Fresh perspectives vol 10 Spring 2017

Volume 10: Essays selected from Spring 2017 HPU First-Year Writing Courses

TABLE OF CONTENTS EDITORS’ WELCOME .................................................................................................. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. 3 APPRECIATING URBAN ART ..................................................................................... 4 Be A Hummingbird............................................................................................................. 5 Tori Skees Beat and Slam: Two Different Yet Related Arts ................................................................ 7 Ian Lactaoen Graffiti: Art of the Streets ................................................................................................. 15 Kianna Bagdon Does Hip-Hop Create Harmony or Harm for Black Women? .......................................... 21 Ella Willbrand RETHINKING THE WORLD ...................................................................................... 28 False Advertising, False Conception of Sweetness .......................................................... 29 Suchanya Niyomkitjakarnkul Thorough Analysis of the Great Recession and Assessment of the Dodd-Frank Act ...... 39 Jasper Jay Marcelo The Relationship Between Coastal Bound Communities and Coral Reefs ...................... 51 Isabella Andersson ADVOCATING FOR CHANGE ................................................................................... 58 Homelessness in Hawai‘i .................................................................................................. 59 Miki Tanimura The Effects of Marijuana Legalization in Colorado and Washington .............................. 65 Filip Soban A Meeting with the World ................................................................................................ 69 Christopher Williams MEET THE WRITERS ................................................................................................ 73 MEET THE EDITORS ................................................................................................. 75

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EDITORS’ WELCOME We are pleased to introduce our tenth issue of Fresh Perspectives. Once again, we solicited essays from our first-year writing courses, covering a range of topics and approaches. Because these writers are relatively new to the academy, we do not expect disciplinary mastery. Our goal is to provide a venue for dissemination of ideas by our first-year students, who may still be learning the nuances of academic discourse yet who have compelling things to say and who offer, in the words of our title, “fresh perspectives.” Promising student essays were nominated by the students’ instructors and underwent a full editorial process by our interns. You will notice a wide range of views here, some of them perhaps contradictory; these pieces represent the opinions of the writers alone and are not necessarily endorsed (nor denounced) by HPU, the College of Liberal Arts, the Department of English and Applied Linguistics, or the editors.

Rather than selecting pieces that toe any particular “party line,” we have attempted—in the spirit of academic freedom—to present a range of perspectives, some of which may be proactive. This is fitting for a first-year writing program that emphasizes argumentation. Whether you agree, disagree, or have a complex reaction, we hope you will enjoy hearing from the newest members of our HPU ohana!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editors and contributors would like to acknowledge the support of the following people: Allison Gough, Dean, College of Liberal Arts William Potter, Associate Dean, College of Liberal Arts Joan Ishaque, Assistant to the Dean Mikael Ladegaard, HPU Web Services Christy Williams, Faculty Editor Julie Flores, Editorial Intern Jun Dennis Sadang, Editorial Intern Kylie Cummings, Editorial Intern Lorraine Jimenez, Graphic Design Nominating Instructors: David Falgout Deborah Ross Mark Tjarks Christy Williams

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Be a Hummingbird

By Tori Skees My grandpa taught me a lot of things. He taught me how to laugh with his old-man jokes. He taught me how to have manners when my cousins, sister, and I stood in the driveway, yelling, “Please car, start!” at the van. With the electronic key that he hid in his pocket, the engine “magically” started only after we said, “Please?!” He taught me how to have self-confidence when he would sing, “You are BEEEEE-utiful!” every time I walked in the room. He taught me dedication and how to take care of those you love when my grandma was diagnosed with breast cancer. He kept her—and us—smiling all the way through, until finally she won her fight. I remember that one; I was in middle school. But most importantly, he taught me how to be happy and enjoy the smallest things because life is simply too short to do so otherwise.

He was the hardest working man I’d ever known. He was a sailor, a salesman, a fireman, a garbage man, a landscaper, a floor layer, and a small business owner, and he went on to work for the Richmond Highway Department. Following this, he did factory work and other odd jobs to support his wife and four kids. He didn’t have much to show for it but callused hands, strong character, and a heart full of unconditional love for his family that never had an ending even after his life did. He passed all of these traits onto his children and grandchildren as they grew up watching him support his family.

I was a senior in high school; it was early October of 2014 when my grandpa was diagnosed with stage 4 cancer. He was given six months, but I was praying to God to keep my grandpa around until he could at least watch me graduate in May. He had surgery, and it was going well. We had a lot of hope until the week of October 27. I don’t pray anymore.

I watched as he was admitted into the hospital. I watched as the tumors took his body away from him and as the chemo took his energy and immune system. I watched with hope after he was released and sent home and then with complete shock and devastation as he was admitted into hospice just days later. I watched him sleep. Then I watched him rest. With the people he loved most standing at his side holding his hands, he took his last breath. I will never forget. I was sixteen.

I also watched the smile he had always worn on his wrinkled face stay exactly where it always had been. I listened to him tell the same old-man jokes, just a little quieter. I felt the love I had always received and returned a million times stronger.

