizing it. Langhagen et al. (2015) also discuss how vertigo affects the daily lives of adolescents and explain how they are restricted from going to school or enjoying other activities. Most adolescents should know about vertigo because it is becoming more common in their age group, has devastating effects, and could affect them in the future.

BPPV has various symptoms and causes. Symptoms include dizziness, nausea, a feeling of lightheadedness, and a lack of balance. The most common cause of vertigo is a head or neck injury. Other causes include stress, depression, inner ear infection, strokes, circulation problems, and migraines. When doctors are unable to find anything physically wrong with a patient, they often ask about the patient’s mental and emotional state. It is possible that stress, depression and anxiety trigger BPPV. That is also the reason why doctors tend to ask the patient if they are feeling more tired or exhausted than usual. The most obvious physical cause is an infection in the inner ear. It is usually either caused by a viral or bacterial infection and is easy to identify via physical tests. However, there have been situations where doctors cannot figure out what causes vertigo for a specific patient. The cause could remain unknown, leaving the patient with no closure. When a vertigo patient is being diagnosed, doctors carefully ask specific questions and examine the patient’s eye movements. They do this to help them identify any signs of dizziness.

If the patient’s condition is concerning, then the doctor may recommend lab tests such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Electronystagmography (ENG), or Videonystagmography (VNG).

Being diagnosed with vertigo is a scary moment for both adolescents and adults. Vertigo can affect people physically, mentally, and emotionally. Physical effects include distorted senses of balance and position in space. Because of these effects, many adults are not able to drive, to go to work, and do simple things like lifting their kids off of the ground. With adolescents, the effects are similar. They cannot physically go to school or participate in extracurricular activities.

For both adolescents and adults, vertigo makes their bodies feel weak. Since dizziness and nausea are involved, vomiting is likely to occur. Because of this, it is difficult to hold down food after eating, and, after vomiting multiple times, a person’s stomach physically becomes weaker and sore.

Mental and emotional effects include anxiety, depression, and possibly Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). When someone has PTSD, they usually have panic attacks. These panic 6

attacks involve shortness of breath, sweating, dizziness and nausea. Vertigo patients develop anxiety because of their fear of suddenly falling. When an episode of vertigo occurs, it does not take long for the person to lose their balance and fall to the ground. This anxiety is also connected to the development of PTSD. Many people with BPPV have had tragic experiences or been in accidents. Depression is also connected with anxiety. People with vertigo often experience drastic changes in their lives after they are diagnosed. BPPV requires a near-complete lifestyle change. Many tend not to feel like themselves because of all the changes, and this possibly leads to depression.

Langhagen et al. (2015) discussed the continuing increase of vertigo cases in adolescents. They wanted to assess how adolescents are severely affected by dizziness and vertigo. Langhagen et al. (2015) state, “The strength of the study is the focus on adolescents, an age group previously insufficiently investigated.� Because vertigo is usually common for adults (especially the elderly), studies of vertigo tend to focus on that age group instead of the younger generation.

However, researchers discovered that many of the adolescents in the experiment had symptoms of vertigo or already had the illness. Around 72% of them had an episode within the last three months (Langhagen et al., 2015).

While researching this condition, I interviewed a teenager diagnosed with BPPV (who asked to remain anonymous) two years ago, and she said that her life never will be normal again. When she first found out that she had vertigo, she was a confused and shocked sixteen-year-old. She recalled that she woke up and felt her room spinning; she couldn’t walk to the bathroom. She said she had no idea why or how it happened because she had no prior symptoms. As the weeks went by, she felt more and more miserable. She was constantly having episodes, which started to affect her academics and extra-curricular activities. Her mom had to call and write absence letters to the school because she would wake up dizzy and nauseous, and episodes would occur at random times. Because of this, her GPA dropped from a 3.8 to 3.0 within one quarter of the school year. She says it was almost impossible to concentrate in class with the constant dizziness, and it was difficult to hold down food. She became more miserable and depressed, and fear started to affect every aspect of her life, especially marching band. When she was diagnosed, her third marching season had just started. She was given a huge opportunity to be one of four section leaders that would lead forty clarinets through another strong season. However, vertigo affected her ability to be there for her section. It was difficult to go to rehearsals not only because of the vertigo but also because of the side effects of the medications. At the time, she wore motion sickness patches behind her left ear in an attempt to decrease the chances of getting another episode. However, wearing these patches made her very drowsy and blurred her vision.

She was embarrassed and defeated because she could not read the charts and give proper instructions during rehearsal. This ultimately led to her absence in performances and other important events.

What if she got vertigo as an adult? What if her actual career was at risk? This unfortunately happened to 31-year-old Nick Esasky. Esasky was a former Major League Baseball first and third baseman who played for the Boston Red Sox and the Atlanta Braves. Before he was diagnosed with vertigo, his life was perfect. He had a very successful career, along with a loving and supporting family. However, during spring training in 1990, Esasky started his battle with dizziness and nausea. The effects were visible in his performance at the games. Esasky made five 7

errors and struck out more than normal, and that’s when he began to realize that his dizziness and nausea was a serious issue. In the article “His Career Threatened by Dizzying Attacks of Vertigo, a Ballplayer Struggles to Regain His Field of Dreams,” Esasky personally narrates his vertigo experience and how it affected his life: I felt great about playing in Atlanta, and I was in the best shape of my whole career. But about a week and a half into spring training, things started to fall apart. Suddenly I began feeling weak and tired at the time. At first, I thought it was the flu and that it would go away. Then I began to get headaches and nausea, and I felt light-headed and dizzy. Soon it began to affect the way I was playing. At times it was hard for me to follow the ball. It looked hazy, as if it had a glow. I’d catch some off the end of my glove and miss others completely. Other times, a ball would land in my glove and I’d have no idea how it got there. (Esasky, 1991) After the opening day in Atlanta, Esasky and his team went on the road. His wife Vicki joined him on the trip, and that is when he told her what was going on. Russ Nixon, the Braves’ manager was also aware of Esasky’s condition and agreed that he needed to see a doctor.

However, Nixon still wanted him to play in the next three games, and Esasky agreed despite feeling uncomfortable. He injured his arm and shoulder and stopped playing altogether. After his last game, Esasky and his wife started their search for specialists. Within the course of six months, he saw more than thirty specialists but still did not have a solid diagnosis. He had to do CAT scans and spinal taps to make sure he did not have tumors or blockages and was also put on multiple medications. Unfortunately, the medications seemed to make his symptoms worse, and some of them made him constantly drowsy.

Once Esasky realized that his medications were not helping him, he went to the Mayo Clinic looking for solid answers: It wore me out, and in the end they couldn’t come up with anything specific. This was hard because we looked on Mayo as the ultimate. I can’t tell you how frustrating it is to watch all these experts running into a blank wall. It made me depressed at times and not the easiest person to live with. I’d end up yelling at my kids when I didn’t want to.

(Esasky, 1991) Despite Esasky’s frustration and depression, his teammates and his family continued to support him. He knew that this support would help encourage a positive mindset and fuel his goal “to live again” (Essasky, 1991). Not long after, Esasky went to Jeffrey Kramer, a neurologist and the director of the Dizziness and Balance Center. Esasky had his doubts but still went through the testing process. Kramer put Esasky through a test that “produced dizziness and jerky eye movements,” which are the prime causes of an inner ear infection and/or vertigo (Esasky, 1991).

He also worked with Alan Goldstein, director of the Georgia Sports Institute, to help Esasky with his balance system. The trick behind this unique plan was to purposely make him feel dizzy so he could learn how to fight through his dizziness attacks. Esasky explains this extensive training plan:

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We do a lot of hand-eye coordination, including Nintendo. Because every stimulus sound, touch, sight - affects my balance. Alan throws me balls of different sizes and colors and has me walk on balance beams and unfamiliar surfaces such as foam. My symptoms increased when I get tired, so in the beginning I couldn’t do any prolonged exercise. Now I’m up to 30 minutes on the aerobic machines and 30 minutes of weight training. It’s paying off. (Esasky, 1991) Esasky’s condition improved. He does tough workouts and plays in games. Even on days when he feels light-headed after a workout, his body is still able to function normally. Esasky says that he has become a stronger person because of this experience and that he will continue to move towards his goal of a full recovery.

Physical therapy is the most common treatment for patients with vertigo. After a patient has been diagnosed with BPPV, doctors or physical therapists will recommend exercises like the Epley and Semont maneuvers. Here is the procedure for both maneuvers: The Epley maneuver is performed as follows: You are seated, and the doctor turns your head 45 degrees horizontally towards the affected ear. You should hold the doctor’s arms for support. The doctor tilts you backward to a horizontal position with your head kept in place at a 45-degree turn, hanging. An attack of vertigo is likely as the debris moves towards the apex of the [ear] canal. You are held in this position until the vertigo stops, usually within a minute. The doctor helps you back to a seated position.

The Semont maneuver is performed as follows: You are seated, and the doctor turns your head so that it is halfway between looking straight ahead and looking away from the side that causes the worst vertigo. The doctor then lowers you quickly to the side that causes the worst vertigo. When your head is on the table, you are looking up at the ceiling. The doctor holds you in this position for 30 seconds. The doctor then quickly moves you to the other side of the table without stopping in the upright position. When your head is on the table, you are now looking down at the table. The doctor holds you in this position for 30 seconds. The doctor then helps you sit back up. (Healthwise Staff, 2017) The Epley and Semont maneuvers help alleviate or cure patients with vertigo. Patients might need multiple treatments depending on their condition. Not all BPPV patients have vertigo because of an inner ear infection though. The teen I interviewed is one of those BPPV patients without an inner ear infection, but she still does the maneuvers to alleviate the dizziness. The best part of doing these maneuvers is that the patient does not need a doctor or physical therapist.

However, there are downsides in these maneuvers. Patients with back or spine issues should not be doing these exercises because they might make those issues worse. Also, patients with inner ear infections could possibly harm themselves while performing the Epley maneuver. It is possible for the debris to move into the opposite inner ear canal, which can cause a different type of vertigo. This is why a diagnosis and analysis from a specialist is highly recommended.

In addition to physical therapy, there is a drug treatment to help alleviate or cure vertigo. The steroid is called OTO-104. Sixty-one-year-old Colin Breeze recently experienced the effects of the steroid. Breeze suffered from an inner ear disease called “Meniere’s Disease.” He described 9

how he had aggressive dizziness attacks (vertigo) and would spend up to seven hours a day vomiting: If you’d said to me here’s a million pounds, get yourself up those stairs or even onto the settee, I couldn’t have done it, it was absolutely impossible. It’s the most debilitating thing I’ve ever experienced in my life, the feeling was horrendous. After each attack I was exhausted and had to have two to three days off work to recuperate. I thought this is it, I’m going to lose my job and life. I’d adjusted myself to accept that the rest of my life was going to be a misery. (as cited in Shammas, 2017) After 200 days of receiving the pioneer treatment, Breeze said, “From the first injection I noticed improvements. I still had three attacks in the last three months, but that reduced it from one attack a week to one a month” (as cited in Shammas, 2017). Initially, doctors told Breeze that there was no cure for Meniere's Disease. They had no way to treat the disease until OTO-104 was created. This steroid, now known as the “miracle drug,” was the first step towards a cure for vertigo. When Breeze was searching for a treatment, he found ENT surgeon John Phillips, who was testing the steroid at Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital. Phillips conducted a trial to test how Breeze and the other seventeen patients would react to the steroid. Fortunately, a majority of the patients positively responded to the treatment. Phillips also conducted a trial in America with the help of the drug’s developer Otonomy. The second trial was a success and showed that it helped a majority of the patients when compared to the placebo. Phillips cautions, “We can’t really say it’s a miracle cure at the moment because we haven’t finished the stage three of the trial, so we do not know if Colin’s recovery was just by chance or whether it was down to the drug, but the results are very encouraging” (as cited in Shammas, 2017).

Awareness of vertigo is a huge concern across the globe. Langhagen et al. (2015) reveals that many adolescents had no idea they had vertigo, nor were they able to identify the signs and symptoms. BPPV is the most common type of vertigo, and that is why I decided to conduct a survey to gauge the awareness level of the condition. A total of eighty random Hawai‘i Pacific University (HPU) students participated in the survey. There were four questions asked: Do you know what vertigo is? Do you know what BPPV is? Do you know anyone under 18 who has vertigo? Do you know anyone over 18 who has vertigo? The results of the survey show that 60% of participants know what vertigo is, 39% know what BPPV is, 17% know someone under eighteen who has vertigo, and 41% know someone over eighteen who has vertigo. This supports the statements that more than half of adolescents do not know what BPPV is and that less than a fourth of adolescents know someone under eighteen who has vertigo. If university students are unaware, it is likely that those who are even younger are also unaware.

Most adolescents should know about vertigo because it is increasing in prevalence in their age group, has devastating effects, and could affect them in the future. Many adolescents do not know what BPPV is, and that is why they do not recognize the symptoms. Vertigo makes the body feel weak and this can affect a person physically, mentally, and emotionally. Physical effects include loss of sense of both balance and space. Mental and emotional effects may include anxiety, depression, and PTSD. PTSD is associated with vertigo because patients tend to have panic attacks, which may result in dizziness and nausea. In other words, vertigo can contribute to different illnesses or diseases. There is a cure somewhere out there, whether it is a 10

drug similar to OTO-104 or physical therapy. It is important for adolescents to know about vertigo. What if their parent, grandparent, or sibling is diagnosed with it? Would they be prepared? What if they were unexpectedly diagnosed with BPPV? Spreading awareness is crucial.

REFERENCES Esasky, N. (1991, March 25). His career threatened by dizzying attacks of vertigo, a ballplayer struggles to regain his field of dreams. People Magazine. Retrieved from http://people.com/archive/his-career-threatened-by-dizzying-attacks-of-vertigo-aballplayer-struggles-to-regain-his-field-of-dreams-vol-35-no-11/ Langhagen, T., Albers, L., Heinen, F., Straube, A., Filippopulos, F., Landgraf, M., N., & … von Kries, R. (2015). Period prevalence of dizziness and vertigo in adolescents. Plos One, 10(9). doi:10.1371//journal.pone.0136512 Healthwise Staff. (2017, May 4). Epley and Semont Maneuvers for vertigo. Retrieved from https://wa.kaiserpermanente.org/kbase/topic.jhtml?docId=hw205519 Shammas, J. (2017, April 05). Vertigo may not be “incurable” for much longer after this drug.

Mirror. Retrieved from https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/vertigo-sufferersoffered-oto-104-6891352

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Homosexual Disposition in Males Examined In the Context of the Nature vs. Nurture Debate

By Kyle de Leon In a perspective in which Darwinian evolution and the idea of “survival of the fittest” is the main focus, the existence of homosexuality in a species appears to be quite the counterproductive strategy. The existence of a predisposition for exclusive homosexual behavior seems to have zero structural function and creates a paradox, since such a predisposition would directly result in fewer offspring. As a result, many people remain confused about why homosexuality exists, and it is heavily debated in every society whether homosexuality should be accepted or labeled as deviance. Some people begin to consider the origins of homosexuality and whether the behavior is a result of nature (DNA) or nurture (the social environment). Various studies regarding epigenetics, prenatal stress, same-sex parenting, social illnesses, and prison sexuality suggest that the origins of homosexual dispositions are likely a result of influences other than nurture. In other words, evidence points to the idea that homosexuality is likely not caused by interactions with the social environment.

Studies involving identical twins and genetically cloned animals placed in different environments from birth have had a profound impact regarding our understanding of the effects of nature and nurture. While many are intrigued by the simplicity of nature vs. nurture, scientists would agree that the nature vs. nurture debate is actually much too simplistic. According to a TEDx Talks presentation by Courtney Griffins, new investigations into the study of epigenetic (lit. “above genetics”) has revealed a strong third influence alongside nature and nurture. Despite the belief that our genes are set in stone, our understanding of epigenetics has begun to change the way geneticists view the expression of genes and traits.

To understand epigenetics, it may help to conceptualize DNA as hardware and epigenetics as software in the context of modern technology. DNA is hereditary information stored inside every cell in an organism, wound around proteins called histones (Griffins). DNA contains sections called “genes,” which are codes that ultimately result in traits in the organism. In order for our bodies to function properly, instructions from a system in our histones called the “epigenome” are applied to silence and express certain genes. The way the epigenome works is by using certain methyl groups (often referred to by geneticists as epigenetic “tags” or “marks”), which cause DNA to coil up tighter in a specific region, effectively silencing specific genes.

One of the most significant findings regarding this field of study is that epigenetic marks can be influenced by the prenatal environment (Griffins). According to a TEDx Talks presentation by James O’Keefe, some ant species, for example, heavily rely on prenatal epigenetic tags to ensure that their colonies contain a suitable ratio of worker ants to soldier ants to fit the colony’s needs.

Every developing ant inside an impregnated queen ant has the potential to become either a worker (characterized by a smaller body) or a soldier (characterized by a larger body) in the colony. The queen ant’s body sends chemical signals to the DNA of the developing ants inside her to become either workers or soldiers, depending on the ratio that would benefit the colony at the particular point in time. For example, if the colony is in dire need of food, a higher percentage of the developing ants’ DNA will have epigenetic marks placed by the mother that are essential for worker ants in preparation for the future. The way that developing ants are 12

affected by epigenetics is similar to the way that developing human fetuses are affected by epigenetics. During maternity, women are strongly advised to refrain from certain behaviors such as smoking, drinking, and undereating, and are advised to reduce stress; studies have shown that factors such as cigarettes, alcohol, malnourishment, and prenatal stress can have long lasting epigenetic effects on the fetuses’ own gene expression (Griffins). According to Vivette Glover, examples of alternate gene/trait expression as a result of the prenatal environment can include impaired cognitive development, anxiety and depression disorders, autism, ADD/ADHD diagnosis, and asthma. In addition, according to a study of stress in the prenatal lives of men, among these possible outcomes is homosexuality in males (Dorner et al. 86-87).

Studies with rodents provide some of the most convincing evidence that there could be a correlation between prenatal stress and the occurrence of adult male homosexuality. Two studies in particular are quite impactful in the scientific community since results were found to have p-values ≤ 0.05, which are statistically significant. One study conducted in 2006 by Meek et al. revealed that prenatal stress appeared to invert sexual partner preference in male, 3-month-old mice. One group of mice was prenatally stressed with light, heat, and noise, while the other group (the control) was not stressed. The researchers found that the males’ sexual preferences, as measured by frequency of visits to other males’ compartments, time spent in other males’ compartments, and the latency to mount a female, were significantly inverted in prenatally stressed males when compared to non-stressed males (Meek et al. 133). The reasoning behind the prenatal stress theory regarding homosexuality likely lies in the idea of natural birth control.

Prenatal stress could be a sign that the environment is not fit to support more offspring; therefore, epigenetic tags predisposing homosexuality are placed on developing fetuses in an attempt to lower birth rates (O’Keefe). In another study published in 2010 by Popova et al., a similar inversion of sexual partner preference was observed in male mice following prenatal stress. They used a “three-chambered, free-choice model” for housing the mice to test preference; on one side of the subject was a female and on the other side a male (Popova et al.

48). Sexual partner preference was measured by the time spent against the partition containing a male vs. the time spent against the partition containing a female. Their research revealed that males whose mothers were given alcohol (11% ethanol solution) during gestation and were exposed to “restraint stress” to food and water displayed an inversion in their sexual preference; the prenatally stressed males spent more time at other males’ partitions and more frequently approached the males’ partitions (Popova et al. 48). The findings of Meek et al. (2006) and Popova et al. (2010) appear to replicate, in animals, the findings of a study in humans by Dorner et al. (1983), titled “Stressful Events in Prenatal Life of Bi- and Homosexual Men.” Dorner et al. surveyed one hundred similarly aged heterosexual adult men and one hundred bi- or homosexual men. In these surveys, they were asked about “maternal stressful events that may have occurred during their prenatal life” (Dorner et al. 83). The results from this study showed that, particularly in homosexual men, there was a “significantly increased incidence of prenatal stress” (83). Of the heterosexual males, 6% reported moderate prenatal stress and 0% reported severe prenatal stress (Dornet et al. 84). Of the homosexual males, 33.3% reported moderate prenatal stress and 35% reported severe stressful events during prenatal life (Dorner et al. 83).

Examples of prenatal stress provided by those surveyed include events such as deaths in the family, unwanted pregnancy, mid-pregnancy rape, parental rejection of the pregnancy, and domestic violence (Dorent et al. 85-86). According to Dorner et al., the findings of the surveys 13

suggest that prenatal stress may be considered a “risk factor” for “sexual deviations later in life” (83). The studies on rodents by Meek et al. and Popova et al. involving epigenetics, prenatal stress, and the incidence of predisposition to homosexual behavior in males appear to be supporting evidence for the survey results of men in the study conducted by Dorner et al. The studies discussed provide evidence for the prenatal stress theory and therefore suggest that stress during pregnancy is likely to produce inversion in the future sexual preference of rodents as well as of human males.

There is plenty of evidence to suggest that epigenetics plays a role in homosexuality, but there is also ample evidence to suggest that nurture, or the environment in which an individual interacts with, has very little impact on sexuality. For example, a meta study by Charlotte J. Patterson, who published in 1992, reveals that a plethora of studies found that the children of lesbian and gay parents (either adopted or the biological child of one parent) in industrialized societies were no more likely to have a deviant sexual orientation (bisexuality/homosexuality) when compared to the children of opposite sex parents (Patterson 1032). In every study, of a total of 300 offspring of gay and lesbian parents, the development of a non-heterosexual preference was found to fall “within normal bounds” (Patterson 1032). According to Patterson’s report, “no evidence has been found for significant disturbances of any kind in the development of sexual identity among these individuals [with same sex parents]” (1032). Therefore, findings from Patterson’s meta-study of children of gay and lesbian parents suggest that the environment that one is raised in cannot significantly affect sexual orientation, despite the extent to which social learning theories might emphasize the importance of heterosexual couples raising children. In addition, other studies have found that non-acceptance of those with deviant sexual orientations is also largely ineffective at changing sexual preference.

In fact, rejection of individuals with deviant sexual orientations often results in dangerous mental and behavioral health consequences. A statistic from San Francisco State University states that LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning) young people who were “highly rejected” were more than eight times more likely to have attempted suicide, nearly six times as likely to report high levels of depression, and more than three times more likely to use illegal drugs when compared to other young LGBTQ people who were “not rejected” or “only a little rejected” by their parents or caregivers (“The Lies and Dangers”). It has also been shown that those with bi- and/or homosexual orientations can be harmed by practices of “reparative” or “conversion” therapies. Such practices have become known to the scientific community as unethical. As a result of these findings, major mental health organizations such as the American Counseling Association, American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, and World Psychiatric Association deemed same-sex orientations “normal variants of human sexuality” and have generally stated that such dispositions cannot be changed by the environment (“The Lies and Dangers”). Therefore, there is an overall consensus in the scientific community regarding homosexuality; it is unlikely that the disposition can be significantly influenced by the social environment.

Since more young people are “coming out” as gay in modern society, another strong possible objection lies in the idea that being homosexual is now a trend of sorts. It could be said that the social environment (a largely pro-gay society) influences sexual orientation. People who believe this idea might also believe, with legitimate reasons, that being gay is an unconscious condition 14

not too different from documented cases of sociogenic illness (also called mass psychogenic illness, or MPI) in past societies prior to the 1900s. According to an article by Bartholomew et al., mass sociogenic illness “refers to the rapid spread of illness signs and symptoms affecting of a cohesive group”, and originate from a “nervous system disturbance” with “no corresponding organic cause” (300). Dozens of cases of MPI occurred in the Middle Ages in European convents among nuns. The cases all involved the belief of a nun that she had been demonically possessed, which caused her to exhibit symptoms of hysteria. The “possessed” nuns would use “foul and blasphemous language” and “engaged in lewd behavior” (Bartholomew et al. 300). According to Bartholomew et al., coupled with the widespread belief in witches and demons, the sociogenic illness became “contagious” and spread between individual nuns and between convents between the 15th and 19th centuries (300).

It could be said that homosexuality or “being gay” today is the modern version of MPI; everyone seems to have it these days, and the fact that homosexuality is becoming more accepted in our society increases the likelihood of “catching” the condition. While it makes for a fairly robust hypothesis to explain the increase in coming out among young people, there are at least two noteworthy objections to this argument. As previously mentioned, severe depression rates among LGBTQ youth “rejected” by their parents are six times higher than those who are “not rejected” or “only a little bit rejected” (“The Lies and Dangers”). This means that, in many cases, it is in such an individual’s best interest to conceal their true disposition. Consequently, rates of “coming out” are lower in mostly-intolerant societies than rates in mostly-tolerant societies. In other words, gay people have likely always existed—the only difference is that society now enables those individuals to truly express themselves to an extent. Therefore, the disposition of homosexuality is not likely to be traced to environmental factors such as sociogenic illness and societal tolerance. In addition, it is important to note that sociogenic illness mostly occurred during the Middle Ages—a time in which people largely did not understand the logical reasons behind behavior to the extent that people understand behavior in our modern society. Therefore, it seems unfair to compare homosexuality and mass sociogenic illness.

The existence of deviant sexuality found in prisons is also a possible objection. Some might argue that the increased rate of homosexuality in prison is proof that homosexuality is a result of the environment. Despite the way it appears from the outside looking in, a personal account from 1980 seems to reveal otherwise. Research partners John Money and Carol Bohmer published interviews from inmates in the Journal of Sex Research; one inmate from a prison in Maryland stated in a tape-recorded interview that, although he had multiple sexual experiences with other men while in prison, he never had a true attraction to men. During the first eighteen months of imprisonment, he resisted having sexual relations with other men. But, “as time went on without a woman,” it became increasingly difficult (Money and Bohmer 262). He then stated that whenever he had sex with a male companion, he would imagine a female partner. “I always just pictured him as a woman, a woman I wanted to be with when I was on the outside . . . immediately afterwards I’d wake up, looking for the female companion . . . when I left the institution, I left all my habits that I had there” (qtd. in Money and Bohmer 262-263). This excerpt from Money and Bohmer’s report supports the idea that male homosexuality in prisons is purely situational. It is important to distinguish between the action of homosexuality and the disposition of homosexuality. Therefore, the existence of homosexuality in a prison environment

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is not sufficient evidence that homosexuality as a disposition arises from nurture or the social environment.

In conclusion, while the origins of homosexuality in males is still widely debated, most evidence appears to point to the idea that nurture, or the environment, does not have significant effects on whether dispositional homosexuality exists in an individual. Studies from the scientific community regarding epigenetics, prenatal stress, same-sex parenting, social illnesses, and prison sexuality suggest that the origins of homosexual dispositions are likely a result of influences other than the social environment. Though the science of homosexuality is still in its infancy, the evidence collected thus far strongly suggests that homosexuality in males is a disposition, likely not caused by interactions with the social environment, but rather likely by nature, genetics, and epigenetic factors.

WORKS CITED Bartholomew, Robert E., and Simon Wessely. “Protean Nature of Mass Sociogenic Illness.” The British Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 108, no. 4, 2002, pp. 300–306, doi:10.1192/bjp.180.4.300.

Dörner, G., et al. “Stressful Events in Prenatal Life of Bi- and Homosexual Men.” Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes, vol. 81, no. 1, 1983, pp. 83–87, doi:10.1055/s0029-1210210.

Glover, Vivette. “Stress and Pregnancy (Prenatal and Perinatal).” Child Encyclopedia, Jan. 2011, www.child-encyclopedia.com/stress-and-pregnancy-prenatal-and-perinatal/according-exp erts/effects-prenatal-stress-child.

Griffins, Courtney. “Epigenetics and the Influence of Our Genes.” TEDx Talks, 23 Feb. 2012, YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=JTBg6hqeuTg. “The Lies and Dangers of ‘Conversion Therapy.’” Human Rights Campaign, www.hrc.org/resources/the-lies-and-dangers-of-reparative-therapy.

Meek, Leslie R, et al. “Effects of Prenatal Stress on Sexual Partner Preference in Mice.”

Physiology & Behavior, vol. 89, no. 2, 2006, pp. 133–138, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938406001880.

Money, John and Carol Bohmer. “Prison Sexology: Two Personal Accounts of Masturbation, Homosexuality, and Rape.” Journal of Sex Research, vol. 16, no. 3, 1980, pp. 258-266, hpu.idm.oclc.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h &AN=5687159&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

O’Keefe, James. “Homosexuality: It’s About Survival - Not Sex.” Performance by James O’Keefe, TEDx Talks, 15 Nov. 2016, YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Khn_z9FPmU.

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Patterson, Charlotte J. “Children of Lesbian and Gay Parents.” Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 15, no. 5, 2006, pp. 241–244, www.jstor.org/stable/20183123.

Popova, Nina K, et al. “Prenatal Stress and Ethanol Exposure Produces Inversion of Sexual Partner Preference in Mice.” Neuroscience Letters, vol. 489, no. 1, 2011, pp. 48–52, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304394010015181.

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My Pet Peeve

By Raena Anderson Though most people notice children throwing tantrums, most do not notice that it all starts with their upbringing and discipline by their parents. Throwing fits are sometimes the child’s way to get attention, but sometimes it is because they know they can get what they want by throwing a tantrum. Raising my kids in the world today, I make sure that they are raised with independence and respect, and that they learn the proper manners they will need in the future.

When I was twenty-years old, a month before I delivered my first born, I had to go to Wal-Mart to pick up a few things to get ready for the baby. As I walked over to the baby section, there was a young lady with a shopping cart; she had a four-year-old girl and a two-year-old boy in the wagon. The girl started to demand for a toy she had seen off in the distance. I heard her mom say, “No, darling, you can’t get a toy today.” The girl proceeded to stomp her feet and then started crying. Then the boy started to cry as well. She then walked over to where the girl had pointed and gave her the toy she wanted. The girl snatched it out of her mom’s hand and sat down to play with it. As I walked to the checkout counter with my items in hand, I thought to myself, “Damn, my kids better not be like that.”

My daughter was the first grandchild on both sides of our families; they all loved spoiling her.

Every time we take her to the store, whether it is shopping for food or for clothes, I always reminded her that she does not have to get a toy every time we go out. There would be times when I go out with my family and my niece would always grab a toy off the shelf and demand that her mom buy it. The toy could even be a toy she does not really like, but the fact that she got something was her expectation. I remember one time we all went out shopping and she went straight for the toy section; we all followed her over to see what she would pick this time. She leaned over and asked my daughter, “What are you gonna get?” My daughter replied, “I don’t always have to get something; besides I don’t need anything right now.” I smiled so big inside and thought, “Wow, I did that.” It is ok every now and then to reward them, but, if you do it every time, they will expect it. When she would get out of line, I would kneel down to her level and, with a very firm voice, I would tell her that I will take things away or tell her she will get a spanking. She would quickly snap out of it, and then she would be fine. I would always think to myself, “Wow, that wasn’t bad at all. I could do this.”

Fast forward to 2013 when I had my second daughter. I was feeling very confident thinking that I did this once before, and everyone tells me my oldest daughter is so well behaved. As years went by the second child started to develop her own personality. If you see her now, she is very independent, friendly, and sometimes demanding. I do not know if it is because she is the baby and gets what she wants, but the moment she starts whining or crying for something, I pull her to the side and talk in my firm voice. There are some times that I do give in.

I don’t know what it is, but I get so irritated when kids don’t listen. My kids know that, when I give them that stern look or tell them in a firm voice, they should snap out of it. I get even more irritated when I see other kids throwing their fits and not listening to their parents. This past Christmas and New Year, my family and I went on a trip to Disney World. That place was packed with so many different people; it was an experience and I loved every minute of it.

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Everyone knows Disney World, and, yes, they have kids there. I was just glad that my kids were so well behaved. I was not that parent with the crying kids throwing themselves to the ground because they did not get a toy or kicking and screaming because it was a long day in the sun. If they had done such things, I would have had to walk away or bite my tongue. Sometimes, when my husband would witness it, he often would act like them and fake a whine and cry like them.

He always knows how to push my buttons. I would laugh it off at times; other times I would tell him to knock it off. Then I would laugh and say, “I’m glad that’s not my kids.” After a long day, we would head back to our hotel room. I would tell my daughters that I was so proud of them for listening and staying close to us. I have to say my kids are pretty smart. They probably knew that the more they listen, the more they could get what they want.

It’s not only the children though, as I believe it starts with the parents. Children only know what they see. If parents do not hold firm and always give in, then children will know what they can do to get what they want. Also, what is key is to have a unified front; if one parent gives in while the other parent is firm, that does not work. That just shows the child what parent will give them what they want. What also does not help is your family members. I know when it comes to grandparents they want to give them the world, but family members also need to know their boundaries. This means two different things: one is to butt out when it comes to scolding the child. If you try to override the parent, then the child won’t listen to you and will say, “Well, grandma lets me.” Oh, I hate that. The second boundary is when buying your kids clothes or toys. If your family buys items for your children that you know you would never get them, then that is over-stepping as well. Believe me, I had that situation before. I also think parents should spank their kids when it is needed. Spanking your children once with a firm hand is enough for them to feel it and know that they did something wrong. You also have to discipline them almost immediately after the incident. If you do not, they will not know why they are getting reprimanded. Any more than that is taking it to an abusive level. As for teenagers, you would take away what means everything to them. Whether it is a cell phone, going out with friends, or their extra-curricular activities.

Raising my two daughters, I will always make sure they get the proper discipline, but at the same time I give them the love they need. I always tell my daughters, “The moment you walk out the door you represent me and you represent this family.” Teaching children early in their years will help them to become positive, respectful, honest and influential people in the future. We definitely need more of them in the world.

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To Texas and Back

By Katherine Felix It was about four in the morning, and my mom, brother, and I were getting ready to leave. My mom and I were going to drop my brother off in Texas. He wanted to spend his Christmas and New Year’s with a friend that he had not seen in years. Our goal was to drop him off and come back in two or three days. I was fifteen, and it was my first time going out of the state we lived in. I was really excited to see how other states looked. I expected Arizona and New Mexico to be hot, the kind of heat that makes your skin feel really dry, and to have a lot of cacti. I expected Texas to be open fields with farm animals wandering around. We dragged our suitcases outside and into the car. It was very cold, like a dry cold with a soft breeze that only made the cold worse. We said our goodbyes to my dad and our dogs, and we got into our car.

We went the whole morning without eating or stopping to use the restroom. After driving for about two hours, we were in pure desert with mountains to our left and right. I could see a nice yellowish outline on top of the mountains from the sunrise. It was the first time that we had ever seen wind turbines, and there were a lot of them. Two more hours later and we were at a gas station at the state border between California and Arizona. By this time, I was starving and really wanted to eat. We pumped some gas into the car, had a quick breakfast at Carl’s Jr., and went back on the road again.

My mom saw a sign on the side of the highway that said, “Welcome to Arizona,” and she wanted me to take a picture of it. Trying my best to take a picture of the sign while in a car that was going 80 mph on a highway and trying to make it look nice was a struggle. It came out a bit blurry anyways, but, as they say, it’s the thought that counts. We spent a couple of hours driving, jamming to music on the radio, and only stopping to get gas or use the restroom if we could not hold it any longer. We grabbed a quick lunch at McDonald’s and then passed the state border between Arizona and New Mexico.

Now in New Mexico, we stopped at another gas station. My mom did not want to run out of gas, so she would always pump gas when the car was at half tank. We saw that there was a gift shop at this gas station, so we decided to head in to stretch our legs. We saw statues of animals, animal heads that you could mount on the wall, fossils, and cool-looking rocks. I was more drawn to the fossils and the rocks because I liked collecting them. I really wanted to buy a bottle that had colorful rocks in it. We got back into the car and back on the road. The mountains were tall and sharp looking. The sun started to set and we still had not reached Texas yet, so my mom started to worry because she did not want to drive in a place where the roads freeze at night due to how cold it gets.

We reached Texas around seven o’clock. We were talking about how the mountains looked like someone was building them and then decided to cut them in half. It was night when we finally arrived in El Paso. We went to a gas station again and started looking for a hotel. My grandpa, who was a trucker, called my mom to tell her to find a place to stay in because the road started to develop a coat of ice and he warned us about how rude the truckers could be. We found a nearby hotel and checked in, then took our suitcases to the room and went to get some dinner across the

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street. Afterwards, we walked back to our room and ate while watching TV before going to sleep.

The next morning, we woke up early to get ready and on the road again. I was so sleepy; I just wanted to take a nap, but I could not because I was my mom’s GPS. The windshield had some frost on it from how cold it was the night before. There was only country music playing, so my mom had the radio muted for the rest of the ride. The times that there was no country music playing, it would be the same song on repeat; we heard it so many times that we started to make up our own lyrics. We reached the main freeway to get to San Antonio, and we saw the Six Flags there. We wanted to see if we could go for a bit, but they open late and close early. Around one o’clock, we finally arrived in San Antonio. We dropped off my brother, said our goodbyes, and turned around to start heading back home.

My mom wanted to get home as soon as possible, so she did not stop driving until she got too tired. Eventually it got dark and my mom pulled up to a hotel, but we did not have enough money to stay another night because it was more expensive on our way to Texas than we expected. My mom parked behind the hotel and we tried to fall asleep, but it was too cold and the windows were getting frosted. Sleeping in the car while it was cold really sucked. I wished that we had at least enough money to afford a room. My mom woke me up at three in the morning and told me that we should get back on the road. It was so dark on the highway that we could not even see the cars in front of or behind us. Suddenly an 18-wheeler swerved into our lane, so my mom had to swerve out of our lane to avoid it. She got so angry that she started to yell and curse at the driver, and I got scared because we suddenly swerved and I was focused on where we were going. We pulled up at a gas station so that we could calm down. When we reached Arizona, my mom was too tired to drive anymore, so we went to another hotel parking lot.

The next morning we went to get breakfast, but my mom saw a velociraptor statue with a tiny Santa Claus hat in front of McDonald’s. The velociraptor was a muddy brown with a lighter colored belly and was missing some of its claws. His mouth was wide open like he was screeching at me, and he was missing a couple of teeth too. His eyes were brown with a hint of yellow, and he was also missing an eye. We got out of the car to take a picture with it.

When we got home, we did not want to eat any more junk food or drink any soda because that was all we ate or drank on the trip. I was happy to be back home and in my bed. Eventually, it was time to go back and pick up my brother. We did the exact same things as the first time; the only difference being that we brought my youngest cousin. We took the same way to Texas, and we saw a lot more animals than on our first trip.

After what felt like only a couple of hours, we were back in Texas. It was colder than last time.

The windshield started to fog up and freeze a little, making it harder to see through it. My mom started to get a bit panicky and was almost freaking out; I tried my best to get her to calm down because my little cousin was in the back seat and having both of them freaking out in the car did not seem ideal. I stayed calm so I could calm my mom down. It started to snow a little when we got to the hotel. We put our suitcases in the room, then went to get food. After we ate, we were trying to sleep, but it was hard since we were in a room in front of the hotel which was right off 21

the highway. We could hear the 18-wheelers driving by and the cars honking at each other. We woke up early to get back on the road again. We reached San Antonio a little bit after midday.

The ride felt faster this time.

We picked up my brother, and we were on our way back home. We stayed at a different, nicer hotel. We opened the beige door and saw a dimly lit room; the walls were a soft dark green with a white trim and dark blue carpet throughout. There were two queen sized beds with bed covers that reminded me of something that my grandma would buy. There was a decent sized table across from the door, and it had two chairs. To the left of the table was the restroom, which had a decent sized shower. The TV was on a stand in between the beds towards the wall. It felt very cold since the air conditioner was on before we had gotten there. We went to get food, then went back to the room to eat while watching TV, then we fell asleep like we had before. The next morning, we got dressed and got ready to leave. We tried our best not to make a lot of stops.

When we reached the gas station that had a gift shop, the one that we had visited on our first trip, we bought little decorative boots for our grandmas and shot glasses for our grandpa and dad; unfortunately I did not get the bottle with the colorful rocks. We got home around three o’clock and our butts were hurting from sitting for so long. We were again tired of soda, junk food, and candy.

This was my first time going on a road trip. Going on this road trip made me want to go out and travel more. I want to see the different beauties of the world, actually visit different states and not just pass through them, go to different countries, learn their languages and learn about their culture, so that I can appreciate them more. Just recently, before I came here to Hawai‘i, I went to Boston, Massachusetts. I enjoyed how different the buildings looked compared to the buildings in California. I’m now in Hawai‘i, a state that is multicultural, and I’m very excited to see what it has to offer. I’ve always wanted to travel to different places, but not to the tourist areas. Not only are there less people, but going to places where there are little-to-no tourists allows you to appreciate the beauty a place has to offer.

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FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

Untitled by Samantha Guyer

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My Role Model

By Samantha Guyer When you think of a role model, what do you see? Someone who is tall, strong, dependable, and wise? Perhaps a loving grandmother who offers you endless life advice, or a teacher who devotes hours of his free time to helping you understand difficult concepts? These are common thoughts when asked, “Who is your role model?” or “What is a role model to you?” My role model, however, is not a conventional one.

My youngest sister, Salome, is in the second grade. She is seven years old, three and a half feet tall, and weighs 43 pounds. She is the smallest person with the biggest personality I’ve ever known.

One of her biggest personality traits is her stubbornness. At her school, any work she does not finish in class becomes homework. Since this school year started, Salome has been coming home with a lot of homework every night. “Alright Salome, let’s knock this homework out so that we can have some time to play before you go to bed.” My dad planned on helping my sister with her homework one night. Salome is very determined, and she knows what she wants: two qualities that may be slightly dangerous for a seven-year-old to possess, but, as a young person just entering the adult world, I can see that these qualities are highly valuable.

She sits down at our kitchen table. My dad looks at her homework. “Alright, sweetie, get started.

I’ll come back and check on you in a couple of minutes. You should be done with at least the first few problems by then.” He leaves. I’m in the kitchen doing dishes.

Salome looks over at me. “Sammy, I don’t feel like I want to do homework tonight.”

I answer, “Well, we all have things we don’t want to do, but they still need to get done, right?

So, the sooner you finish it, the sooner you can do something that you do want to do, right?”

She rolls her eyes at me. “I am not going to do this homework, Sam.” My dad returns shortly after that conversation. “How’s it going, Salome?”

A little bit of background on my dad: he is in the Army, he has been deployed three times (Afghanistan, Kuwait, and Iraq), and each deployment was at least nine months long (I know at least one of them was at least up to an entire year). My dad has seen a lot of things, and at first glance he comes off as quite intimidating. Countless times I have been told, “Your dad is scary,” or “Is your mom around? I don’t want to ask your dad.” Being in the Army forced him to become an intimidating person.

Salome looks at my dad. “I’m not going to do my homework.”

He stares at her in disbelief. “Um… Yes, you are.” This is not be the first time I’ve watched this scene. In the evenings, my mom is very busy working. She is a realtor, so she has to adjust her schedule to her clients’ schedules. Most people looking to buy a house will only be available to 24

meet with my mom after they are done with work, typically after five or even six o’clock in the evening, leaving my dad alone with my two sisters and I. So my dad battles with Salome; after a few rounds, he gives up.

“I am not going to do my homework.” Salome is not afraid of anything, and my dad is not a patient person.

“Salome Cheryl Guyer! You will start this homework now! That’s an order!” He is fuming. His face is red, his chest puffed out.

“Daddy, are you stressed? You look like you need to calm down.” She laughs. How could a little girl, easily less than a third of his body mass, challenge his authority this way without even flinching?

“Sam-! can you-! I can’t-! your sister-!” He can’t finish.

“Dad, it’s okay. I got it.” I smile at him.

“I’m going outside!” He storms out the back door. It’s too easy for Salome to get under his skin.

“Honey, do you want a cookie?” I had her at “cookie.”

“Yeah!” Even though my sister is freakishly manipulative, she is still a kid in the end.

“I’ll give you a cookie after you finish your homework.” Just like that, she started her work.

“Sammy, did you see Daddy’s face was so so red. Dad is funny. He gets mad fast.”

Salome is clever; she knows how to press buttons. My dad was full on yelling at her, completely exasperated, and she thought it was hilarious. Salome will not hesitate to piss someone off because she just wants to have fun. My dad is probably her biggest victim. She’s fearless, ruthless, and only seven years old. I strive to reach her level of effortless brutality.

That’s another thing about my sister: she doesn’t really care to let things bother her, and she tries to have fun no matter the circumstances. There was a time I was in the car. I was in the front seat, my mom was driving, and Salome was in the back-middle seat. It had been a long day; we had some shopping to do earlier that morning and few errands to run. We were driving home.

Salome started to whine, “Sammmyyyy, my stomach hurts.” She had been eating Cheetos for a while.

“Did you eat too much?” I reached back taking the bag from her. “Here, drink some water.” I unscrewed the water bottle cap and handed the bottle to her.

She took a few drinks, “I still do not feel very good.” She had a strange look on her face. I knew that look. I had seen it on several different occasions.

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“Mom…” I saw it in slow motion. Her face turned red, her eyes teared up, her back arched, her chest pressed against the buckle of her car seat, and then it happened. A stream of thick, chunky, orange-ish yellow colored projectile vomit hit the dashboard and everything in between. The smell of puke contaminated the air. One hand over my nose and mouth, I said, “Honey, are you okay?” I was starting to gag. I opened the window to let in some air.

My mom was in shock. Her eyes were huge. “Salome, did you throw up?” Was that honestly the only thing she could think to say?

“Wow! I feel much better now. Sam, I’m hungry.”

She was strapped into a car seat covered in her own vomit, and she looks up at me, smiles, and says she is hungry. If this had happened to me, I would be crying. I would be so embarrassed. It would be permanently ingrained into my mind. “Haha! Eww! Sammy that is so disgusting.” She was laughing. Salome didn’t care. There wasn’t anything she could do to go back in time and somehow hold in her vomit, so she chose to not let it bother her. I strive to reach her level of not caring.

We came to the Tucson Mall one day to look for pants for Salome. It was Saturday, and the new school year would start on the following Monday. “Alright, let’s be quick. Definitely no more than an hour and a half, maybe two hours if you girls want to get something to eat too. We should probably go to JC Penny’s first, and, if we don’t find anything there, we can hit the Children’s place and maybe…”

I tried to help her get out of the car. “I got it, Sam! Stop helping me!” I took a step back and held the door open for her. Salome is also a very independent person. When she got out of the car, she began her catwalk through the parking lot.

Cars were pulling in and out of spaces, and my mom went into a panic. “SALOME! WAIT! HOLD YOUR SISTER’S HAND!” my mom shrieked.

“Mom, it’s okay. I’ve got her,” I said, already catching up with Miss Independent. I lifted Salome from the ground. “You need to wait for us. Look at all of these cars backing up.

Sometimes they can’t see you, so you need to be careful.”

She rolled her eyes at me. “Sam, stop it. Just because they can’t see me that doesn’t mean you have to hold me! I am not a baby! Let go of me!”

We walked in through Sears. “Where are you going, Salome?” I followed her through clothes racks, around people. “I’m sorry, ma’am. Excuse me, sir,” I apologized, trying not to bump into people. Keeping up with the Tasmanian Devil was a regular activity for me.

Anytime we went anywhere, my sister Samara would fight with Salome. My mom kept herself busy by chastising Samara for fighting with Salome, making sure to point out how immature it was for a sixteen-year old to be picking fights with her seven-year old sister daily. My mom also

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is constantly on the phone for work, leaving me to chase after Salome to make sure she stays safe and out of trouble.

This task is neither simple nor easy. “Salome, stop running.” She did not stop running.

“Ha ha! I’m faster!” she teased.

“C’mon, we need to go back with mom.” When I caught up, I picked her up again. She’s not heavy, definitely less than a full suitcase. Picking her up also restrains her, which keeps her from running away from me again.

“Stop, Sam! Put me down!” She was squirming.

We went from store to store in search of the dreaded pants. The first hour had come and gone with no luck. Another two hours passed, and still no pants. “I want to go home! I’m tired!”

Salome started getting cranky. There was something wrong with every pair of pants we had her try on. They were either too long, threatening to trip her, or the waist was too big, making them sag, threatening to trip her. Either way she would end up on the ground. Salome is tall and thin.

Most clothes are made for short fat kids. I was surprised that she held on this long. Salome hates shopping. She hates large amounts of people, and trying on clothes.

She loves wearing clothes that look cute on her, but she doesn’t want to choose them or make sure they fit. She just wants everything readily available to her so that, when she goes to get ready for the day, she can burst from her bedroom, put both hands on her hips and strike a dramatic pose. She is the most confident person I’ve ever met. Her bedroom doesn’t even have a door on it because she thinks that doors are boring. Instead, there are wooden beads painted to look like a beach with palm trees and a sunset made up of colors that fade from yellow to orange to pink to purple to blue.

“MOM, I DON’T NEED PANTS!” Still searching for pants for Salome, one of her fits began.

She sat on the floor and started crying.

My mom still had hope. “Samara, come with me to Old Navy; we can start looking there, but that will have to be our last stop. Salome, I’m sorry. We are just going to go to one more store, then we’ll go home. I know shopping really is not your thing. Sam, please take your sister to get a snack and meet us at Old Navy.”

I knelt down near Salome. “C’mon, pumpkin, let’s go get something to eat.” She didn’t budge, just sat there crying. I looked at the time; it had been four hours. No wonder she was having a meltdown. I picked her up once again, but this time she didn’t fight me on it. She was tired and hungry.

We walked a little, and I got her a pretzel with cheese, the only thing she likes about the mall. “I hate the stores!” She was still upset. “I do not want to shop!” she yelled between bites.

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“I know, but this is the last store. Then we will go home.” It took a lot for her to really get upset.

In general, she is a happy person. Salome is very sturdy. She is seven, and she withstood five hours of something she hates.

Like I said before, Salome is in 2nd grade this year. When the school year started, Salome was in Ms. Paula’s class. Ms. Paula is not very patient, and I’m convinced that she doesn’t even like kids. In class, Salome’s mind wanders. She has a very active imagination, and it can sometimes get the best of her. This causes her to look like she is not paying attention or like she is not listening on purpose. Sometimes, things that are said in class remind her of something else. She raises her hand, the teacher calls on her, and then she says something off topic that ends up derailing the whole class. A doctor might label Salome as highly ADD or say that she has severe ADHD, but I say that she is a really happy kid with a lot of energy that just wants to have fun.

Ms. Paula did not have any patience for this, so she decided that she would not answer Salome’s questions anymore. Anytime that Salome raised her hand she was ignored.

After about a week in Ms. Paula’s class, Salome started to look really sad after school. My mom started asking her various questions looking for the source of this. “Honey are you okay? What is wrong? How was your day?”

At first she wouldn’t say anything. “Nothing, I’m okay.”

By the second week of class she started crying in the mornings before school, saying that she didn’t want to go. My mom took her to school anyway, of course. When they got there, my mom asked Monica, the nurse and front desk attendant, if she would check on Salome throughout the day to make sure she was okay. At the end of that day, Monica told my mom that Ms. Paula was ignoring her in class.

Salome is a happy kid, and she doesn’t let things bother her easily. She is seven, and her teacher was pretending that she didn’t exist, but Salome didn’t make a big deal out of it. Salome has perseverance.

Salome is determined and confident. She is not afraid of anything; nothing phases her. She’s always having fun, she is sturdy, she is not sensitive, and she has unbelievable perseverance. I still struggle to put these traits into practice, but this little girl has mastered them. As an adult, she will be unstoppable. She is smart, clever, manipulative, stubborn, and really happy. For all of these reasons, I look up to my little sister.

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Another Day in Pair-adise? A Study of Identical Twins

By Kale‘a Broker What if you never knew what it was like to be alone? What if you could never grow, learn, or do anything completely alone? What if you had to share time with your mom and dad from birth, had to open Christmas presents together because most likely they were going to be the same thing, always had to sing “Happy Birthday” to someone else on your birthday, and had a constant competition that others encouraged? Of course it is nice to have someone there for you who knows the same struggles, but how does that affect the way one grows as an individual? For example, Robert and Jess were the happiest of couples. They had been dating for five years and shared the same passions. They were both high school swim captains for four years, loved the beautiful outdoors of Oregon, and both loved to teach younger kids how to swim while also being lifeguards. Robert knew that he wanted to spend the rest of his life loving and being with his best friend, and today is the day he is going to propose to his beautiful girlfriend. He plans to tell her to meet him on top of their favorite hill looking out over the beautiful Oregon mountains and pine trees, sneak up behind her with a bouquet of sunflowers, get down on one knee, and have her turn around only to burst into the happiest of tears. Little did he know that she brought her twin sister Kelsey along, and he accidentally proposed to Kelsey from behind. Not to be dramatic, but that could potentially happen to identical twins.

Looking alike is not the only problem identical twins face on a day-to-day basis; it starts out with wearing the same clothes and having the same haircut, but then it grows into: “Do I need to look better in this outfit?”, “Do I need to be better at playing soccer?”, “Why do they get more attention at school?”, and “Why can’t I go order my food without them coming with me?” Twins go every minute of every day with each other: waking up in the morning, going to school, and then coming home and going to bed only to do the same thing over and over again, not to mention also getting asked to stand next to each other and to say the same phrase at the same time so others can compare you. Sometimes being a twin is like being a celebrity because of getting all the attention, but sometimes others use the twins for their own entertainment. Does anyone ever think about how that affects twins’ identities or individualities? Sometimes others say, “Well, this twin is the girlier one, and this twin is the sportier one,” and “This twin is a little bigger than this twin, so that is how I tell the difference.” Comparing twins like this damages their self-esteem and personal image. There are many studies out there that compare genetics and environmental factors that affect the identities and individualities of twins as they grow up. That is why I believe that both genetics and environmental factors play a role in the identity and individuality problems twins face today. Some of the sources I will be using include, “A Thing or Two about Twins,” from National Geographic, and an article from the Journal of Aging Studies. These articles focus on how twins grow as individuals and how different factors like genetics and outside influences affect the problems twins face every day.

To begin with, genetics do play a huge role in how twins grow, but environmental factors are a more significant influence. When twins grow up playing the same sports and wearing the same clothes, it is hard to find a sense of who you are as an individual. Being unique is something that is praised in today’s society, but when twins are continually being compared it is hard to see the light of being your own person. In their article “Study of Personality Difference among Identical

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Twins and Fraternal Twins in Pakistan,” Dr. Syeda Kaniz Fatima Haider, from the University of Peshawar in Human Development Studies, and colleague Salma Hussain write, It is important to recognize twin babies as two separate individuals right from their birth.

If they are identical, it is easy to treat them as a ‘package,' providing them with the same clothing, toys, and quality of attention. But, as similar as they may appear physically, emotionally they are different, and, to grow up happy and secure as individuals, their differences need to be supported (Haider and Hussain 102).

This explains that twins need to be treated as unique human beings to gain their individuality; twins share the same birthday, age, parents, and almost everything they have, so giving twins their sense of style and treating them based on their different personalities help them gain that individuality.

There are many outside factors that play a massive role in twins’ lives, including parents, family, friends, and strangers. Parents are the biggest influences in twins’ lives because they determine what happens after birth; they are the overall deciding factor regarding how twins see themselves and how the twins allow people to treat them. Parents are the ones who decide to dress them in the same clothes, make them have the same room for fourteen years, and have them share the same birthday parties. Dr. Sirpa Pietilä is a Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Gerontology in the School of Health Sciences at Jönköping University. She states, “Family studies have shown that parents of twins may emphasize the sameness of their twin children by dressing them in similar looking clothes, or giving them like-sounding names or expecting twins to act and behave in similar ways” (340). This explains that parents get to control what effects twins identity-wise. Of course, parents are going to be excited that they are going to have twins and that they get to do everything stereotypically, but parents of twins need to do what is best for the twins’ needs and not their own wants. Overall, for twins to gain their individualities, their environmental factors, families, and friends need to be more aware of the comparisons they make regarding the twins.

There are many different things that parents can do to make sure their twins are on the right track to grow as individuals. One thing that can help is dressing them in different clothes. Letting the twins pick out their own clothes and giving them a chance to obtain their own sense of style will help them gain uniqueness. Another thing that will help twins gain individuality is putting them in separate classes starting at a young age. Some twins might not like the idea of being apart at school, but in the long run it will help them socially later in life. From experience, my parents let my twin sister and I pick out our own clothes and put us into separate classes starting in first grade. If my parents had not done that, I do not think I would be as socially independent as I am today. In the early stages of life we depend on our parents to raise us based on what they think will help us later in life. In their work, “Beyond Heritability: Twin Studies in Behavioral Research,” Wendy Johnson and colleagues state, “It is not just common genetic influences that create confounds of this type. If poorer children attend inferior schools, live in more poorly lit homes, and do more poorly in third grade than children from wealthier families, there will be an association between home lighting and school performance” (1). This basically explains that an individual’s future will be dependent on how they are raised. It’s because of that that we make the decisions we do today, which shape us as individuals.

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One thing that can help is preventing violence between the twins. When twins fight it is usually because they are fighting over something that they have differences about. If they are both in the same class, they could potentially fight over what the teacher said was for homework or what the requirements were for the essay they were supposed to write over the weekend. Also, putting them in the same class could start competitions over who can get the higher grade on the test, which leads to low self-esteem in the “loser” twin. My twin sister and I have had many disputes over whether something was due or not, and there were many times when we individually thought we were not good enough when the other twin got a higher score. However someone is raised, their future will be dependent on those steps. It is important to praise the twins for what they accomplish individually so they can gain confidence in who they are individually.

On the other hand, being a twin has its perks. You have a life-long friend who is always there, and you do not have to go through common things like the first day of school alone. Personally, I have always enjoyed the fact that I get a built-in Maid of Honor for my wedding. Another thing that can happen when being a twin is getting a lot of attention; it’s almost like being a celebrity when you are a twin because people ask so many questions and even ask for pictures. When going through all of the struggles of being a twin it is also important that we look at it in a positive way. People are innocent and curious about things they are unaware about, and it’s important, as twins, to notice that. Overall, being a twin is something very unique and special that only 3.3% of the world get to be and experience.

Furthermore, even though genetics play a smaller role in why twins have individuality and identity problems, they still are crucial to their development. Genetics are what made twins twins in the first place; they have the power to make twins look exactly alike (identical twins) or make twins look nothing alike and even have the opposite gender (fraternal twins). In the study, “Functional MRI Study To Examine Possible Emotional Connectedness In Identical Twins: A Case Study,” done by Efstratios Karavasilis, of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, and colleagues, the authors state, “Emotional connectedness, shared empathy and physiological reaction in genetically-related pairs have been reported in the literature. This phenomenon has been tried to be explained by several hypotheses including genetic kinship, social bonding, and quantum entanglement” (1). This explains that genetics play a role in how connected twins can be towards one another. For example, when my twin sister has different feelings, mostly being sad or excited, I feel those feelings myself. It is not outside factors that control the connectedness, but the genetics that connects us. Because genetics make twins look alike, all twins want is to be their own person; twins just want to have something about themselves that they do not share or have the same look for. In the National Geographic article “A Thing or Two about Twins,” Peter Miller states, To these scientists, and to biomedical researchers all over the world, twins offer a precious opportunity to untangle the influence of genes and the environment, nature and nurture. Because identical twins come from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, they share virtually the same genetic code. Any differences between them, for example, one twin having younger looking skin, must be due to environmental factors such as less time spent in the sun. (1)

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Because identical twins are born to be the same, it is outside factors that play a role in what makes them different.

The main issues of being a twin have to deal with what can be prevented in the first place.

Because nothing can be prevented in the genetics of twins, it is important to recognize that the outside influences are more important in sculpting their individuality. Identical twins have the same skin, eye, and hair color, and, therefore, they could not have prevented that before birth.

But, what they can do to express themselves as individuals is changing or altering anything about themselves that make them happy. The most important aspect out of all of this is that the twins feel happy about who they are without being influenced by anyone else on what they should be like. Overall, twins should get just as fair a chance to be themselves as anyone else.

To conclude, being a twin is ironically something unique in itself. Not everyone gets to say that they share such a special bond with someone else like twins do. Even though being a twin is such a fantastic thing, it can be a tough thing to deal with. All twins want to do is be themselves without being compared to one another; they deserve to be their own person despite the fact that they might look exactly alike. They also deserve to be treated as their own person by the people around them, including parents, family, friends, and strangers. Even though genetics play a role in how twins connect to one another, their environmental factors play an even more significant role in how their individuality and personal identities are formed. Overall, if we stop using stereotypes to compare and label twins, they will have an easier time finding out who they are as individuals.

WORKS CITED Haider, Syeda Kanizi-i-Fatima and Salma Hussain. “Study Of Personality Difference Among Identical Twins And Fraternal Twins In Pakistan,” J.R.S.P., vol. 46, no. 2, 2009, pu.edu.pk/images/journal/history/PDF-FILES/Syeda-Kaniz-i-Fatima-Haider-and-SalmaHussain.pdf.

Johnson, Wendy. “Beyond Heritability: Twin Studies in Behavioral Research.” US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, vol. 18, no. 4, 2010, pp. 217-20, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2899491/.

Karavasilis Efstratios, Foteini Christidi, Kalliopi Platoni, Panagiotis Ferentinos, Nikolaos L. Kelekis and Efstathios P. Efstathopoulos. “Functional MRI Study to Examine Possible Emotional Connectedness in Identical Twins: A Case Study.” Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, vol. 14, no. 1, 2018, pp. 86-91, dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2017.06.008.

Miller, Peter. “A Thing or Two About Twins.” National Geographic. Jan. 2012, www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2012/01/identical-twins-science-dna-porraits/.

Pietila, S., Bjorklund, A., Bulow, P. “‘We are not as alike, as you think’ sense of individuality within the co-twin relationship along the life course.” Journal of Aging Studies, vol. 27, 2013, pp. 339-46, doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2013.08.001.

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The Culture of Homelessness

By Mikaila Beeler People often view homelessness as an issue to be solved. Although that is true in some cases, homelessness is, in a lot of ways, a culture in itself. I realized people often write an ethnography about a culture they are a part of. However, I feel most connected to a culture in which I am a complete outsider. While I am not homeless myself, I feel I have personal experience and insight into the culture of homelessness others may not understand. I have a lot of background information to explain if anyone is going to understand why I think homelessness is a culture and why it’s so important to myself (so get ready).

I was born in Southern California, raised by a seemingly normal mother, in a decent apartment.

My mom was really good at being a mom until she changed. My mom cooked me breakfast every morning, drove me to school, went to work, picked me up on time, fed me and my friends dinner, and read to me every night before bed. She was a good mother in the beginning. Even if I cannot remember all the good parts, the rest of my family fills me in about what she was like before the change. My relatives all told me none of them saw it coming. I mean she seemed completely normal, above average even. In high school, she got perfect grades, was a cheerleader, and had boys falling all over her (my grandma’s words). She went to college, got her master’s degree, and was working on her doctorate. She met my dad and got pregnant with me on accident after four years of dating. She decided not to tell my dad she got pregnant and broke up with him and moved from Colorado to California where she had me.

Unfortunately, most of my clearest memories are of the beginning of the end of my mother as everyone knew her. I remember watching her from the kitchen as she would sit on our patio, staring off the balcony with a glass of wine in one hand and a cigarette in another. Her eyes were constantly glassy and she became distant. At first I would wake up, run to her room every morning, and try to wake her up for breakfast as usual. Eventually, I moved on from the days she would cook my breakfast and resorted to foraging for food on my own, which usually ended up with me climbing the cabinet shelves to reach the cookies I started eating everyday for my breakfast (which is probably why I ended up with so many cavities). Sometimes she would leave me home alone for long periods of time, and sometimes she would forget to pick me up from school. Even as a five year old I could see the signs of her becoming absent minded and different. I remember several instances she would leave me in the running car that she would often forget to put into park, which resulted in her running out of the gas station trying to jump in the moving car. Once she did not notice the car rolling downhill; I was so used to that situation so I stayed in the backseat and continued eating my snack unamused, waiting for her to come running out to stop the car. Some random man jumped into our car and stopped it, only noticing me after successfully getting in and looking around after it was safely halted. Another time I was walking with her in the middle of the night as she stumbled drunkenly and suddenly passed out face-first into the street. I remember the fear I had and panic not knowing what to do or how to help her. Tears running down my face, I ran to find help. Those are most of my clearest memories; even as a toddler I noticed the difference in her usual behavior.

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I am not really sure how long she was like that around me. The last memory I have with her is coming home to a letter on our front door. She got really upset then. I remember watching her running around the house yelling on the phone for hours. A few days later she told me I was going on a trip. She packed my little pink suitcase with enough clothes for a week, and my teddy bear that I refused to leave. She took me to the airport, and then she handed me over to a flight attendant as I looked back at her while I boarded the plane. I can recall the details of her face perfectly. She was smiling with tears filling her eyes, covering her mouth with her hand, and waving with the other. I am not sure if she knew she was sending me away for much longer than a week when she dropped me off.

Even now, typing all this out makes me start crying thinking about how her face looked so broken in that moment. I honestly did not think this essay would be so hard to write. Anyway, to get to the actual point of this topic, I ended up with my grandparents for twelve years instead of “the one week” my mom had promised. My life was really hard after that, but this is not my story; this is my mom’s. She’s homeless now and has been since she got evicted from our apartment twelve years ago. She has changed a lot. I have too, I guess. Being older and understanding how drastic of a change she went through really made me interested in how that could have been possible. Surprisingly, after going through a long phase of depression and empty promises of getting her life together, she seems like she embraces her situation now.

Honestly, she kind of thrives in the homeless community, which really is a community. She calls herself and other homeless people “homies,” which I think is sort of ironically funny. She hangs out with a group, they make campfires, and she cooks for everyone with the food she digs out of the Whole Foods trashcan in the parking lot. I have met most her friends; she has a wide variety.

There is Robin, a 70-year-old woman, who is skinny and sweet, but also super bipolar. Then there is Anne, a meth addict (formerly a successful lawyer), whom my mom says “isn’t long for this world.” One of the most surprising things I have noticed about her homeless friends is that homelessness was often a choice. Her best friend, Theresa, has been homeless for about 7 months now; she was living in Del Mar Heights (one of the richest neighborhoods in San Diego) with her elderly mother, and decided to leave it all to be homeless with her boyfriend Tony.

There are a lot more people she shares her group with. From what I have observed she seems to be sort of a leader in her group, caring for her friends, cooking, and helping keep her personal niche together and safe.

There are other groups too, but they do not always get along. She has told me stories about how she smashed this guy’s skull in with a wrench, when he came into their side of town and started causing trouble (he did not die or anything). She does not like the homeless people who shoplift and stir trouble up with the cops because it causes trouble for the rest of them. I asked her what she would want other people to know about the homeless community. She told me: I’d want people to just treat us like anyone else. People think being homeless is easy, and we’re considered lazy for begging instead of getting jobs, but it’s not easy. It’s really tough out here. We help each other out, but there’s only so much we can do. I cannot count how many of my friends have died just in the last two years. We get hit by cars, get sick, die from overdose, and it’s just an overall cruel environment to live in.

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She later joked about being invincible, but I know better. The stories she tells me scares me.

She’s been in jail multiple times, done heroin once, been beat up, etc. There were times when I wondered if she was dead in a ditch somewhere, because no one had heard from her in while.

Those times are difficult for me and my other relatives, and I wonder about the things she does not tell us to save us from worrying.

Honestly, sometimes it’s hard for me not to hold resentment towards her. The weirdest part about her is that she is qualified to get a good job, and my relatives have offered her housing and money to get her on her feet. She chooses her homeless life every time. She is stubborn and refuses to take help from anyone, which is something I have noticed about many homeless people aside from her. While they may not have the same upbringings, somehow groups of these people find themselves in the same situation and become similar people. I really wonder if it’s choice or some complex brain malfunction. From what she’s told me and what I have observed as an outsider, they are all happy in their situations for the most part. So, if they’re happy and choose to continue thriving in this community they have created together, can that really be considered mental illness?

Over the years I have come to accept my mother for who she is. I actually admire her a lot, and I think she’s one of the strongest people I’ll ever know. I probably will never stop wondering about how she could have transformed so drastically and what factors could cause such a change.

However, I have made peace with the side of me that wants a traditional mother and embraced how she is now. I think I even prefer how I grew up and my experiences with her and her new culture than the alternative. Though I’d never want to actually become a part of her “homie family,” I know I can learn a lot from them. It is really interesting just to see her personal niche, and I think I would be interested to learn about other homeless groups. I wonder how they would differ by location, and if certain groups might have similar backstories to my mom’s breaking point, and maybe I could even meet other outsiders and learn their perspectives.

Ideally, I would like to gather all this information and educate others about what I have learned.

Homeless people aren’t some foreign species. Just like my mom says, they just want to be treated like everyone else. I think that is all anyone wants. Regardless of lifestyle and what makes people happy, I think it’s important that as outsiders we don’t judge any culture because often times it’s more complex than anything we can understand without viewing all the different perspectives involved.

I cannot really conclude this paper the way I would like. Honestly there’s so much information and more factors than I could put into words. I am not even sure if this could be considered to be a traditional ethnography paper. I could probably write an infinite amount of books attempting to describe this culture and the people in it, but I’d never find the words to complete it. One thing is for sure: homelessness is full of numerous types of niches, groups, and complex characters that outsiders often underestimate.

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Life is Not a Perfect Recipe

By Jacqueline Santos Who doesn’t like a cupcake? They are small, fluffy, and sweet, but baking a perfect cupcake requires cleaning the kitchen, finding the right ingredients, and following a recipe step by step.

Since I was little, my passion was baking. I used to bake almost every week to learn how to create new recipes. My papi would be the first to come into the kitchen to see what new creation I had made. He would walk in and get a good sniff of the freshly made cakes, still warm in the oven. When he would ask me, “What type of cupcakes are you making?”, I would list his favorites like peanut butter, vanilla, and chocolate. He could hardly wait to eat them, and every time he would bite into a cupcake he would say, “Estos estan muy buenos.” The pleasure it brought to my father made my life feel complete. I just wanted to show him I can always do better and wanted him to feel proud that I was his daughter and of all that he taught me in life.

He used to love letting me try new things for myself in order to not depend on anyone. He would always encourage me to do my best and strive to become the person I always wanted to be.

Everything I did was for him. I wanted him to always be proud of my accomplishments. Even though I would fail, he would always pick me back up and tell me to try again and to never give up. Unfortunately, life is not like a cupcake recipe. Nothing is planned, and, when it is, it does not always turn out the way you want it to. In life, there is no list of steps to follow, and I have to figure my life out as it comes. That is not as easy as you may think because you never expect the worst, especially if you’re doing well.

My daily routine consisted of waking up, going to school from 7am to 3pm, and then waiting for my father to pick me up after school. On May 16, 2016, I was waiting for my father in front of the usual blue house. I did not see his car, which was strange because he was never late. He did not like me waiting for him, so he was always on time. I called and called but there was no answer. I bounded home in fear; something inside me did not feel so good. I called my brother to ask if he had talked with my dad or if he had taken my mother to work, but my brother did not know. I never stopped trying to call my dad. Once I got close to the house, I saw his truck in the driveway and one of the doors to the house open. I made faces like I was mad that he did not pick me up, but once I got to the door, I realized why he never came.

I couldn’t find my key in my backpack, so I had to dump everything out onto the floor. I saw him sitting on the chair, and it looked like he was taking a nap, so I called out, “Daddy, open the door.” There was no answer. I finally found my key and opened the door. I rushed over to him and gave him a slight push on the shoulder, but there was no response. I took a good, close look at him and saw his tongue looked purple and his body was cold and pale. His wrist was cold, like no other coldness I had ever known. I kept pushing his shoulder and calling him, but there was still no response. At this point, I opened his right eye with my finger and saw the eye of a dead fish at the supermarket. “My father is dead.” I suddenly had to follow a recipe that life called for; I started by calling my brother, then my mother, who both were at work, and then finally 911. So many things were going through my mind that I didn’t feel anything.

More instructions had to be followed. The fire department told me to pick him up from the chair and lay him down to begin CPR. I was lost, but I did what I was told. Somehow, I managed to pick him up, kicked the chair from underneath him, and laid him down on a pillow by myself. It 36

was so hard to even lift him because of how much of a dead weight he was. I knew I could not just sit and wait; I had to do something for the person who was always there for me and never gave up on me. It was my turn to not give up and help my old man. My heart was broken, my tears were running, but I kept pushing. The firefighters told me to push his chest down six inches every two seconds and to count out loud. I kept doing that while my brother was on the other phone line listening to everything that was happening. About five minutes later, the firefighters got there and my heart dropped. They rushed over to my father and dragged him across an open space and started to check him. One of them was trying to talk to me so I wouldn’t have to see, but there was no way I could look away from my dad. They finally pronounced him dead at 15:37 of cardiac arrest. My brother was driving back home from work, which would take about three hours, and my mother was waiting to be picked up and brought home. My aunt arrived about ten minutes later to be there with me. I had to do all the paperwork, confirm his identity, and call Rose Hills Cemetery. I could not answer most of the questions they asked. At this point, my emotions were all over the place. I couldn’t think; there was nothing running through my mind. I realized that the only person who I was always with, both of us taking care of each other, the one who would actually make me smile, the one who never gave up and never got mad even if I failed, was now gone. It all hit me at once; I held back the tears because he would have told me to not cry. He never wanted to see me cry, and I didn’t want to feel weak for crying, so I held it all back.

In a short time, life has taught me so much, but I still have a long way to go. I do not let my emotions get in the way in time of need, either when helping someone else or doing something on my own. I have a new interest in medicine and how the human body works because without understanding what happened to my dad I can’t feel closure about how he died. Every day I don’t see my cupcake, I feel like he is still with me through everything I do. I have become more diligent in school and at home. I took over his responsibilities, such as taking my mom to work.

He would take my mom to work, take me to school, clean the house, pick us both up, and pay the bills. He did so much for us. Now, I take her to work every day and pick her up, I clean the house when she isn’t there, and I still have to do my homework and study for school. Sometimes it was hard because I was in basketball and had to leave practices or games in order to pick my mom up and then go back. Moving to Hawai‘i was a big step for me, but I knew it was something that had to be done. I had to start learning how to be alone for once and use what my father taught me to become a good person in life. Without a list telling me what comes next, I figured out on my own how to manage things I never expected to experience at my age, but I know I’m becoming the person my dad always saw in me.

When my dad passed away, I had to transition from childhood to adulthood. It has been one year since my father died. One big thing my dad taught me before he left was how to drive. This 89year-old man took me to the parking lot behind the park and sat in the car for hours as I drove in circles and parked the car in different ways. I eventually passed my driver’s license with a 100 percent; it is too bad that he was not there to see what we had accomplished together. He taught me to be confident in myself and to overachieve. I learned so much, and because of him I am not afraid of trying anything new. Life will never be like a perfectly warm cupcake, but we just have to try to make the best in life.

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The Psychology of Adultery in Fences

By Joseph Roberts What causes a person to cheat? It is an age-old question asked by many people who, at one point or another, have been hurt in some form by a person who has decided to be unfaithful. While August Wilson does not provide an answer for us outright, he does provide material to study in his play Fences. Troy and Rose Maxson represent the ideal family at the time: a hard-working man, a loving wife, a child active in school and sports; yet, Troy cheats on Rose. So, the question arises again, what causes a person to cheat? Specifically, what causes a person to cheat in longterm committed marriages as we witness in Fences, and is it possible for the cheater to actually love his or her partner? It is a question that could be answered vaguely with “life happens,” but it is a bit more complicated than that. The stresses of married life, family, and individual psychological issues are proper places to start.

Life is hard. Life with a family is harder, and Wilson portrays the life of Troy Maxson with presumably that exact thought in mind. Troy’s life is a series of mishaps, but his one focus in life is providing for his family. While Troy’s intentions are well placed, one could argue that it ultimately becomes his Achilles’ heel. The responsibility of providing for his family led to him seeking outside comfort. In Troy’s confrontation with his wife Rose over his infidelities he tells her that he has been standing “on first base for eighteen years” (2.1.70). Troy's consistent metaphors between life and baseball were the only way he knew how to communicate his feelings to Rose, and by doing so he indicates that over the past 18 years he stayed emotionally safe. He was in a steady relationship with Rose, even telling her “a man couldn't ask for no woman to be a better wife than you’ve been” (2.1.69). So, with an ideally desirable life from the outside looking in, why would Troy risk throwing all of this away?

First, we need to look at the stresses of Troy’s life that pushed him to seek outside validation.

Through the first scenes of the play, we are introduced to the inner-workings of Troy’s life. We learn about his job as a trash collector and his impending meeting with the Commissioner over the black/white ratio of drivers to trash lifters. Also there is Lyons, Troy’s oldest son. Lyons consistently comes to Troy on his payday to borrow money despite being an adult and being involved in a mature relationship. Rose takes Troy’s money the minute he gets paid in order to buy supplies to keep the house running and food in their bellies. His other son, Cory, in Troy's eyes is unappreciative of the life he has provided for him. All of this stress can take its toll on a person, not only mentally, but also physically. Troy, in his own crude way, highlights this in a discussion with Rose when he references their sex life: “I fall down on you and try to blast a hole into forever” (1.3.40). At the end of the day, Troy is tapped out. His life is a routine, and all he is doing is searching for some sense of strength “to carry [him] through to the next Friday” (1.3.40). There is never an excuse to step out on one’s partner, but the conditions for the scenario were perfect for Troy and Alberta.