My dad always said, “You can either be a hummingbird or a buzzard.” This has been in the back of my mind my entire life. Hummingbirds and buzzards fly over the same land—at least in Kentucky. The buzzard is black, ugly, and feeds on death and decay; the hummingbird is the exact opposite. They’re colorful and feed on the life and positivity of others. While they fly over the same land and experience the same things, they both find what they’re looking for. “Choose to be the hummingbird,” my dad would say. “Look for the flowers.” This is what I live by. But when my grandpa died, it was hard to be a hummingbird. He was the first person I had lost, and I didn’t know how to handle it. One of the most influential men in my life was suddenly gone. He was always so happy, and I was truly blessed to have him in my life.

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I wanted to remember my grandpa and express the relationship we had in my own personal way.

I knew almost immediately that my first tattoo, the most important decision I would personally ever make because I’m an artist, had to be in remembrance of him. It would be a memorial piece for this wonderful man that helped mold me into who I am. Only about three days after my grandpa’s death, my twin sister, my cousin, and I came to the conclusion to get matching tattoos because of the bond we shared collectively with our grandfather. Coincidentally, my grandma and grandpa had a mutual love for hummingbirds that was completely unrelated to my dad’s outlook on life; to choose anything other than this tiny beautiful creature made no sense. We carefully searched through the different designs we could use and the colors we could incorporate. We decided to get them on our backs to illustrate that he was always watching over us. I like to tell people that it’s funny—he loved hummingbirds but hated tattoos. This was the sense of humor we were raised with, kind of a “what are you gonna do about it!?” attitude.

When we came to an agreed style, placement, and parlor to get them done, we left immediately. I walked into the parlor with my sister, my cousin, my mom, and my aunt with mutual excitement and curiosity. My sister and I were getting ours done, but my aunt wouldn’t let my cousin get one yet—she’d have to wait another year. Our entrance was greeted with paintings on the walls, artists’ stations—there were four of them, I think—and people who were there for the same reason we were: to have their stories told. We were overcome with the scents of latex and green soap, which is the liquid sanitizer they use to clean the skin.

I went first. I waited in anticipation as I laid down on the bench. It felt cold and uncomfortable, but the cool leather was somewhat relaxing. When the artist started, I closed my eyes and went into my own world. The outlining process didn’t hurt much. But when he started filling in with the pigment, I thought he was actually cutting my skin off with a scalpel. It was the most physically painful thing I’d ever felt. I couldn’t decide which was louder, the music they were playing through the surround sound or all the tattoo machines buzzing as the artists did their work. It was nice. The music kept my mind off the pain, but the quiet, consistent buzzing sound kept me calm. Then it was over, and, all of a sudden, there was a bird on my shoulder.

It’s blue and green with the exception of the little red belly. He faces inwards towards my spine, wings spread flying up. It is absolutely perfect. The colors the artist used and the way he blended them was BEEEEE-utiful. Somehow this process expressed how I felt. The physical process of being permanently scarred represented the pain I dealt with going through the stages of grief.

The finished product represented the person I had become after accepting his death. It made me stronger and more beautiful.

There has never been a moment where I’ve regretted this decision. Art helps me cope with the things I go through. The death of my grandfather is most definitely a well-deserved focal point of my first tattoo, which was always one of the most important decisions I could ever make. I’ve been told many times how beautiful it is and how the placement is perfect. Honestly, sometimes I forget it’s there, but every time someone compliments my tattoo, my heart melts. Hearing that makes me think about what I had to go through to get where I am and the person I’ve become. It makes me appreciate not only who I am as a person, but as a soul. I miss my grandpa, but the moment I saw that hummingbird on my back, I knew he would always be with me.

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Beat and Slam: Two Different yet Related Arts

By Ian Lactaoen Beat poetry and Slam poetry are two very unique art forms. Though they have emerged from different eras in the twentieth century and have existed for only a few decades, they have altered everyone’s perception of not just poetry, but the poet as well.

Beat poetry comprises the works of the “Beat Generation,” a cultural and literary movement that arose in New York and (later) San Francisco in the late 1940s to 1950s. Members of this movement include notable poets such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs, and LeRoi Jones (better known as Amiri Baraka). The Beats (as they were called) railed against the blind consumerism and artistic restrictions of their country and expressed themselves freely through their own poetry. Their poetry was heavily influenced by bebop jazz, which placed emphasis on constant improvisation and individual talent.

Slam poetry is the art of performing poems for a poetry slam, an event in which the poet performs his or her original work in front of a live audience. This new format was invented by poet Marc Smith who hosted the first slam at the Get Me High Club in Chicago in 1984. He wanted to promote poetry to the common people and believed this bold strategy would help attract more patrons. According to Mark Eleveld and Marc Smith in The Spoken Word Revolution: Slam, Hip Hop & the Poetry of a New Generation, Slam actually evolved from the remnants of the Beat Generation. It came out of the Black Arts Movement, a cultural and literary movement celebrating African-American arts and culture in the late 1960s, which itself was rooted in the Beat tradition by way of Baraka (its most influential figure). From this movement, Slam was born, as were Rap and Hip-Hop, and Slam is commonly associated with Rap and HipHop. Because both Beat poetry and Slam poetry have taken place in different periods of time, with different influences, it is easy to argue that they are two completely different forms. Although they seem that way, Beat poetry and Slam poetry are more similar and related to each other than one may think. Both share the same lineage, and both are unconventional performance arts with their own distinct structures. Both are also outspoken forms of poetry that have helped “save” poetry by bringing it to the masses, and both have made their way into popular culture and academia. Like all arts, they take a lot of time and effort to craft and master.

Firstly, Beat poetry and Slam poetry are similar and related to each other because they both share the same lineage. It can be argued that Beat and Slam are different and unrelated because they have been influenced by different types of music. Beat poetry, for example, is influenced by bebop jazz. Bebop is “an innovative style of jazz, characterized by smaller combos and a larger focus on virtuosity” (Janssen). Because of the form’s emphasis on individual talent and improvisation, Beat poets regularly attributed their styles to it. In fact, Kerouac and Ginsberg were known to frequent jazz clubs in New York and San Francisco, with Kerouac professing to have known a number of famous bebop artists such as Charlie Parker and Miles Davis. Another prominent Beat, John Clellon Holmes, was so enamored and influenced by bebop jazz that he wrote a book about it.

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Slam poetry, on the other hand, is commonly associated with Rap and Hip-Hop. Rap is a form of poetry that involves a person speaking or chanting lyrics (rapping) in front of a live audience. Its brother Hip-Hop involves setting the rap to music and rhythm. Both forms originated amongst the African-American community in New York City in the 1970s when disc jockeys (DJs) would talk over the records they played in clubs and block parties (Dye). Slam poetry involves speaking and chanting verses in front of a live audience, and some slam poems can and are often set to music. As a result, most people consider Rap, Hip-Hop, and Slam to be the same thing. Indeed slam poets are often automatically, and mistakenly, classified as rappers.

Although Beat was influenced by jazz and Slam is associated with Rap and Hip-Hop, the interesting truth is that all these forms (Beat, Slam, Rap, and Hip-Hop) share the same lineage.

Beat and Slam are actually connected to each other by way of the Black Arts Movement, which was co-founded by the beat poet Amiri Baraka.

The Black Arts Movement was, in a way, the Beat Movement with an African-American twist. It came of age in the 1960s as a way for African-Americans to preserve their culture and exhibit their creative genius. Speaking a poem aloud instead of merely reading it on paper was a good way of spreading that artistic genius, and having a Beat poet like Amiri Baraka lead the way enhanced the connection between the Beat Generation and the Black Arts Movement. Like his fellow Beats, Baraka was influenced by bebop jazz, particularly from the famous musician John Coltrane. However, he and other affiliates of the movement injected their works with the concepts of Black Liberation and African-American pride. His poetry was “free verse, casual in its approximations of free speech, sometimes oblique in its imagery, yet modernist” (Gioia 860).

Likewise, Slam itself is free verse; it is sometimes metaphorical in its imagery, yet modern. From the Black Arts Movement spawned Rap and Hip-Hop, then Slam in the 1980s. In that respect, Slam, Rap, and Hip-Hop are all descendants of the Beat Generation.

Secondly, Beat and Slam are similar to each other because they are both performance arts. A performance art is an unconventional form of art, as it combines elements of theatre, music, and literature into a unique hybrid (Sporre 169). Beat poetry and Slam poetry are examples of this because they are performance poetry. Performance poetry, colloquially known as Spoken Word poetry, is a type of performance art in which the performer recites poetry in front of an audience.

These presentations employ a wide array of theatrics, such as gestures—the manner in which certain words are enunciated, props, and background music, in order to stimulate the audience’s senses. Beat poetry and Slam poetry involve the poet going up onstage and reciting his or her original poem. In fact, the very notion of performance poetry started with Allen Ginsberg’s recital of his famous poem “Howl” during the Six Gallery Reading, an event involving poetry readings by Beat writers in San Francisco on October 7, 1955 (Eleveld and Smith 11-13).

There is one main difference between Beat and Slam, however. The poetry slam can also be a competition. In a poetry slam, each performance is usually given a time limit of three to five minutes. After the performance, an ad hoc group of three to five audience members give out scores between 0 (worst) to 10 (best), with decimal scores between them. These points are based on the content of the poem and the overall performance. The points are added up, and the poet with the most points in total is the winner of the slam (Soto).

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Despite this deviation, both art forms are still very similar due to both involving going up onstage and performing poetry. In the film Slam Nation, Marc Smith, better known as “Slam Papi” because he is the founder of the movement, also maintains that Slam is primarily “the art of performance and poetry brought together” (Slam Nation). Like Slam, Beat poetry is also “the art of performance and poetry brought together” because it involves the poet giving a performance in front of an audience.

Thirdly, Beat poetry and Slam poetry are related through their distinctive structures. Beat poems and slam poems do not always rhyme at the end of lines, or follow any specific pattern or meter.

They are more free style forms of the art. Words can rhyme in the middle of a sentence, or not even rhyme at all, and each poem has a different rhythm.

Beat poetry, for example, was called so because there is a “beat” or rhythm to it. Consider this example from a well-known Beat poem. In this excerpt from Part II of poet laureate Allen Ginsberg’s famous epic (long poem) “Howl,” one could note the sort of “beat” attached to each verse, despite it having absolutely no rhyme scheme at all! It has the appearance of one long ramble, but with a single word (“Moloch”) being repeated at the beginning of most every line: Moloch whose love is endless oil and stone! Moloch whose soul is electricity and banks!