In an article in the magazine Psychology Tomorrow entitled “My Cheating Heart: What Causes Infidelity?” Alyssa Siegel explores the mental, emotional, and physical reasons for infidelity.

She explains that having an affair involves the same destructive behavior patterns as substance abuse, gambling, excessive shopping, and other activities that provide a negative “quick fix” to reality. The high of having an affair and the feelings of intoxication and anticipation while 38

around Alberta is what might have prompted Troy to reference the affair as a chance to “steal second” (2.1.70). The affair would be nothing more than a momentary flash of excitement before safely landing on base again, but in an affair there are always two participants, each with their own set of feelings. While Troy managed to separate his feelings from Alberta, he acknowledges that Alberta may not have done the same. Troy acknowledges this in a conversation with Bono, his best friend, saying, “I done wrestled with it, tried to throw her off me . . . but she just stuck on tighter” (2.1.63). While Troy may have engaged in this relationship seeking a mental release, Alberta may have entered into the affair with the hopes of winning Troy’s affections from Rose.

In any case, blaming the family and the stresses of life as the motivating factors for the affair would be entirely unfair; it is the individual who decides to engage in sexual intercourse with another person. Their moral compass and self-discipline should act as buffers to prevent infidelity from happening, but the way everyone sees the world is different, and the life factors that shape a person differ as well. Troy’s life, especially the beginning, set the stage for a troubled relationship with women. When he was young, his mother abandoned him with a father who was good for nothing. His first romantic encounter was stymied by a drunk father who wasn’t interested in talking to the boy about growing up and how to properly court a lady; he wanted the young girl for himself instead. Are these reasons for emotional indifference towards women? Maybe. The way Troy speaks about women would support this theory. Openly remarking to Bono to not bother him in the morning before work because he was “still gonna be stroking” and telling Rose to excuse herself from Bono because he had a special kind of conversation for her later, and that she should just go on and “powder it up,” portrays Troy's moral indifference to sex (1.1.20, 1.1.6).

There are many individual factors that can influence a person to cheat, such as a lack of sexual experience in general, sex addictions, and identity crises. It’s hard to determine all of the factors of Troy’s life because Wilson did not provide in-depth background information, but what we do know is that Troy spent 15 years in prison. We also know that when Troy was released, he couldn’t play in the major leagues because he was “over forty” (1.3.39). This means that Troy possibly went to jail in his mid-twenties, but before he went to prison he was in a relationship with another woman, Lyon’s mother, for an undisclosed amount of time. To say Troy’s sexual experience may not be as extensive as he would have liked would be an understatement, considering the significant loss of time in his life during his incarceration.

In the article “The Surprising Reason Why People in Perfectly Happy Relationships End up Cheating,” Shana Lebowitz interviews couples therapist Ester Perel to understand just what it is that drives a person to step out of the relationship for sex. Perel's theory for why people cheat is relatively simple: they are unhappy with themselves. Perel further rationalizes that, while the person may not be entirely unhappy, there is a portion of themselves looking to “transcend a sense of deadness that they are feeling inside” (qtd. in Lebowitz). We all have one life to live, and we owe it to ourselves to pursue our happiness, but this provides a somewhat ironic puzzle to life. Do you seek your happiness over the happiness of others?

We know his answer when Troy was confronted with this question, but considering Perel’s theory, can we be mad at him for pursuing his happiness? Troy’s life up until the affair was a collection of shocking moments, and he finally had a chance to feel free. The paradox of Troy’s 39

love life culminates when he finally confesses his affair to Rose. He cheated despite his professed love for her, telling Bono, “I love Rose. She done carried me a long ways and I love and respect her for that” (2.163), but he tells Rose that Alberta “gives me a different idea . . . a different understanding of myself” (2.1.68). While we have focused primarily on the reason why Troy cheated, we haven't explored the second part of the problem. Could he ever really have loved Rose?

With all of the factors in consideration, I cannot say that Troy loved Rose. I can say that for Troy Rose was the equivalent of a mirage in the middle of the desert, a little glimpse of normalcy. If you love someone, would you be willing to bet it all on temporary lust? Would you even entertain the idea of another partner? Rose did, but she did not act on her feelings. She considered the idea of being with another man, but she resisted: “I gave everything I had to try and erase the doubt that you weren’t the finest man in the world” (2.1.71). Troy just wanted to have his cake and eat it too.

Whether it is the feeling of neglect in a marriage, or if it is the fact that an individual is incapable of committing to one person, cheating strikes relationships and with it comes complete emotional devastation. In Fences we witness Troy tear apart Rose’s reality by cheating on her and then bringing the child of his affair into their home for Rose to raise. Troy cheated because his responsibilities at home proved to be too heavy for him to lift as he gave into the temptation of Alberta. Like Troy, other men and women continue to have affairs, and the cycle will continue until the end of time, but each betrayal could inspire the next great piece of art.

WORKS CITED Lebowitz, Shana. “The Surprising Reason Why People in Perfectly Happy Relationships End up Cheating.” Business Insider, 24 Oct. 2017, www.businessinsider.com/estherperel-whypeople-in-happy-relationships-cheat-2017-10.

Siegel, Alyssa. “My Cheating Heart: What Causes Infidelity.” Psychology Tomorrow Magazine, 7 Sept. 2013, www.psychologytomorrowmagazine.com/popuartic-alyssa-siegel-mycheating-heart/.

Wilson, August. Fences. Plume, 1986.

40

MEDIATING COMMUNITIES

Untitled by Raena Anderson

41

Setting a Student Up for Failure

By Katarina Mueller In the article “Leave Your Laptops at the Door to My Classroom,” Darren Rosenblum (2017) explains how he stopped allowing his students the use of a laptop in class to takes notes or for any other academic purpose. Rosenblum justifies his decision by claiming that he would see students on Facebook, online shopping, and not paying attention to the lecture (2017).

Rosenblum also believes that taking notes by hand allows students to retain information better.

He says, “Research has confirmed the wisdom of my choice” (Rosenblum, 2017). In this article Rosenblum is wrong for saying students learn better using only one type of note taking. Students who have ADHD and other learning disabilities cannot be forced to do what works for one person and be expected to succeed. Professors should allow their students the option of using a laptop to take notes because everyone retains information differently and computers allow for an organized way of note taking. By eliminating a student’s way of learning that is effective for them, Rosenblum knowingly allows students to struggle because he believes his way is the only and best way.

Although Rosenblum backs up his opinion with evidence, he does not recognize other students whose only option might be to use a laptop instead of handwriting everything. Neuroscientist Richard Friedman (2014) did a study on how ADHD students learn differently from how everyone thinks they learn. Most think that those who have ADHD are not as smart, not as hardworking, and not as determined other students. One of his patients said, “Having to sit at a desk for long hours and focus his attention on one task was nearly impossible. He would multitask, listening to music and texting, while ‘working’ to prevent activities from becoming routine” (Friedman, 2014). The man actually learned better by keeping himself busy while completing a task, rather than singling out the specific task at hand. If someone takes away a student’s best way of learning knowledge, they are pushing the student off of their agenda, which can be more crucial than one might speculate. Getting thrown off of a normal agenda for many means having to relearn what once took a student a while to learn in the first place.

When multitasking, the dopamine levels in the brain rise, telling one to pay attention because something is happening that they won’t want to miss out on (Friedman, 2014). Friedman explains that the higher the dopamine levels, the higher the performance (2014). Rosenblum says, “Students need two skills to succeed as lawyers and as professionals: listening and communicating” (2017). This contradicts his statement, “Multitasking and the mediation of screens kill empathy,” because in order to listen and communicate, an individual must multitask (Rosenblum, 2017). In addition, Rosenblum’s argument is about using laptops for notes and schoolwork, not for fostering empathy.

While taking notes on paper is good, so is taking notes on a computer. When one takes notes at a rapid pace, they are focusing on what they are writing, rather than absorbing the content that is being spoken. Everyone has their own way of retaining information. Why take away even one student’s best way of taking notes and retaining information? By doing so, you are telling them that your way of retaining knowledge is the only and best way of retaining knowledge. For many ADHD students, and students with learning disabilities, multitasking in order to retain information is the best way for them. From personal experience, I have noticed that if one is 42

taking notes at a fast-paced lecture, they are more focused on their handwriting or what color pen they are using, rather than what the lecture is even about. The process that goes into being forced to learn only by handwritten notes, because Rosenblum says it is the best way to retain information, is simply wrong. The hard work of organization many students focus on when taking notes is more important in the moment than actually retaining any of the information that they had learned.

As reported by Rosenblum, students process information better when taking notes (2017). This statement is true, but is also not specific by not stating how the student takes the notes. Of course a student processes information better when taking notes rather than not doing anything at all.

Rosenblum uses that in his argument, but does not give the opposing position. What type of notes helps a student process information better? He is inferring notes by hand, but, by using such a plain statement, he leaves the type of note-taking open to interpretation. I could use the same statement by saying that a student processes information better when taking notes, but only on a computer. He was not clear in his statement and did not back it up with supporting evidence.

His hopes for the reader believing him instead of questioning what types of notes help a student learn better is deceiving.

I am not convinced by Rosenblum’s argument that by banning laptops he is improving a student's engagement because, if a student does not want to engage in a class, either the student will just not go to the class or still find a way in class to be disengaged. If a student wants to succeed in a class, a laptop will not get in the way. The student will get in the way of their own success, or, in this case, the professor will. Rosenblum makes his statements easier to argue when he says, “I posted the syllabus . . . two students wrote me to ask if I would reconsider, and dropped the class when I refused” (2017). He had two students drop his class because of his nolaptop policy. Two students learned easiest with the use of a laptop, and he denied them that. I cannot imagine someone feeling like their way of learning is incorrect. If someone is paying for education after high school, they are choosing to get a higher education. They should also be allowed to take notes by the best method. By the time someone is in college they most likely know what works best for them. Forcing anyone to learn how you learn sets them up for failure.

I do not share Rosenblum’s values of banning one’s way of learning in a classroom, which is banning the use of any electronic devices and forcing everyone to take notes by hand. In Rosenblum’s article, he inferred that laptops reduce education and reduce one’s feelings with the “real world” (2017). He said that he stopped allowing laptops because of that. By doing so, he claimed that everyone was more engaged, even though he had students drop the course because of his policy, and he said that everyone does best when monotasking (2017). He would maybe allow an exception to this policy if one had a document proving they had a learning disability.

By forcing one to have a document proving they need to take notes a certain way, the relationship between the professor and student would be filled with lack of trust. These statements are incorrect for the simple reason that not everyone thinks like Rosenblum, so not everyone will learn like Rosenblum.

Learning how you learn best is an accomplishment that can take a long time for some.

Everyone’s way of learning is going to be different, but once one learns how to take notes that will help them succeed in the classroom, they ultimately become more confident in the 43

classroom. If someone wants an education after high school, they also probably do not want someone telling them that they are wrong for learning the best way known to them. The value that everyone retains information differently is shared with many all around the country; everyone should be allowed to study and take in knowledge how they know it to be effective. By taking that away from someone, you are potentially ruining their future success in the classroom.

REFERENCES Friedman, A. R. (2014, October 31). A natural fix for A.D.H.D. The New York Times.

Retrieved from https://nyti.ms/2k1kC9D. Rosenblum, D. (2017, January 2). Leave your laptops at the door to my classroom. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://nyti.ms/2k1gTJ9.

44

Violent Video Games Are Not “Just Games”

By Cherlyn Kay Alejandro Five years ago on my thirteenth birthday, my present was an Xbox 360. It was something I had been begging my mom for for months and months. Along with it came two games that I had been wanting to play, Halo 3 and Call of Duty: Black Ops 2. After the first week of playing the campaign in Call of Duty, I decided to try out the multiplayer part of the game. Three multiplayer games later, I wasn’t expecting to hear a loud squeaky voice that sounded like it belonged to a nine-year-old. They started yelling through their mic, “Fuck you, faggot! You suck dick!” It blared through my TV speakers and shocked my mother and me. I had never heard such profanity come out a kid’s mouth at that age. The game is rated Mature for 18 or older and a child under the age of 13 should not be able to get their hands on any Call of Duty game.

The online Xbox and PlayStation community is filled with gamers ranging from children to adults. There are thousands of games from different genres that are available to play, either solo or multiplayer. While people play these games, they communicate through mics or messages.

Communication is common on popular game titles such as Call of Duty and Grand Theft Auto.

Even though communication is key while working with your team to reach a certain objective, that isn’t what mics are usually used for. In games like Call of Duty, it’s normal to hear children under the age of ten raging and screaming through their mic with the constant use of vulgar, racist, and sexist language to insult other players in their game. Everyone in the game and in their household can hear the high-pitched screams of their adolescent voices. Why are they playing these games, and why aren’t their parents doing anything about it? These children are nowhere near the appropriate age to play these games, but a percentage of players on these games are under the age of 18. Underage children, specifically ten and under, build up so much anger through these games and let it out on other players, people in their household, or sometimes their peers at school. It affects them not only during playtime, but in their daily life as well. Although there are beneficial aspects of video games, such as child leisure time, stress relief, independence, and cognitive skills, violent video games cause underage children to develop addiction, aggression, and a desensitization to violence, which can affect their school life and carry onto their adult life.

Video games are fun for all ages, but sometimes they become addicting. It can be addicting for younger children because self-control isn’t something they have fully developed. Many people will play games until they get tired, or, in a child’s case, until their parents tell them to stop playing. The most common association with the word “addiction” is drugs. Seeing video games as an addiction is not taken that seriously or believed to be as serious as drugs. Mark Zastrow, a science writer, states that the definition of addiction involves “the brain’s reward system, in which using the substance triggers release of the neurotransmitter dopamine” (2017, p.1). This shows that the effects that drugs have on the brain trigger the same effects that video games have on an adolescent’s mind. Each child’s mind is affected differently because each child has a different cause for being addicted to a game. Everyone has a reason for why they are interested in a game and why they want to put all their time and effort into something on a screen. In Zastrow’s article, he explains that “games offer such a vivid alternative reality that young, developing brains are being altered in unprecedented ways by spending so much time there, and that these changes may be components of a new type of addiction” (2017, p.1). The more time 45

played in a video game makes a child enjoy playing instead of being in the real world. Virtual reality games, action games, and roleplaying games all give children a different place to be for as long as they want until they are told to stop. The stereotype of children never going outside holds some truth because many are inside spending hours on their computers or consoles. Paul Adachi, a researcher in child development, and Teena Willoughby, a psychologist, conducted a study in 2009 through a large survey in the United States and found that “88% of youth aged 8 to 18 years play video games and the average amount of time spent playing video games per week is 13.2 hours” (2012, p.156). About eight years have passed and the number of average hours played has increased. Parents, and children themselves, are too lenient on the hours spent playing video games. Children play for as long as they please without knowing what effects come along with the games they play, but as they get older these effects become more prominent.

In popular action games such as Call of Duty, Mortal Kombat, and Grand Theft Auto all players have experienced rage. This is what happens to players when they become extremely frustrated and angry with the game or other players in the game. When people rage, aggression is built up, and it usually includes yelling, cursing, and sometimes physically breaking things. Often a player’s rage is taken out on other players, family members, and even friends. The aggression gained from playing these violent video games has numerous effects on a child. It really depends on the age of a child; the younger they are, the more dependent they are on games. Two codirectors of the Center for Mental Health and Media at Massachusetts General Hospital, Cheryl K. Olson and Lawrence A. Kutner, and Dorothy E. Warner, a project coordinator at the Judge Baker Children’s Center, found that boys thought “violent video games might have a negative effect on younger siblings, who might be less able to distinguish between fantasy and reality and might inappropriately carry over attitudes or behaviors (especially swearing) from the game into daily life” (2008, p.70). There is a great concern for children who are under the age of nine who might not be able to understand the difference between a video game and real life. Many of their behaviors are used in real life, even when it was only part of a game. Mentally, these children are being affected and do not realize it. Digdem M. Siyez, a member of the Department of Counseling and Guidance in Turkey, and Bahar Baran, a member of the Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology in Turkey, did a study where they reached the conclusion that “playing video games with violent content saw increases in aggressive behaviors, aggression-related cognitions, and physiological arousal. Meanwhile, the same study found a negative relationship between playing violent video games and exhibiting helpful and prosocial behaviors” (2017, p.287). Children who start playing violent games at a young age will be affected mentally as their aggressive behavior becomes more distinguished. Violence is everywhere–on TV, social media, and video games. Not everyone handles violent scenes or gameplay easily. For some people, it may be hard to watch or hear about graphic content.

One major concern is that children who play violent video games all the time may be so exposed to violence that they become desensitized to it. The effects of desensitization from video game violence is discussed in an article by Douglas A. Gentile, Paul J. Lynch, Jennifer Ruh Linder, and David A. Walsh. The four authors, researchers that specialize in child psychology, had a goal to connect child behavior to media consumption. These writers explain how “repeated exposure to graphic scenes of violence is also postulated to be desensitizing. Furthermore, it is predicted that long-term game players become more aggressive in outlook, perceptual biases, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior than they were before the repeated exposure” (2004). This implies 46

that children start to see violent choices as acceptable because they are exposed to violence all the time. At such a young age, adolescents adapt and inherit habits that they see on the screen.

Because their character on screen does it, it might give them the idea that they can too. The actions that children may take are “aggressive action against others, expectations that others will behave aggressively, positive attitudes towards use of violence, and the belief that violent solutions are effective and appropriate” (Gentile, Lynch, Linder & Walsh, 2004, p.9). These actions are not something that young children should think are acceptable. Their aggressive outlooks on choices may lead to violence against the people around them. Reasons like these are why children should not be constantly playing games that give them objectives where using violence is their only solution for achieving their goal.

Even though there are many negative outcomes from children playing video games, a few positive outcomes come along with it. Video games are used during leisure time for children of all ages. Some play to relax and get away from the hard work they do throughout the day.

Sometimes children use violent games specifically to express fantasies of power and glory, to explore and master what they perceive as exciting and realistic environments, and as a tool to work out their feelings of anger and stress (Olson, Kutner & Warner, 2008, p.69). It gives them a place to be where there are not problems to deal with and where they can let out their stress.

Children can become independent as they start to learn how to manage their time because “video game play is an unorganized and often unsupervised adolescent activity; it also may fit the criteria for initiative” (Adachi & Willoughby, 2012, p.156). If problems arise around them or in the games, they must figure out how to solve them. The tricky challenges that games throw at their players are sometimes very difficult. Because their parents aren’t constantly watching them play, it challenges their brains into solving problems on their own. Many children acquire cognitive skills that will overall be beneficial in school. One of “the highest levels of cognitive processing an individual may demonstrate [is] a high degree of flexibility in refocusing attention from one task to another” (Bavelier & Green, 2016, p.1). Action games like Call of Duty require players to focus on a certain place while focusing on the mini map as well. This skill is useful in school for multitasking and sports. Video games involve learning new skills and solutions to problems, retaining those skills and solutions, and then applying them to future problems or challenges in the game (Adachi & Willoughby, 2012, p.156). Fast problem solving is extremely important in school during classwork, tests, and social interactions. Not only will it be useful in school, but also in adult life. Work places look for people who know how to make good decisions quickly. The skills that are gained can help children positively throughout school and adult life.

The positive cognitive skills from video games are promising, but the adverse effects don’t disappear. Children may not grow out of the addiction, aggression, and desensitization that are developed with video games. In many cases, the behavioral problems that arise can affect them throughout their school life and carry into their adult life. Children of a younger age have been observed and researchers have noticed that “high levels of violent video game exposure have been linked to delinquency, fighting at school and during free play periods, and violent criminal behavior” (Anderson, 2003, p.2). Many children will take anger built up from games and take it out on others; this causes trouble throughout their school life and could lead to criminal behavior as they get older. When children are introduced to violence at such a young age, they are easily influenced and make decisions based on what they are used to seeing. All genres of video games 47

can be fun for everyone, but certain games have consequences when they are introduced at a young age.

Many people are very lenient on video game age ratings nowadays, especially parents. Some parents will pay attention to the ratings on games and look up what the game is about, but most will not take the rating on games seriously. Popular titles like Call of Duty are just seen as shooter games, which are common games that children play. Children are smart in being able to convince their parents to buy them games for their birthday. Sometimes they say that their friends already have the game, so their parents might as well buy it for them. Adolescents are not the only ones who give into peer pressure; parents do as well when they make these decisions.

Information about the games that their children want is always available, especially with the easy access of the Internet, but the truth is that they do not care. Parents will often see this as “just a game” and do not understand that there are consequences with it just being a game. Children would not be able to get their hands on violent video games if parents understood that kids under the age of 12 could easily gain anger issues and become addicted very quickly. Soon enough, some parents will start to see their child become quick to anger at little things and become less interested in school or going outside. Video games are usually seen as something for kids, played by kids, but there are also a lot of adults who play video games. Many of the effects that people are worried about future children acquiring could be something that those adults deal with today.

Parents need to understand how the age rating for video games matters and that they are there for a reason. Children are easily influenced at a young age and do not fully understand what games do to them. It is the parents’ job to monitor their child and make good decisions for them.

If young children understood the effects that came with video games, it could change their mind on how long they spend playing and what age they would want to start playing. Many parents also do not understand the effects of violent video games because they either do not care or are not putting enough effort into finding out. Zastrow (2017) and Adachi and Willoughby (2012) explained that young children who are constantly on their game consoles will not want to do anything but play video games because they do not understand the meaning of self-control. As a result of addiction, Olson et al. (2008) clarify how this leads to aggression, as the amount of time spent playing and raging is let out on everyone around them. Because of addiction and aggression combined, Gentile et al. (2004) explicate that children who are accustomed to seeing violence become desensitized to offensive and disturbing content that other people may be sensitive to. These are all common factors that can influence a young child’s school life and their adult life. Violent video games have real effects whether they are adverse or valuable. It is important to put in effort and take time to understand that not all games are “just games.”

REFERENCES Adachi, P. J.C., & Willoughby, T. (2012). Do video games promote positive youth development? Journal of Adolescent Research, 28(2), 155-165. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0743558412464522 Anderson, C. A. (2003, October). Violent video games: Myths, facts, and unanswered questions.

American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/science/about/ psa/2003/10/anderson.aspx 48

Bavelier, D., & Green, C. S. (2016). The brain-boosting power of video games. Scientific American, 315(1), 26-31.

Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 5-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.002 Olson, C. K., Kutner, L. A., & Warner, D. E. (2008). The role of violent video game content in adolescent development boys’ perspectives. Journal of Adolescent Research, 23(1), 5575. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0743558407310713 Siyez, D. M., & Baran, B. (2017). Determining the proactive aggression and empathy levels of middle school students regarding their video game preferences. Computers in Human Behavior, 72, 286-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.006 Zastrow, M. (2017). News feature: Is video game addiction really an addiction? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(17), 4268-4272. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1705077114

49

The Psychedelic Movement: An Era of Influences

By Rosamaria Torres Let’s flash back to a decade of peace and love—a decade full of historical movements, technological advancements, and trends of popular cultures. The 1960s, also referred to as the “hippie revolution,” is considered the “psychedelic era” for the social and political revolutions that occurred alongside the usage of hallucinogens. During this time, drug influence became very popular as the use of psychedelics began to skyrocket. The tendencies to use different psychedelics during the sixties influenced and altered the American society in many positive aspects, revamping the works of film, artwork, and music.

It is very clear what the position of the United States (U.S.) is on the usage of psychedelic drugs.

For decades now, many psychedelic drugs, specifically LSD, have been pronounced illegal because they are harmful for any average American. But why should the government have a say in the drugs used for one’s own mind alteration? The psychedelic sixties proved a point through the art, culture, and music developed during the time. Yes, these drugs may have not been a primary reason for the renaissance period simply because they can be harmful, and they do not actually alter your mind to see other aspects of life and creativity. Psychedelic drugs may have been a lame excuse for the ways the sixties enhanced art, culture, and music; however, what if psychedelics were the reason that some of the most well-known music and art techniques were developed during the sixties?

Before the psychedelic sixties began, the United States had just ended World War II against several foreign nations. Because of this, the U.S. was at high risk for many terrorists and foreign spies to enter the country, thus leaving the U.S. to find a solution to avoid this risk from happening. Finding a solution to the problem became a secret operation within the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to guarantee American lives were safe from foreign powers. During this time in which the CIA was trying to detect foreign spies entering the country, the book Acid Dreams by Martin Lee and Bruce Shlain talks about the possible production of a “speech enhancing” drug to be used during potential interrogations of these spies. The CIA concocted several recipes for a hallucinogen capable of such characteristics that would leave someone still conscious and responsive, yet unable to control their speech and/or thoughts.

After several attempts at developing such a hallucinogen, the experiment concluded when several agents discovered a foreign drug used in several concentration camps over the period of the previous war. They were now capable of revising the old recipe, which previously utilized marijuana as the main ingredient, and replaced the former drug with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). After the revision of the drug, they were in need of ways by which they would be able to test this drug before the actual usage on hostages and foreign spies. The CIA’s covert operation that tested the LSD drug for the first time became known as the MK-Ultra program.

Launched in the early fifties right after the invention of LSD, the MK-Ultra program “involved more than 150 human experiments” and the use of psychedelics (“MK-Ultra”). The MK-Ultra program was essentially created to test out the new narcotic on Americans who volunteered willingly but were oblivious to what drugs they were going to be taking. Special agents would lure people in, such as hookers, inmates, college students, peace protesters, and anyone who was 50

deemed amenable to taking such narcotics without knowing exactly what the drug contained.

The general public was completely unaware of the testing taking place until around the early 1960s when LSD escaped the lab and was utilized by the hippie revolution. This was the beginning of the psychedelic sixties.

The psychedelic sixties were a time of great conflict and public protests that spread across the United States. This was a time that many major events were occurring, such as the Kennedy presidency, the Vietnam War, the Civil Rights Movement, and many other events that were changing American society. These events led to many disagreements within communities and influenced the growth of protests across America. The first of many events that began the rage of Americans was the Kennedy presidency, which put Americans in fear of what might happen under his command. The Civil Rights Movement came shortly after that and caused a breakout all across America as racial discrimination was now deemed unacceptable in American Society.

Because of these major events in American history, protestors were now on every street corner demanding their right of speech and asking to be heard. These protests across America became frequent as new impactful movements arose in the early sixties. Many peace protesters found that using hallucinogens caused a greater unity and a less violent outcome following the protest.

Protesters found that the use of these narcotics caused a new feeling of peace and unity that gave them capabilities to relate spiritually. Hallucinogens that were used at the time of such protests included marijuana, LSD, and mushrooms (often called “shrooms”). These drugs were substantial influences to American thought processes and rapidly changed a person’s mood while under the drug’s influence. Although these protests were rapidly spreading across the U.S., the most important outcome of the events was the unity that grew within America during this era of drug influence.

Other ways in which hallucinogens influenced America positively during the sixties is portrayed in the culture, art, and music development. Culture, art, and music became a considerably large part of the sixties renaissance period, creating a cultural outlook that consisted of and represented love and peace within individuals, typically brought on during the usage of hallucinogens.

Edward Rothstein mentions the cultural values during the era of the sixties and how the contribution of hallucinogens enlightened and romanticized American society. American culture began to reflect the impact that protests were making in America, portraying unity among individuals that joined together due to shared beliefs. Cultural gatherings, for numerous reasons, became more popular across the U.S., as did the usage of hallucinogens during the rituals. The cultural inspiration during the sixties influenced the ways in which modern society expressed themselves in today’s era. Some people will look back on the 60s as a happy time, filled with bright colors and overall good feelings of peace. But, was any of it real considering it was experienced under a drug-influenced haze?

Alongside the cultural innovation of the sixties was the creation of psychedelic art. Art in the psychedelic sixties transformed America’s perspective on life itself. Sculptures and works of art changed direction drastically during the sixties when psychedelics were introduced. Paintings became more abstract as the meaning of life through shapes and forms stretched beyond the imagination. Perceptions in the psychedelic era became less of an understanding and more of a meaning. People and artists partnered with hallucinogens, typically LSD, and created works of art that touched base with their feelings while on mind-altering drugs. In an interview with CNN, 51

Ken Johnson explains that when people are under the influence of psychedelics, they are capable of “thinking about their own perceptions. They don’t take their perceptions for granted, but they start thinking about how our perceptions work” (qtd. in Grinberg). Johnson elaborates on the ways in which hallucinogens shaped the artwork causing a great renaissance of the sixties. This psychedelic art not only revamped the decade, but it also had a major influence on modern art.

With culture and art came the music development during the sixties that took a dramatic turn toward the usage of psychedelics as well. But how exactly did music begin to shape culture, art and society during the hippie revolution? Music became very popular in the scene during the sixties as rock n’ roll began to rise. Rock bands such as The Beatles, Pink Floyd, and The Grateful Dead had many different influences on the American society. In “Bob Dylan, The Beatles, and the Rock of the Sixties,” Mikal Gilmore explains how their music inspired “massive generational and social ferment.” Bands and musicians began to play music that was inspired by important events during the time, such as the Civil Rights Movement. Such musicians were highly encouraged to compose music that represented their thoughts of life and feelings of society while using strong psychedelics. Hallucinogens began inspiring many famous artists still highly favored in the modern era. The first of many musicians to change the music industry during the sixties with the help of hallucinogens and other narcotics was the phenomenally prolific songwriter Bob Dylan.

Largely known for his folk music during the sixties, Bob Dylan was responsible for the beginning usages of hallucinogens by many bands and musicians. Raised in Minnesota, Bob Dylan was remarkable when it came to expressing his feelings about America in his works of music. Gilmore wrote that Dylan had an “articulate voice to the apprehensions and ideals of the emerging restless generation.” Dylan was capable of reaching out to his audience in ways that reflected himself and the lives of many Americans. While using LSD, he penned songs that represented the racial suffering and increase of tension during postwar America. In his anthem “Blowin’ in the Wind,” Dylan emphasizes the civil rights marches taking place by writing “How many roads must a man walk down/ Before you call him a man?/ Yes, how many times must a man look up/ Before he can see the sky?” Also in this song, he particularly aims for President Truman by interpreting the feelings of many troops overseas during the Vietnam War composing “Yes, and how many deaths will it take till he knows/ That too many people have died?”

Although Dylan was a substantial influence on the music progress during the sixties, there were many other musicians and bands that also contributed to this evolution.

The Beatles are referred to as one of the most successful and influential bands of the psychedelic sixties. Since the beginning of their success, The Beatles’ music career has always been perplexingly linked to the use of drugs. During the start of their career in the early 1960s Bob Dylan graciously introduced the band to the use of cannabis (also referred to as “marijuana”), which in a way had a significant role in their music. Cannabis gave The Beatles a kick-start by giving their music a more introspective and mellow theme. The Beatles became famous for their use of marijuana during live performances, which created a tendency for them to forget their music many times. Shortly following their introduction to marijuana, their music was soon cultivated by LSD.

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One night spent at a dinner party with several band members turned into what would be the biggest night of the Beatles’ music career. In this night, the Beatles were introduced to LSD and were transformed by the music they would create in the next twenty-four hours. Several of the band members ended up at George Harrison’s house that night where they composed the bestselling album of the Beatles’ career, Revolver. Throughout the whole night Lennon and Harrison composed away creating some of the most famous hits from the album, including “Yellow Submarine.” As described in “The Beatles’ Acid Test,” Gilmore explains that the Beatles’ Revolver was the “bravest and most innovative album.” From this night on LSD became the most positive and biggest influence on the Beatles’ music career.

LSD has had, and still has today, some of the most positive effects on American society. The psychedelic drug managed to bring Americans together in a time of despair while encouraging a renaissance period of music and art. Psychedelic drugs spread all across North America, even to small islands off the coast of Florida, leaving a permanent mark on each and every society. Some societies still cherish these psychedelic drugs for the positive outlooks they may create, while others still agree these are seriously dangerous illegal drugs. However, all of the modern-day society can agree that the sixties are making a comeback, and we all know why.

WORKS CITED Gilmore, Mikal. “The Beatles' Acid Test. (Cover Story).” Rolling Stone, no. 1269, 08 Sept. 2016, pp. 42-64, AN=117625454.

Gilmore, Mikal. “Bob Dylan, the Beatles, and the Rock of the Sixties.” Rolling Stone, 23 Aug. 1990, www.rollingstone.com/music/news/bob-dylan-the-beatles-and-the-rock-roll-of-the60s-19900823.

Grinberg, Emanuella. “How Drugs of the 60s Changed Art.” CNN, 15 July 2011, www.cnn.com/2011/LIVING/07/15/ken.johnson.psychedelic.art/index.html.

Lee, Martin A. and Bruce Shlain. Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties and Beyond. Pan, 2001.

“MK-Ultra.” History.com. A+E Networks, 2017, www.history.com/topics/history-of-mk-ultra.

Rothstein, Edward. “A Mind-Altering Drug Altered a Culture as Well.” The New York Times, 5 May 2008, www.nytimes.com/2008/05/05/arts/05conn.html.

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Finnish-Swedes

By Katriina Rinter-Jouppi Finnish-Swedes are the main minority group of Finland that I belong to. We are a small minority consisting of 291,219 people, which is about five percent of the whole population (Statistikscentralen, 2011). The minority’s first language is either just Swedish or both Swedish and Finnish. The group is concentrated in specific areas of the country. Most live on the island of Åland and the western and southern coastal areas of Finland. In many of these areas the majority of people speak Swedish rather than Finnish. The following paragraphs will give more in depth knowledge of the minority, with focus on what makes this minority unique, its history, and what are some of the struggles they face. Most of the information is collected from my personal experiences and knowledge, since this kind of information is difficult to attain from other sources.

The Swedish language was introduced to Finland in the 12th century, when the Swedish Kingdom expanded east over the area that is today known as Finland. Thereafter, Finland remained a part of Sweden for about six hundred years (History, 2017). For that duration, Swedish was the official language of Finland, and there was no written Finnish until 1534 (Kotimaisten kielten keskus, 2016). All of the official business and documentations were in Swedish. Therefore, it is no wonder that there still is a minority of Swedish speakers. In 1809, Russia invaded Finland, and they implemented a Russification plan of Finland (History, 2017).

However, the roots of the Swedish speakers were so deep that when a Finnish national movement started as an opposition to Russification, the first draft of the national anthem was in Swedish. The anthem was written in 1848, by one of Finland’s most famous poets, Johan Ludvig Runeberg. It was not translated to Finnish until 1867 by Julius Krohn. Currently Finnish is the dominant language when it comes to official business, although Swedish is still a part of Finnish society.

Today, children are required to study Swedish in school if their mother tongue is Finnish and vice versa. Nonetheless, during recent years, it has been debated whether the Swedish subject should be optional instead of mandatory. This is partly because the “True Finns” party support has boomed due to high immigration and many asylum seekers. The “True Finns” are a conservative right-wing party that thinks it is needless to have mandatory Swedish in the curriculum. They argue that students would have more motivation to study the language if they could choose it or any other language freely. They believe that, in, for example, eastern Finland, people could have more use of learning Russian instead (Leskelä, 2015). The party also claims that it is useless for the whole population of Finland to learn Swedish because of a small minority in a designated area. However, they want to keep English obligatory and add another mandatory language that students can choose themselves.

The opposition to this party is mainly the Swedish People’s Party of Finland, who primarily promote the needs and rights of the Finnish-Swedish minority. It is a small party, but they usually have a couple of representatives voted to the parliament. They share the view of most Finnish-Swedes, which is that, if Swedish was not mandatory, it would subside the language’s position in the Finnish society and decline the minority’s rights. This would directly cause difficulties getting service in Swedish. This is especially worrying when it comes to healthcare 54

services, since people speaking the official languages should have the right to get service in their mother tongue. The issue of having Swedish in the curriculum is still under debate, but no changes have been made to the curriculum. Nonetheless, it is a hot topic in media and amongst citizens. The education question is not the only controversy between the minority and majority; recently there was another regarding healthcare.

In western Finland, there is a town called Vasa. The town is nicknamed “the capital of FinnishSwedes,” due to the large population of Swedish speakers there and in the neighboring municipalities. As the center of the Ostrobothnia region, there is an emergency room in the public hospital of Vasa. The current constitution chose to close the emergency room to save the government money. Instead they directed people to the emergency room in a town located seventy kilometers from Vasa, called Seinäjoki (Parliament confirmed, 2016). Seinäjoki has a majority of Finnish speakers and very few Swedish speakers in the area. With no surprise, relocation of the emergency room was not accepted by the Vasa area. People were worried that they would no longer get healthcare in Swedish, and that the emergency room was a long travel away. They thought that it is vital to provide healthcare services in Swedish, as there are many Finnish-Swedes that do not know Finnish. Therefore, a petition was started. The petition got the needed 50,000 signatures to be sent to the parliament (Tolkki, 2017). To the joy of the people in the Vasa area, the petition was approved, and the emergency room has not been moved. People continue to enjoy service in either Finnish or Swedish, since knowledge of both languages is required when working in Vasa. This was a significant win for the minority and the political position of the language. As the number of people speaking Swedish reduces, many do not see the significance of learning the language anymore. However, it is key for the Finnish-Swedes to keep their spirits high even though the future of their language is unsure.

In Finland, there are many false stereotypes of Finnish-Swedes that incite resentment towards the group. A stereotype is that the Finnish-Swedes are rich because, historically, the ones speaking Swedish were usually people of power; however, this is not true anymore. Today many of the minority live in villages and a common livelihood is agriculture. Some live in towns or cities like Helsinki or Turku, and have varieties of professions. Another stereotype is that Finnish-Swedes have sailboats and drink champagne. This has its roots in the Swedish culture and has been confused with Finnish-Swedes. Although many do sail around the Helsinki area, this is not true at all for the ones living in western Finland. These stereotypes are usually harmful because they create a false belief that Finnish-Swedes are pretentious, which in turn builds resentment between the groups. The problem is that most of the people with these false beliefs do not personally know any Finnish-Swedes and are not familiar with their culture.