Moloch whose poverty is the specter of genius! Moloch whose fate is a cloud of sexless hydrogen! Moloch whose name is the Mind!

Moloch in whom I sit lonely! Moloch in whom I dream Angels! Crazy in Moloch!

Cocksucker in Moloch! Lacklove and manless in Moloch!

Moloch who entered my soul early! Moloch in whom I am a consciousness without a body! Moloch who frightened me out of my natural ecstasy! Moloch whom I abandon!

Wake up in Moloch! Light streaming out of the sky! (Ginsberg) As exhibited, “Howl” has no rhyme, but a certain rhythm and cadence reverberates throughout the poem. Reading it out loud, you can clearly recognize the tempo in each verse (as underlined) (Moloch who entered my soul early!_ Moloch in whom I am a consciousness without a body!).

The poem also uses a vast array of imagery and metaphors to compare the word “Moloch” (whose love is endless oil and stone, whose soul is electricity and banks, whose name is the mind). The repetition of “Moloch” enhances the cadence by giving the lines a rolling and captivating feeling, and from there the entire scheme of the next verses are sown. This cadence is what gives Beat poems their “Beat.”

Likewise, Saul Williams’ slam poem “Untimely Meditations” has a “beat” and cadence. It does have rhyming, but that often take place in the middle of a verse. There is also an array of alliteration and assonance for each verse: Five senses cannot sense the fact of our existence And that’s the only fact, in fact, there are no facts Fax me a fact and I’ll telegram, I’ll hologram, I’ll telephone The son of man and tell him he is done Leave a message on his answering machine telling him there are none God and I are one 9

Times moon, times star, times sun The factor is me (Williams) As seen in this example, Slam has no codified rhyme scheme (apart from the internal rhymes), just as Beat poetry has no codified rhyme scheme. Although the structure of both poems differ slightly—given that there is no rhyme in “Howl” and mid-sentence rhyming in “Untimely Meditations”—they both have a similar “beat” (rhythm) and cadence. According to Serena Simmons, a youth slam poet from Youth Speaks Hawai‘i, slam poets have “adopted the rhythm pattern and cadence that [Beat poets] had in their poems” (Helela and Simmons). This explains why Beat poems like “Howl” and Slam poems like “Untimely Meditations” look and sound so similar when read and recited.

Fourthly, both Beat poetry and Slam poetry are similar because both are the most outspoken forms of poetry in modern history. Although it can be argued that there are other forms of poetry (such as Rap and Hip-Hop) that are considered even more outspoken than these two, what made Beat and Slam especially open (and connected to each other) were that they helped “save” poetry from becoming stale by challenging authority and the poetical conventions of the day.

Beat and Slam both emerged from times when poetry was confined to the elites. In other words, poetry was stodgy and bland, and ready to be cast into the dustbin of irrelevance. One reason for this was poetry’s image as an academic, elitist venture. In fact, as poet and critic Selden Rodman pointed out in 1949, the contemporary poet spoke “mostly to other poets, not to the people” (qtd. in Raskin 86). It was an activity limited to an exclusive audience—works by poets for poets only.

The Beats were the first to try to give poetry a much-needed makeover. They resented how poetry was “sedate and genteel” (Mattern 61)—that is, it was seen as boring and reserved for the upper class. They wanted to make the art accessible to everyone, not just to those at the very top of society. Poets like Ginsberg and Kerouac were a breath of fresh air in the bureaucraticallychurned smog suffocating postwar America because they sought to bring poetry back to the people. For example, one way the Beats brought poetry back was by holding their readings and recitals in coffeehouses. They also started hosting open mics—informal readings where the poet goes onstage to perform. To present in such casual settings instead of a reserved club with other poets like them was almost unheard of. It was a very democratic notion to perform in front of ordinary people instead of a select few.

Likewise, the poetry slam evolved at a time when poetry had a widespread public relations problem. By the end of the 1960s, the Beats had (unfortunately) devolved into the very establishment figures they sought to defy. They metamorphosed into the turtle-necked, beretwearing, finger-snapping, horn-rimmed-glasses-wearing, jazzy, Daddy-O stereotype that mainstream pop culture made them out to be. This was due to a number of factors, with the most plausible being that the Beats had simply burned out and that they were absorbed into academia and the upper class. As a result, poetry once again became stodgy and bland.

Then, Slam poetry entered. In 1984, Marc Smith hosted the first-ever poetry slam at the Get Me High Club in Chicago. His intention was the same as that of his Beat predecessors—to bring poetry back to the people. Slam poetry contained elements of Beat poetry such as an 10

unconventional, free-verse structure, rhythm, and cadence. It also contained influences from Rap and Hip-Hop, as well as the themes of racial liberation and protest, through its lineage to the Black Arts Movement of the late 1960s. It adopted the open mics of the Beat poets, but added a twist by making it an intellectual sport. Not only could anyone go up and perform their own work in a poetry slam, but they could now compete and exchange ideas onstage.