The culture of Finnish-Swedes differs from Finnish culture to an extent. It has more similarities to Swedish culture than Finnish culture. Finnish culture does not share all of the traditions with Finnish-Swedes, and therefore there is a distinction. A unique tradition for Finnish-Swedes is the celebration of the end of the cottage season. This marks the end of the summer, when people go back to their town homes from their summer houses at the sea or lake. It is celebrated at the cottages with friends and family with bonfires, barbeque, fireworks, drinking “schnapps,” and singing. Another unique tradition is the sitz, an event where students gather for a dinner usually hosted by a student organization. The main idea is for students to enjoy a meal with schnapps drinks and celebration in the form of speeches and songs. Schnapps are enjoyed after singing 55

special songs designed for these events. At the sitz there are also rules that you cannot break, and some even arrange games and themes. However, the intention is to mingle, eat, drink, and sing.

A tradition that also differs from Finnish culture is the crayfish party, which originates from Sweden. In a crayfish party, family and friends gather to eat crayfish, sing, and drink schnapps.

The celebration of Saint Lucia is another common custom that is adapted by Finnish-Swedes from Swedish culture. However, it has become more widespread in Finland in recent years. Saint Lucia is celebrated before Christmas, by a Lucia performance including the Lucia trail and Lucia-themed songs. Children perform the trail every year at school on the thirteenth of December. Thus, Finnish-Swedes do have influences from Swedish culture, but one should remember that there is a clear difference. Most Finnish-Swedes strongly identify themselves as a part of the Finnish culture, not Swedish. This distinction can even be seen in the language, which is different compared to Swedish spoken in Sweden.

The Finnish-Swedish language is unlike Swedish spoken in Sweden. This phenomenon could be compared to how English spoken in the United States of America and United Kingdom differ from each other. Finnish-Swedish has words and influences from Finnish and English (Institutet för spårk och folkminne, 2017), whereas Swedish spoken in Sweden has more influence from French (Stam, 2012). An example of this would be French fries. In Sweden, they are called Pommes Frites, which comes from French. On the other hand, in Finnish-Swedish they are called Franskisar, which is influenced by the English term “French fries” (Institutet för de inhemska språken, 2017). Another example is the word “toilet”. In Sweden it is called toalett, and in Finland it is called “WC” (or Vessa) in both Finnish and Swedish. The accents are extremely different in the countries as well. Finnish-Swedish speakers tend to shorten the words by dropping last few letters, whereas Swede’s do not. There are multiple other differences in the vocabulary and the pronunciation, but usually Finnish-Swedes and Swedes are able to understand each other.

There is a surprising amount of different dialects of Swedish spoken in Finland. Some vary so much that people speaking the different dialects cannot understand each other. It is said that a Swedish dialect Närpesiska is the closest relation to old Norse language (Forsström, 2015). The dialects vary from neighboring towns, but the biggest difference is between the west and the south. The southern dialects are considered as “proper” speech, which is used in news and official business, while the dialects in the west are considered more of rural and casual speech.

The southern dialects have also more influences from Finnish, while the western dialects have little influence from Finnish. This could be because western Finland has a higher number of Swedish speakers. They are in fact so many that the town Korsnäs is the most Swedish speaking municipality in the world (SVT, 2006). This means that the percentage of Swedish speakers compared to all other towns in Finland and Sweden is higher. This describes well the magnitude of Swedish in some areas of Finland.

When considering this minority with its culture and versatility, the thought arises: what if we would lose it? Many languages and dialects have died due to globalism. It would be a shame to lose more of these varieties of languages and their subcultures. Bilingualism is of great value to Finland. It contributes cultural diversity and makes people more tolerant. Swedish also has deep roots in Finnish history, and it should be cherished as a historical national heritage. Bilingualism 56

has given Finland the chance to have closer relations to other Nordic countries because of the shared Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Danish). Although many Finns do not need Swedish in their daily life, many see the value of it and wish to preserve the Swedish language in Finland. Thus, there is still hope for a future of Finnish-Swedes in Finland.

REFERENCES Institutet för språk och folkminne. (2017, Feb. 17). How do the Swedish dialects in Finland relate to Swedish? Retrieved from http://www.sprakochfolkminnen.se/sprak/ dialekter/fragor-och-svar-om-dialekter/faq/2013-10-21-hur-forhaller-sig-de-svenskadialekterna-i-finland-till-svenskan.html French fries. (2016). In Institutet för de inhemska språken. Retrieved from http://kaino.kotus.fi/fsob/?p=article&word=franskisar&fsob_id=FSOB_479a6b3dc7bba0 3cdc43fe3a39872327 Forsström, Ted. (2015, March 8). Ten words found only in Närpes. X3M. Retrieved from https://svenska.yle.fi/artikel/2015/08/03/tio-ord-som-bara-finns-i-narpes History of independent Finland. (2017, July 9). Yle. Retrieved from https://yle.fi/aihe/artikkeli/2013/07/09/itsenaisen-suomen-historia Kotimaisten kielten keskus. (2016). Written language. Retrieved from https://www.kotus.fi/kielitieto/kielenkayton_lajit/kirjoitettu_kieli Leskeläv, Veli-Pekka. (2015, March 6). PS: Should Sweden have to study for 100 people?

Suomen Uutuset. Retrieved from https://www.suomenuutiset.fi/ps-pitaako-ruotsiaopiskella-sadan-asukkaan-takia/ Parliament confirmed: Vaasa Hospital loses a 24-hour extensive emergency call. (2016, Dec. 20). Aamulehti. Retrieved from https://www.aamulehti.fi/kotimaa/vaasan-keskussairaalamenettaa-ymparivuorokautisen-laajan-paivystyksen-siirtyy-seinajoelle-24154126/ Stam, Joni. (2016, November 22). Language history. Retrieved from https://larare.at/svenska/moment/sprakhistoria/sprakhistoria_fakta.html Statistikcentralen. (2011). Population by language 1980-2011. Retrieved from http://www.stat.fi/til/vaerak/2011/vaerak_2011_2012-03-16_tau_001_sv.html Svenskfinland. (2010). History. Retrieved from https://svenskfinland.fi/history/ SVT. (2006). Svenska dialektmysterier, Östsvenska & Gutniska. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0M2Mtpqfdho&t=768s

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Tolkk, Kristiina. (2017, January 6). The citizens’ initiative from Vaasa’s Emergency Hospital heated the parliament: “Not everyone understands the Savo dialect.” Uutuset. Retrieved from https://yle.fi/uutiset/3-9644844

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TRANSFORMING SOCIETIES

Empire by Ryan Cimatu 59

Age and Maturity

By Leee Miyahira I always felt I did not quite fit in with people my age. I had friends in both middle school and high school, but I could not connect that well with them. I did not realize why until I started my senior year and found myself acting like a mother to my friends. My maturity differed from most people my age, so my values were different; I placed priorities on education and safety rather than socialization and fun. This was caused by having more responsibilities than other kids my age. Being very uptight and strict on myself made me a straight A student but not necessarily the most social person. I cared about my friends and wanted them to be safe and successful, but their priorities differed from mine because they liked having fun.

These different priorities were present in many other students as well. Because I had classes with people my age, their choices began to affect me. Because not everyone was mature, students would distract the teacher and misbehave which ultimately took away from my learning time. I thought it was unfair that these individuals affected my learning in a negative way, which, despite being the same age, was caused by their lack of maturity. Fairness is a very important concept to me because I believe that people should get what they deserve. My definition of fairness is getting respect based on effort and work, which leads to being judged based on individuality, maturity, and responsibility. This led me to conclude that the responsibility and maturity of a person does not depend on their age, and it is not fair to be judged on that factor alone. Therefore, I think future laws or rules should take in account the cognitive and psychosocial maturity of individuals between the ages 15 and 22. There are many activities and rules involving age that do not meet my definition of fairness, and one of the biggest has to do with the legal drinking age.

The drinking age for everyone in the United States is 21. Through my experience in high school and college, I know that many adolescents do not follow this law and neither do their parents.

According to John Lewis, a professor in criminology, this could be due to lack of social consensus. In his work “A Problem that Cannot be Legislated Away,” Lewis states, “It does appear that the origins of underage drinking laws may be somewhat more readily explainable from the interactionist or social reaction rather than the consensus perspective; it could be that they are more the result of moralistic crusading, rather than to have bubbled up from a shared value system” (140). In other words, people only started supporting this law as a reaction to the news and deaths from accidents caused by drunk driving, but did not actually agree with the new law. The blame was mainly placed on 18-year-old individuals, which resulted in the increase of the legal drinking age to age 21 for all states in 1984.

Adding to Lewis’s argument, I feel this law is flawed because it discriminates against those who are capable of drinking responsibly at a younger age. This law does not give adolescents the chance to prove that they can drink responsibly and just cuts them out of the picture entirely so that nothing will happen. The law is based on the fear of what certain adolescents might do to themselves and others when given this type of responsibility; it is unfair because someone already decided that at that age they are irresponsible and they were never given the option or choice to make that decision themselves despite the fact 18 is the legal age for adulthood.

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I admit that some adolescents can be irresponsible and out of control sometimes, so the law accounts for that by placing the responsibility for them on their parents. However, if adolescents are old enough and know enough to make a better decision for themselves, they should have some say in how they are treated legally. For example, an adolescent might have a drug-addicted parent that abuses them and no one knows about it. Even if the government’s Child Protective Services (CPS) take the teenager away from his or her parents, someone else that works for the government gets to decide what happens to the adolescent. The teen could go to a foster home or even be adopted if the parental rights are terminated in a hearing in court (“Guide to Child Welfare Services” 11-12). They do not have a say where they end up because CPS will take the adolescent to where the agent feels is a safe place. In that scenario, the adolescent does not have control over where they end up and suffers under the law because of the assumption that parents or government agents know better for the adolescent. In the majority of cases, parents will treat their children right and take care of them, but that does not apply to everyone. Not all parents know better and care for their children as expected, and that’s where the law fails to protect all adolescents.

This applies to the issue of college students drinking also. John McCardell, a professor of history, states in his work “Yes, the U.S. Legal Drinking Age Should Be Lowered,” that the drinking age should be lowered to the age of 18 for safety reasons. He describes the places where college students drink as secretive and unsafe, which is similar to drinking in the Prohibition era (McCardell 19). McCardell’s point is that the current law encourages people to secretly drink in places that can put them in unpleasant or unsafe situations. Ultimately, these situations with drinking can have an overall negative effect on adolescents and cause them harm.

McCardell is surely right about the unsafe nature of this law because I know many people that actually take part in underage drinking in college. Due to this, the parties go off-campus where anything can happen. That shows another flaw in the law because it can put more students in danger if there are not very good people at the parties or it is their first-time drinking; for example, students are at risk of rape, fights, and drug encounters. These possible situations are a danger for adolescents and do not always have to do with the actual consumption of alcohol.

Of course, there are some adolescents that will make bad decisions while intoxicated, like drunk driving. Since this action endangers their own life and the lives of others, having an age limit is thought to be safe, as it might prevent accidents and fatalities that could be caused by alcohol consumption by irresponsible individuals. Because the brain is still developing in someone’s twenties, if they drink too much starting at a young age, it could actually harm their brain development and increase dependence on alcohol (“Underage Drinking” 3). Another result of making the age limit lower is that people younger than 21 could have easier access to alcohol if they are friends or siblings with someone who is of age. These are the reasons why having the legal drinking age is thought of as safe, but this brings up the question: why is the legal drinking age 21?

In regards of the age limit for alcohol, McCardell states that “Age 21 seems arbitrary, and the explanations offered in support of it—that they lack judgment and maturity—at the very least call into question why they are deemed capable of exercising all other adult responsibilities” (18). In other words, having the age requirement set at age 21 does not make sense because at an 61

age even younger than 21, people can have other adult responsibilities. Essentially, this law seems contradictory because people ages 18-20 are seen as responsible and mature enough to have adult responsibilities like joining the military, but the amount of responsibility and maturity they have is not enough to drink alcohol.

I endorse McCardell’s questioning because, when comparing alcohol gained at 21 and other responsibilities gained at 18, the responsibilities seem to vary in importance. I think that joining the military or voting is more important than alcohol drinking because it affects many more people and has more potential to endanger others. For example, when you drink alcohol too much, you could get alcohol poisoning and die or drive drunk and hit pedestrians. However, in the military people handle guns, and if someone radical gets hold of the ammunition, then there could be a potential mass shooting. In terms of voting, electing a leader that could make bad decisions like going to war or bad policies affects many more. The potential result of these two responsibilities makes me feel that they are more important than drinking alcohol because they can affect so many more people if the wrong people can handle a gun or lead a country.

Therefore, it seems weird that responsibilities that are not as important are granted at a later age like access to alcohol, but other tasks that would be more important like joining the military or voting is gained before.

These age limits do have benefits such as the legal drinking age in terms of safety and health, but they judged on a simple factor of age. They do not take in account that some adolescents are ready to drink responsibly, vote responsibly, or join the military. My own definition of both drinking and smoking responsibly means in moderation and not putting yourself or others in harm’s way. This can be applied in the military as well because you would want to train in moderation and not injure yourself by always doing intensive activities and making sure that you do not harm others in any exercises. In terms of voting responsibly, I think that it is important to think of the potential consequences if each candidate is elected and not decide based on a whim.

All these things can be done by some adolescents even before reaching age 18.

In terms of drinking, this is shown in an experiment in Sweden where Birgitta Ander, Agneta Abrahamsson, and Disa Bergnehr conducted a study on adolescent drinking culture. Sweden actually has two different legal drinking ages depending on the location, so at bars and pubs the drinking age is 18, but to buy from anywhere else the legal age is 20. In the experiment, their results showed that these adolescents cared immensely about controlling their drinking and did not want to get totally wasted to the point of blacking out or throwing up (Ander et al. 850). This does not just apply in Sweden because some college students I have met also have the same mindset and do not want to drink too much to where it negatively affects them. It shows that adolescents are capable of being responsible in their drinking despite what the age limit implies because some will drink in moderation and control their intake.

Another example of an adolescent being responsible is me. I was blessed to be raised responsibly, so I am confident that I could handle joining the military, drinking, and voting before reaching age 18. When I was young, I was taught not to burden others and to think before I act. In order to not burden others, you will not drink as much and cut down when you start to feel the effects of it, which would be moderation. In terms of deciding to drink more, you can see what could happen as a result and choose to not drink anymore that night, which relates to 62

making sure you and other people are not in danger. The two lessons I learned can be applied to drinking in that it will make you stop before something bad happens to you or someone else; this relates to my definition of responsibility and the previous example of Swedish adolescents controlling their drinking.

For the military aspect, the same two rules still apply. Because being in the military involves a lot of discipline, the two rules help control your behavior so you do not drag your team down or act in a way that will get you punished. In order to not burden your teammates, you will do your part and contribute to whatever activity or exercises in basic combat training. Thinking before acting will allow you to make good decisions because, when you think of possible consequences, you will pick the one that is least harmful to yourself or others.

In terms of voting, when choosing the right candidate, you think about the potential consequences of each candidate winning. For example, if a candidate makes jokes about women or associates with racist people, you might see a possible outcome of them treating those women inappropriately or not standing up for people of a different race. Just the lesson on thinking before voting makes a difference because the decision ultimately affects millions of people.

Not all adolescents can apply these two lessons. Examples of this are among my friends because I see the lack of maturity and rational thinking when I socialize with them. One friend acts on impulse and will sometimes complain and swear at my other friend if that friend will not do what she wants. Alcohol might worsen this impulsive nature, and she might actually hit someone or curse at everyone if she drinks too much alcohol. In terms of voting, I saw that my friends favored a certain candidate for one point or policy they made without considering what could happen to other people. They only saw what they wanted to see and did not acknowledge how the actions of this person could actually have a negative impact on everyone else. In the military case, my impulsive friend cannot hold her tongue even against people with more authority than her, so I do not think she could go to the military and have excellent behavior. I saw all these immature qualities of my friends and feel they would not be responsible enough to do any of these three things.

However, the law categorizes us the same because of age, and so we are treated the same even though I feel I deserve to receive more responsibilities than them. My friends do not realize how immature they are, and they just want to have fun even though that means being irresponsible.

They know that I am more mature than them and will treat me differently because of that. For example, if they are going to drink at a barbecue, I will not be invited because they know I will say something. My maturity is acknowledged, but it is not something they aim to develop; to them, being more mature could make people buzz kills like me. If I were entitled to drink, my friends would probably think it is unfair and complain or whine because they do not see the big picture; they would not realize that it is fair and beneficial for them not to drink legally even though we would be the same age.

In the experiment “(Im)Maturity of Judgment in Adolescence: Why Adolescents May Be Less Culpable Than Adults,� conducted by Elizabeth Cauffman and Laurence Steinberg, two professors of developmental psychology, Cauffman and Steinberg explain why my friends and my maturity differed: 63

Adolescent immaturity within the literature on psychological development fall into two broad categories: those that attribute youthful immaturity to cognitive differences between adolescents and adults (i.e., deficiencies in the way adolescents think), and those that attribute immaturity to psychosocial differences (i.e., deficiencies in adolescents' social and emotional capability). (Cauffman and Steinberg 742-743) In other words, immaturity can depend on cognitive factors, which includes how the brain functions, and psychosocial factors.

There are three factors in the psychosocial domain defined by Cauffman and Steinberg: Responsibility, which encompasses such characteristics as self-reliance, clarity of identity, and independence; (2) perspective, which refers to one's likelihood of considering situations from different viewpoints and placing them in broader social and temporal contexts; and (3) temperance, which refers to tendencies to limit impulsivity and to evaluate situations before acting. (Cauffman and Steinberg 745) This emphasizes the importance of psychosocial factors in adolescents rather than cognitive factors because there is a bigger difference in this type of maturity between adults and adolescents.

This makes sense to me because cognitive factors can be similar for middle adolescents and adults because the brain is close to being fully developed; however, responsibility, perspective, and temperance do not develop the same for each person. Even though I was the same age as my peers in high school, I did not find what they thought was funny or agree with the choices they made because my factors of psychosocial maturity developed faster.

In terms of responsibility, I was given the task of cooking for my sisters in middle school and keeping up with my school work all the time, so I feel that is a big part of why my maturity could expand. Some of my friends have never even cooked rice before high school, which shows the lack of responsibility that was put on them at a young age. In my situation, I was given the chance to develop this factor, while they were not. As a result, I was more responsible than them and was able to do this at age 11 or 12.

For the perspective factor, I developed it after watching my parents become stressed out from my eldest sister’s grades. I started to consider how my parents felt after working for so long and coming home to messages on the phone about my sister’s bad grades. My friends never dealt with things like this and acted quite spoiled, which made me realize they do not consider their parents’ perspective on important matters such as academics.

In regards to temperance, I developed it watching and listening to my mom about dealing with money and acted on the desire to never embarrass my parents with my behavior. Recently, my friend got a job and she spent her paycheck by impulse buying expensive shoes instead of saving the money. The difference in mindset to save or to spend was not taught to her, and she was not given the chance to actually develop temperance because her mom bought her expensive clothes all the time when she wanted them.

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All these situations made me develop these three factors of responsibility, perspective, and temperance, which in turn made me act more psychosocially mature than my peers. Psychosocial maturity does not develop at the same rate as everyone your age and seems to depend on the situations you faced instead. In my case, I had chances to develop the three factors because of my situation at home, but not everyone has the same chance.

In Cauffman and Steinberg’s experiment, they also compared adolescents’ psychosocial maturity to those of adults, and it was found that “psychosocial contributors to decision-making stand in contrast to those obtained from studies of the cognitive contributors to decision-making, which generally find few differences between adults and middle adolescents [ages 15-16]” (Cauffman and Steinberg 757). This fact relates to the study because it indicated that adults are not always psychosocially more mature since there were a significant number of adolescents who showed higher levels of maturity than some adults (Cauffman and Steinberg 758). Basically, an adolescent’s maturity does not always depend on the age of the adolescent, which means some adolescents can be more mature than adults.

For me, I always had a feeling of being more mature than some people even older than me. For example, I have to work with older people at my job, and they like to talk a lot and send other people to do most of the side jobs. When cash was missing from their trays, they would try to blame other people and did not take responsibility for their actions. I have a hard time working with these teammates and end up doing most of the cleaning and order taking. If there are adolescents more mature than the adults around them, then it brings up the question of whether being an adult should be based on age or the maturity of individuals in a legal sense. This idea is radical though, because there would be many outraged if they could never achieve adulthood since they lack the maturity.

There is no middle level between being a minor and being an adult. When adolescents reach age 18, they have no choice but to become an adult. I think this mostly affects people that are lacking in responsibility, perspective, and temperance because, as adults, they are treated differently than before when they have not drastically changed. As a result, if these “adults” still have the same maturity and irresponsibility then they can make mistakes on a bigger scale, like stealing, using a credit card, drinking, and more. Making people become an adult based on age alone can really affect their lives if they are not mentally ready for the responsibility of becoming one and still choose to engage in irresponsible behavior.

The study “Are Adolescents Less Mature Than Adults?: Minors' Access to Abortion, the Juvenile Death Penalty, and the Alleged APA "Flip-Flop” involved adults and adolescents and was conducted by Laurence Steinberg, Elizabeth Cauffman, Jennifer Woolard, Sandra Graham, and Marie Banich, each holding various degrees involving developmental psychology. In the study, participants of different age groups were given tests, questionnaires, and computerized tasks to measure psychosocial maturity and cognitive capacity. Towards the end of their discussion they state, Jurists, politicians, advocates, and journalists seeking a uniform answer to questions about where we should draw the line between adolescence and adulthood for different purposes under the law need to consider the asynchronous nature of psychological 65

maturation, especially during periods of dramatic and rapid change across multiple domains of functioning. (Steinberg et al. 593) The authors acknowledge that the psychological maturation of everyone does not happen at the same time and that there is no clear line between adulthood and adolescence because of the differences. Certain laws are set for a specific age just like the legal drinking age and turning into an adult at age 18; however, these laws should not be decided on the age of individuals because maturity is more important.

When there is a certain age involved in a law or rule, I think it discriminates against those responsible enough and deserving who are below that age. There is no age that guarantees that the psychosocial maturity of all individuals will be consistent with each other because everyone experiences life in a different way. Therefore, I think future laws or rules should take into account the psychosocial maturity and cognitive maturity of individuals that are between the ages 15-22 instead of being based on general assumptions that affect everyone. If the laws or rules take in account maturity, it will be more individualized and fairer because people get restrictions or responsibilities based on themselves and not other people. Maturity is the factor that needs to be considered in order to make a decision about someone being responsible enough.

I understand that age is the easiest option because there would be no additional tests or professional judgment on maturity, but measuring based on age is discriminating to those who deserve the same rights even if they are younger.

I would like to see the law based on a test of maturity and cognitive capacity that would compare to the average level of adults. If most adults, if not all, take a test regarding their psychosocial and cognitive maturity, then the data could be compiled so that adolescents’ results could be compared to theirs. The number to pass would be based on the median of scores because that is where the majority of adults’ maturity score would be. The adolescents should be able to test at age 15, during sophomore year for most, and age 18, during senior year for most, in public school, and the test could be treated similar to the standardized tests today. There would be two tests to take which include the cognitive capacity and psychosocial maturity (responsibility, perspective, and temperance). The tests would give lots of scenarios and options to pick from in order to correctly determine how they score for each of the three characteristics of psychosocial maturity. The passing score for each test would have to reach at least the median score of the adults’ tests on the three characteristics. All three psychosocial tests would need to be at the adult’s level median in order to fully pass the test.

At age 15-16, the research showed that the cognitive capacity of adolescents was similar to adults, so I think that is a great age to start from (Cauffman and Steinberg 757). Because there might be people even more mature before that age, they have an option of taking it earlier at a state center, like where they give licenses and IDs. When students pass the test, they are able to bring a certificate to the state center, have printed an ID that is like adults, and be granted the same responsibilities as an adult. For students that do not pass, they have unlimited chances until they turn 22 when they are given permanent adult status.

At age 22, I feel like most people will be used to not being guided by teachers from high school and will decide big decisions by then, like starting a family, graduating college, or starting a 66

business. I think it might be unreasonable to hold someone’s adult status off after age 22 because, even though it is for their safety, it could greatly impact their life. There would be many outraged if they did not achieve adult status at some point, and it might be a crazy idea and unrealistic if someone never was able to get adult status at some point in their life. They might not have been given the chance to develop their maturity as much, like other people I know, and could be part of the adults with lower maturity levels. Not everyone is given the chance to develop their maturity, and they cannot choose the situations they are placed in, so they should be granted adult status at some point even without passing the test.

For people age 15-18 that were granted adult status, it could be revoked if they choose to do something dumb twice like breaking the law because they could do it again in the future. In that case, I think it is fair that they have to wait until age 22 to get it back again. Since they first passed the test, I would assume they were given the chance to develop their psychosocial maturity, so if they test again they could possibly pass again, and it could create a cycle. That is why as a consequence for their actions they should have to wait until age 22 because they blew their chances. Two chances could be like strikes, so they would have to wait until they turn age 22 to receive permanent adult status. If someone makes one mistake that could be an exception, but the second decision would be a choice, and there should be consequences for them, making it a two strikes policy.

In this way, the law would be fairer because people would be judged individually for the most part and adolescents that are mature will be able to get adult status. Judgment and restrictions currently are based on age, so it is not a fair practice because of the many people who the law discriminates against. In determining people’s eligibility, psychosocial maturity should be taken into account more than their age. By doing so, the criterion is made fairer because people mature at different rates and will not be discriminated against based on their age, which is something they cannot control. Therefore, future rules or laws need to consider the psychosocial maturity and cognitive capacity as factors instead of the assumptions made about adolescents and the convenient age aspect.

I was not part of the majority of people my age in terms of maturity, and I understand now how that happened. I faced different situations at home from my friends, but I am glad I did. Being mature helped me achieve so much, and I am grateful for being put in situations that allowed me to develop my psychosocial traits of responsibility, perspective, and temperance. Even though the law does not have fair treatment right now, I intend to judge adolescents on their traits and not their age in the future. I do not want to be like the law and make general assumptions about an adolescent’s maturity or responsibility without really knowing them individually. This research showed me how I should treat adolescents between the ages of 15-22 in the future. It should depend on judging the maturity of the individual instead of basing laws on the convenient factor of age.

WORKS CITED “A Guide to Child Welfare Services.” State of Hawaii Department of Human Services, Mar. 2013, humanservices.hawaii.gov/ssd/files/2013/04/A-GUIDE-TO-CHILD-WELF AREFINAL.pdf.

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Ander, Birgitta, et al. “‘It Is Ok to Be Drunk, but Not Too Drunk’: Party Socialising, Drinking Ideals, and Learning Trajectories in Swedish Adolescent Discourse on Alcohol Use.” Journal of Youth Studies, vol. 20, no. 7, 2017, pp. 841–854, doi:10.1080/13676261.2016.1273515.

Cauffman, Elizabeth, and Laurence Steinberg. "(Im)Maturity of Judgment in Adolescence: Why Adolescents May Be Less Culpable Than Adults." Behavioral Sciences & the Law, vol.

18, no. 6, 2000, pp. 741-760, AN=11818796.

Lewis, John. “A Problem that cannot be Legislated Away.” A Zero-Tolerance Juvenile Alcohol Law: Why Legislation Won’t Work, edited by Marilyn McShane and Frank P. Williams III, LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2009, pp. 131-150.

McCardell, John. “Yes, the U.S. Legal Drinking Age Should Be Lowered.” Insights on Law & Society, vol. 10, no. 3, 2010, pp. 18-21, AN=52706793.

Underage Drinking. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2017.

Steinberg, Laurence, et al. “Are Adolescents Less Mature Than Adults?: Minors’ access to abortion, the juvenile death penalty, and the alleged APA ‘flip-flop.’” American Psychologist, vol. 64, no. 7, 2009, pp. 583-594, doi:10.1037/a0014763.

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Euthanasia in Later Life

By Hanako Adachi Have you imagined your last day of life? We do not know when, where, or how, but we will eventually die. My goal in life is to die peacefully, as if I am falling asleep surrounded by my family and friends. Unfortunately, that is unlikely. Due to the rapid progress of medicine, people can live much longer than before; in other words, we are not allowed to die easily. For example, my grandmother was a very active person. She was a good chef, artist, and traveler. I always wanted to age gracefully like her because she looked like she really enjoyed her senior life.

However, dementia changed her into a completely different person. She became bedridden. She could not cook, see her friends, travel, or even walk around. She was an invalid.

I remember one day, she told me that she wanted to die. At that time, I was too young to understand her feeling, but now I sympathize with her. It was exactly like she was not allowed to die. I sometimes wonder if she could terminate her life as she wished, would she have been happier dead than being kept alive? Because of this experience, I am interested in euthanasia, which is not legal in my country of origin, Japan. Should people keep living even if they know that they cannot recover from disease and their life will not continue for much longer? Should people have the right to terminate their own life? If so, should other people intervene in their decisions?

I knew that it was a controversial issue, but I strongly agreed with the proponents of euthanasia.

However, through my research, I discovered many ideas and claims of opponents. In this paper, I will argue about the patients’ autonomy and the intervention of physicians and families. By comparing both sides’ main claims, I will argue that elderly patients should be required to consult with physicians and their families because others can give possible alternatives. If patients have some problems that make them want to die, people around the patients can provide solutions by communicating with the person. People around patients have the power to improve the patients’ quality of life. However, the patients’ final decision should be respected as the first priority because everyone’s standard of quality of life is different. Others should not say that patients’ decisions are right or wrong.

Euthanasia is defined as “the administration of drugs with the explicit intention of ending the patient’s life, at the patient’s request” (De Leo et al., 2012, p. 10). When the person is dying by their request, it is called “voluntary euthanasia.” If the person is unable to express their request, like in a coma, it is called “non-voluntary euthanasia.” Involuntary euthanasia occurs when a person is conscious but killed without their consent. This is considered murder (Beaufort & Vathorst, 2016; Kalanzi, 2013; Karlsson et al., 2016). Even though voluntary and non-voluntary euthanasia are legal in some countries with strict regulations, this is a controversial issue all over the world. Euthanasia is legal only in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Colombia. Switzerland, Germany, Canada, Japan, and some states within the United States legalized assisted suicide with strict regulations (Beaufort & Vathorst, 2016; De Leo et. al., 2012; Hayashi & Kitamura., 2002).

Therefore, suicide is the only way to terminate one’s life in most countries. De Leo and Spathonis indicated that the rate of suicide increases with age in many nations (2003, p. 100). In fact, the suicide rate of people older than 75 years is three times higher than people younger than 25 years (De Leo and Spathonis, 2003, p. 100). This data also indicated that the ratio of 69

attempted suicide among elderly people is lower than that of young people. On the contrary, the ratio of “completed suicide” is much higher than youth (De Leo and Spathonis, 2003, p. 100).

Completed suicide is defined as “associated with the use of highly lethal methods, less ambivalence and impulsivity, and more determination and intent to die” (De Leo and Spathonis, 2003, p. 100). That means, young people are more likely to fail to complete suicide because they still hesitate to kill themselves. In other words, elderly people commit suicide with a strong will to kill themselves. According to Beaufort and Varthorst (2016), when people are getting old and become ill, they feel that they are losing their dignity. In fact, many patients who were diagnosed with dementia choose euthanasia (Beaufort & Varthorst, 2016, p. 1465). Due to an increase in the elderly population, proper procedures should be prepared for these end-of-life issues.

Why is euthanasia illegal in many countries? In most arguments about euthanasia, the core concerns are humans’ autonomy and dignity. Karlsson et al. (2012) defined autonomy as “the right to self-government and moral independence” (p. 35). That is, everyone is an independent person and should be allowed to manage and control him or herself. If that is so, why are people not allowed to terminate their lives? It has been argued that people should have the right of controlling their own life in their old age.

Opponents of euthanasia usually claimed that humans should not terminate their life and people should wait for their natural death. According to Hurst and Mauron (2006), opponents also claim that choosing euthanasia is always wrong and that adequate care can change this decision by improving patients’ quality of life (p. 108). They said that euthanasia and palliative care share common values at their roots because both aim to reduce human suffering, to oppose the technical medicalization in the last stage of life, to endorse the importance of control patient’s last stage of life by patients themselves (Hurst & Mauron, 2006, p. 107). Palliative care is defined as “medical and related care provided to a patient with a serious, life-threatening, or terminal illness that is not intended to provide curative treatment but rather to manage symptoms, relieve pain and discomfort, improve quality of life, and meet the emotional, social, and spiritual needs of the patient” (Palliative care, n.d.). The result of the survey taken by Karlsson et al.

(2012) indicated that some patients answered that euthanasia can increases patients’ autonomy positively, but some believed that it was questionable (p. 37). It surprised me that there were patients who were afraid of the legalization of euthanasia. I assumed that most elderly patients would agree with it somehow. However, some patients insisted that for people who are ill and stay in a hospital, it is difficult to make completely self-determined decisions because the person relies on his or her family and physicians (Karlsson et al., 2012, p. 37). For example, for the patients who are unable to express their will or are in a coma, it is difficult to make decisions by themselves with autonomy and dignity. In addition, patients’ decisions may be restricted by their religion or laws that oppose patients’ perspectives toward death.

Why do elderly patients choose death? According to Beaufort and Varthorst (2016), the impossibility of recovery brings patients the hopelessness and pointlessness of “letting nature take its course” (p. 1464). When patients know that they cannot be what they used to be, they are disappointed with their future and lose the purpose of life. Opponents of voluntary euthanasia often claim that death should be determined by nature (Beaufort & Varthorst, 2016, p. 1466).

However, what is a “natural death”? Should people endure intolerable pain even though they know that their life will not continue for much longer? Like my grandmother, should people just 70

wait until they die? De Leo and Spathonis (2003) stated that patients choose euthanasia to show their dignity by making death their own decision (p. 107).

In addition to suicide, when the elderly choose death, it represents a strong will and expression of their dignity. It is difficult to read others’ intentions and completely understand them because everyone has their own standard for “quality of life.” Supporters of euthanasia believe that it can be true when the patients decide if their life is “worth not living” (Hurst & Mauron, 2006, p.

108). As a grandchild, my grandmother’s life was of course “worth living” even though she could not do anything. Even as she lost her memories of us, she was my grandmother and we wanted her to live longer. However, it may have been “worth not living” for her. Only a person who is suffering can understand one’s dignity. Therefore, their decision should be respected as first priority. Patients should be informed and given all possible alternatives, and euthanasia should be given as one of the alternatives for the patient. If the patient chooses euthanasia from many options, the decision should be respected.

Many experts argue about physician intervention in patients’ decision-making process. Karlsson et al. (2012) showed that if a physician has a positive opinion toward euthanasia, the patient will be more likely to choose it (p. 40). If a patient does not have anyone to rely on except the physician, the patient’s opinion is likely influenced by their physician’s perspective. This can be dangerous, and it may cause involuntary euthanasia. For example, Hayashi and Kitamura (2002) explained that a Japanese doctor usually has a greater authority to make all decisions, and less information is given to the patient (p. 557). In addition, Malpas et al. (2014) warned that hospitals may promote euthanasia because keeping dying patients is an economic burden for hospitals (p. 355). Another concern is that every physician has a personal perspective toward euthanasia, just as patients do. Gielen et al. (2009) warned that physicians’ approaches toward euthanasia are “nuanced and contextual,” and religious, cultural, or geographic forces can change physicians’ perspectives (p. 488). Physicians’ perspectives are also affected my many forces.

Moreover, since this theme is very heavy and the decision-making process requires high responsibilities, it can be a burden for physicians. The survey taken by De Leo et al. (2012) stated that half of medical students disagreed with physicians’ direct involvement in the lifeending decisions (p. 14). Doctors and nurses are experts. However, because there is no right or wrong answer for decision-making processes, especially in life-ending issues, opponents claimed that physicians should not intervene in the process.

As opponents stated, complete reliance on physicians can be dangerous because patient autonomy might be controlled. However, patients should talk about their conditions and treatments with their physicians before making their end-of-life decisions, because there are possible alternatives, such as other treatments or drugs that can cure or reduce their symptoms. In fact, 44.5% of patients experienced the temporary desire for euthanasia at least one time (De Leo & Spathonis, 2003, p. 107). This is natural not only for elderly patients but also for others. I face difficulties almost every day, as everybody does. These difficulties are sometimes big and sometimes small. However, I have never thought about committing suicide because I know how to overcome these difficulties and I can ask others for help. For elderly patients who are struggling with diseases, physicians are the best people to ask for help. Hurst and Mauron (2006) insisted that appropriate palliative care can decrease the number of patients who are willing to choose euthanasia by improving patients’ quality of life (p. 108).

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Along these lines, Gielen et al. (2009) concluded that all patients must be given appropriate palliative care with skilled and knowledgeable physicians before choosing euthanasia (p. 496).

Their survey to nurses who took part in palliative care indicated that most nurses believed that appropriate palliative care can decrease the number of euthanasia requests. In addition, even most of the nurses who agreed with euthanasia stated that if patients experienced appropriate palliative care, they withdrew their euthanasia requests (Gielen et al., 2009,, p. 495). Therefore, elderly patients should consult with experts and talk about their situations.

It seems that demands around the world for doctors’ involvement in patients’ decisions in their last stages of life are increasing. However, education and training for physicians are not enough.

The next generation of medical students would probably agree. The result of a survey taken by De Leo et al. of medical students in Australia indicated that most of undergraduate medical students showed a high interest and positive attitude toward euthanasia, suicide prevention, and other issues connected to a patient’s death (2012, p. 13). The majority of medical students answered that they believe that these topics should be adopted for their future education (De Leo et al. 2012, p. 15). Education and training for physicians about end-of-life issues is a subject that every country has to solve to cope with in an aging society.

However, another factor in the euthanasia debate is family as they also have a stake in this decision-making process. Even though physicians are experts and can give medical and technical advice to patients, family members are usually very close to patients, but some experts argue that direct involvement of family members is questionable. Malpas et al. (2014) warned that patients may choose euthanasia to avoid becoming a burden to their family especially for financial reasons (p. 357). The research among Japanese families reported that about half of families who have elderly patients in their household pay over $2,000 per month to care for them (Okishiro et al., 2009, p. 100). These are huge expenses for most families. If I were a patient, I would choose euthanasia because I want them to use that money not for a dying person but for people who have a future. In fact, Broom and Kirby (2013) showed data that patients choose to stay in hospice care rather than stay their home against their will to avoid becoming a burden for their families (p. 504). The closer patients are to their family, the more they worry about their wellbeing. Hayashi and Kitamura (2002) insisted that involvement of “life-ending decisions” can be a burden for families.

They also mentioned that “the burden of decision-making” about medical treatment to family members causes many crimes in Japan (Hayashi & Kitamura, 2002, p. 567). When I was in Japan, I heard this kind of news every week that an elderly patient was killed by his or her family. Criminals usually claimed that they killed family members to relieve them from pain.