However, Slam went beyond the page and stage in terms of demographics. In his book American Poetry in Performance: From Walt Whitman to Hip Hop, Tyler Hoffman explains that the slam has been diverse in terms of themes and adherents, and he quotes Newsweek reporter Michael Ingrassia to describe that diversity: Unlike the Beats, this [the poetry slam] is not just a bunch of white boys riffing on the meaning of life. There are ‘womanist’ poets, rapper poets, gay poets, lesbian poets, neoBeatnik poets, deaf poets who use sign language, Afro-Caribbean immigrant poets, Latino poets, Asian-American poets, cowboy poets and cyberpunk poets. (qtd. in Hoffman 200) Despite Slam going beyond Beat in terms of demographics, both forms still utilize the same theme of outspokenness and freedom of expression. For example, Beat poets and Slam poets wrote on topics that were political or personal, such as “the antiwar and ecology movements, the fight against censorship, the pursuits of gay, lesbian, minority, and women’s rights” (Ingalls 199).

Fifthly, Beat Poetry and Slam Poetry are related because their influences can be seen in popular culture. For example, Beat poetry’s legacy is felt most strongly in popular music and (unsurprisingly) the poetry slam. The poems (and anti-establishment and non-conformist views) of individuals like Kerouac and Ginsberg have influenced musicians such as Elvis Presley, Bob Dylan, Willie Nelson, and The Beatles. As a matter of fact, John Lennon coined the name “Beatles” as a reference to the Beat Generation, in addition to being a tribute to Buddy Holly and The Crickets. He stated in a 1964 interview about the Beats and The Beatles, “It was beat and beetles, and when you said it people thought of crawly things, and when you read it, it was beat music” (“From Dylan to Del Rey”). Bob Dylan was another artist heavily influenced by Beat poetry. In fact, according to the article “From Dylan to Del Rey: Bands Influenced by the Beat Generation,” Dylan’s songwriting was inspired by a Beat performance, and he even found a mentor in Allen Ginsberg. They were even involved in protests and rallies, which had always been an underlying governor in Beat poetry and later Slam poetry.

Although it could still be argued that Beat and Slam are dissimilar (Slam is, after all, still primarily associated with Rap and Hip-Hop), many Slam poets have actually professed to being influenced by the Beats. For example, Slam poet Saul Williams has often cited Beat poets like Allen Ginsberg, Amiri Baraka, and Bob Kaufman as influencing his works (“Beat Generation”).

He even opened for one of Ginsberg’s readings in 1995. Another Slam poet, Beau Sia, was so inspired by Ginsberg that he invited him to perform at a poetry Slam at New York University.

Like the Beats, artists have also been influenced by Slam. One artist has been Lin-Manuel Miranda. His piece “Alexander Hamilton” was originally conceived as a Slam poem in a hip-hop 11

album he had been working on and was first performed in the White House during the special program, “An Evening of Poetry, Music, & the Spoken Word” in 2009 (Lin-Manuel Miranda Performs”). He later turned it into the Rap/Hip-Hop themed Broadway musical Hamilton in 2015.

Youth artists have also been influenced by the Slam. Ever since the art’s inception in the 1980s, young people have become more attracted it because it allows them to express themselves freely and creativity. This new sense of bringing poetry to younger folks started with Youth Speaks.

Youth Speaks was the first-ever youth poetry slam, which was held in San Francisco in 1996 and has since championed the “local, national, and increasingly global movement of young people picking up pens and stepping proudly onto stages” to perform their works (Youth Speaks). As a result, youth poetry slams have been established across the nation.

Sixthly, Beat and Slam are similar because both have now been accepted and embraced in the realm of academia. It seems almost ironic that the two art forms are now being venerated and studied by the same institutions that once despised and derided them as rubbish. Take Allen Ginsberg, for example. In the 1960s, he and his fellow Beats were dismissed as a pack of “knownothing bohemians” who wrote “unrefined” and “anti-intellectual” drivel (“The Beat Generation”). But today, he is lauded as one of the greatest poets who ever lived, with many in academia studying and writing books and essays about him and his poems. In his book American Scream: Allen Ginsberg’s Howl and the Making of the Beat Generation, poet and critic Jonah Raskin notes how figures like Ginsberg and poems like Howl have become a “venerable classic” because it has been read and appreciated all around the world (226).

Similarly, Slam poetry has been derided as rubbish. Critics have actually called the form “the Death of Art” because it constitutes nothing but “rant and nonsense” (Somers-Willett). But like Beat, it has also been welcomed in academia. A number of books and papers have been published studying and critiquing this phenomenon. In the article “Just Slammin! Adolescents’ Construction of Identity through Performance Poetry,” Lynn Rudd makes a good case for how Slam poetry can help teenagers build their group and individual identities. In her study related, she interviewed students from a Slam poetry group at a local high school in Ohio about how being involved in the art helped mold their identities as a group and as individuals. She found that not only did these students build bonds with each other and create their own individual selves, but they also used Slam to “showcase their literate identities” (Rudd 691). These students have had the labels “outcasts” and “misfits” branded on them, just as Beat poets had been labeled as misfits and rebels. In this respect, Beat poetry and Slam poetry are not just related, but are actually two sides of the same coin.

Finally, like all arts, Beat and Slam take a lot of time and effort to craft and master. Take Ginsberg and “Howl” for instance. Although Beat poetry has emphasized spontaneity, Ginsberg viewed it as a craft. He only became spontaneous after head-scratching, back-breaking work— typing and retyping, editing with pencil marks, and reading and rehearsing constantly.

Like Beat poetry, Slam poetry requires meticulous writing and rewriting, reading and re-reading, rehearsal and re-rehearsal. As a Slam poet myself, I had to do constant write-ups of my poems and rehearse hour after hour so that when I went onstage I would not forget my lines in the 12

middle of the performance. The more practice I undertook, the more my work and I improved, to the point where I competed in the 2011 Youth Speaks Hawai‘i Grand Slam Finals. In an interview with The Hawaii Independent, Youth Speaks Hawai‘i Slam poet Sterling Higa states that he “would rather see a stage full of poets who are participating every month and pushing themselves to improve their writing than one prodigal poet who won one slam and hibernated the rest of the season” (qtd. in Kroll). Slam poets, as well as their Beat forefathers, suffer for their art, but get rewarded for the time and effort to perfect it.

Beat poetry and Slam poetry are two very similar and related art forms. They both come from the same lineage through the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s, and they are both unconventional performance arts with unique styles and distinctive structures. They both “saved” poetry by making it accessible to the common people and have made their way into popular culture and into the world of scholars. Like all arts, Beat and Slam require plenty of word-craft and stagecraft, which helps make them both honored forms of poetry.

However, this does not definitively link Beat and Slam together. Because of the differences in term of influences and socio-cultural impact, they are more like distant relatives than siblings.

But in the end, what does it matter? Both are exquisite, if not interesting, forms in the art of poetry. This is due to the two forms sharing the one trait that all arts have in common: they allow people to express themselves creatively and freely. Beat and Slam could have just disappeared into the annals of history, but it was through the determination, creative intellect, and free spirit of the poets who adhere to them that Beat poetry and Slam poetry are still relevant today and will continue to be relevant and revered in the future.

WORKS CITED “Beat Generation.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Beat_Generation Dye, David. “The Birth of Rap: A Look Back.” National Public Radio. 22 Feb. 2007.

Eleveld, Mark and Marc Smith. The Spoken Word Revolution: Slam, Hip Hop & the Poetry of a New Generation. Naperville: Sourcebooks, 2003.

“From Dylan to Del Rey: Bands Influenced by the Beat Generation.” Rolling Stone India. 8 Oct. 2015.

Gao, Boyuan. “Jazz, Poetry, Rap: Cause and Effect of the Black Arts Movement.” Revive Music.

25 Jan. 2011.

Ginsberg, Allen. “Howl.” Poetry Foundation. www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/49303/howl Gioia, Diana, David Mason, and Meg Schoerke. Twentieth Century American Poetry. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

Helela, Noa and Simmons, Serena. Interview. 15 Mar. 2017.

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Hoffman, Tyler. American Poetry in Performance: From Walt Whitman to Hip Hop. Detroit: University of Michigan Press, 2013.

Ingalls, Rebecca. “‘Stealing the Air’: The Poet-Citizens of Youth Spoken-Word. Journal of Popular Culture, Feb. 2012.

Janssen, Mike. “Jazz and the Beat Generation”. Literary Kicks.

Kroll, Jess. “2011 Youth Speaks Hawaii Grand Slam Finals culminates in competition and camaraderie.” The Hawaii Independent. 23 Mar. 2011.

“Lin-Manuel Miranda Performs at the White House Poetry Jam: (8 of 8).” Youtube, uploaded by The Obama White House, 2 Nov. 2009, www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNFf7nMIGnE Mattern, Mark. Anarchism and Art. New York: State University of New York Press, 2016.

O’ Keefe, Cristin. Words In Your Face: A Guided Tour Through Twenty Years of the New York City Poetry Slam. New York: Soft Skull Press, 2007.

McDuffe, Candace. Our Mouths on Paper: A Critical Look at the Educational Value, Social Importance, and Self-Exploration stemming from Slam Poetry. Boston: University of Massachusetts Boston Critical and Creative Thinking Program, 2011.

Raskin, Jonah. American Scream: Allen Ginsberg’s Howl and the Making of the Beat Generation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.

Rudd, Lynn R. “Just Slammin! Adolescents' Construction of Identity Through Performance Poetry.” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 55.8 (2012): 682-91.

SlamNation: The Sport of Spoken Word. Directed by Paul Devlin, HBO Films, 1998.

Somers-Willett, Susan B. A. “Can Slam Poetry Matter?” Rattle: Poetry for the 21st Century 27.

19 Mar. 2009. https://www.rattle.com/can-slam-poetry-matter-by-susan-ba-somerswillett/ Soto, Lyz. Interview. 25 Mar. 2011.

Sporre, Dennis J. Perceiving the Arts – An Introduction to the Humanities. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2015.

“The Beat Generation.” The Literature Network. www.online-literature.com/periods/beat.php Williams, Saul. “Untimely Meditations.” Amethyst Rockstar, Universal Records, 2001.