Even though families have a close relationship and can sympathize with patients, it is impossible to read their true intentions. In these crimes, families can assume the patients’ pain, but nobody knows whether patients really want to terminate their lives. Moreover, Kimsma and Leeuwen (2007) stated that it can be traumatic for family members, and if there is a family conflict, it heavily affects their decisions (p. 369). Family members may suffer from mental pressure if they know that their family member chose euthanasia against their will because of their advice. In addition, not every family has great relationships. It is very sad, but if a patient is not loved by his or her family, the patient may be forced to choose death. Families usually have sympathy and

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love with patients. However, these emotions may prevent rational decision making with lifeending issues.

I agree with the opponents’ ideas. Our family had a great relationship with my grandmother, but I remember that my parents argued about her. (I do not remember the details because I was too young to intervene in their arguments.) It is always hard to talk about a family member’s death.

However, I believe the families of patients can approach the issue differently from a physician’s perspective, especially because they can give more emotional support. Therefore, communication with family is crucial for patient’s end-of-life decision making. According to Kimsma and Leeuwen (2007), it was reported that physicians experienced “deep and intensely positive involvement of family members” (p. 371). When my grandmother was in a nursing home, I visited her three times a week. When I was in a cafeteria with her, another patient talked to her. The elderly women said, “I envy you because your family always visits you. I have kids and grandchildren, but they have never visited me. Never! Maybe I will see them again at my funeral. Anyway, you are lucky.” I could not say anything to the lady, but I decided I would visit my grandmother as many times as I could.

Broom and Kirby (2013) also stated that family support during the dying process can improve a patient’s quality of life (p. 506). Kimsma and Leeuwen (2007) said that one of the possible roles of families regarding euthanasia is that families can initiate a request, and support and prove patients’ request to doctors because usually a family has compassion for the patient and they do not want to see their beloved one to suffer from intolerable pain (p. 367). The important thing is how much family members know about the patients. If families know what the patients want to say in a particular situation, family members can make a request when the patient is unable to express their will (Kimsma & Leeuwen, 2007, p. 366). Everyday communication builds solid relationships between patients and their family. With deep understanding of each other, families not only can change the patients’ decisions by improving their quality of life, but can also be a representative in the end-of-life decision making. A concern for this issue is that due to the change of family structure, not all patients are able to get family support. Recently, the number of elderly people who live alone is increasing. For these patients, some advisors, like social workers, should be provided.

Because of my experience with my grandmother and current situation among elderly patients in Japan, I agreed with supporters of euthanasia. I could not understand why it is not legal in many countries and has been a controversial issue all over the world. I thought if elderly patients can terminate their life legally, no one will suffer from incurable diseases. However, after doing more research, I see that it was not that simple. Even though there is a strong will of a patient, a person should not terminate their life rashly because there may be alternatives that can give a patient a hope for the future. I still believe that elderly patients’ will to terminate their lives should be respected because there is no reason to endure intolerable pain even though they know that their life will not continue. As I could not completely understand my grandmother, only the patients themselves can determine whether their lives are worth living or not. Hurst and Mauron said, “death is not always the worst thing for patients to happen” (2006, p. 107). Euthanasia should be given as one of the alternatives for the patient. Patients should be informed by physicians and given all possible alternatives. Patients should communicate with their family and talk about what they think about their life and what he or she want for their last stage of life.

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After that, if the patient chooses euthanasia out of the alternate choices, the decision should be respected because everyone has the right to control his or her life.

REFERENCES Beaufort, I., & Vathorst, S. (2016). Dementia and assisted suicide and euthanasia. Journal of Neurology: Official Journal of the European Neurological Society, 263(7), 1463-1467.

Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00415-016-8095-2 Broom, A., & Kirby, E. (2013). The end of life and the family: hospice patients’ views on dying as relational. Sociology of Health & Illness, 35(4) 499-513. doi:10.1111/j.14679566.2012.01497 De Leo, D., Hawgood, J., & Ide, N. (2012). Do we need education on right-to-die issues? medical perspectives from Australia. Asia-Pacific Psychiatry, 4(1), 10-19. doi:10.1111/j.1758-5872.2011.00174.x De Leo, D., & Spathonis, K. (2003). Suicide and euthanasia in late life. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, 15(2), 99-110. doi:10.1007/BF03324486 Gielen, J., Branden, S., Iersel, T. & Broeckaert, B. (2009). Flemish palliative care nurses' attitudes toward euthanasia: A quantitative study. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 15(10), 488-97. doi:10.12968/ijpn.2009.15.10.44886 Hayashi, M., & Kitamura, T. (2002). Euthanasia trials in Japan: Implications for legal and medical practice. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 25(6), 557-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2527(02)00141-3 Hurst, S., & Mauron, A. (2006). The ethics of palliative care and euthanasia: Exploring common values. Palliative Medicine, 20(2), 107-112. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com.hpu.idm.oclc.org/doi/pdf/10.1191/0269216306pm1109oa Kalanzi, D. (2013). The controversy over euthanasia in Uganda: A case of the Baganda. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 33(3-4), 203-217. doi:10.1108/01443331311308249 Karlsson, M., Milberg, A., & Strang, P. (2012). Dying cancer patients' own opinions on euthanasia: An expression of autonomy? A qualitative study. Palliative Medicine, 26(1), 34-42. doi:10.1177/0269216311404275 Kimsma, G., & Van Leeuwen, E. (2007). The role of family in euthanasia decision making. Hec Forum: Healthcare Ethics Committee Forum: An Interprofessional Journal on Healthcare Institutions’ Ethical and Legal Issues, 19(4), 365-373. doi:10.1007/s10730007-9048-z

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Malpas, P., Wilson, M., Rae, N & Johnson, M. (2014). Why do older people oppose physicianassisted dying? A qualitative study. Palliative Medicine, 28(4), 353-359. doi:10.1177/0269216313511284 Okishiro, N., Miyashita, M., Tsuneto, S., & Sato, K. (2009). The Japan hospice and palliative care evaluation study (J-HOPE study): Views about legalization of death with dignity and euthanasia among the bereaved whose family member died at palliative care units. The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care, 26(2), 98-104. doi:10.1177/1049909108327027 Palliative care. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved from https://www.merriamwebster.com/medical/palliative%20care

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Gun Policy Sweeps the Nation

By Lyka Mae Corotan Gun control policies have been a controversial debate for many years. It is an issue that only sees light when a massive shooting occurs, and days later, it becomes a small issue in the back of our minds. In the United States, gun violence seems as if it is not that big of a deal. Only when there are multiple innocent lives at stake do we realize the actual harm of guns. However, there are multiple incidences of gun violence that occur in the United States without being noticed.

Although the United States has various gun policies, we allow each state to create its own regulations on gun control. Creating stricter gun laws about how a person can obtain a gun and implementing them through all fifty states would help reduce gun violence in the United States.

Though there are organizations like the National Rifle Association who advocate for people’s right to bear arms, it is safe to say that many people can agree on preventing those who are mentally unqualified and have criminal backgrounds from obtaining a gun. Statistics also show that states that have stricter gun control policies have lower gun violence rates compared to states that are more lenient with their gun control. Lastly, various case studies, such as Australia and United Kingdom’s gun control policies, have proven that creating a nationwide gun control policy can help in reducing the percentage of gun violence; creating gun control policies that sweep the entire nation could save lives.

Even though the United States has multiple gun control policies, the gun violence rate is disgracefully high. The number of casualties guns have caused is extremely high, but most people do not see that reality. We are only exposed to the gun violence that involves the death of more than ten people. But there are so many people who are affected by guns. Whether it is just one to two or twenty to fifty deaths, gun violence is more common than what people perceive.

The BBC News article “American Gun Culture in 10 Charts” breaks down the type of gun deaths in the United States: “of the total 33,594 who died in 2014 there were 21,386 suicides, 11,008 homicides of which 14 died in mass shooting 1,200 others.” It is clear that guns are dangerous.

We abuse the rights to own a gun; it is a privilege to own one, but people have misused their guns for horrific reason.

Other examples are the mass shootings that involve the death of multiple people and young children. James La Valle, an assistant professor of criminology, wrote the article “‘Gun Control’ vs. ‘Self Protection’: A Case against the Ideological Divide.” In his article, La Valle includes various examples of mass shootings that occurred in the U.S.: On April 16th 2007, a mentally disturbed student used handguns he purchased “legally” to kill 31 innocents and then himself on the campus of Virginia Tech University. Just over 5 years later, James Egan Holmes killed 12 and injured 58 during a midnight premier showing of The Dark Knight Rises” at the Aurora Colorado Movie Theatre using an “assault rifle” he had purchased “legally”. On December 14th 2012, Adam Lanza killed his mother in her sleep, and then 20 young children and 6 adults at the Newtown Connecticut primary school using an “assault rifle” he “legally” obtained from his mother. (2)

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In addition, CBC News covers the story, “Two of the Deadliest Mass Shooting in U.S. History Come Just 35 Days Apart”: “October 1, 2017: A shooting at a music festival on the Las Vegas Strip killed 58 people and wounded more than 500 others . . . Nov. 5, 2017: Police say Devin Patrick Kelley opened fire with a military-style rifle, killing 26 and wounding at least 20 at a Sunday church service, in the deadliest mass shooting in Texas history.” It is devastating to hear how many lives have passed through these horrific events. The common thing that all incidents seem to have is how the assailants all were able to “legally” buy or obtain a gun. The question here is how exactly were these individuals qualified in purchasing these guns? It seems like the type of gun used in these mass killings were the same, an assault rifle. The type of gun a person can obtain is very tricky because of the different regulations that states have. But the fact that we allow people to get a hold of such a massively dangerous firearm is outrageous. Can anyone get a hold of any type of gun? This is something that the law does not specify, and that can be risky.

This issue relates back to implementing the same gun control laws in all the states. Because the laws differ among states it can either be difficult or easy to be qualified to buy and own a gun.

There are states that do not require owners to register the guns or to show that they are qualified in firing a firearm. In the United States, mass shootings seem to be tremendously increasing. If we continue to ignore these incidents and change nothing in our policies, we will continue to watch and mourn for those who are affected by these dangerous weapons.

Though there is a clear problem with gun violence in the United States, there are still groups like the National Rifle Association that advocate for gun rights. They strongly stand for the second amendment and people’s right to own guns. In the article “Second Thoughts, What The Right To Bear Arms Really Means,” Akhil Reed Amar, an American legal scholar and an expert on the constitutional laws, states the words of the second amendment, “A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed” (24). Even the Executive Vice President and CEO of the NRA, Wayne Lapierre, states on their home page of their official website that “what the NRA is fighting for is reciprocity, to enforce the existing federal gun laws and to protect American’s right to protect themselves.” The NRA truly believes in the second amendment, giving people the right to own a gun in order to protect one’s self. This interest group is a well established group that has made remarkable impact throughout the nation. Anthony Zurcher, in his article “Las Vegas Shooting: Five Reasons US Gun Control Won’t Happen,” argues that the “NRA Spent four million dollars on lobbying and direct contributions to politicians as well as more than $50m on political advocacy, including an estimated $30m to help elect Donald Trump president.” The contributions that this interest group provides to politicians make it difficult for Congress to vote for stricter gun policies. The NRA having such a big influence on the Republican Party makes it hard to make alterations to gun laws on the federal level. The National Rifle Association has been fighting hard for people to ensure people’s right to bear arms and is strongly against creating stricter gun control laws.

But there is still a common ground for which intensive background checks should be offered in all states. Dan Gross, a gun control activist and founder of the Brady Campaign who advocates for the Brady Law to be pushed to the federal level, says that “the numbers show the overwhelming agreement among the American public: 90 percent of Americans support expanding Brady background checks to all gun sales—including 90 percent of Republicans, more than 80 percent of gun owners, more than 70 percent of NRA members. This is not a 77

controversial idea. In fact, only six percent of the American public disagrees.” Even the article “The Case for Gun Policy Reform in America,” published by the John Hopkins Center for Gun Policy Research, has studies that prove that America can agree on tightening certain gun policies.

Webster et al. states, “This survey of gun owners also found: 1) 82 percent favored mandatory background checks for all firearms sales, not just for those by licensed dealers, 2) 68 percent supported laws mandating reporting of gun thefts, and 3) broad support of stricter standards for issuing permits to carry concealed firearms than are in place in most states” (11). Advocates for reform are not asking for people to completely give up their guns; it is simply about implementing a more thorough background check before purchasing guns. The people can come to the conclusion that guns should not be given to those who are unqualified to owning them.

Even those who are members of the NRA can agree that guns should not fall into the hands of any person. With these numbers, it shows that creating a mandatory background check should be implemented in all the states. The people in the office are supposed to be representing their constituents, and the majority of the people are demanding a change. People in Congress should be listening to what their constituents are asking for. If they simply can’t represent these people, they should not be in office.

Before being able to change anything we must know the different policies that are already enacted, whether on the federal level or state level. La Valle explains the issues between gun control and personal protection, but before doing so he shows the different gun policies that the United States has: Brady laws, permit, license, and registration. He also specifies each of these laws. La Valle states, “‘Brady Law’ indicates whether a city was subject to state mandated background checks for gun purchases prior to February 28, 1994 when the law was federally enacted, or not until that date. ‘License’ indicates whether there exists a legal requirement to possess a license to own firearms, ‘Permit’ indicates whether there exists a legal requirement to have a permit to purchase a handgun, and ‘Register’ indicates whether there exists a legal requirement to register firearms, usually handguns, with local government registries” (6). But before being guaranteed these criteria, they require “criminal background checks to determine applicant eligibility” (La Valle 6). It seems like our nation has created multiple, specific requirements before getting the right to bear arms. One must first clear a criminal background check in order to purchase any guns. Then there is the law of registering, which requires that guns that have been bought be recorded and registered with the government. This would help keep track of all the guns that are in the hands of citizens. It allows the government to know exactly who has a gun, how many they already have, and the type of gun that they hold. Even then, there is the law requiring a permit that indicates that the person is fairly qualified into holding and firing a gun.

Furthermore, La Valle mentioned the right to carry (RTC) law. Before allowing qualified residents to “carry a concealed handgun for personal protection,” they must meet the five criteria: criminal background check, pass a gun range test, must be a resident of the state for one year, demonstrate firearm safety, and pass an exam course in which explains the legalities of carrying and using firearms for personal protection (La Valle 7, 8). La Valle additionally includes a table that shows the different gun control policies and which states actually enforce those laws. Out of the 29 states included all had the Brandy Law, 26 had RTC law, only six required licensing, five required registration, and eight required permits (La Valle 8). Though we do have gun control policies, it seems that we have failed in enforcing them in the states. The 78

gun policies that La Valle describes are great policies that could help control and maintain the guns in circulation. The fact that the national government does not specifically implement them in ALL the states is the key issue. The flaw is that we allow individual states to come up with their own regulations of how they want to deal with gun control.

We the People by Benjamin Ginsberg, a libertarian political scientist noted for his criticism of American politics, and “Lawmakers Tighten Firearm Restriction?” by Barbara Mantels, a journalist who covers social issues for CQ Researcher, have both explained the different gun policies in various states. Ginsberg states, “In Wyoming there is no ban on any type of gun, there is no waiting period to purchase a firearm, and no permit is required for carrying a concealed weapon. In California, by contrast, the possession of assault weapons is banned, there is a 10-day waiting period to purchase a firearm, and a permit is required to carry a concealed weapon” (109). These two states clearly have two opposing policies in which a person can own a gun.

Mantels includes policies from New York and California and explains how differently each state executes the conceal carry law. Mantel states that New York broadens the definition of banned weapons: the definition of banned assault weapons; requires owners of existing assault weapons, grandfathered under the law, to register them with the New York State Police; reduces the limit on magazine capacity from 10 rounds of ammunition to seven; requires background checks of not only gun purchasers but also ammunition buyers; expands background checks to private sales, except between immediate family members; and establishes tougher penalties for the use of illegal guns.

New York has a significant number of stricter policies prior to acquiring a gun. In 2013, ten out of fifty states may issue concealed carry permits, two have a no carry law, four do not require a permit, and thirty-five out of fifty require a permit to have the gun out in public but still concealed (Mantel). Having these different gun laws can make it very difficult to know which law is viable in which state. This can be a problem because a person could easily, “legally” purchase a gun and take it with them to other states. In Wyoming, having a no-day wait period for obtaining a gun shows that this state does not do a thorough background check of how well qualified a person before possessing such a dangerous weapon. Another policy that varies by state is the right to conceal carry. This law allows a person who legally owns a gun to carry it around in public openly. There seems to be no law that is enacted throughout all 50 states.

The effectiveness of implementing stricter gun policies can be seen in the gun violence rate found in a state that has stricter policies compared to a more lenient state. Douglas A. McIntyre talks about the states with the most gun violence. He collected data from the Center of Disease Control for 2013, which shows gun deaths that included homicide, suicide, and accidents. Then he went “state by state and looked at gun deaths per 100,000 people” (McIntyre). Wyoming which had the more lenient gun control policies had placed seventh out of the 10 states with the most gun violence. Their death rate was “16.5 per 100,000 people” (McIntyre). McIntyre also pointed out that those ten states “tend to be states where people can easily get guns and carry guns.” In comparison, New York which has stricter policies has a much lower gun violence rate.

Lori Robertson also pointed out the studies of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of firearm death rates in 2013. In her article “Gun Laws, Death and Crimes,” Robertson mentions 79

that New York placed third on the states that had the lowest firearm death rates with 4.2 per 100,000 people. That is 12.3 per 100,000 less people. It is clear that Wyoming, whose gun policies are looser, is more likely to have people owning a gun thus increasing their gun violence rate. Enforcing stricter policies seems to be doing a hell of a job in preventing gun violence in New York. Though they have not completely prevented all shootings, they have a much lower death rate caused by guns and that is what people aim for.

Gun control policies should not be regulated differently in each state. It is clear that having various regulations is not safe for the entire nation. Looking at countries like Australia and the United Kingdom shows how implementing a nationwide gun control policy can reduce gun violence. Katie Beck, in the article “Are Australia's gun laws the solution for the US?,” evaluates the timeline in which Australia took action in creating a nationwide gun control policy. On April 1996 Martin Bryant took the lives of 35 people by the use of a semi-automatic weapon at a former prison colony and tourist attraction in Tasmania. Beck states, “Less than two weeks after the Port Arthur massacre, all six Australian states agreed to enact the same sweeping gun laws banning semi-automatic rifles and shotguns - weapons that can kill many people quickly.” It is crazy to think that in less than two weeks the legislatures of Australia were capable of agreeing and passing a new law that improved their gun control; whereas here in the United States, gun policies are a touchy subject for the legislatures to talk about. After multiple mass shootings in the last few years, there has been no change in our gun control policy. It is a tendency for the American people to care about one issue at one specific moment and later suddenly forget about it. There needs to be a better understanding at the legislature level in order to create better laws that can save people’s lives. The laws that were passed in Australia were “28-day waiting periods, thorough background checks, and a requirement to present a ‘justifiable reason’ to own a gun” (Beck). Implementing firmer gun policies prior to obtaining a personal gun has resulted in their gun violence rate and gun ownership rate decreasing. Beck continues to state, “The number of Australia’s mass shootings dropped from 11 in the decade before 1996, to zero in the years since . . . 69 gun homicides were recorded in 1996 compared with 30 in 2012 . . . . 26,000 unregistered guns have been handed back.” Although gun violence has not been fully eliminated, the number of deaths caused by guns has seemed to decrease.

Similarly, the United Kingdom had encountered the same issue. Angela Dewan, in the article “What the UK and Australia did differently after mass shootings,” stated that after “43-year-old Thomas Hamilton used legally owned handguns to kill 16 children, all ages 5 and 6, as well as a teacher” in 1996, the whole nation came together and establish stricter gun laws that “banned all handguns with the exceptions of .22 caliber single shot weapons.” As a result, there were “more than 162,000 handguns . . . surrendered” (Dewan). These two countries’ drastic change in gun control policies resulted in fewer incidents of gun violence, which proves that creating federal level policies will reduce gun violence.

I propose that we should implement stricter gun policies for all fifty states, such as mandatory background checks on for criminal records or mental health issues, at least a ten day waiting period, mandatory gun registration, and requiring a permit that proves one is qualified to able to use a firearm correctly. It is clear that the American people demand a more intensive background check prior to owning a gun. That correlates to having a ten day waiting period.

During this time, the seller should be able to thoroughly do a background check prior to giving a 80

gun to any consumer, followed by making sure that every gun that is sold should be registered with the government. This allows the city or state to keep track of who owns a gun and the type of guns in circulation. Lastly, I recommend that one should be able to show that they are capable of handling a firearm. Similarly to being able to drive, one must follow the rules about when they can use and take their guns out, and they must show that they know how to use a gun properly.

Preventing those who are highly unqualified in owning a gun throughout all the states can decrease the amount of gun ownership resulting in fewer casualties.

It is clear that gun violence is a major issue in the United States. Statistics have proven that gun violence is drastically high, especially in states that have lenient gun control policies. Numbers have shown that entirely almost all people in the United States can agree on implementing more thorough background checks prior to obtaining a gun. Lastly, it is clear from Australia and the United Kingdom that placing policies throughout a nation can work. It is clear that gun policies should not differ on the state level. This is a bigger issue that should be taken up to the federal level; we cannot continue to ignore the epidemic of gun deaths. The government has to do a better job in pushing for policies to reduce gun violence throughout all 50 states.

WORKS CITED Ahmed, Saeed. “2 of the 5 deadliest mass shootings in modern US history happened in the last 35 days.” CNN, 6 Nov. 2017, www.cnn.com/2017/11/05/health/deadliest-massshootings-in-modern-us-history-trnd/index.html.

Alpers, Philip, et al.. “United States — Gun Facts, Figures and the Law.” Sydney School of Public Health, The University of Sydney. 2 Dec. 2016, www.gunpolicy.org/firearms/region/united-states.

Amar, Akhil Reed. “Second Thoughts.” New Republic, vol. 221, no. 2, 1999, pp. 24-27, https://newrepublic.com/article/73718/second-thoughts.

“America’s Gun Culture in 10 Charts.” BBC News, 6 Nov. 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-uscanada-41488081.

Beck, Katie. “Are Australia’s Gun Laws The Solution For The US?” BBC News, 4 Oct. 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-35048251.

Dewan, Angela, and Jamie Tarabay. “What the UK and Australia Did Differently After Mass Shootings.” CNN, 6 Dec. 2017, www.cnn.com/2017/10/04/world/gun-control-ukaustralia/index.html.

Ginsberg, Benjamin, et al. We the People. 11th ed., W. W. Norton & Company, 2015.

Gross, Dan. “Why Gun Violence Can’t Be Our New Normal.” TedTalk, Feb. 2017, www.ted.com/talks/dan_gross_why_gun_violence_can_t_be_our_new_normal#t100494.

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Mantel, Barbara. “Gun Control: Should Lawmakers Tighten Firearm Restrictions?” CQ Researcher, vol. 23, no. 10, 2013, library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2013030800.

McIntyre, Douglas. “States with the Most Gun Violence.” USA Today, 13 June 2015, www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/06/13/24-7-wall-st-states-most-gunviolence71003050/.

La Valle, James M. “‘Gun Control’ vs. ‘Self Protection’: A Case against the Ideological Divide.” Justice Policy Journal, vol. 10, no. 1, 2013, www.cjcj.org/uploads/cjcj/documents/lavalle.pdf.

Webster, Daniel W., et al. “The Case for Gun Policy Reforms in America.” John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Oct. 2012, www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-andinstitutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-gunpolicy-and-research/publications/ WhitePaper020514_CaseforGunPolicyReforms.pdf.

Zurcher, Anthony. “Las Vegas Shooting: Five Reasons US Gun Control Won’t Happen,” BBC News, 4 Oct. 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-41489552.

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Pit Bull Controversy: The Truth behind the Breed

By Cherisse Alexander To get a better understanding of pit bulls, we must first have knowledge about where they are from and how they came to be. Originally, pit bulls were bred from Old English Bulldogs who were used in the 1800s for bull baiting. This was a form of entertainment as people tied a bull to a stake and allowed these dogs to attack the animal. Soon this form of entertainment was banned, and dog fighting became the replacement. Bulldogs were then mixed with terriers to create a more agile dog, and these dogs were released into a pit where they would fight with one another, creating the term we use today of “pit bull” (Stevens). Later, in history, these dogs became traveling companions for many immigrants to America as proved in the various vintage photographs found in that time frame. They were even owned by several well-known people, such as Theodore Roosevelt, Helen Keller, and Thomas Edison (Stevens). This history on pit bulls prompted me to ask: What led pit bulls to not be recognized as a breed and, in turn, made them misunderstood by the public? Are they truly aggressive animals, and, if so, who is responsible for that behavior? Finally, what can be done to better understand them? To answer these questions, one must look at their history and where they come from, look at how their image was changed and by whom, identify what caused breed banning, learn how owners handle having these dogs, discover if they have aggressive behavior, and, finally, gain knowledge of the methods of breeders and the truth behind dog fighting.

Their history and the love America had for them continue when we look at the story of one pit bull named “Sergeant Stubby.” According to the corporation Love-A-Bull, which promotes the image of the pit bull through education, this dog came about during WWI and WWII, a time when pit bulls were used as propaganda to represent the protection and courage they had in America. Other breeds were also used for these advertisements, but the pit bull was the most famous. Here is where the story of a dog named Stubby comes along as he was found near an Army training camp, where the men took him in and made him part of the troops. They named him Sergeant Stubby for his “stubbed” tail and his ability to learn how to salute the soldiers.

Stubby later became known for his heroic act in saving a regiment from a gas attack in the middle of the night, saving many lives in the process. Other heroic acts included locating wounded soldiers and getting them help, carrying messages under fire, and alerting his owners of any incoming attacks. These acts later granted Sergeant Stubby a Purple Heart (Stevens).

According to the website “The History of Pit Bulls,” Stubby was “called the most decorated war dog of WWI and the only dog to be nominated for rank and then promoted to sergeant through combat. He served 18 months on the front lines in 17 battles and 4 different campaigns.” Truly, the heroism of this dog makes us realize how much they impacted the American people.

If the image of the pit bull was so loved and admired by the American people, what caused it to change? It all began in the late 1970s and early 1980s after the Supreme Court made dog fighting illegal in all 50 states. Despite this, dog fighting still made a comeback, prompting animal advocates to put a stop to the blood sport. With the help of the media, animal advocates published news on vicious pit bulls and what they were being used for, hoping to dispel these acts. As a consequence, it gave interest to criminals to use the dogs for their own purposes, such as to scare others, use them in unlawful acts, or simply have them as guard dogs (“The History of Pit Bulls”). Such purposes were never intended for the breed and, in fact, went against the dogs’ 83

instincts. Yet the image had been created and pit bulls were soon associated with gangsters and crime. Many claim, however, that the turning point of the pit bulls image came when Sports Illustrated published a story titled “Beware of this Dog.” This led the public to see, from then on, that the animal was dangerous and a killer, causing the breed to become the most commonly found in shelters. Other articles such as “The Pit Bull Friend and Killer” were also published during this time, continuing the misconceptions of the dog. One excerpt from the article better represents this misinformation here: “The injuries these dogs inflict are more serious than other breeds because they go for the deep musculature and don't release; they hold and shake” (Swift).

In turn, the change in their image paved the way for breed-specific legislation to occur (“The History of Pit Bulls”).

Now, because of the new image created for the pit bull breeds, an estimate of over two-hundred counties and cities in America ban pit bulls. One example of this is the city of Denver, where it is illegal to “own, possess, keep, exercise control over, maintain, harbor, transport or sell a pit bull in the city” (Medlin 1290). The state of Colorado attempted to overrule this ban, but Denver sued thus allowing for all pit bulls found in the city to be removed. The city claims its sound reasoning for getting rid of the dog is that “the mere possession of pit bulls poses a significant threat to the health, welfare and safety of Denver citizens, and current methods of control by pit bull owners, judging by the large number of incidents involving pit bulls, have proved to be insufficient in protecting the public” (Medlin 1291). These thoughts continue with many citizens in the U.S. who believe that pit bulls are aggressive and unpredictable. They feel that it is not only necessary to ban these dogs, but it is also a matter of safety for their communities as they feel any pit bull, friendly or not, will attack without warning. Legislatures also believe in this type of nature and feel that, because of their physical capabilities and stature, bans are needed for the safety of the public. The supporters for banning the breed argue that only after a dog attacks does any action take place. They feel at this point it is too late, especially in the case of someone dying as a result. Instead they wish for something to be done before a dog can attack, stating how public safety outweighs any possible good dogs or responsible owners (Medlin 1294).

On the contrary, however, there are those who oppose any pit bull bans and, instead, suggest realizing the importance of responsible owners. They believe that therein lies the root of the problem, claiming there is more than just an animal’s breed that determines bad behavior.

However, it truly depends on the owner and how they treat their pets. Any type of neglect or abuse can incline an animal to act out; therefore, indicating that laws need to include human behavior when addressing dog attacks, realizing that only targeting a certain breed may not resolve everything entirely. Other arguments include how humans have been domesticating dogs to act in the way they please for centuries, for this reason several different breeds have emerged verifying how any breed with improper training can misbehave. Most importantly they argue that because of the bad reputation now thrown at pit bulls, they have fallen into the hands of cruel owners, thus continuing the stigma towards these dogs. As Karen Delise states, “For the past 20 years, pit bulls have been subjected to cruelty, abuse and mistreatment to a degree and on a scale that no other breed in recent history has ever had to endure” (qtd. in Medlin 1290). This shows how the once loyal and most loved dog in America began to change to the most feared because of the interest of criminals. Yet, many still argue that, despite the role humans may have on the dog, the rise in fatal dog attacks is concerning. This is where those against breed banning argue that the media has overexposed these animals while the interest of criminals to acquire these 84

dogs rise. Most importantly, they argue the assumption that dog attacks have increased over the years is false, while in reality it has remained constant with only 20 attacks per year (Medlin 1295). The breed responsible for those acts however is what has changed. From the German Shepherd to the Rottweiler, many believe these are the changes that should be noted, as well as realizing how perhaps the media likes to target a certain breed in a given time frame. Moreover, tests were done to determine whether a pit bull had a stable temperament. Their results came higher than that of the Golden Retriever who passed with 83% (Medlin 1296). Other evidence suggests how pit bulls do not fall under this aggressive stigma by experts who claim the number of fatal attacks caused by pit bulls is indeed small in comparison to the millions of pit bulls that live in the U.S (Medlin 1296).

Surprisingly enough, it is not only pit bulls who suffer with the bad reputation which has been given to them through media, criminals, and even those who do not understand the breed. This stigmatization continues onto their owners and threatens their responsibility as well as being able to care for the dog. As a result, another study was taken to discover the relationship owners have with their stigmatized animals and what is done to help their situation. As the scholars and authors of “Managing the Stigma of Outlaw Breeds,” Twining, Arluke, and Patronek, put it, “[I]nterviews were conducted [. . .] to explore the sociological experience of having a dog with a negative image. [T]he vast majority of respondents felt that these dogs were stigmatized because of their breed” (Twining et al. 1). In this article, the authors consult a group of pit bull owners to find strategies that help exalt the dogs to a higher standard in their communities. One such strategy is that of a method called “passing” (Twining et al. 4-5). This method is used by owners when they notice others becoming nervous around their dog, as a result they pass them off as another breed and refrain from using the term “pit bull.” Another method is what this article calls “Don’t blame the dog.” Owners explain how the environment determines a dog’s behavior and that most pit bulls do not recognize their own strength when the environment is a positive one.

Arguing that not all dogs are stereotypical while comparing their behaviors to other breeds to prove this statement, they also had to use preventative measures to stop any unwanted situations from occurring, as well as having the owners become breed ambassadors (Twining et al. 6). In some instances, however, owners allowed the dog to speak for itself when confronting others.

Some of the preventative measures used were modified play or removing themselves from unwanted interactions. As breed ambassadors, owners would educate people on the breed by giving them positive examples of their behavior (Twining et al. 12).

The intent of these authors was to create a study that informed future pit bull owners of the type of responsibilities and strife they might encounter. It was intended to reach others’ unawareness of the stigma set on pit bulls and to educate them to find out more. The evidence that not much is known about the breed continues when at the end of the study we discover that two of the interviewees returned their dogs to the shelter, while another considered it. For two owners, they experienced the negative behavior that is normally associated with these dogs and which the previous interviewees tried to diminish. Another owner received negative comments from others, making her worry that her dog might end up being the negative dog they so described. These owners shared frustration that the shelters did not inform them of the breed’s issues while one specifically did not know the American Staffordshire Terrier was a pit bull, thus prompting the researchers to realize, “With outlaw breeds like pit bulls, the human-dog relationship is sociologically more complicated and interesting than previously thought” (Twining et al. 13).

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Due to the misconceptions and misinformation that is readily available for the public, people continue to be ignorant of the truth, which only continues the cycle of issues with the breed. It is important to reveal the true nature of the pit bull, in order for the cycle to be broken. Most of all, we must dispel the myths and continuous misinformation that is out there from both sides of the argument, as we see is true from this study that even the owners do not know the truth behind their dogs.

To further these assumptions of the breed becoming an aggressive dog rather than a friendly one, research was conducted to determine if the scars found on strays also meant they were violent dogs. In this study “Relationship between Scarring and Dog Aggression in Pit Bull-Type Dogs Involved in Organized Dogfighting,” the researchers of the anti-cruelty behavior team, Miller, Touroo, Spain, Jones, Reid, and Lockwood try to determine the extent of scarring in dog-fighting animals as well as if the number of scars informs them of the level of possible aggression. They also determine if gender has a factor in aggression, and finally, if this type of testing is valid enough to truly determine a dog’s behavior, or as the researchers state it, “We examine whether the extent of scarring from dog fighting is a reliable predictor of aggression towards other dogs” (Miller et al. 1-2). The dogs were put into several different situations which the researchers believed they would experience in any given home or shelter. Such situations were being petted or touched in any way, being scolded, having food or a chew toy taken away, and confronting a doll-sized toddler, as well as confronting another doll-sized dog (Miller et al. 3). 252 dogs were first tested on the amounts of scars they had, 54% of them being female and 60% being male.

71% of the dogs were found to have one or more scars, while the remaining had none. To further understand this study, one must realize that dogs who have been part of dog fighting sustain a higher amount of injuries on their front legs, head, and muzzle. This was of course taken into account, and it was found that the majority of these dogs had scars in those areas (Miller et al. 56). Another realization was made when the researchers discovered that aggression ran deeper within the males than the females; as follows they also discovered from their testing that dogs that had ten or more scars showed more aggression, meaning 82% of the males and 60% of the females would show violent behavior. Overall, the study found that looking at a dog’s scars to determine aggression was the best possible way to quickly anticipate the animal’s behavior; however, it was also found that this was not a perfect study as some dogs that had no scars showed aggression while others with scars showed no aggression. Therefore, they determined that further study is needed to determine a dog’s true behavior (Miller et al. 8-9).

Finally, to fully understand the history of the pit bull and the reasons it came to be, we must look at the methods of breeders and most importantly the controversial topic of dog fighting. Dog fighting is said to be as diverse as America itself with several different owners, fighters, and professionals behind the famous sport. It is for this reason not much is known or understood about the sport and how it came to be in the first place. The most commonly known dog fighting in the eyes of the public is that of the street fighters. These men tend to be criminals with connections to gangs, drugs, and gambling, using the fight as a means to collect more money, while not caring for their dogs. The scene commonly left after a dog fight constructed by these criminals is a mutilated carcass of the loser who was left behind. These criminals look at their dogs as a connection to their reputation. When a fight is lost it compromises that reputation, leaving a very embarrassed or angry owner who then acts out by torturing or immediately killing

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their animal. A better visual of the power and determination these dogs have in doing the act their owners wish of them is represented here: His face is a mass of deep cuts, as are his shoulders and neck. Both of his front legs have been broken, but Billy Bear isn’t ready to quit. At the referee’s signal, his master releases him, and unable to support himself on his front legs, he slides on his chest across the blood and urine stained carpet, propelled by his good hind legs, toward the opponent who rushes to meet him. Driven by instinct, intensive training and love for the owner who has brought him to this moment, Billy Bear drives himself painfully into the other dog’s charge... Less than 20 minutes later, rendered useless by the other dog, Billy Bear lies spent beside his master, his stomach constricted with pain. He turns his head back toward the ring, his eyes glazed searching for a last look at the other dog as he receives a bullet in his brain. (Gibson) Dog fighting is illegal in all 50 states, but many argue more needs to be done by law enforcement officials as it is still an ongoing act. They believe that more methods such as a dog fighting database should be constructed to track down any suspicious or even well-known fighters. This will lead them to more locations and more people who allow dog fights to happen. Most importantly, once a criminal is found records should be kept for later use (Gibson). However, dog fighting was not created by these criminals, and, in fact, the history of these acts goes back years before. The most common time frame was between the 1940s and 1980s, where the spectators included public figures, law enforcement, and families with children, prompting us to ask if perhaps there is more to dog fighting than meets the eye (Stratton).

So, what is the truth behind dog fighting? To answer this, we must go back to the original dog and its use in bull baiting. Soon after bull baiting became illegal in the 1800s, dog fighting took its place and, from then on, continues to this day. The question we must now ask ourselves is: Was dog fighting ever considered better than what it is today? Diane Jessup, a breeder and advocate for the pit bull believes that it was. After speaking to well-known breeders, Louis Colby and John Foseca, Jessup became convinced that prior to the 1970s owners cared about “gameness.” The care of dogs was very different, not to mention much better than what it is today. Today, cruel acts such as locking a dog in the trunk of a car and driving around for hours to see if they survive represent the type of behavior or feelings placed towards these dogs. Back then, there was more respect between dog and owner (Jessup). Even before dog fighting became a felony it was common to see lawyers, doctors, judges, mayors, and other government officials join in on the sport. It was not until groups such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) and the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) began to spread false information about the sport and the type of conditions and training the breed was put through that people began to see dog fighting as something other than just sport, thus creating the laws we have today. This led to a turn of events where breeders no longer cared about the history of their breed, nor did they have the knowledge or compassion to know how to train their dogs.

Soon, cruelty replaced knowledge, criminals replaced dog fighters who cared for their dog’s wellbeing, and dog fighting was never the same again. As a result, Jessup declares, the time for dog fighting is gone, just as the time of bull baiting is gone. The challenge now is for pit bull breeders to avoid the pitfall of the show ring, and to come up with unique tests to keep our breed game. And an important part of the challenge that faces us 87

is this: we must police ourselves - not allow extremists who do not even want our animals alive to police us. (Jessup) Dog fighting may have ended, but the strength and the power of the pit bull remains. For this reason, Jessup as well as other advocates strive to teach us that we must learn and know all we can about the breed, and stop extremists on both sides from influencing what the pit bull stands for. Richard Stratton, a well-known author and breeder of the pit bull, who published works such as “The Truth about the American Pit Bull Terrier,” tells us the meaning behind dog fighting. In an interview, he begins by explaining what it means for a dog to have game, or gameness. He states it as “the trait of not losing interest in fighting, regardless of how a dog is doing. He can be getting whipped, be getting mopped all over the floor, but he still thinks he’s winning, or else he’s determined that he’s going to win” (Stratton). To Stratton, dog fighting is not cruel. In fact the dogs wag their tails as they are doing it, signifying their enjoyment. He claims most are this way, but the act can be harder on some dogs than others. Despite this, it does not seem to make them want to stop fighting, as they are more eager to fight than ever. Stratton continues by saying that if you never want your pit bull to fight, you have to make sure you never let the dog experience it because once that door has been opened, the pleasure signals to the brain he will receive while fighting will make him want to continue to go after it.

Although gameness was intended for dog fighting, in the interview Stratton tells us that these traits can be used in other things, which is one of the reasons you may see this dog trying to climb trees because of their natural strength. However, he believes that pit bulls may never be stopped from being used in this way; despite the many laws it still goes on more than ever before. To him, he hopes it never goes away because it keeps the dogs’ integrity as well as history. He stresses that game dogs are very rarely aggressive towards humans, and if they are, there is no hesitation to put them down. He continues by saying how not all game dogs are necessarily aggressive towards animals either; some are, and some are not, demonstrating the importance of understanding your dog and taking care of its surroundings (Stratton). Finally, in the interview he continues to explain further why dog fighting was never meant to be cruel. He explains how the pit bull was created to withstand greater amounts of pain better than any other breed. Because of this, much of their natural instincts were twisted by the media. False news was spread about the dogs and attack stories were fabricated. Lawyers who actually looked into the attacks found that most of the time the dog was not even a pit bull, but another breed. However, when a pit bull did attack it was either from lack of good breeding or lack of judgment from its owner (Stratton). He ends by stating how popularity is dangerous for any breed, because it attracts for the end of selective breeding, and lazy breeders begin to mix them with all sorts of dogs for profit. For this reason, the breed is not meant for everybody and needs responsible owners who will keep them on a leash at all times, away from other dogs, cats or animals in case it is natural behavior kicks in, and most importantly to be supervised when with children. The dogs are a wonderful breed according to Stratton, and he hopes they continue for thousands of years (Stratton).

The controversy on dog fighting makes it difficult to understand pit bulls, and with the now tainted ways, many are not willing to be open and understand the true meaning behind it. I interviewed an individual (who asked to remain anonymous) who was involved with dog fighting and breeding pit bulls. He told me, “It’s in the nature of Blood Hounds to sniff around.

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So, are you going to beat the dog for sniffing around because it’s in his nature? It’s the same thing with a pit bull. Animal aggression is in their nature” (Alexander). This individual explained to me that the true purpose behind “real” dog fighting is to let the dogs that are naturally aggressive do what is in their nature. If these dogs were out in the wild, this is what they would be doing, and no one would intervene. He explained that the “point” of dog fighting was to find out if the dog had it in them to attack another. This was mainly for breeding purposes. He states, “All you do is let the two dogs go at each other. No baiting, no killing. You just let them get it out of their system and also find out if they have it in them. Of course, there is money involved, but people have perverted what dog fighting was supposed to be about. Now it’s all about killing and entertainment. It makes me sick” (Anonymous). Clearly, over time, the purpose of dog fighting has become tainted. What was once used as a way to let the dogs exercise their instincts and discover more behind the breed has now become a form of pure cruel entertainment. As a result, we must discover new ways to let the nature of the pit bull remain. One may now ask, what is next, and how do we discover these new ways for the nature of the pit bull to continue?

To answer this, it is vital to look at sources who care for and respect the breed rather than someone who is looking for profit. One such specific source can be found in Fresh Perspectives, through the article called, “Pit-Bullying or Education: A Better Look at the Effectiveness of Breed-Specific Legislation.”

By understanding the history of these dogs and where they originally came from, we can discover the true intent and nature of the pit bull. This continues if we also discover how their image was changed from America’s number one dog to America’s most feared dog by the influence of the media and other sources, which also leads into why breed banning came to be.

Our eyes become enlightened more so when we realize what the owners themselves have to withstand with the stigmatization towards their pets, making us aware of how much is not known about the breed by the public and their owners. We are then sent on a track to discover why and how these dogs have aggressive behavior as well as who is to blame for it, thus prompting us to look at the methods of breeders and the truth behind dog fighting. As Diane Jessup states, The dog is our species’ soul mate, ye we expect so much from dogs, when you think about it. They’re supposed to protect us when we want them to, but also to put up with strangers when we want them to. We want them to do scary-looking Schutzhund stuff when we want them to, but not to mind when kids crawl all over them or shout in their ears or pull their tails. They should only want to play when we feel like it, not when they do. And they can’t ever bark, chew, or dig. All the things that make dogs dogs. That’s an awful lot to ask, isn’t it? (Dickey 7 & 16) Perhaps these dogs will never be truly understood. With extremists on both sides nagging at us to pick a side, it is hard to know what is right and wrong. One thing is for certain, however: when you finally get the chance to meet a pit bull, you cannot help but be inspired by how brave and friendly they are. Most importantly, you cannot fail to notice their dedication and hard work.

Yet, perhaps the breed itself will one day teach us again how loving and loyal it really is, despite all the good and bad in its history. I hope, just as Stratton does, that the dogs continue to stand alongside man as it has for the past 200 hundred years, and hopefully it will go on for thousands of years to come.

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WORKS CITED Anonymous. Personal interview. 1 Nov. 2017.

Dickey, Bronwen. “Dogs of Character: Pride, Prejudice, and the American Pit bull Terrier.” Virginia Quarterly Review, vol. 92, no. 2, 2016, pp. 1–19, https://www.vqronline.org/profiles-articles/2016/03/dogs-character.

Gibson, Hanna. “Detailed Discussion of Dog Fighting.” Animal Law Legal Center, Michigan State University College of Law, 1 Jan. 2005, www.animallaw.info/article/detaileddiscussion-dog-fighting.

Jessup, Diane. “Dog Fighting-The Truth” Pit Bull Informational Pages, www.workingpitbull.com/dogfighting.htm.

Medlin, Jamey. “Pit Bull Bans and the Human Factors Affecting Canine Behavior.” DePaul University Law Review, vol. 56, no. 4, 2007, pp. 1285-1319, via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1336&context=law-review.

Miller, Katherine, et al. “Relationship between Scarring and Dog Aggression in Pit Bull-Type Dogs Involved in Organized Dogfighting.” Animals, vol. 6, no. 11, 15 Nov. 2016, pp. 1– 17, doi:10.3390/ani6110072.

Squires, Amber. “Pit-Bullying or Education: A Better Look at the Effectiveness of BreedSpecific Legislation.” Fresh Perspectives, vol. 2, 26 Jan. 2014, https://issuu.com/hawaii_pacific_university/docs/fall_2013_revised_anthology.

Stevens, Kellie. “How America's Dog Became Public Enemy #1 - And Why They’re Making Such a Comeback.” BarkPost, 11 July 2016, stories.barkpost.com/pit-bulls-history-ofamericas-dog/.

Stratton, Richard. “All About the American Pit Bull Terrier with Richard F. Stratton.” YouTube, 14 June 2016, www.youtube.com/watch?v=uwCkcnccXmw. Swift, E. M. “The Pit Bull Friend and Killer.” Sports Illustrated, 27 July 1987, www.si.com/vault/1987/07/27/115813/the-pit-bull-friend-and-killer-is-the-pit-bull-a-fineanimal-as-its-admirers-claim-or-is-it-a-vicious-dog-unfit-for-society.

“The History of Pit Bulls.” Love-A-Bull, love-a-bull.org/resources/the-history-of-pit-bulls/.

Twining, Hillary, et al. “Managing the Stigma of Outlaw Breeds: A Case Study of Pit Bull Owners.” Society and Animals, vol. 8, no. 1, 2000, pp. 1–14., doi:10.1163/156853000510970.

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Black and Muslim Stereotypes Increase the Prevalence of Racial Profiling

By Ashley Iseri The twenty-first century is thought to be a “post-racial” era; however, racial profiling continues to occur every single day all throughout America. Racial profiling is when people of certain races are targeted without evidence of any criminal activity. Profiling based on race has been a deep-rooted issue in the United States for a long time even though it is illegal. Racial profiling is known to mainly target people of darker skin tones, specifically young black men, but many Muslims are also targeted. Most of this discrimination towards citizens of a particular skin tone or religion stems from misleading stereotypes created and perpetuated by society. Profiling based on racial attributes “is patently illegal, violating the U.S. Constitution’s core promises of equal protection under the law to all and freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures” (“Racial Profiling”). Despite this, more blacks and Muslims are wrongly convicted of crimes they have not committed just because of their physical appearance. Negative stereotypes were created and are still widely believed in society, and the media’s portrayal of blacks and Muslims further spreads and heightens these misleading stereotypes. Many innocent citizens’ lives are harmed and some are even taken because of the stereotypes that lead to racial discrimination and profiling. Black and Muslim stereotypes wrongly increase the prevalence of racial profiling committed by law enforcement officials.

Many misleading stereotypes paint blacks as criminals and Muslims as terrorists. Blacks have been viewed as the inferior and more barbaric race since the days of slavery. However, as time and society progressed, blacks protested their way up the social hierarchy ladder, which involved acting out against their white oppressors in order to receive the equality that the Constitution promises. From the late 1950s up until the 1970s, a black civil rights movement erupted all across America. Blacks spoke out and led both peaceful marches and riots in order to gain the freedom that they truly deserved. Throughout the movement, many blacks were arrested and convicted of serious crimes; some were even sentenced to death. During that time, many innocent blacks were targeted while driving down the highway or even walking down the street.

Thus the beginning of racial profiling erupted, and law enforcement officials started to target the dark complexion of African Americans. Ever since the September 11th terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, “the concept of ‘driving while black’ changed to ‘flying while brown’ and ‘walking while Arab’” (Smith). The nation as a whole began an anti-terrorist movement which lead to heightened Transportation Security Administration restrictions in airports and created a perceived Red Scare made up by citizens against their own fellow Muslim-Americans and others who were of Middle Eastern descent. Stereotypes are created because it is human nature to base opinions of people on first impressions. These stereotypes are then ingrained into people’s minds as they grow up, which leads to unconscious biases that often result in racism.

Although racial profiling is illegal, it still exists today. According to SB 1070, law enforcement officials are not allowed to consider race, color, or national origin in the enforcement of law. In a study conducted by Laurence Steinberg, a professor of psychology, one sample of police officers and another sample of probation officers were asked to read a hypothetical incident of a crime (Steinberg). The description of the crime was a couple paragraphs long, but it did not indicate the race of the juvenile involved. However, before they were given the crime, all of the officers 91

completed an activity where they were told to look at a point of light when it flashed on a computer screen and identify whether the light was on the left or the right of the screen.

However, it was not actually a flash of light but instead a word that flashed quickly like a subliminal message. Half of the participants in each study received words associated with African Americans, such as “Oprah” or “Reggae,” and the other half received words with no racial association. Then, they were given the crimes and asked questions about guilt. The officers who were primed with African American associated words rated the criminals guiltier, more deserving of a harsher punishment, more likely to reoffend, and more adult-like (Steinberg). This proves that an unconscious bias exists and affects decisions even though the racial associated words were not negative in any sort of way. In another study conducted at Niagara University, 270 participants were given a six-page booklet filled with six headshots per page (Sampson). For each page of six headshots, the participants were asked to choose the individual they believed was the ‘terrorist’ in the group. In actuality, all 36 of the headshots were photos of known terrorists. Fourteen of the headshots were classified as Caucasian, twelve were Middle-Eastern, seven were Asian, and three were Hispanic. The results showed that the participants in the study were more likely to identify those with a “Middle-Eastern appearance” as terrorists (Sampson).

This study shows that racial profiling does not just occur within the criminal justice system; citizens are often repeat offenders of racial discrimination based on misleading stereotypes.

Racial profiling can have tremendous, negative impacts not only on those who are profiled but also on law enforcement officials and entire communities. Racial profiling “alienates communities from law enforcement, hinders community policing efforts, and causes law enforcement to lose credibility and trust among the people they are sworn to protect and serve” (“Racial Profiling”). In today’s society, everything is posted on social media, including videos of police officers beating up civilians, leaving the viewer with little to no context about the situation at hand. Those who view the video only see an innocent civilian getting pushed around and pepper sprayed by law enforcement officials which creates a divide and distrust between the community and the police officers. The profiling of people simply because of race or religion “has led countless people to live in fear, casting entire communities as suspect simply because of what they look like, where they come from, or what religion they adhere to” (“Racial Profiling”).

It is a miserable idea to think that Muslims have to fear being targeted at airport security just because they have a Middle-Eastern appearance or wear a hijab or that a young black man has to worry about being shot by a police officer when walking in his own neighborhood. Statistics do not lie when it shows that “black people are three times more likely to be killed by police in the United States than white people” (Sinyangwe). Every year, more unarmed African Americans are killed by police than unarmed white people and “that is taking into account the fact that black people are only 14% of the population [in America]” (Sinyangwe). Time after time again people are targeted and killed because of their race or religion, and it all goes back to the question of how young black men and Muslims are perceived. How many innocent lives are going to be taken before a change is implemented? There have been countless murders and hate crimes committed by police officers and fellow citizens all across America against blacks and Muslims throughout America’s history just because of their appearance.

Media plays a detrimental role in shaping our country’s opinions about the events that take place every single day. In today’s society, people just want to hear what they believe in, which leads to many one-sided media programs that provide the bias that the viewers want to hear rather than 92

what they need to hear. This prevents them from forming their own opinions and leads to two very divided sides with little to no way of compromising. These types of media portrayals are constantly seen with cases of black people, typically young black men, and Muslims. A mug shot of the suspect is thrown up onto the screen, leaving a threatening image of either a black person or Muslim ingrained in our brains when thinking about criminals and terrorists. It is often seen that “television media outlets reinforce the public’s racial misconceptions about crime by presenting African Americans differently than whites” (Prince). Blacks and Muslims are more likely to be shown as suspects and possible criminals, while whites are often seen as victims of the crimes. In many news headlines, racial minorities are more likely to be portrayed in a “nonindividualized and threatening way” (Prince). The public is only left with some minority “criminal” who is unnamed and in police custody. This allows the public to generalize criminal activity to an entire race and thus leads to even more misleading and potentially harmful stereotypes. Racial perceptions of crime throughout the media have distorted the criminal justice system in an unjust way. Nowadays, media is so widespread that changing how media portrays suspects of black and Muslim descent can also greatly affect how society portrays these people.

A single change like this can immensely improve the lives of many citizens who face racial discrimination in the United States.

Some people consider racial profiling to be both efficient and effective without being harmful.

After the September 11th attacks, profiling based on race was actually encouraged and enforced

by President Bush who said that “federal law enforcement officers who are protecting national security or preventing catastrophic events (as well as airport security screeners) may consider race, ethnicity, and other relevant factors to the extent permitted by our laws and the Constitution” (“Should Racial Profiling”). The use of racial profiling both in the “war on terror” and other ordinary crime enforcement has only increased after September 11th, 2001. Some find that for racial profiling “to be efficient in fighting ordinary crime, it needs to focus on the racial composition of marginal offenders” (Blumkin). Profiling based on racial attributes may call for targeting some groups of people who are completely innocent. However, some demonstrate that “assuming correlation between race and crime, racial profiling would nearly always be efficient” (Blumkin). In a recent case, nine passengers on a flight to Florida were ordered off the flight after talking about where the safest place to sit on the flight would be (Rahman). The passengers felt like they were being racially profiled just because three of the passengers were Pakistani; two were Turkish and one was African American, and they all wore headscarves (Rahman).

Those that support racial profiling might argue that it is reasonable to profile because Muslims were responsible for the September 11th attacks, and many Arab countries have publicly expressed their hatred against the United States. It may have been safer to order those women off the plane than to have a possible bomb go off and kill all those passengers. However, those women were just having an innocent conversation and thus had to suffer because of racial profiling. If this is the case, how many innocent lives would need to be either harmed or taken in order to catch one criminal? Many believe that too many lives have already been taken.

Although racial stereotypes will continue to exist, there are solutions to racial profiling that can potentially eliminate discrimination based on race out of the decision-making process when convicting a criminal. Laurence Steinberg suggested giving decision makers objective criteria such as “grades, behavior, prior record, personality tests, and aggression tests” to those who are being convicted (Steinberg). This type of objective-based decision making would take away 93

possible racial biases from court decisions and create an equal way to convict criminals. Another possible solution is to require law enforcement officials to have an associate’s degree or a minimum college education of at least two years. Studies have shown that police officers with a higher education are better at decision making, less likely to use force as a way of compliance, and better able to perform in the field (Michelson). One other possible solution is to take away weapons altogether by banning the use of guns and tasers in order to decrease the amount of unnecessary police caused deaths each year. As suggested earlier, media portrayal of blacks and Muslims can shape how society and law enforcement officials view and treat citizens of black and Muslim descent. Unbiased media might be able to greatly minimize or even abolish racial profiling altogether. Although all of society cannot change how they perceive certain races overnight, a gradual change can happen if all of these solutions are taken into consideration.

America as a whole can potentially put an end to racial profiling.

It is still a depressing fact to know that racism is so interwoven into the fabric of our country that, when citizens protest racism, others think they are protesting against the entire country.

Stereotypes have such a deep-rooted tie to the backbone of America that it is unrealistic to believe that stereotypes will disappear completely. However, the profiling of citizens solely based off of race should be brought to an end because so many lives have already been taken, and a divide has been built in communities all across America. Although the main arguments were specifically against Blacks and Muslims, racial profiling also occurs for many other races throughout the country. I happen to be interested in this topic because my Grandfather was affected by racial profiling when he was thrown into a Japanese internment camp by the government just because he was a Japanese-American. However, government and law enforcement officials are not the only ones to blame. Society and the media contribute to most of the distorted perceptions that can be seen today. With the recent eruptions of protests such as the Black Lives Matter movement and protests against our new controversial president, I believe that it is our duty as citizens to join together as one country regardless of race in order to potentially make the entire world a more unified place. Although this may be a highly romanticized thought, small changes and newly opened, accepting minds might eventually lead to a somewhat more unified society.

WORKS CITED “Racial Profiling.” American Civil Liberties Union, ACLU Foundation, www.aclu.org/issues/racial-justice/race-and-criminal-justice/racial-profiling.

"Should Racial Profiling Be Accepted as a Law Enforcement Practice?" ProCon.org, 23 June 2008, aclu.procon.org/view.answers.php?questionID=000698.

Blumkin, Tomer, and Yoram Margolioth. “On terror, Drugs and Racial Profiling.” International Review of Law and Economics, 17 June 2008, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014481880800032X. Michelson, Rick. “Why Cops Should Pursue Higher Education.” PoliceOne, 8 Mar. 2016, www.policeone.com/police-jobs-and-careers/articles/153751006-Why-cops-shouldpursue-higher-education/.

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Prince, Richard. “How Media Have Shaped Our Perception of Race and Crime.” Journal-Isms, 4 Sept. 2014, journalisms.theroot.com/how-media-have-shaped -our-perception-of-raceand-crime-1790885677.

Rahman, Mizanur. “Reporting on Whether Racial Profiling Actually Works.” Poynter, 2 Mar. 2017, www.poynter.org/news/reporting-whether-racial-profiling-actually-works.

Sampson, Robert J., and Janet L. Lauritsen. “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States.” Crime and Justice, no. 21, 1997, pp. 311-374, http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3226952.

Sinyangwe, Sam. “Why Do US Police Keep Killing Unarmed Black Men?” BBC News, 26 May 2015, www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-32740523.

Smith, Amanda L. and Susan E. Mason. “The Age of Racial Profiling in the Context of Terrorism.” Modern Psychological Studies, vol. 21, no. 2, 2016, pp. 75-82, AN=117676394.

Steinberg, Laurence. “A Study on Racial Profiling - Video.” Big Think, 5 Jan. 2010, bigthink.com/videos/a-study-on-racial-profiling.

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GLOBAL PRIORITIES

Untitled by Ramon Brockington

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Residential Mobility versus Residential Stability in Adolescent Social Development

By Ciarra Kirby As I have emerged from adolescence, I have reflected on the past years of my life. Compared to most who have never moved prior to becoming an adult, being residentially mobile as a military child influenced how I grew up. Many researchers claim that residential mobility is debilitating to those in the age range of 10-18 years old, concluding that the only outcome of moving as an adolescent are physical and mental health issues. I suggest otherwise; residential mobility during adolescent years is beneficial to the development of social health, effective communication, adaptation, empathy, and networking for a successful adult life. During adolescence, the body is changing, thought processes are opening to include the thoughts of others, and social statuses are becoming more important to the individual. Saul McLeod summarizes developmental psychologist Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages stating that “during adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in,” essentially saying that as children are growing up, they become more aware of the future and relationships (McLeod). Making friends and being a part of a central group of friends is often a need for this age along with communicating how one feels to others. For residentially mobile families, their adolescent’s learning curve is faster and more skills are put into use. Those who do not move are unaware of the benefits of transitioning for their children and tend to focus on how harmful it is to their children.

In order to understand the effects of residential mobility on adolescents we must first understand social health. Humans are social beings, needing to be around others to talk and have experiences with one another in our lives. The Center of Early Childhood Mental Health Consultation defines “social health as the ability to form close, secure relationships with other familiar people in their lives such as parents, relatives and other nurturing caregivers. This trusting bond helps children to feel safe in exploring their world” (“Recognizing and Supporting”). As children grow up social health becomes more prominent, especially as they develop their identities and figure out how to interact with people other than their families. Depending on the occupation of the adolescent’s parents, families may have a multitude of opportunities. Residentially mobile youths are then able to develop skills revolving around social health more quickly. For everyone, social health involves your ability to form satisfying interpersonal relationships with others. It also relates to your ability to adapt comfortably to different social situations and act appropriately in a variety of settings. This can include a range of skills, such as being empathetic, effectively communicating, networking, actively listening, being mindful. A majority of these assets are obtained by observing parents or friends, or by learning from experience. Adolescents in a stable family, living in only one area in their life, may not learn some of these skills in the same neighborhood with the same people for a number of years. For instance, mindfulness may be difficult to learn as the youth is in the same pattern of environment, passing through days in the world without learning from the present moment. Being mindful is important in order to be aware of other individuals and of present experiences in life and learning from them. Mobility causes an adolescent to be more mindful. In my case, I learned to dedicate more attention to my daily tasks. Instead of aimlessly walking around or mindlessly doing nothing, I was observant and reflected on my past actions to improve for the future, whether it is walking around and 97

observing people on the street or taking more time to work on an assignment or cleaning thoroughly. In a moving setting individuals need to be aware of their surroundings, whether in an airport or a new neighborhood, to ensure safety in the transition of residents.

A large part of social health is effective communication. Although most adolescents will slowly acquire this, movers will develop and master speaking clearly, listening to the other party, being polite, and holding the conversation more quickly. Being polite is an important part of effectively communicating. Travelling causes a different range of conversations. For example, speaking to a friend is not the same as speaking to a boss or a person of authority. Moving around applies this skill as the adolescent is conversing normally with friends or a teacher but also speaking with a guardian, boss, co-worker, or person of authority. As I moved, I spoke to many of my father’s co-workers and, more importantly, his supervisor. At a young age, if my siblings or I were to speak inappropriately or rudely, it would negatively affect my father’s reputation and influence the way his boss would judge him, thus causing me to quickly learn how to effectively communicate in specific situations.

Some individuals believe a residentially mobile adolescent is distant in social groups as a result of moving and changing friends often. As Washington Post writer Christopher Ingraham writes, “Relocated adolescents often face a double stress of adapting to an alien environment, a new school, and building new friendships and social networks, while simultaneously coping with the fundamental biological and developmental transitions that their peers also experience.” In other words, adolescents who move encounter more stress with a new environment and social life along with going through puberty. In most circumstances stress is normal in life. Both mobile and stable adolescents go through the process of puberty, but mobile adolescents undergo changes more often, such as changes in environment and people around them. A benefit appears with these changes: the opportunity to use effective communication. The use of effective communication allows the process of friendship to develop faster because the youth knows how to clearly and politely present themselves to the other person. When I moved from Italy to Hawai‘i, I lost many friends from my middle school and early high school years. This may seem horrible, and it was at first. As I entered my sophomore year in a new school, I developed many friends quickly because I was able to effectively communicate where I came from, my interests, and my experiences from past moves.

A strong ability of an adolescent who moves is adaptation, or being able to adjust to new environments, people, and situations. Shigehiro Oishi, an associate professor of psychology, writes in an article of the psychological well-being of the residentially mobile: In psychological theorizing and research, residential mobility is a versatile construct because (a) it provides a macro context in which individuals’ interpersonal networks are situated, which in turn provide contexts in which most human emotions and cognitions are experienced; (b) it can be measured and manifest itself at various levels, ranging from personal history of residential mobility to the proportion of residents who have moved in or out during a given time period in a neighborhood, a town, a city, a state, a region, or a nation. (Oishi)

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In summary, Oishi states that residential mobility is flexible in that it provides explanation for the experiences of moving youths, along with it being seen from different perspectives, like being someone who moves or watches movers come and go. Many perceive moving as a life changing event. This is commonly thought by those who have never moved. Over time, one adjusts to living in the new area. and as adaptation suggests, the person’s living space becomes familiar. Everyone does this as they move or when they encounter a stressor; a residentially mobile adolescent adapts faster, moving past the stressor in a quick manner. As professor of psychiatry and sociology, Roberta Simmons writes about moving and adapting to a new stressor, “For optimal self-esteem and coping in the long run, the individual cannot be totally comfortable, he or she has to leave their securities” (13). Being uncomfortable in a new situation is common for people. Again, those who move will spend less time feeling uncomfortable. For movers this is because the adolescents are already used to the situation and will feel more comfortable with the familiar experience. I remember through most moves in my life that I felt uncomfortable with being in an unfamiliar area, but over time I was adapting to where my new room was and what school I was going to go to. In this situation, the ability to quickly adapt greatly benefited my overall experience as a mobile individual.

Residentially mobile adolescents are also able to more effectively empathize in friendships in comparison to the residentially stable. Being empathetic is a useful social skill as it can make the other person in the conversation more comfortable and allow them to open up more as the parties talk and share experiences. Oishi explains the difference in the type of relationship between the residentially mobile and stable: “similar to the duty-based morality, historical writings and recent empirical findings indicate that one’s relationship with others is duty based in residentially stable communities or among residentially stable persons, whereas the relationship is rights based or duty free in residentially mobile communities or among mobile persons” (Oishi). Those who do not move create relationships that are more rule-based, these rules being the normal standards of being a friend, such as doing things for the other person or being around for them. This bond is also in mobile friendships, although the need for the rules is unrestricted as the mobile adolescent is more comfortable with making friends, allotting less of a need to enforce these rules to sustain the friendship. Empathy helps as at least one party is used to friendship making and can relate to the other person.

Moving around positively influences the ability to network. Being able to network is extremely useful in becoming a successful adult. Scott J. South and Dana L. Haynie, professors of sociology, wrote an article, “Friendship Networks of Mobile Adolescents,” detailing the impact of moving on the networks of youths. They explain that residentially mobile adolescents “have denser networks, have less centrality and prestige in their networks, are less likely to have someone they nominate as a best friend reciprocate that nomination, and have as friends youth who themselves are relatively unpopular” (South & Haynie 331). Although popularity is not a huge factor in an adolescent’s social life, being able to move around and meet others of different skill levels and roles in businesses or organizations positively influences the density of networks.

In this sense, mobile youths have an easier time with connections and finding work, or simply finding a place to belong. With moving, I found that I kept many friends and individuals close to me.

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Another aspect of networking is the ability to keep these connections as families move from place to place. Keeping a relationship over any distance can be difficult. Long distance communication can be harder for the residentially stable as they are used to seeing the people they are familiar with. Residentially stable adolescents then suffer as they do not develop the skill to sustain the relationship with the distance. Residentially mobile adolescents are the opposite as they meet others and are able to keep talking as if nothing happened when they moved. Technology helps to create an easier way of keeping communication possible. Through long distance, I have kept relationships with some of my dearest friends that live halfway across the world or on the other side of Oahu.

The event of moving is often treated as a major life change that causes negative effects to adolescents. Most of the research focused on the impact of residential mobility produces negative articles and conclusions. I grew up as a mobile military child, and I can say that some of the results of this research should be applied lightly and that it does not directly correlate to residential mobility. There are many factors that can affect the outcome of social development in adolescents, such as being unpopular, being unable to make friends, or having a social barrier.

Through explanation, residential mobility causes fewer harmful effects than South and Haynie stated. Residential mobility also has a positive impact on the social development of residentially mobile adolescents. When moving, they quickly develop and use skills such as social health, effective communication, adaptation, empathy, and networking. Moving can be seen more as a chance to experience new people, to expand one’s mind, and to explore another part of one’s identity. As an adolescent, these experiences positively influence mobile youth’s social development.

WORKS CITED “Children and Family Moves.” Facts for Families, no. 14, March 2011, American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. www.aacap.org/App_Themes/AACAP/docs/facts_for_families/14_children_and_family_ moves.pdf.

Ingraham, Christopher. “Moving as a Child Can Change Who You Are as an Adult.” The Washington Post, 13 June 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/06/13/moving-as-a-child-can-changewho-you-are-as-an-adult/?utm_term=.d1d47bc40921.

Jobes, Patrick C. “Residential Stability and Crime in Small Rural Agricultural and Recreational Towns.” Sociological Perspectives, vol. 42, no. 3, 1999, pp. 499–524, doi:10.2307/1389700.

McLeod, Saul. “Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development.” Simply Psychology, 2017, www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html.

Morris, Tim, et al. “Residential Mobility: Toward Progress in Mobility Health Research.”

Progress in Human Geography, 2016, p. 1-2, doi:10.1177/0309132516649454.

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Oishi, Shigehiro. “The Psychology of Residential Mobility: Implications for the Self, Social Relationships, and Well-Being.” Perspectives on Psychological Science, vol. 5, no. 1, 2010, pp. 5–21, doi:10.1177/1745691609356781.

“Recognizing and Supporting the Social and Emotional Health of Young Children Birth to Age Five.” Introduction to Social and Emotional Health: Definition and Research Support, Georgetown University Center for Child and Human Development, www.ecmhc.org/tutorials/social-emotional/mod1_0.html.

Simmons, Roberta G., et al. “The Impact of Cumulative Change in Early Adolescence.” Child Development, vol. 58, no. 5, 1987, p. 1220, doi:10.2307/1130616.

South, S. J., and D. L. Haynie. “Friendship Networks of Mobile Adolescents.” Social Forces, vol. 83, no. 1, 2004, pp. 315–350, doi:10.1353/sof.2004.0128.

Voight, Adam, et al. “The Effects of Residential Mobility on the Education Outcomes of Urban Middle School Students and the Moderating Potential of Civic Engagement.” Urban Education, 11 Aug. 2017, doi:10.1177/0042085917721956.

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The Importance of Cross-Cultural Training for Short-Term Missions

By Sydney Weeks There are few better ways to experience a life-changing journey than participating in a short-term mission trip. My attention was drawn to the powerful impact of short-term missions when I experienced one firsthand. I travelled to serve a missionary family on the small island of La Gonave off the coast of Haiti. The wisdom shared with me about the reality of short-term missions from Brian Tucker, a full-time missionary in Haiti, sparked the desire in me to seek out the truth behind mission trips and discover the most effective way for them to be executed. There is something so humbling and eye-opening about stepping into a foreign culture and serving those who are less fortunate. Short-term mission trips are an opportunity to travel to another country in order to care for those who are hurting physically, emotionally, or spiritually. It is a hands-on opportunity to step out of one’s comfort zone to help those who are in need. More often than not, short-term mission trips are taken to impoverished third world countries and last anywhere from two weeks to two years. Long-term missions, on the other hand, entail residency in that particular location. The approach to mission trips is becoming increasingly relevant as the interest in such life-impacting trips grows. There are many approaches to short-term mission trips; however, some approaches have proven to be more beneficial than others. The problem is that the majority of people are throwing themselves into short-term mission trips to foreign countries without first gaining an understanding of cross-cultural issues. Are people truly able to make a difference in a community where they do not speak the language, understand the culture, or connect with the people they are going to serve? It is imperative for those taking part of shortterm missions to seek proper preparation before embarking on trips throughout the globe. While short-term mission trips are becoming increasingly popular for Americans, such trips have the potential to cause more harm than good without proper preparation and training; therefore, it is imperative for extensive cross-cultural training to be implemented so that not only the receiving party benefits, but the serving party as well.

Short-term missions are becoming increasingly popular in the United States, specifically for young adults. The reasons behind the increase in popularity include the attractiveness of an authentic experience and improvements in technology and travel. As Susan Lefeber (2011) explains in her article “Outposts in the Wilderness: Short-Term Missions and the Mission of God,” it is due to the developments in travel that the world is becoming increasingly accessible.

In today’s society, the idea of an authentic experience that allows the opportunity for one to gain a better understanding of themselves and the world is one that is gaining more appeal. In a postmodern world, young adults are influenced more and more by the desire for an experience in personal, leadership, or spiritual growth (Lefeber, 2011, p.48). A factor that has an even greater influence on the increase in popularity of short-term missions is technological advancements, specifically in travel. In the article “The Cost of Short Term Missions,” JoAnn Van Engen (2000) elaborates on the idea that before the ease of air travel, the decision to become involved in mission work was often a permanent decision due to the lack of efficient means of travel (p. 20).

Because of the advancements in travel as a whole, mission work no longer requires such a life altering, long-term commitment for those who are only interested in short-term involvement. As explained by Grace Tazellar (2011), author of “Challenges and Trends in Global Healthcare Missions,” before air travel was as efficient and affordable as it is today, mission work required 102

missionaries to spend long periods of time traveling by ship to distant lands in order to reach countries and villages they felt called to. Tazellar further comments that organizing trips to fly around the world has become considerably easy due to the world-wide access that is available at our fingertips. The increase of technology also has a powerful impact on the growth of popularity of short-term missions as it increases global awareness and understanding (Tazellar, 2011). For many Americans the awareness of issues that impoverished countries are facing arouses the desire to help the hurting world. Short-term missions offer an opportunity for people to step up and do something about the hurt that they are seeing.

There are three primary reasons that short-term mission trips are so attractive and are so appealing to people of first-world countries, and the first is religious. In his article “How ShortTerm Missions Can Go Wrong,” Glenn Schwartz, writer of a column in Mission Frontiers magazine, writes that the motivations behind short-term missions are that “some [are] under the direction of the Holy Spirit, some for their own benefit (as on a glorified vacation), but, all, hopefully for the benefit of those they seek to serve” (2003, p.27). Broken down more specifically, one of the main attractions to short-term missions is the opportunity for Christians to evangelize and spread God’s love to people all over the world. The majority of Christians that take part in mission trips have the desire to expand the Kingdom of God and spread God’s love to all nations throughout the earth. In the Bible, it is written to go to people of all nations sharing with them Christ’s love. Christians read this and take it to heart, causing them to go and spread the love of God to people across all nations. A mission trip is essentially a Christian religion affiliated organization. Where there are other outreach organizations, the number of Christian mission organizations greatly outnumbers the number of non-religious, nonprofit organizations.

While the mission of God is the main attraction to short-term mission trips, the religious and spiritual side of mission trips are not the issue that this paper is addressing. Rather, what will be addressed are the other two significant factors that are attracting people to short term missions.

Another significant attraction of mission trips is that of Americans’ desire to help those around the world who are suffering. Michael Simmelink (2015), author of “A Deeper Mission,” explains that Americans see a hurting world and have the desire for a hands-on opportunity to get involved (p. 25). Mission trips have an appeal to human morality to reach out to those who are hurting or in need. The motivation to help others to the extent of traveling across the world or country stems from compassion. Compassion is sympathy for those who are suffering or are in need that leads to action. Those who participate in mission trips are so strongly led by compassion for others that they take part in a trip in order to help others first-hand.

The idea of a cross-cultural experience is another factor that draws people to short-term missions. The opportunity to get out and experience the world while helping those in need is something that is appealing to many people. JoAnn Van Engen (2000) points out that “when people return from their [mission] trip, they don’t talk about what they did, but what they saw and how it changed them” (p. 20). This observation shows that cross-cultural experiences and adventures are a large part of what draws people to short-term missions. People see and hear about the incredible adventures that others have experienced and they too want to experience an adventure. Even though an adventurous vacation is not the intention of short-term mission trips, the reality is that people are drawn to the opportunity to experience the unique culture and geography of other countries, and some people take advantage of short-term missions as a 103

method of reaching such locations. However, the true meaning behind short-term missions is greater than simply adventuring to new sites and witnessing new views.

Some people believe that short-term mission trips do not require preparatory training and are often viewed as more of a youth group event or opportunity to grow and teach the ones on the serving end. Churches and private schools throughout the United States promote the short-term mission trips that are offered. However, the majority of churches and schools do not include any significant preparatory training prior to sending participants out into another country. This casual approach to mission trips can often lead to unsuccessful results. In the journal article “Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term Missions into Context,” Brain Howell (2009) points out that in many church organizations, mission trips are viewed as a key element of youth group events.

Short-term mission trips are a way for the church congregation to be involved in direct outreach opportunities (Howell, 2009, p. 206). However, these views of mission trips are not of the correct perspective as, more often than not, the trips do not accomplish the initial good intentions. Such unsuccessful approaches towards mission trips include efforts such as one seen in a spring break trip to Honduras as recalled by JoAnn Van Engen (2000). She expresses her frustration as she describes how “[a] spring break group spent their time and money painting and cleaning the orphanage in Honduras. That money could have paid two Honduran painters who desperately needed the work, with enough left over to hire four new teachers, build a new dormitory, and provide each child with new clothes” (p. 21). While the mission team had good intentions of helping those less fortunate, their good intentions were less than effective because of their lack of understanding of what the community truly needed; which, in this case, was jobs for the community rather than new paint or a new building. Schwartz (2003) recalls another specific example of when a mission trip without proper preparation and understanding had an unbeneficial effect in Ecuador. The mission team travelled to Ecuador to build a church that the community did not need so it ended up never being used by the community. The Ecuadorians even asked the Americans to return in order to fix the church when the roof began to leak because they viewed the building as the Americans’ issue, not their own (Schwartz, 2003, p. 28).