Youth Speaks. www.youthspeaks.org

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Graffiti: Art of the Streets

By Kianna Bagdon What is the first thought people have when the word graffiti is mentioned? Is it spray paint? Is it art? Is it vandalism? Is it beauty? Is it gang related? Is it ugly? Is it an expression? People, depending on their culture, interpret art differently. Therefore, even graffiti has its followers and its detractors. Graffiti includes several different styles such as tags, stencils, stickers, throw-ups, and pieces (Sanchez), but it does not include carvings on a bathroom wall. Graffiti is illegal and considered a form of vandalism in many places around the world including the United States and Europe. People argue that, because it is illegal, it is a crime and does not warrant any discussion about as art form (Mac Donald). Many people argue that graffiti is messy and unsafe and that it is often linked to dangerous activities (Rowe 74). Even though graffiti is illegal in many places and carries negative connotations, graffiti should be seen as a developing art form that allows individuals to express themselves in unique ways.

There is some research about graffiti, but it tends to focus on why people choose to practice this activity and not about it being an art form. Even though the researchers state they are not biased on the topic, they seem to be trying to solve the problem of why people are practicing graffiti.

The researchers paint graffiti in a negative light by the type of questions asked or by how the study is performed. For example, Nordmarker et al. recently published “The roles of gender and personality factors in vandalism and scrawl-graffiti among Swedish adolescents,” evaluating if similar risk factors such as impulsiveness and emotional disability, gender, or protective factors were associated with vandalism and scrawl-graffiti. They found that impulsiveness, lack of foreplanning, and an inability to regulate emotions predicted involvement in vandalism, and those with motor impulsiveness or the tendency to act last minute predicted involvement in graffiti (Nordmarker et al. 184-186). Therefore, they link vandalism with graffiti.

Equating graffiti and vandalism is wrong. The study by Nordmarker et al. did not evaluate the creativity and originality factors that might lead a person to this art form (Nordmarker et al. 188).

The research did not consider that these individuals who practice graffiti could be expressing their feelings regardless of their personality traits. The researchers’ questions are broad and conflate graffiti with other forms of vandalism. They ask participants whether they were involved in vandalism, which can consist of any type of vandalism including arson to littering as well as graffiti. Therefore, according to the findings of this research, if vandalism traits included poor impulse control and graffiti traits included poor impulse control, those individuals who practiced graffiti were heading down the wrong path (Nordmarker et al. 189).

Others have also viewed graffiti as a social problem. The Australian Institute of Criminology and The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology have published a number of articles on graffiti, studying graffiti from a criminal standpoint. Often building owners, policy makers, state officials, and policing agencies do not want to discuss graffiti as an art form because it is illegal.

Graffiti has a negative reputation because of what people see, hear, read, and notice in their surrounding environments. People are often exposed to tagging in their environments and often view tagging synonymously with graffiti, contributing to graffiti’s negative reputation.

Furthermore, graffiti is often stereotyped as gang affiliated or occurring in a low-income area (Sanchez).

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People are also opposed to graffiti because of the cost associated with eliminating wall writings.

For example, in New York City between 1970-1985, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority spent 100-150 million dollars to try and clean up graffiti in the city (Speerstra). If we are spending so much money in an attempt to eliminate graffiti and graffiti is so ubiquitous, perhaps society needs to look at graffiti more carefully before criminalizing it. Despite the negative connotation that graffiti carries, graffiti has its positive attributes and adds value to society.

If society were to stop looking at graffiti as a social problem, it is possible to see why graffiti is an art form where individuals can express themselves and raise issues about their group or community. Some regions of the world such as Hawai‘i and Finland, despite its illegality, consider graffiti as art and provide specific walls where artists can freely express themselves (Wu 18; Laitinen et al.). In fact, in Honolulu every year there is a pow wow of graffiti artists from all over the world, who come together as a community to share and express ideas (Wu 18).

Graffiti has a positive effect on people, and it has created many diverse communities around the world (Halsey 299). Some have acknowledged that “this [graffiti] was an art form invented by the children of the working class” (Gonzalez). People of different classes find graffiti a form of expression because it gives them a voice and avenue to share their ideas regardless of their economic status. According to Rowe and Hutton, 47.2% of people’s most significant reason for engaging in graffiti was creative expression (Rowe and Hutton 76). Supporters, like Tommi Laitio, have said, “This is a form of youth culture that is obviously retaining its popularity. It’s our job to foster it [graffiti]” (qtd. in Laitinen et al.). Areas of downtown Honolulu, Hawai‘i have embraced this creative art form; there exists a five-block radius of this type of art covering warehouses and stores. As I was photographing these pieces, people were walking by and admiring this work. Graffiti is a powerful expression; it is everywhere and many are practicing it.

Therefore, it is difficult not to call it an art form (Maddox et al.).

Not everyone is able to see the beauty of graffiti. Similar to other art forms, graffiti is subject to biases of perception and interpretation. People form opinions and judgments on a piece based on who the artist is and where it is produced. For example, a piece of work that is dark and gruesome might be appealing to a college student, but a hair salon would not want it on their building wall. Some graffiti artists sign their work, but many remain anonymous, and people judge it by its aesthetics (Maddox et al.). It matters who makes the piece, and it matters who sees the art. If a homeless person brings in an art piece off the street, no one gives him a second look, whereas someone who just graduated from Juilliard gets immediate recognition for her ideas. It matters if a person has money and has recognition. Biases exist and often others think poorly of people who are not meeting or exceeding the norm. Location also impacts the perception about a piece. For instance, if a beautiful piece of art is seen in the Bronx, people may think that a nonlocal was commissioned to do the art piece, whereas if they see a piece of tagging they believe it is gang affiliated.