There have also been many situations in which, due to the language barrier and cultural differences, the mission team did not even try to place themselves position to impact or influence the community to which they travelled. Van Engen (2000) recalls her knowledge of a “group that travelled all the way to Senegal to distribute copies of a Christian video to people on the street but could not even hold the most basic conversation with these people” (p. 21). If the mission team is not fully engaging with the local community, seeking what they are truly in need of, the team misses out on countless opportunity to help those they have traveled across the world to serve. Van Engen (2000) also points out that too often groups leave the country to which they travelled without engaging in meaningful interactions with the community (p. 21). During my time in Haiti with the Tucker family, Brian would frequently voice his frustration about mission organizations that are executed in such a way that hinders the changes that him and his family were trying to make to better the community. The mission organizations were even going as far as to undo what the Tucker family was trying to teach the community. While the Tuckers were establishing jobs for the community and teaching them solid work ethic, organizations such as Compassion International would come in and give handouts, enabling a poor work ethic, and become involved in situations that they do not have an inside understanding of. A specific example of involvement that I witnessed that hindered the community rather than helped was 104

that Compassion International had paid a group of Haitians to build a road through the village over a path that was not easily travelled. While this is a very beneficial action for the organization to take as it provides jobs and helps the community’s road system, the organization made the mistake of paying the Haitians before the road was complete. Because the Haitians were already paid for a job they had not yet finished, they took the money and only finished a small portion of the road. Not only did they not finish the road, but the small amount of work they did actually made the road more difficult to travel than before. It is in situations like these that the simple solutions Americans think would be beneficial create more of a problem. Such experiences make clear the importance of cross-cultural training.

As seen in each of the previous examples, while there are good intentions, the lack of appropriate preparation creates the possibility for three primary issues to arise on short-term missions.

LeFeber (2011) writes that an “obvious pitfall here is the naïve expectation that a group of minimally trained well-meaning Christians who do not speak the language or understand the culture will accomplish some kind of meaningful solution in the course of a week” (p. 52).

Looking at it more specifically, one of these main issues includes an arrogant attitude of superiority and ethnocentrism. Schwartz (2003) explains that the idea that outsiders are able to come in and get tasks done better than the locals can is one of the primary negative effects of short term missions (p. 30). A paternalistic attitude is one that will hinder the effectiveness of mission trips. Van Engen’s (2000) thoughts further add to this idea as she writes that far too often, mission teams and organizations approach the trip with a “let-the-North-Americans-do-it” attitude (p. 22). The result of such an attitude is that it leaves the country’s people feeling discouraged and unappreciated (Van Engen, 2000, p. 22). Americans doing for communities what they are capable of doing themselves can look something like a child who does not know how to tie their shoe, so their parents continue to tie their shoes for them. If the parents never teach the child how to tie their shoes, the child will never learn to take care of himself or herself, but will always be dependent on their parents to tie their shoes for them.

Another cause of unsuccessful short-term missions is when mission teams go into a community and do for others what they are capable of doing themselves (Simmelink. 2015, p. 26). As referenced by Simmelink, in Robert Lupton’s book Toxic Charity, Lupton states, “Giving to those in need what they could be gaining from their own initiative may well be the kindest way to destroy people” (as cited in Simmelink 2015, p. 26). By going into communities and giving handouts of things that the community depends on to keep the economy running, the good intentions of helping those in need takes a turn for the worse. The reason that such wrong actions are taken is due to a lack of understanding of what the community truly needs. As explained by Schwartz (2003), successful mission organizations and teams do not go and tell the country’s people how it is done in America, but rather go and learn how things are done in that particular country (p. 31). It is in situations such as these that the saying “seek first to understand” is imperative. Many times, the root of mission teams doing for others what they can do themselves is due to lack of understanding of the culture combined with insufficient preparation It is the lack of preparation in gaining cross-cultural understanding that their good intentions can often have a negative result. To prevent such misunderstanding, it is important for the people of the community being served to be involved in the planning of what will be accomplished on the trip.

Simmelink (2015) explains that it is important that the people of the community being served are involved in the planning of what will be accomplished on the mission-trip so that the most urgent 105

needs are met. Those participating in mission trips must also be careful to not fall into the false belief that coming from a “place of plenty” means that they have a better understanding about the needs of those suffering from poverty than those who are living in and familiar with the situation. It is also important to consider that the aid provided is “appropriate for the setting” (Simmelink, 2015, p. 26). This concept is one that should have been taken into consideration in the example of the mission team in Honduras that built a house for the community and, in the meantime, took jobs that could have been given to the locals. LeFeber (2011) points out that those involved with short-term mission must also be cautious not to think that a group of people who do not know the language nor fully understand the community are able of making any significant cultural solutions in such a short period of time (p. 52).

Another issue is that although Americans see a hurting world and want to help, many times people seek immediate results through short bursts of actions in attempt to solve complex cultural issues (Simmelink, 2015, p. 25, 30). The key issue that Simmelink mentions is the “short bursts” that are often affiliated with short-term missions. The effects on a community of coming and going are far less when compared to organizations and participants that are invested longterm into specific locations. Simmelink (2015) further explains that “teams that go each year to the same field are/or the same church situation are more effective . . . though individuals may change, sending teams from the same church to the same location year after year can lead to more effective and transformative results” (p. 53). Even when organizations and churches have long-term investments in a specific location, societal restoration is an extensive process that cannot be accomplished through an individual organization. Short-term mission goers must understand that there is a very limited amount that outsiders are capable of accomplishing for the community as a whole in such a short trip and with a true lack of understanding of the culture.

Societal issues are far more complex than an uninformed outsider is able to understand and solve, especially without significant preparatory training.

With these factors taken into consideration, overall, the most effective approach to short-term mission trips has proven to be incorporating extensive training in cultural understanding for those involved. Schwartz (2003) references the training of YWAM (Youth with a Mission) and YES (Youth Evangelism Service) and explains how they have proven to be exceptionally beneficial. Both programs require extensive training, lasting as long as three months, in order to fully prepare for an effective cross-cultural experience. Such training includes cross-cultural preparation as those in training gain an understanding of how to relate to the country’s local people and learning the local language. Both programs incorporate training for cross-cultural issues including topics such as the thought process of people of other religions. Training in spiritual warfare and personal examination of strengths and weaknesses are a significant part of training preparation along with training on how Americans are viewed allows for a better understanding of how to interact with other nations (Schwartz, 2003, p. 29). YWAM training consists of three months of preparatory lecture training before a two month mission trip in which participants are able to apply the skills and understanding they gained from their lecture training.

YWAM even offers a variety of courses that are skill specific in order for participants to develop their natural talents in a way that is applicable in cross-cultural environments. Other organizations such as The World Race also requires a preparatory training, but only lasts ten days compared to YWAM’s three months. Over the ten days of training, the “racers” focus on developing their strengths and becoming familiar with their team members. Participants are also 106

prepped for the specific cultures to which they will be traveling. Before participants are accepted to be a part of a World Race trip, a series of applications and interviews is required in order to ensure that each individual is qualified for such an expedition. The application includes inquiry about experience with mission work and Christianity along with their personal strengths and weaknesses (“Training Camps”). The goal and vision of each of these organizations is to fully prepare and equip their participants so that they are able to impact the communities they are serving to their maximum potential. Each training program challenges individuals to seek out a complete servant’s heart and fully understand that the world consists of much more than the American culture’s beliefs, morals, standards, and norms. Such procedures of preparation have proven to be exceptionally beneficial.

Once training is completed, participants are then able to go out into the community and serve in a way that is focused on the needs of the community rather than perspectives based on broad, ethnocentric assumptions about third world countries. It is through cross-cultural training that participants are able to gain a solid understanding of how to effectively interact with and help those who are less fortunate. YWAM has beautifully executed proper training and preparation in their outreach programs and mission trips. Each of YWAM’s training courses specializes in an area such as elementary education, primary medical care, or music. The trainees are then able to take the area in which they have been trained and apply it directly and specifically to the location to which they are called to serve. Training allows for the participants to understand how to take their skills and adapt and acclimate to other cultures. Through training, YWAM participants are able to effectively use their natural talents to serve others because they have been trained on how to apply their skills while maintaining a humble, servant-like mindset (YWAM). Another powerful example of successful mission trips are the expeditions that the World Race organization takes part in. The preparatory training and requirements ensure that the racers are confident in their ability to take part in a minimum of nine months of travel through at least six different countries. Such preparation instills in them a mentality of servanthood and rids the racers of ethnocentrism. Both YWAM and the World Race organizations have deep investments in locations around the world that fully trained participants are sent to year-round so that longterm relationships and connections can be established. The combination of extensive crosscultural training and long-term investment has proven to be an effective combination.

While such training may seem tedious and extensive, not only is the overall result more beneficial to those on the receiving end, but to those participating in the trip as well. The focus of mission trips should always be on the benefit of the community being served; however, when trips are executed effectively, both the serving and receiving parties will experience a positive, life-changing outcome. Preparatory cross-cultural training has proven to be extremely important for the results of short-term missions that positively impact those on the trip. Those who have not been a part of such training have often experienced short-term change of heart and impact on their lives as they feel good after returning from an unprepped mission trip. As explained by LeFeber (2011) about unprepped short-term mission trips, “Many who come back energized and excited about their work for God show no lasting growth in discipleship” (p. 48). On the other hand, those who have received proper training tend to show a longer lasting change in their lives.

The tendency for the excitement of helping those in need through mission work to wear off once participants return back to the routines of daily life in America is greater for those who did not receive proper preparation and training. There are countless blogs and stories of people who have 107

returned from their training and outreach trips through YWAM, The World Race, and other similar organizations who express that their experiences have changed their lives. As explained by a participant of YWAM, “YWAM has changed my life, and my experiences in it helped shape me into the person I am today” (A., 2013). There are many accounts in which young adults who have been involved in short-term missions have awakened in them an interest in third world countries and the poor as long-term investments (Van Engen, 2000, p. 20). It is through shortterm mission trips that long-term missionaries are introduced to their passion for long-term mission work. There tends to be a correlation between training preparation and the lasting effect on those involved. Those who have received training preparation for their hearts and minds tend to experience more of a permanent transformation of the heart and mind than those who do not receive such training.

The proper development of cross-cultural skills is imperative when it comes to effective shortterm missions. Much like how a fireman would not jump into a burning building without proper training, equipment, and prepared team members, short-term mission participants should not jump into a foreign culture without proper training, knowledge, and a team that is prepared as well. Cross-cultural training allows participants to apply and adapt their skills to cultures all over the world. Without proper preparation, the appropriate perspective of humility and an nonethnocentric mind is not established before stepping into a foreign culture. If done well, shortterm missions are a blessing to parties on both the sending and receiving end (Schwartz, 2003, p.

33). When executed correctly, short-term mission trips are a door that leads to a world of opportunity for those involved. It is an opportunity for those serving to truly impact the lives of those who are being served, along with the opportunity for those who are serving to be impacted in life-changing ways. It is through short-term missions that hearts for long-term missions are revealed. The investment of time and effort in the cross-cultural training is well worth the lifechanging impacts that will occur, not only the lives of those served, but in the missionary’s life as well.

REFERENCES A. (2013, June 8). YWAM News and Stories: Ashley’s YWAM Journey. Retrieved from https://www.ywam.org/blog/2013/06/08/ashleys-ywam-journey/.

Hanger, R. (2013). No visitor comes empty-handed – Some thoughts on unhealthy dependency. Transformation, 31(1), 21-35. doi:10.1177/0265378813501738 Howell, B. M. (2009). Mission to nowhere: putting short-term missions into context. International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 33(4), 206-211.

LeFeber, S. L. (2011). Outposts in the wilderness: short-term missions and the mission of God. International Congregational Journal, 10(1), 47-59. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com Rickett, D. (2017). Lean on me (Part 1): The problem of dependency. Retrieved from http://www.danielrickett.com

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Schwartz, G. (2003). How short-term missions can go wrong. International Journal of Frontier Missions, 20(4), 27-33. Retrieved from http://www.ijfm.org Simmelink, M. (2015). A deeper mission. America, 213(8), 25-26. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com Tazelaar, G. (2011). Challenges and trends in global healthcare missions. Journal of Christian Nursing, 28(3), 152-157. doi:10.1097/CNJ.0b013e31821da634 “Training Camps.� (n.d.). Retrieved from www.worldrace.org/?tab=about&subtab=training camps Van Engen, J. A. (2000). The cost of short-term missions. The Other Side, 36 (1), 20-23.

YWAM Youth With A Mission worldwide. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ywam.org/.

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The Girl Who Stood Up for Girls’ Right to Education

By Emilie Johannesen The freedom and rights to formal education is considered a given for many people in Western societies, but this is not the norm everywhere. It is fascinating to see how many nations fight for the fundamental problems related to education. As a Westerner, I consider education as a given part of childhood and teenage years; we are obligated to attend school from the age of 6 until we are 19. Even after our mandatory education, society expects that we pursue a higher education, typically an undergraduate degree followed by a graduate degree. Even today, there are millions of people without access to education. According to the article “Right to Education: Situation around the World” published by the Humanium, more than 72 million children are not attending primary school as they should according to general human rights, and 759 million adults are illiterates which prevents them from carrying forward the knowledge they should have to their children. This is because of “persisting inequality and marginalization” especially in countries located in Central- and South-East Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa as illustrated in Figure 1 (Humanium). Globally “[it] is girls who have the least access to education,” and they make up more than half of those who do not have access to or attend school (Humanium).

This paper will explore this issue through the example of Malala Yousafzai, a leading figure within the movement for girls’ right to education. Malala Yousafzai represents the struggle of social injustice in conflict-laden communities and has changed the education strategies in these areas, specifically in Pakistan. In the article “Children’s Right to Education Denied by Thira Vargas,” UNICEF asks “[C]an all children in [Pakistan] exercise their right to go to school?”, and the answer is no. There are, as mentioned above, many who do not attend school due to glitches in their educational system. Vargas explains that by being excluded from a right to education, people lose their rights to self-development as a human being, which, in some cases, also lead to criminal activities.

In the article, “Girls’ Rights – The Issues,” Amy Yee claims that girls’ rights are significantly different in various countries and areas all over the world. She is mainly talking about girls’ education and early marriage, but she also brings up topics like violence, abuse, and laws within different countries, especially developing countries. In the article, Yee highlights some important issues that affect the whole world both directly and indirectly (339). The author’s argument is strong because she uses honest and extreme examples to illustrate an important and relevant topic. She does not hide the facts about women’s issues. Yee’s article discusses the idea of compulsory schools for girls. In some geographic areas, especially in Afghanistan, there is a risk for girls to go to school because of their gender. In the article, Yee discusses an Afghan girl who dresses as a boy on her way to a secret school only for girls to hide the fact that she is a female student. This exemplifies the risk of simply being a girl and draws a picture of what girls in similar cultures have to deal with in everyday life (Yee 341). The article also tells us that by taking an education girls risk being exposed to violence from their classmates, teachers, and others from the community (Yee 342). It is not socially accepted in conflict-laden countries to educate girls: it is expected that girls get married, while boys gets educated so they can support their families economically.

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In modern times, there are many who are working to develop girls’ general rights in the world, but there is especially one girl who has excelled and reached far with her voice and activism: Malala Yousafzai. Malala Yousafzai’s impact in the fight for equality in education for women and children is an important issue today because many girls and children still do not have access to education. Today, gender inequality with regards to education is still present not only in Pakistan, Malala’s home country, but also in other regions of the world. Malala was born on July 12th, 1997, in a city in Swat Valley, Mingora. She is the daughter of Tor Pekai and Ziauddin Yousafzai and has two younger brothers. Malala is named after the greatest heroine of Afghanistan, Malalai of Maiwand.

At a very young age, Malala developed an activism for her and others’ rights within education.

She became an advocate for girls’ rights at the young age of 15; she is a “women’s rights activist and children’s activist” (“Malala Yousafzai”). When Malala grew up, her parents recognized the resemblance between her and her grandparents: vocal like her father’s father, and calm and wise like her mother’s father. She began her work as an advocate for girls’ rights and girl’s education in Pakistan around the age of 11, and it almost cost Malala her life. In 2009, she started blogging for BBC’s Urdu-edition. In this diary, she communicated critical information about living under the Taliban regime in Pakistan’s North-Western Swat Valley. In her article from January 3rd in 2009, “I am afraid,” she writes, I had a terrible dream yesterday with military helicopters and the Taliban. I have had such dreams since the launch of the military operation in Swat. My mother made me breakfast and I went off to school. I was afraid going to school because the Taliban had issued an edict banning all girls from attending schools . . . . On my way from school to home I heard a man saying 'I will kill you'. I hastened my pace and after a while I looked back if the man was still coming behind me. But to my utter relief he was talking on his mobile and must have been threatening someone else over the phone. (“Moving Moments”) In I Am Malala, a book Malala wrote together with the journalist Christina Lamb in 2013, she notes that her mother began her education at the age of six, but she felt lonely being the only girl in school. First she was proud, but she chose to quit after seeing her female friends play and have fun every day. At the end of the year, she convinced herself that there was no point in learning when she was the only female student. When she later married Ziauddin, Malala’s father, she began to regret her decision (Yousafzai and Lamb 40-43). Ziauddin was an intelligent and knowledgeable man, and Tor felt that she could not keep up with him; he founded a school for girls after Tor had encouraged him to do so. Throughout the difficult and early period of school, Ziauddin remained optimistic. He advertised for the school across the valley. It was during this period that Malala was born. Because of her birth, Ziauddin kept fighting to open the school system for girls on an equal basis with boys which would help Malala avoid the experience her mother had with education. Malala grew up in her father’s schoolhouse and came to observe the students and teachers every day (Yousafzai and Lamb 50-58). She would listen to her father’s lectures from the doorframe of the classroom. This marked the beginning of Malala’s fight for girls’ education. At the same time, the terrorist group Al-Qaida bombed the Twin Towers in New York. Malala concludes that nobody in Pakistan could have predicted how September 11th would change life in their part of the world.

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Malala’s incredible story of courage and her book, I Am Malala, have created a moment that is much more than her story. With her own voice and activism, she inspired a movement and change worldwide. The goal and meaning of the book were to reach as many as possible, all around the world, and to make people aware of the difficulty to get access to education for some children. The problem has always been there, but Malala was one of the first “victims” that took the lead and showed the reality of being a girl under the Taliban. Malala Yousafzai did not only want to tell her story, but the story of more than 72 million children in the world that cannot receive an education. International politicians are working to try to transmute Malala’s care into a bigger and wider political issue.

Because of Malala’s activism and advocacy, Malala and her family received death threats from the Taliban. Malala’s father, who is advocating for education like Malala, was “an anti-Taliban activist” (“Malala Yousafzai” par. 13). Because of his engagement in his daughter’s and all the other children’s education, he commenced one of the institutions for learning in the valley (Satyarthi and Kailash). Although Malala was afraid for his safety, she and her family did not feel that the Taliban would hurt children, but they were proven wrong (“Malala Yousafzai” par.

13). On October 9, 2012, Malala was on the bus on her way home from school, when the Taliban attacked her and shot her in her head. They asked the girls which girl was Malala, and all the girls on the bus moved their gaze towards her (“Malala Yousafzai” par. 14). The Taliban knew who Malala was and aimed the gun against Malala; Malala was shot, and her two friends were hurt.

In the article “The Taliban,” Noah Berlatsky explains what the Taliban is and what activities they engage in. The Taliban is an Islamic terrorist group that has control over large parts of Afghanistan; they are led by Mullah Mohammed Omar and have their main base in Kandahar, southwest in Afghanistan. It all started in 1994 with an occupation of the Afghanistan border and defeat of Kandahar (Berlatsky par. 1-3). Television, Internet, photography, and music were illegal during the Taliban leadership in order to control the public’s access to information and communication. The punishments for violation of the law were severe: amputation of hands or even death for women. Berlatsky points out that their goal was to build a pure Islamic regime focusing on a Muslim culture and human freedom. Many felt concern over the Taliban’s antiwomen agenda, which caused lack of freedom in the society. The Taliban government consists of three countries: United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia. In several places throughout the article, I feel that the Taliban contradicts themselves by saying one thing and doing the opposite. For example, they claim to be an anti-drug group while financing their activities by selling drugs such as opium. This is ironic because they labeled themselves as an anti-drug group with strict beliefs. The fact that they are acting against their own words “[underlines] the movement’s poor understanding and interpretation of Islamic law” (Berlatsky). The Taliban does not have any control over their economy; it is “left in the hands of chance and faith” (Berlatsky par. 5). They also claim that they place focus on human freedom while they have an anti-women agenda: this agenda includes a prohibition to work (except in their homes) and obligations to use a burka and a guardian warden of the opposite gender (Berlatsky par. 4). This is an important factor for Malala Yousafzai and many others’ activism. The agenda causes difficulties for access to health and education for women, which is Malala’s main focus. Even the punishment for violation of Taliban’s laws is not equal between women and men: women are often threatened with death, while the worst-case scenario for men is amputation, if they are punished at all.

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Malala’s interests for education have always been there: she conveniently grew up at a school.

As a curious girl, Malala always followed her father around and listened to his conversations.

Her father had, and still has, a big impact on her actions because of his effort of establishing a private low-cost school, which was against the norms in their society. He worked against the government through his learning methods and motivations, which were to motivate and make students creative and smart, something the community schools did not do. Malala’s father has one of the most important impacts on what Malala does for girls’ rights, which makes him a very important person. The fact that Malala moved to England to follow her feelings and still fight for her rights after the attack and the shooting makes her a strong woman, and it tells us how important it is to not give up. In Pakistan, many people do not know the quantity of private education institutions because many of them are not registered. Further, in the article “Malala for Free Schools” James Tooley discusses Jishnu Das, an economist at the World Bank, who highlighted that private educational institutions are now enrolling one-third of all schoolchildren, many of which are attending the low-cost private schools that Malala’s father has developed.

Worldwide, the number of people enrolling in private schools is increasing at a much higher rate than in governmental schools, with the highest rates being in urban areas (up to three fourths of primary school children). According to the article “Malalas School Wars,” James Tooley states that the numbers are likely even higher today. Malala’s actions are not because of the government education and the system, but because she was against the way they were teaching and their motivations for teaching children. Her life story is all about private education and equality.

After the Taliban shot Malala because she was a female student, Malala woke up with several injuries one week after the attack. Her condition was so critical that the military hospital in Peshawar in Pakistan did not have enough resources to treat her well. She had to “receive further care” and was transferred to England, more specifically, Birmingham (“Malala Yousafzai” par.

15). Luckily Malala did not have any major brain injuries. When Malala was in the United Kingdom, she was taken out of the induced coma. In an article Malala wrote for TIME in 2013, she says that the first thing that came to mind when she woke up was “[thank] God I’m not dead” (Yousafzai par. 2). She could not speak because of a tube in her neck, and the eyesight on her left eye was blurry; her ear was bleeding as well as the left part of her body, including her face.

Malala says that a few days after she woke up, the doctors told her that the Taliban had shot her and that the left side of her face was paralyzed (Yousafzai par. 5, 10). All she wanted was to get plastic surgery because of “a facial nerve to fix the paralyzed left side of her face,” but unfortunately nothing could be done (“Malala Yousafzai” par. 16). However, less than one year after the attack, Malala was ready to go to school in Birmingham (“Malala Yousafzai” par. 16).

Because of Malala’s incredible work, she was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 2013, less than one year after the attack. In 2014, she was nominated again and won, becoming “the youngest person to receive the Nobel Peace Prize” (“Malala Yousafzai” par.1). In addition to the Nobel Peace Prize, she has also been awarded several other prizes. In 2013, she won the Sakharov Prize and an honorary degree from Edinburgh University because of her “The Right to Education” campaign. Tooley claims that her campaign is working for “equitable public education” according to the U.K. government. On Malala’s 16th birthday, she posted a speech to BBC about girls’ rights, which the United Nations (UN) describes as “her campaign to ensure 113

free compulsory education for every child” (par. 2). The UN is now using this event to tell the governments around the world to guarantee equal education for girls, boys, women, and men.

Malala is always referring to her “brothers and sisters” in her speeches (Yousafzai, “Malala Yousafzai’s speech”). This is not her biological siblings, but it is her way of expressing that everyone in the same educational situation as her are united in the fight for girls’ rights.

Malala has always been positive and optimistic about her own standings and activism. In her speech for the United Nations in 2013, she points out that it is important to care for other people.

This is even when she and her “brothers and sisters” are struggling in their own difficult situation: “Dear brothers and sisters, we must not forget that millions of people are suffering from poverty, injustice and ignorance. We must not forget that millions of children are out of schools. We must not forget that our sisters and brothers are waiting for a bright peaceful future” (Yousafzai, “Malala Yousafzai’s speech”). This shows what a brave person and advocate Malala is: even though her own situation is difficult, she continues to care for others.

The media plays a major role in shaping perceptions around the world. Reporters are able to present their stories based on how the readers and audience want it. The media in Pakistan have had limited freedom in having only one news channel available and paid for by the government for the last ten years. This often leads to a wrong picture of Pakistan and an erroneous representation of the problems Pakistan suffer from. The media has explored stories about Malala and her courageous campaign after the shooting. These stories, whether truthful or not, have created greater risk for Malala and other girls in similar situations. Although Malala’s voice and attention do not pose any physical threat to the Taliban, her campaign will likely not progress due to the fear of retaliation from the terrorist group. Because of incorrect manufacturing and misunderstandings in media, Pakistani women’s lives are at risk. As a result, the U.S. underestimates the severity of the situation and the help these women need. Whenever the media reports on stories that include Pakistani women in relation to activism, laws, politicians, and education, these stories are often misinterpreted and do not necessarily improve the situation. The women remain fighting for their rights and their lives.

Malala has inspired a whole world to fight for the inequality in education, especially concerning equality related to gender. She is an important voice for young women, who, like her, strive for education. Malala is initiating a global response. In the article “How Should We Respond to Malala?,” Jane Dammen McAuliffe, the president of Bryn Mawr College, a college for girls only, discusses the role of education and how knowledge plays an increasingly part of education inequality (McAuliffe). Malala has had a great impact on bringing a vital issue to our global society and she has taken actions to make a difference. The problem with gender inequality is injustice and it has persisted for too long. Not only will education for girls improve their lives, their families, and future generations’ lives, but also benefit the whole society with more labor, a well-functioning and just society, and interaction and social balance. By educating girls, females will help to develop a better future.

The following changes may prove useful towards gaining education equality: making schools free or affordable, including the needs of girls and women in education policies and plans, gender parity in school enrollment, improved systems so girls can safely be a part of the education system worldwide, and focus on the quality of education and capacity building 114

(UNGEI). These are just a few improvements among other actions that can make education more equal. In the same speech for the UN mentioned above, Malala is ends with a powerful quote: “One child, one teacher, one pen and one book can change the world. Education is the only solution. Education First.” (Yousafzai, “Malala Yousafzai’s speech”). This is a simple explanation of what and how little that is needed to achieve her wish for girls’ right to education.

WORKS CITED Berlatsky, Noah. “The Taliban.” Encyclopedia.com, 2011, www.encyclopedia.com/history/asia-and-africa/central-asian-history/taliban.

Humanium. “Right to Education: Situation around the World,” 11 Nov. 2017, www.humanium.org/en/right-to-education/.

McAuliffe, Jane Dammen. “How Should We Respond to Malala?” The Chronicle of Higher Education, 29 Oct. 2012, www.chronicle.com/article/Responding-to-Malala/135426.

“Malala Yousafzai.” Biography.com, 17 Aug. 2017, www.biography.com/people/malalayousafzai-21362253.

“Moving Moments from Malala’s BBC Diary.” BBC News, 10 Oct. 2014, www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-29565738.

Saryarhi, Kailash and Malala Yousafzai. “Nobelprize.” Malala Yousafzai - Biographical, 2014, www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2014/yousafzai-bio.html.

Tooley, James. “Malala for Free Schools.” The Spectator, 9 November 2013, https://www.spectator.co.uk/2013/11/malalas-school-wars/.

“United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative: Regional Updates." United Nations Girls’ Education Initative, 2007, www.ungei.org/files/UNGEI-BROCHURE.pdf.

Vargas, Tahira. “Children’s Right to Education Denied.” The Right to Education, 2007, www.unicef.org/republicadominicana/english/advocacy_partnerships_15926.htm.

Yee, Amy. “The Issues.” Girls’ Rights, 2015, pp. 339-345.

Yousafzai, Malala and Christina Lamb. I Am Malala. Little, Brown Company, 2013.

Yousafzai, Malala. “Malala Yousafzai: ‘The Day I Woke Up in the Hospital.’” TIME, 17 Oct. 2013, www.time.com/3490769/malala-yousafzai-the-day-i-woke-up-in-the-hospital/.

Yousafzai, Malala. “Malala Yousafzai's speech at the Youth Takeover of the United Nations.”

Their World, 12 July 2013, theirworld.org/explainers/malala-yousafzais-speech-at- theyouth-takeover-of-the-united-nations.

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Figure 1: The map shows the respective percentages by country, of children that are enrolled in schools or have received education (Educating one child at a time).

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Waste & Conscientiousness

By Wilma Oernberg Everything we buy, from food to clothes to new phones to energy, has an impact on the earth.

Our natural resources are limited, and we are overusing them. The rate at which we are currently going is not sustainable, and we are running out of resources. “Sustainable” is defined as the ability to continue a defined behavior indefinitely. We need to close the loop. Waste is all the things we throw away even though they are still usable. Waste is all the materials we do not recycle. Waste is all the energy we spend without any benefit. The amount of waste generated nearly doubled between 1970 and 2000 and continues to grow (United Nations Environment Program and International Solid Waste Association, 2015). Waste is one of the world's biggest issues today. The problem is so huge that I can only give a few examples of the problem and possible solutions to our wasteful practices. Ignorant and inconsiderate consumption in our materialistic culture make us squander resources, creating huge amounts of waste; therefore, people need to be more conscious about the energy, products, and food they consume.

Buying things for our amusement has become a bad habit. We crave what is in fashion and think less about what we actually need. A really unsustainable fashion in Sweden right now is buying an apartment and immediately renovating it. The two-year-old kitchen in your new apartment does not look exactly like what you want, so you rip it out and put in a new one. We renovate for change, not for need. To make this fashion more sustainable, we need to recycle more. You can sell what you remove to someone that needs it. Or even better, buy recycled products from someone else that threw out their new kitchen. In the last 30 years, Europe’s textile consumption has almost doubled. Cotton is among the materials that require most of the earth’s resources to be created and yet only a very small amount is recycled (WWF, 2017).

A large number of people in the world die from hunger and food scarcity today. At the same time, another part of the world is wasting 40 percent of the food they produce. We consumers must plan our purchases better and reduce our food waste. We are buying food that we end up not eating and throw away food that is still edible. However, production and distribution create even more waste. Many vegetables are thrown away due to appearance problems. A large portion of the fish caught is thrown back into the sea because of different quotas. Also, the huge amount of food in modern food stores makes it impossible to predict which products will be sold and which will be wasted. Instead of throwing away something because a label says it is old, we should use our senses. First, look at the food. Does it look different or weird? If not, smell it.

Does it smell odd? If not, do not be scared to taste a bit of it. If it does not taste strange, it is good to eat.

Without realizing it, we use up energy for no purpose. We forget to switch off the lights, fan, or air conditioner when we leave our home, and some might leave the water running when brushing their teeth. We often do not unplug things we are not actively using. For example, the TV uses up large amounts of energy even when on standby because it is still plugged in. This not only uses up the energy as a resource, which has an impact on the environment, but also personally costs us money. This means that, without intentionally using the energy, we end up wasting it.

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Some people live near a grocery store but still drive there to buy milk. Short drives are actually the worst for the environment when calculated per kilometer. Petrol consumption and carbon dioxide emissions are about 35 percent higher within the first 5 kilometers because a cold engine requires a “fatter” fuel mixture (Beckman, 2010). People make these kinds of choices out of habit, but these habits can be easily changed with new infrastructures and information. In other cultures, people walk or ride bicycles to get around and bring wagons when buying more groceries than they can carry. In some cities, like Amsterdam, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, consciousness has led to an increase in the number of cyclists and pedestrians. Most people do not drive cars anymore.

There are a lot of energy waste solutions on the market. If we do not want to go around unplugging all stand-by technology around the house, an easy solution for this is to buy an extension cord with a switch-off button. We can also use presence detectors, which dim the lighting depending on the presence and available daylight. This can reduce consumption of energy for lighting by up to 70 percent (Harvey, 2006).

The best approach to dealing with waste is not to create it. The second best is to give the things we produce a longer life or to reuse them. The third most important thing is to recycle waste materials. We need to review the way we perceive products. Nothing that is already produced is waste; we need to think of products as resources and reuse them instead of buying and using what is not needed. There is more than just monetary value in recycling. Pippi Longstocking once said, “What is rubbish for one is a treasure for another” (Lindgren, 1945).

We need collection mechanisms to be able to recycle more waste. For example, the Nordic countries have Pant recycling, which is a money-back pawn system on PET-bottles and metal cans. The recycling rate is around 90 percent counting both aluminum cans and PET bottles, which comes to an average of 177 packages per person. There are many advantages to returning a can. The best part is that all recycled metal cans will become new cans without any added material. If we just threw it away, it would be wasted and become a burden rather than a resource (Returpack, 2016). Recycling, remaking, and the second-hand market has grown very quickly as awareness continues to grow and gain popularity. In Sweden, the largest second hand website Blocket corresponds to 14 percent of Sweden's GDP. Trade of used stuff continues to grow each year, and more and more people realize how practical it is. Environmental awareness continues to increase and changes our approach to material things and the idea of ownership. Blocket alone potentially saves 0.8 million tons of greenhouse gas annually. This is the equivalent of Stockholm’s road traffic standing still for a year (Blocket, 2017).

Because there is money and goodwill to earn on reducing waste, more companies want to take responsibility. We also have to change the way we measure development. To most developed nations, return on investment is the economic indicator of a profitable investment. What we need to add to this is to act profitably and strengthen companies and organizations by delivering returns for the environment as well: A successful transition towards a pollution free planet requires political leadership, high level champions and commitments, as well as action at the local level. Encouragingly, more governments, industries and citizens are moving towards sustainable materials 118

management and a circular economy, with greater resource efficiency, sustainable chemistry, and clean technologies as part of the transition towards a green economy.

(UNEA, 2017) However, I believe that conscientiousness is key. We need to involve as many as possible as quickly as possible. Consciousness and information will lead people to care about waste, and that will attract more people to contribute and in turn put pressure on businesses and governments to create new better solutions to decrease waste.

REFERENCES Beckman, E. (2018). “Naturskyddsföreningen i Stockholms län,” Naturskyddsföreningen.

Retrieved from stockholmslan.naturskyddsforeningen.se/wpcontent/uploads/sites/ 26/2013/11/Korta_bilresor_-webb.pdf Blocket, A.B. (2017). Stockholm. Retrieved from https://www.blocket.se/omblocket.htm Harvey, D. (2006). Low-energy buildings and district-energy systems. Building Energy Research Group, Department of Construction and Building, City University of Hong Kong.

Lindgren, A. (1945). i

i Longsto king. Rabén & Sjögren, Sweden.

Returpack, A. & Norrköping, B. (2017). Pantamera. Retrieved from pantamera.nu/pantsystem/fakta/burk-pet/ United Nations Environment Assembly of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEA). (2017, September). Towards a Pollution-Free Planet. Retrieved from wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/21800/UNEA_towardspollution_ long%20version_Web.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association (2015).

Global Waste Management Outlook (GWMO). Retrieved from www.unep.org/ietc/sites/unep.org.ietc/files/GWMO_summary_0.pdf World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). (2017, October). Cotton - a waterclocking crop. Retrieved from www.wwf.se/wwfs-arbete/sotvatten/vattenfotavtryck/1128210-bomull-1a-sida

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Factory Farming: The Detrimental Impacts Factory Farms have on Humans and the Environment

By Catherine Wehage The average American eats three to five meals a day; however, most people are unaware of where their food is coming from, especially the animal products and byproducts. One may not initially see any problem with not understanding how food gets from the farm to the table, but there are significant human and environmental impacts. There are many different processes for producing food, and one is factory farming. According to the report by Food and Water Watch, an organization that advocates for a healthier and cleaner future for humans and the environment, factory farms are “operations that had at least 500 beef cattle heads, 500 cows, 1,000 hogs, 100,000 egg laying chickens, or 500,000 broiler chickens sold annually” (“Factory Farm Nation” 2). The products, which are economically friendly, are found in a majority of grocery stores or restaurants. Factory farms are a relatively new method that came to life in the early twentieth century; they became extremely popular in the 1960s and 70s as fast food chains emerged and Americans’ free time started to wane, leaving little time for meal preparation. One may argue this practice is friendly to a consumer’s wallet, part of an easy lifestyle, and compatible with cultures that regard meat as a main protein source. While these points should be acknowledged, they do not consider the potentially negative health effects factory farms have on humans or the equally negative impacts factory farms have on the environment. The negative health and environmental impacts call for alternatives that should be used in order to reduce the harm of factory farms, despite their economic benefits.

The human body requires food to turn into energy, and when satisfied with the proper nutrients, the body will be able to sufficiently do so. However, when the body consumes more meat than fruits and vegetables, the body can start to become deficient in nutrients. This is because meat is harder for the body to digest and does not provide the full array of necessary nutrients for optimum health. Eliza Barclay and Allison Aubrey, nutrition journalists, claim in “Eat Less Meat, We’re Told. But Americans’ Habits are Slow to Change” that the average amount of animal products and byproducts an American consumes, which includes beef, poultry, pork, and dairy, is 270 pounds annually. These products are the number one source of saturated fat and high cholesterol in an American’s diet. Saturated fat and high cholesterol have been linked to health problems, such as high blood pressure, heart problems, an increased weight gain, and stroke. Most meat produced in factory farms is fatty meat, and this is what the majority of the United States is eating. In the “Cholesterol and Heart Disease,” the Physicians Committee, a group of physicians whose background is in nutrition, stated that there are risks of high cholesterol and heart disease from consuming fatty meats, which on average contain 10mg of saturated fat. The Physicians Committee also states total fat consumption matters: Keeping total fat intake low is an important way to lower cholesterol and reduce the risk of other chronic diseases. Many people are surprised to learn that chicken contains as much cholesterol as beef, 25 mg per ounce and every 4-ounce serving of beef or chicken contains 100 mg of cholesterol.

The Physician Committee also suggests a healthy diet should have around 300mg of cholesterol a day. It is evident that many people are unaware of what is going into their body, and this puts 120

them at risk for health problems in the future. Unfortunately, consumers get what they pay for, so if one only wants to pay two dollars for a hamburger, then they will get a hamburger with low nutritional value and have a higher risk for health problems in the future. Nutritional value is dependent on monetary value.

The prior data highlights the health effects of excessive consumption of foods having saturated fats and cholesterol. However, this is only one portion of the problem. Another issue requires a different understanding: what is being given to livestock to satisfy consumer’s nutritional and economic needs? Factory farms are businesses. They are trying to make a profit from their products, so when feeding the animals they give them what they need and more. More in this situation is not better; more is added hormones. Sang-Hee Jeong et al., a toxicologist, has researched the hormones added to animals in the American food industry and how much they receive on a daily basis. According Jeong et al.’s research in “Risk Assessment of Growth Hormones and Antimicrobial Residues in Meat,” animals in feedlots (the part of the factory farm where mass amount of animals are fed) receive growth hormones added to their feed. One steroid used, estradiol, is a growth hormone which increases the animal’s body muscle, and it increases fertility in females (Jeong et al. 2). The factory farms will give male animals a testosterone steroid to increase their ability to help the females fertilize their eggs. When animals receive these hormones, their bodies can double in size, and these hormone additives have been used since the 1950s, especially on chickens (Jeong et al. 3). Consumers have been inadvertently causing this by their purchasing practices. Consumers are accustomed to bigger pieces of meat, so when consumers buy more, producers manufacture the product as quickly, economically, and efficiently as possible. Janet Raloff, an environmental science and toxicology professor, explains the effects added hormones could have on human health in her work “Hormones: Here’s the Beef”: “to enhance the animals’ production of muscle—that is, meat—livestock producers treat 80 percent of all feedlot cattle [and chicken] with steroid hormones” (10). Not only are these hormones in meat, they are in all animal byproducts produced in factory farms.

The problem that surfaces with giving livestock hormones is the potential for humans to become immune to steroids and other added growth supplements such as antibiotics. When people become sick, the medicine they are given will counteract the steroids or antibiotics already in their body, making recovery longer and more difficult. Another problem is the possibility for manure contaminated with steroids to pollute water sources from runoff. Men are greatly affected by this because when steroids such as testosterone are in their water sources, it can cause severe side effects. For example, excess testosterone has been linked to decreased sperm count and can potentially cause prostate cancer. Although it is not as common for women to be affected, when they ingest testosterone it can cause serious effects: the female body starts to adopt male features, such as facial hair, a deeper voice, or changes in muscle definition in the face. While these side effects are rare and do take time to develop, it is a possibility that even more probable when eating steroid-contaminated meat (Jeong et al. 5). These major problems are linked to the few major companies who primarily run the factory farm industry in America.

Factory farming has become an industry, and only four major companies control the majority of meat production and byproducts in the United States: Tyson Foods, Cargill Meat, JBS USA Greeley, and National Beef Packing Co. Out of these four major companies, only thirteen slaughterhouses are used to produce all the products needed to satisfy the U.S. (“Factory Farm 121

Nation” 12). The article “List of Top 19 Factory Farming Pros and Cons” posted on Green Garage, a blog that explains the benefits of these big factory farm industries, describes their economic friendliness. The article suggests that factory farms “save farmers considerable capital, since their farms do not need to put in a huge amount of money to maintain them. Moreover, the methods . . . involve cheaper and faster processes, which again reduce cost” (“List of Top 19 Factory Farming Pros and Cons” 2). Factory farming may be cheaper, but money should not be the number one motive when dealing with the health of Americans and the environment. Food, Inc. a documentary that exposes the food industry creates a common thread between the thirteen major slaughterhouses: how they can get rich. But how does this lack of morality once again affect the health of humans? They all feed their animals the same food: corn. Corn has become a major byproduct in foods from factory farms, such as meats and processed food that include animal byproducts (Food, Inc. 41:26-41:59). There is a problem with feeding corn to domesticated farm animals because their bodies cannot naturally break it down. This has caused the new farming practice of cutting holes into the side of cows’ stomachs and placing the feed directly into the stomach making digestion easier and cheaper for farmers; these animals are herbivores and are used to eating grass. When humans consume the animals or byproducts with high concentrations of corn, it can cause a spike in insulin that wears down the body’s ability to metabolize sugar over time (Food, Inc. 42:23-42:44). Allen Trenkle, a ruminant nutrition expert who was interviewed in Food, Inc., talks about the problems animals have when eating mass amounts of corn: “the animals evolved on grass. There is research done that a high-corn diet results in an E.coli that are acid- resistant and these would be the more harmful strand of E.coli” (Food Inc. 23:37-23:54). The harmful strand of E.coli is a new mutation called E.coli 0157: H7.

This scientific name is to distinguish between another, less harmful strands of E.coli that are mostly found in fruits and vegetables. This mutation happens when cows are fed a corn-based diet and constantly surrounded by hundreds of other cows while living in manure up to their knees. These conditions are still being used and the animals are still being taken and used for meat products.

While the aforementioned problems focus mostly on the effects factory farmed products have on human health, another issue is the impact they have on the environment. Factory farms are one of the main contributors to climate change, but many people are having a hard time noticing this problem arising. There is a common analogy used to describe climate change: if you put a frog into hot water, it will do whatever it can to jump out, but if you put the frog in warm water and keep turning up the temperature little by little, the frog will not jump out until it is being burned.

This is the same for climate change. There has only been slight discomfort to the public, so not much has been done to change anything. Meanwhile, factory farms have been one of the main contributors to climate change since the 1980s and keep contributing even more each time they grow bigger or try to produce even more animals (“Factory Farm Nation” 15). One way factory farms contribute to the changing climate is the amount of energy needed to raise and transport the animal products and byproducts. The study “How Sustainable Agriculture Can Address the Environment and Human Health Harms of Industrial Agriculture” conducted by Leo Horrigan et al., a scientist with the Department of Defense, concluded “the average processed food [animal and animal byproducts] produced in the United States travels 1,300 miles before it reaches consumers” (Horrigan et al. 4). Planes, ships, and trucks are used to transport this meat, and fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are needed to make this transportation possible. When fossil fuels are emitted into the atmosphere, it causes an increase in the global temperature. This rise 122

can be a contributor to the melting of ice caps, creating a rise in sea level, and in the future, making certain parts of land uninhabitable. Factory farms cause twenty percent of global warming (Horrigan et al. 5). There is also a mathematical study by Howard Perlman, a hydrologist who works for The United States Geological Survey (USGS), which found that, in order that to produce one pound of meat, it takes around 441 gallons of water (2). Humans only have access to 1% of potable water; when this water is gone, we do not have other options (Perlman 2). These two problems, while separate, have the same negative impact on the environment.

Even though it some people still believe that humans are not the cause of global warming and that it happens naturally, this is not entirely true. While global warming can come naturally, humans have sped up the process by over-using and over-populating certain regions. In the United States, there has been a spike in deforestation (which clears the land and takes away the soil nutrients so infrastructure can be built). With a population that is increasing drastically comes the need for more food, hence the construction of bigger factory farms and the need for more places to raise and grow food for the animals. An organization called One Green Planet published the article, “5 Ways Factory Farming is Killing the Environment” by Kate Good, which focuses on the main reasons why factory farming is contributing to climate change and argues that deforestation is a primary concern among the emission of fossil fuels. The research stated “in the United States alone, over 260 million acres of forest have been cleared to make room for crop fields, most of which are used to exclusively grow livestock feed” (Good).

Because of all the equipment being used to clear the massive amount of land, carbon is released in the atmosphere as fossil fuels are burned which can potentially increase the rate of global warming by 50%. The toxins stay in the atmosphere for a long time, and will remain even longer if this process continues (Good). This is a concern to humans because an increase in temperature can result in a rise of natural disasters, such as drought and wildfire. These disasters can cause economic damage and end up resulting in a loss of food items, which is bad for human health, the environment, and the economy of the U.S. Factory farming is clearly starting to become less economically friendly and more dangerous to human health and the environment.

While considering the alternatives to the health impact of factory farming, it is also important to acknowledge why this practice is still being used. Factory farms are an easy way to feed mass amounts of people, and many people resort back to meat for an easy way to get protein in their diet. A few of the other options are buying animal products and byproducts at a more humane animal farm, which is the simplest and most cost efficient way. In the article “Meat and Morality: Alternatives to Factory Farming,” philosopher Evelyn Pluhar, a stresses the effect small farms with a more humane practice have on human health and the environment. Pluhar argues that “animals raised in much less stressful conditions would shed fewer pathogens. They would not be pumped with hormones and non-therapeutic doses of antibiotics” (461). This means switching to buying meat locally raised, organic, or grass-fed can improve human health.

Eating animal products not filled with added substances or animals that did not die while in distress (releasing pathogens) will still allow people to get the protein and all the nutrients they need to properly function. Another, more complicated solution is taking on a vegetarian or vegan diet. A vegetarian is a person who does not eat any animal products, but does eat the byproducts, and a vegan does not eat either animals or their byproducts. These diets on average are more costly, but have many health benefits and are better for the environment. Switching to either one 123

of these diets decreases the risk of getting food borne illnesses, while lowering the risk for heart disease (Pluhar 460). These impacts may not seem like a big deal, but even if one person changes their mindset and their eating habits, it can benefit them directly and the health of the environment will start to change.

A human is very small in comparison to the environment, so how can one person implement change? As stated earlier, factory farms have healthy alternatives such as getting meat that is locally raised or eating a diet with the absence of these products. While it is true that one person changing to a vegetarian diet or getting food locally raised will not impact the environment greatly, there is a possibility they will influence others to consider the alternatives, creating a bigger group of people who will not buy as many animal products or byproducts. These alternative diets have been shown to reduce the amount of energy consumed in production and transportation. The organization Global Citizen has a section dedicated to the food and health of American citizens. In the article “9 Ways Veganism Is Helping the Planet” Joe McCarthy explains that simply changing to this diet will result in a healthier environment. McCarthy explains the massive amount of energy needed to produce food when he says, “raising livestock costs a lot of energy. They consume a lot of food that was cultivated on land that could have been put to other use; meat products need to be shipped and refrigerated; and meat takes a long time to process from slaughterhouse to kitchen table.” The amount of energy used to produce one pound of meat is greater than the amount of energy used to fuel planes, trucks, and cars on a yearly basis. To produce more energy is a long process taking months or years, and it can put more fossil fuels into the atmosphere, resulting in higher global temperature and health risks for people. The problems with factory farming are known, but now the alternatives need to be applied.

It is evident that even though factory farms are economically friendly, they still have serious impacts on human and environmental health. The harmful effects of factory farms can be reversed through the aforementioned alternatives. After looking at research by Janet Raloff, which concludes that meat from factory farms does have added hormones and can cause health problems, in addition to the research by the Department of Defense showing there is a raising in sea level from factory farms, it is clear that factory farms have a major impact on humans and the environment and that the problems can become worse in the future. Most of the time, a person chooses the option is appealing financially, especially for food. But there are alternatives still compatible with a person who is on a budget. Compromising the health of oneself and the health of the environment should not be determined by the cheapest and easiest option. One person’s voice and actions can potentially change the minds of many.

WORKS CITED Good, Kate. “5 Ways Factory Farming is Killing the Environment.” One Green Planet, 16 Sept.

2017, www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/factory-farming-is-killing-theenvironment/.

Barclay, Eliza, and Allison Aubrey. “Eat Less Meat, We’re Told. But Americans’ Habits Are Slow To Change.” The Salt: What’s on Your late, NPR, 26 Feb. 2016,

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www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/02/26/465431695/eat-less-meat-were-told-butamericans-habits-are-slow-to-change.

The Physicians Committee. “Cholesterol and Heart Disease.” 22 Jan. 2016, www.pcrm.org/ health/health- topics/cholesterol-and-heart-disease.

“Factory Farm Nation: 2015 Edition.” Food & Water Watch, May 2015, www.foodandwaterwatch.org/sites/default/files/factory-farm-nation-report-may2015.pdf.

Food Inc. Directed by Robert Kenner, Magnolia Home Entertainment, 2009, Netflix, https://www.netflix.com/watch/70108783.

“List of Top 19 Factory Farming Pros and Cons.” Green Garage: The ECO Friendly Blog, 19 Aug. 2015, greengarageblog.org/list-of-top-19-factory-farming-pros-and-cons.

Horrigan, Leo, et al. “How Sustainable Agriculture Can Address the Environment and Human Health Harms of Industrial Agriculture.” Environmental Health Perspectives vol. 110, no. 5, 2002, 445-456, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1240832.

Jeong, Sang-Hee, et al. “Risk Assessment of Growth Hormones and Antimicrobial Residues in Meat.” Toxicological Research, vol. 26, no. 4, 2010, 301-313, doi:10.5487/TR.2010.26.4.301.

McCarthy, Joe. “9 Ways Veganism Is Helping the Planet.” Global Citizen, 15 Aug. 2016, www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/9-reasons-why-veganism-can-save-the-world/.

Perlman, Howard. “How much water does it take to grow a hamburger?” The USGS Water Science School, 2 Dec. 2016, water.usgs.gov/edu/activity-watercontent.html.

Pluhar, Evelyn B. “Meat and Morality: Alternatives to Factory Farming.” Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, vol. 23, no. 5, 2010, 455-468, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10806-009-9226-x.

Raloff, Janet. “Hormones: Here’s the Beef.” Science News, vol. 161, no. 1, 2002, 13-12, www.jstor.org/stable/4013043.

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Beyond Now

By Katelyn Sun June 26, 2016. 10:30pm. I was asleep in my new bed at camp, my first real day over. It wasn’t until the next morning that I saw it: “Teen from Easton partially ejected from a car on Cross Highway” (Burns 1). I didn’t think I would know the teen; I didn’t really mix with the other high school in my town. But the road is what intrigued me. I knew that road; I knew how dangerous and scary it is, and to be completely honest, I wanted to know what part of the road those dumb people were traveling too fast down.

I opened the article on my way to our small cabin kitchen, trying to find my shoes. I scanned the article looking for a picture or a description of the part of the road they crashed on. But instead what stopped my scrolling was the name. I knew that name: Jack. I walked to classes with him.

We joked together in our tight knit advisory group. We said hi to each other in the hallway.

To this day he does not hold anything against the driver of the car. He came to school two months later, wheeling his way down the halls on our first day of senior year. He still smiled at me in advisory.

I would do anything to give him his legs back.

For months I would follow his Facebook page, looking at all the photos and videos of him in physical therapy, watching him walk with some oversized machine. He is trying stem cell treatment now, somewhere in Panama, but it doesn’t change the fact that his spinal cord was severed. But what if there was a way? What if there was a new treatment that would repair his spinal cord, one that would work to get him his mobility back?

Two doctors have been working on a head transplant. Doctor Xiaoping Ren and Doctor Sergio Canavero’s main problem is figuring out how to fuse the spinal cord of the donor head and donor body together. But there are more than the medical issues here, including ethics and legal problems.

Ren and Canavero need to think of what will happen down the road, years and years after the transplant. Other scholars are wholly against the transplant, arguing that there are people’s lives at stake. What needs to be addressed before the transplant is what will happen to the new person’s psyche, what problems they could have, and what this procedure could do for the medical field. The transplant should not happen until these questions are answered, but this doesn’t mean the transplant should never happen. Ren and Canavero, though, want to go through with the procedure without answering these questions, and they are heading towards trouble.

Many other scholars don’t even think of these issues before arguing against the transplant, which is also problematic. Professors Joshua Cuoco and John Davy, in their study titled “Operation Frankenstein: Ethical Reflections of Human Head Transplantation,” argue that we should look at some of the unanswered questions. They don’t call for any action even though they should say the transplant should take place after the questions are answered. While Cuoco and Davy’s questions are a good place to start, the medical field needs to go beyond that.

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Even though we could do miraculous things with this transplant, doctors still need to think about the resulting patient. Professor Assya Pascalev and others, in their publication “Head Transplants, Personal Identity and Neuroethics,” claim the resulting person would be a completely new one. This new person would be “partly continuous with the head/brain . . . and partly continuous with the body donor,” but not a combination of the two (1). Davy and Cuoco, however, claim they “will consider the head as the definition of human identification” because they don’t want to argue about that aspect of the transplant (2). This shows the insane amount of guesswork and uncertainty within the community. No one has a definitive answer for the basic question, just theories and avoidance.

But if we just look at Pascalev’s claim, this new person would have different memories and thoughts and abilities and therefore would identify themselves as someone else. This complicates the post-transplant predictions (Pascalev et al. 1). Would the resulting person still have muscle memory of the old body? What about phantom limb pain?

Phantom limb pain, or PLP, is the “burning, stabbing, shooting, aching, and/or throbbing pain” felt in an amputated limb (Conroy 3). People in the medical field don’t exactly know what causes PLP, whether it is neurons or psychological factors. Undergraduate student Meredith Conroy at Sacred Heart University brings up the research done on PLP in her essay “Phantom Limb Pain: It’s Not ‘All in my Mind, it’s in my Neurons!’” She compiles data from a plethora of different researchers in the psychological and neurological fields. She found the main cause for PLP was neurological changes caused by the amputation. The brain’s plasticity allows PLP to affect some but not all, and those affected have immense pain, reminding them of what they used to have.

Head transplantees are going to be at risk for PLP, as the head is losing everything connected to it.

In addition to the physical pain, amputees with PLP have been found to have “higher levels of anxiety and depression” (Conroy 12). Researchers have found this is because amputees have a hard time adjusting to their situation, and they need more help from others than usual, which can be frustrating and humiliating (Conroy 12-13). These problems need to have solutions before the transplant. If they don’t, there is a very large chance for physical pain and mental suffering that could have been prevented.

Amputees struggle with these mental illnesses every day. They are constantly reminded of what they no longer have and how much their lives have changed. Amputees have to relearn basic functions to live on their own. The head transplant person has to learn how to act with a new body, and even though they identify as a new and different person, the neurons might be overactive.

As an amputee, this new patient will likely suffer from mental illnesses. But because this procedure is also complicating an already complex relationship between the body and brain, there is more risk for mental illness. Between these two factors, the chances of this new person becoming diagnosed with a mental illness are almost certain.

Cuoco and Davy argue there will be psychological problems “adjusting to the new body provided to them” in addition to the physical problems (2). And because there is no way to know 127

how the transplant will affect each individual person—and more importantly, no way to test this—I say the psychological factors must be taken into consideration when looking at post treatment care. Cuoco and Davy, and Conroy, point out that psychological problems are likely to occur but don’t call for research. There needs to be research done. There aren’t enough studies and articles looking at these problems and the upcoming head transplant. Valery Spiridonov agreed to give his body to science to transplant his head, but has anyone told him about the potential physical and psychological problems?

In the chapter “Transplant Recipients’ Quality of Life” by professor of philosophy Charles Hinkley II, the medical aspect of the post-treatment care field is very good but overlooks some of the psychological risks. Some post-treatment care “make[s] judgements based upon a single questionnaire or post-transplant interview,” which Hinkley claims is not adequate (70). As already stated, depression and anxiety may surface later after the one interview. The posttreatment field must be improved before such a high risk procedure like a head transplant is performed. In addition to being an amputee, a completely new person with a new complicated head/body relationship, transplantees have high risks for psychological issues that arise in posttreatment care. This evidence would be enough for a lot of scholars to say, as they already have, not to go along with the transplant. But no one calls for any solutions to be found. These issues need to be addressed and solved, not merely pointed out by Cuoco and Davy.

Doctor Xiaoping Ren points out, in an article for Surgical Neurology International, that another issue is this procedure “opens a Pandora’s box of medical failures” but provides no solutions (2).

He even claims there needs to be more research done, but gives no specifics, just that they don’t even know all of the short and long term implications of the procedure.

One of those implications is reproduction. Cuoco and Davy remind us “the donor head can never truly reproduce” (2). Some would argue it is unethical to allow the new person to reproduce. But no one offers any solutions or calls on the legal or medical community to find any. I call for the community to make reproduction into a category of a contract before the surgery. The legal system needs to question, debate, and create rules and agreements between the families. It needs to be discussed with both donors and their families—if a child is produced by this new person, what rights do the families have? No one is bringing this issue to any lawyers either.

Some might think I’m crazy, but I would want the new person to reproduce.

If we are trying to make fully functioning “better” humans, then they would need to be able to pass on their genes. That is the ultimate evolutionary goal, the most primitive goal we have: stay alive long enough to pass on our genes. We need to know if the procedure would affect the offspring. Would there be complications? The first patient is a male, but what if there is a female head transplant? We need to look past the transplantee and their potential children; we need to do more than just point it out. Cuoco and Davy provide a great start by, bringing up some ideas most people wouldn’t have thought of. But instead of creating an opinion on just the idea of the transplant, we should create our opinions based off the solutions. Someone needs to pose or call for solutions before the procedure is dismissed altogether.

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I had a friend named Nick, who I helped in my school’s special education program. He was a sweet kid, and when I met him he had just finished rebuilding his immune system after his third battle with cancer. He beat a rare type of blood cancer, but he still came back to school our junior year. The beginning of our senior year, we found out his cancer came back. As a school we did countless fundraisers, selling red shirts with “Team Nick” on it. He went into remission just before graduation. We all thought that was the end. Even though he wouldn’t be walking down with us at graduation, we all were relieved he didn’t have cancer anymore.

I went to camp, and after my first week of Scouts there, I read my friend’s post on Facebook. It was dedicated to Nick, and at the end was the phrase “hakuna matata” with photos of her and Nick. I stood in the kitchen of my cabin—almost a year to the date of Jack’s crash—as a frantically searched for more information.

I later learned his kidneys failed him. Even after all the strength he showed in his treatment, all of the smiles he had before and after, his body still failed him. Cancer still got him.

I took off work to go to the wake. I could see the effect he had on all of the people in the room, those coming and going, those staying, lingering.

If something goes wrong with this head transplant, there will be just as many people in the room.

There will be a hundred people whose lives are affected by the outcome. We are an interconnected species, and we need to remember whatever happens to the new person, whether they live or die, or even develop a psychological illness, there will be a ripple effect. This is an aspect I have not seen in the articles and studies about the transplant. Cuoco and Davy don’t even mention this. I would be guilty of the same thing if I don’t say we need to not only take the families into consideration, but we also need studies. We need legal documents that say families can sue for the heartbreak that could happen if the transplantee dies. Recognizing this problem is good, but action needs to be taken. We need to look at all of the proposed solutions before judging the procedure.

Some people have argued this procedure shouldn’t be done because it hasn’t worked on animals yet. The animals that have undergone the transplant only lived for a few hours with limited abilities. But Cuoco and Davy state that the “transplantation may exhibit a plethora of unknowns that may not be . . . addressed . . . with the animal model” (2). While this is true, humans are different than other animals; we are vastly different from the rats and the chickens that were experimented on, so there is no real way of knowing if this will work on a human unless we try.

Cuoco and Davy hint at this; they are the only scholars to say that animals can’t predict this human procedure. We shouldn’t say no to the procedure forever just because it doesn’t work on animals. There are still potential benefits from this head transplant.

Hopefully, by the time we do try this procedure, we have figured out solutions to the problems mentioned by Cuoco and Davy in addition to the concerns listed by science correspondent Erin Brodwin in her Business Insider article “In 2017, a surgeon wants to perform the world's first head transplant—here are his biggest obstacles.” Brodwin lists the problems as keeping the head alive, preparing and “coaxing” the immune system, fusing the spinal cords, and completing the

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whole surgery in under an hour (1-3). Unlike Cuoco and Davy, Brodwin’s list is strictly medical problems without solutions, not psychological and other problems without solutions.

According to Brodwin, keeping the head alive is essential, and for good reason. Besides the obvious fact the head is completely necessary to finish the surgery, any organ starts to die once it is disconnected from the rest of the body. We have found a solution for other organs: keeping the organ in a cold saline solution (Brodwin 2). This won’t work for heads because they house too many complex organs to keep cold for that long. But when we find a way to keep the head alive, we can use the same methods to keep other organs alive for longer. There wouldn’t be as much pressure and risk transporting organs before time runs out. We might then be able to save more organs for longer, giving hope for people in need. This is a huge benefit for people who aren’t getting their heads transplanted. The effect on the medical community is too large to ignore.

Someone needs to propose a solution or pressure the medical community to find a solution. The transplant should, then, take place as a test of the solutions. As unsympathetic as it sounds, there is no way to know until we try. Valery already agreed to try, so we should take advantage of that.

We don’t want to waste this opportunity by not having a plan going into the transplant.

Besides head death, the immune system is a major obstacle for this procedure. Brodwin claims the risk of rejection is much higher with the head transplant compared to any other organ (2).

The complexity of the head and all of the organs it houses increases the factors for rejection (Brodwin 2). This is why Cuoco and Davy call this procedure a “last resort,” as the odds aren’t in the transplant’s favor (1). But if the medical field can “convince” the immune system the new head is okay, maybe by creating more powerful procedures or immune system suppressants, it wouldn’t be a far leap to using those procedures and drugs for common transplants. If it can be perfected to be used on a complicated organ—like the head—then it might work on simple organs dramatically decreasing the number of organ rejections. But again, with no solutions posed, we don’t want to waste Valery’s head by doing this transplant now. Waiting until there is a solution would maximize his sacrifice.

Before the immune system even needs “coaxing,” the spinal cords need to be fused. Fusing spinal cords had been tried in the 1930s and 40s when experimental surgeons tried using a type of plastic called “polyethylene glycol” (Brodwin 3). They weren’t trying to replace a head, but the science behind the glue is there. If this glue works on spinal cords, the patient would have to stay in a coma for over two months to give the spinal cords time to fuse. While the coma brings a whole new set of problems, the glue could be the key to fusing spinal cords which are severed by different events. This is also one of the few solutions posed by scholars.

This could be the key for Jack. He might be able to regain his legs and movement. This glue could be used for other people too, like those who are fully paralyzed, or have been severely injured in accidents.

Professor Margaret Somerville in her article titled “Human Head Transplants: Possibly Possible, Certainly Repugnant” for The Stream, cites an interview of Dr. Sergio Canavero by Barry Morgan of CJAD 800 Montreal Radio. In the interview, Dr. Canavero states “when the spinal cord of a rat is cut, rather than crushed as in accidents, it could reconnect and function again” (2).

Dr. Canavero gives no proof or explanation for this claim, and he cites no science experiments or 130

studies. The leap from cut to crushed isn’t far, and, if there is the ability to fix cuts, there is hope for crushed spinal cords. The head transplant should take place as the testing subject for this glue. This is a definitive solution we can test with this transplant, a test that, if successful, many people would benefit from.

The final point made by Brodwin is the procedure needs to be done in under an hour. In other experiments conducted by Dr. Robert White in the 1970s and in papers written by Canavero himself, both doctors claim the whole transplant would need to be done in under an hour in order to “keep alive to the circulatory system of the donor’s body” (Brodwin 2). The doctors and nurses performing the surgery would have to perfect their tasks and create systems which would keep the body functioning and alive for the hour needed. No one seems to have thought about how this will be done in an hour; as new methods need to be made, the solution can’t be getting more people hovering over the transplant.

If this surgery can be completed in under an hour, this would set new standards for every other surgery, especially transplants. New procedures for the head transplant could be used to speed up other transplants, decreasing the amount of time patients are in surgery. This is good for everyone involved; OR rooms will open faster, leaving fewer risks for patients put under anesthesia. We need to see that it works though, and the head transplant would test all of it provided solutions are found.

These procedures could save people, and these solutions could affect hundreds of patients, their families, and all of the people they touch. We don’t realize how many people are in the ripple, and no one has bothered to ask.

After appearing at the wake, I drove straight back to camp. I couldn’t be around all those people.

The room was packed and had an eerie feeling. It was too quiet. Nick wouldn’t want it to be that quiet; he always wanted to make people happy and laugh and dance with him. So I drove back to camp and snuck my way back into friendship fires. Scouts were singing and laughing and eating way too much junk food, but they were happy. I wasn’t really thinking about the Scouts when I was singing the songs though. I was thinking of Nick. This is where he would want to be. This is what he would want his family and friends to be doing, having a good time, making other people happy.

I didn’t stay at the wake to see how many people Nick touched. Honestly, I don’t want to know.

But with this transplant we need to know. We need to ask and research so we can be prepared.

We need to propose a solution before the problem occurs.

Even though there are plenty of unanswered questions that should prevent this procedure from happening, people can still benefit from it when we find some of the solutions. There are some kinks which need to be understood: what the rights are of the families; what will happen if there are children; if there is impact on family members, should they be able to legally press charges?

It is important that someone ask these questions and push for solutions. Years after the surgery, hundreds of people could be saved by the technology and techniques developed. Hundreds of people could be saved with the spinal cord glue or the faster operation time or the improved 131

methods for helping immune systems accept life-saving organs. There is no reason to dismiss the surgery the way many scholars and doctors already have. Cuoco and Davy and Brodwin have started to bring to light problems that need to be addressed, but no one is asking for solutions.

There will be more positive long term effects of this surgery once these solutions have been created.

We need to withhold judgment and instead call for solutions, because then we wouldn’t have to ask, “[H]ow many individuals may die with one less donor to provide them with a heart, lung, kidney, et cetera?” (Cuoco and Davy 2) I want them both to live.

But right now we choose one, and the other dies.

If we wait until all of these questions are answered then we wouldn’t have to choose. The solutions that will continue to be perfected with every head transplant would save so many more people than that one donated body would. But, until then we need to ask these questions, even if the scholars are dismissing the procedure before the questions are asked. Until there are solutions proposed for the mental health of the patient, post-treatment care, and implications of new methods, we need to do more than point out problems. We need to push for solutions, then decide if the procedure should happen.

Jack might have a chance at walking. Nick’s head could have been transplanted to a healthy, non-cancerous body. But, at the same time, there could be a huge negative ripple effect on the patient’s family. There isn’t enough information to know if this procedure is worth the cost, or if the implications are much bigger than Spiridonov or Nick or Jack. We won’t know until we ask.

WORKS CITED Burns, Christopher. “Easton teen partially ejected from car during Cross Highway accident.” The Redding Pilot, 27 June 2016.

Brodwin, Erin. “In 2017, a surgeon wants to perform the world's first head transplant—here are his biggest obstacles.” Business Insider, 27 Apr. 2015.

Conroy, Meredith. “Phantom Limb Pain: It’s Not ‘All in my Mind, it’s in my Neurons!’”

Biology Undergraduate Publications, 17 Apr. 2017, digitalcommons.sacredheart.edu/cgi/viewcont ent.cgi?article=1002&context=bio_sp.

Cuoco, Joshua A, and John R Davy. “Operation Frankenstein: Ethical Reflections of Human Head Transplantation.” Insights in Neurosurgery, vol. 1, no. 2, 4 Apr. 2016, doi:10.21767 /2471-9633.10009.

Hinkley, Charles. “Transplant Recipients' Quality of Life.” Moral Conflicts of Organ Retrieval, Editions Rodopi B.V. Amsterdam, 2005, pp. 69–75.

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Pascalev, Assya, et al. “Head Transplants, Personal Identity and Neuroethics.” Neuroethics, vol.

9, no. 1, April 2016.

Ren, Xiaoping, and Sergio Canavero. “Human Head Transplantation. Where do we stand and a call to arms.” Surgical Neurology International, 28 Jan. 2016, doi:10.4104/2152-7806.17 5074.

Somerville, Margaret. “Human Head Transplants: Possibly Possible, Certainly Repugnant.” The Stream, 24 May 2016.

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MEET THE WRITERS Hanako Adachi is originally from Tokyo, Japan. Her major is Business Administration. She really enjoys working in the hospitality industry, so she is focusing on Hospitality and Tourism Management at HPU. She likes to live in Hawai‘i because she has access to any kind of cuisines from all over the world.

Cherlyn Kay Alejandro is originally from San Francisco, California. She is a Computer Science major, and in the future she wishes to work for a tech company based around the gaming industry. Her favorite things about living in Hawai‘i are all the different beaches, hikes, and sights to see.

Cherisse Alexander is originally from Utah but has roots in Peru and considers both places her home. Her major is History, but her goal is to become a pilot someday, as she is also pursuing a pilot’s license. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is the sunny weather and the people that make this place so wonderful.

Raena Anderson is originally from Oahu, Hawai‘i. She is working on a Bachelor of Science in Nursing, and her goal is to become a nurse. Her favorite thing about attending HPU is the small intimate classes.

Mikaila Beeler is originally from Southern California. She is currently majoring in marketing; however, she plans to switch to graphic design and wants to become well known in the design industry. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is all the species of birds.

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Kale‘a Broker is originally from Pendleton, Oregon. She is currently undecided for her major, but wants to focus on International Studies and Journalism. Her goal is to travel around the world, meet new people, and write about her experiences along the way. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is the rainbows.

Lyka Mae Corotan was born in the Philippines, but was raised on the island of Oahu. She is currently a Finance major hoping to one day work in the financial aspect of the tourism industry. She also wants to open her own bakery or restaurant. Living in Hawai‘i isn’t the easiest, but it is the community and the people that make the difference. The great feeling of love, care, and welcome, or as we call it “the Aloha Spirit” that people show, is truly astonishing.

Katherine Felix is originally from San Bernardino, California. She majors in Marine Biology, but she is not too sure about her career plans. She would like to work for an aquarium, but still has some time to think about it. Her favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is the beautiful beaches. Her favorite thing about attending HPU is that it is the ideal place to study marine biology, and you can do your homework on the beach.

Samantha Guyer is originally from Tucson, Arizona. Her major is Elementary Education, and her future goals are to teach 4th grade or teach English to speakers of other languages. Her favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is that there are the breathtaking views.

Ashley Iseri is originally from Cerritos, California. She is majoring in Biology with a concentration in Human and Health Sciences, and her career goal is to become an optometrist. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is that her family lives here.

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Emilie Johannesen is originally from Norway. She is majoring in International Business, and her ultimate goal is to become a leader in an international business and travel around the world to learn from different countries and cultures while working. Her favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is the beautiful nature and all the active and fun things to do.

Ciarra Kirby is originally from Jacksonville, Florida, but she has lived in many places that she calls home, including Hawai‘i. She is majoring in Psychology and Public Health and plans to become a counselor who contributes to the community by helping those with mental health needs.

Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is the people.

Kyle de Leon is originally from Southern California but considers Oahu his home; he currently lives in Hawai‘i Kai. He is majoring in General Biology and plans to attend a four-year optometry school after his undergraduate studies. The close-knit nature of HPU has helped him make lots of meaningful connections with members of the community.

Leee Miyahira is originally from Oahu. Her major is in accounting, and she wants to be a CPA in the future. Her favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is that you can learn about and experience the different cultures on this wonderful island.

Katarina Mueller is originally from Germany but grew up in Colorado.

Her major is Psychology, and she wants to profile criminals. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is that Jay Alvarrez lives on the North Shore.

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Dori Nakayama has lived on Oahu her entire life. She is majoring in Communication Studies and minoring in Journalism. Her goal is to become a writer or photojournalist. Her favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is enjoying a poke bowl at the beach.

Wilma Oernberg is originally from Sweden. She is majoring in Environmental Studies with a minor in Economics, and her goal is start a company or to work for one where she can have the greatest impact on the environment. Her favorite things about living in Hawai‘i are the active lifestyle, the beauty of the mountains, the ocean, the people, the sunsets, the waves, the rainbows, the whales . . . .

Katriina Rinter-Jouppi [not pictured] is a Hawai‘i Pacific University student.

Joseph Roberts is originally from Indiana. He is studying Biology, and his career path is still up in the air. However, he would love to end up doing some sort of research that benefits people with severe diseases. His favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is the scenery, and his favorite thing about attending HPU is how easy it is to make connections with the faculty.

Jacqueline Santos is originally from Los Angeles, California. She is majoring in Business Administration, and her goal is to own a business.

Her favorite things about living in Hawai‘i are the mountain views and sunsets.

Katelyn Sun is from a small town in Connecticut. She is majoring in Criminal Justice and hopes to join the Honolulu Police Department when she graduates. Her favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is the weather and the people.

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Rosamaria Torres [not pictured] is a Hawai‘i Pacific University student.

Sydney Weeks is originally from Kentucky. She is majoring in Bio/PreMed, and her goal is to become an Optometrist and become a Medical Missionary. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is exploring the beautiful hikes and beaches.

Catherine Wehage is originally from Bel Air, Maryland. She is studying Environmental Science, and her goal is to become a sustainability manager and focus on new ways to use renewable energy. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is the amazing hikes.

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MEET THE EDITORS

from left to right

Dr. Christy Williams is an Assistant Professor of English. She teaches courses in Modernism, fantasy literature, fairy tales, video games, television studies, and first-year composition. She writes primarily about 20th- and 21st-century fairy tales. Dr. Williams is originally from East Tennessee. Her favorite thing about HPU is the students’ wide range of experiences, backgrounds, and talents.

Nyna Dies is an Iowan at heart, but currently resides on Ford Island with her husband. She is majoring in English and minoring in Writing with plans to go to graduate school, either to teach or to pursue a career in publishing. She loves the variety of languages and cultures that can be found in Hawai‘i, and the food.

Kylie Cummings is a senior from Kapolei, Hawai‘i majoring in English and minoring in Japanese. She is working towards becoming a lawyer but is also considering teaching or getting involved in politics. She is very interested in local issues and is passionate about Hawaiian history and music.

Jun Dennis Sadang was born in the Philippines, but grew up on Hawai‘i and currently resides in Ewa Beach. He is an English major with minors in Japanese, writing, and gender and women’s studies. He might go to graduate school in the future, or he might go into publishing—he’s not sure yet. He loves to sit on the bus for one to two hours, enjoying the Hawai‘i traffic, and also loves to talk Pidgin with his friends.

Julie Flores is originally from Los Angeles, California and has been in Hawai‘i for three years.

She is majoring in English and Psychology and minoring in Film Studies and Gender and Women’s Studies, and she hopes to become an English Professor. She has enjoyed learning about the various components that make up the Hawaiian culture including the history, customs, traditions, and practices.

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Dr. David Falgout is a Writing Lecturer. Originally from New Orleans, he has enjoyed teaching First-Year Writing courses at HPU for over 14 years. He has also taught courses in Philosophy, Religion, and Classics at HPU and at other universities. His research interests are in composition theory, pedagogy of literacy and argument, in Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic religion and philosophy, and in intersections involving aesthetics, philosophy of religion, hermeneutics, and methodology in the study of religion.

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