Graffiti, similar to other more traditional art forms, has its own conventions and styles, but it also shares the elements, mass, and texture as seen in other art compositions. Lines, form, color, and intensity all play an important role in graffiti as well as the use of repetition, balance, and use of focal areas. In graffiti, the use of linear, atmospheric, and shifting perspective is evident. Light and shading create three-dimensionality (Sporre 45-56). These art elements give the contrast and dynamics that can be seen in a graffiti piece. Graffiti’s spontaneity adds to its value as art. As 16

noted by an unidentified graffiti artist in Geason and Wilson’s article, “The graffiti we see now are the purest form of art because they are something spontaneous, and outside the structured art gallery system” (qtd. in Geason and Wilson 7). Some graffiti artists have gained recognition as artists.

Often people associate graffiti with gangs, but for many it is a source of empowerment and a way to find themselves or to escape gang involvement. Rowe and Hutton found in their study, “While many gangs do use graffiti to mark territory, research has also found that graffiti crews could be an alternative to gang membership and a protective factor amongst young people in terms of gang activity” (Rowe and Hutton 69). CornBread, one of the first recognized graffiti artists, was empowered by practicing graffiti. Darryl Alexander McCray, better known as CornBread, wanted his high school cafeteria to serve cornbread and the cafeteria kept refusing. Darryl asked daily and because of his repeated requests, the staff started calling him CornBread. CornBread then wrote the name on his shirt and people started calling him that. He turned it around so they could not make fun of him. He then began writing his name “CornBread” on the street (Gastman et al. 228). This word was just seen as a tag, but it was much more powerful than that (One). For Cornbread, graffiti empowered him by becoming an expression of his identity. Like other pieces of art, the motive of artists can differ.

Mark Reisser, also known as DAIM, is a German graffiti artist. He is a perfect example of how judgments can be made by the type of art one practices and how well known the artist is. DAIM began spray painting in 1989 for which he was arrested, but within three years he was selling his pieces. By 2005, his work was shown in museums and not on the street, allowing him the opportunity to grow as an artist. He is creating works people want to see, as well as sharing the connection he has to his pieces (Nui). DAIM has been creating art pieces over the last 25 years.

Now he uses his art to help make changes in how graffiti is viewed. He has an exhibition called Urban Discipline, which gives people an opportunity to see the same art found on the street, but now placed on a canvas. His exhibition helps people understand where the art is seen can change a person’s perspective of graffiti. DAIM’s artwork is a part of who he is. He once stated, “My work is myself so much, I could not ever imagine living without it” (Nui). This artist has many of his works presented in galleries, and he is a constant inspiration to others (Reisser et al. 306307). Rowe and Hutton’s research found that, like DAIM, younger adults who practiced graffiti consider it as an art form with deep cultural values behind it. They valued the technique and imagination of a piece, and they felt the art connected them to the landscape or environment they were in (Rowe and Hutton 81). DAIM is an excellent example of an artist with skill and creativity who demonstrates how graffiti has progressed over the years.

DAIM uses spray paint and a flat surface, which can be a wall, side of a building, or sometimes a large canvas. DAIM’s painting, Auf der Lauer [“on the lookout”], is an expression of anticipation (Reisser et al. 250). All of his work is three-dimensional and he uses juxtaposition of lines and curves to create an exciting and intriguing piece of art. His work has a smooth texture, which helps give the illusion that it is three-dimensional. DAIM uses all three elements of repetition by repeating lines and shapes which all appear to join flawlessly. The use of variation makes it a very complex piece. DAIM’s use of asymmetry appears balanced because he places certain unlike items carefully. He also uses linear perspective similar to what is seen when two rails come together in the distance. The use of linear perspective creates space, which gives the 17

appearance that the work pops out of the wall towards the observer. The illusion that an object is three-dimensional at the surface of a painting, or Trompe L’oeilx, is well done in his work. This particular piece is an anti-classical design because of several focal areas. The eye is drawn to the center of the work, but because it is an open composition, the eyes are then drawn out to the blank space. His use of color is a mixture of warm yellow and cold blues, which contrasts with the black and white. DAIM’s use of elements and his original concepts have made him one of the world’s best Graffiti artists.

Graffiti is turning more and more into an art form; it is developing and revolutionizing every second. Graffiti’s evolution is similar to tattoos’, where it was originally gang or jail associated, only to become a commonly desired body art. Graffiti has continued to develop, now with more style, more flare, and a variety of material types (Ganz 7). Over time, graffiti has developed more conventions and more technique (Speerstra). Graffiti can be seen from Tokyo to Paris to New York City (Speerstra). A key factor of its fast evolution is the internet. People are using walls as a canvas and using the internet as a way to display their work, allowing this art form to spread worldwide so that “street art has become part of a global visual culture” (Ganz 10; Speerstra).

Though there are actions and laws in place to prevent and eliminate graffiti, placing further boundaries on it could result in lowering the emotional value of graffiti. Geason and Wilson have mentioned having a common place where graffiti can be practiced and having it be completely legal. They also suggested placing signs that state it is permitted to practice graffiti in a particular place (Geason and Wilson). These are possible solutions, but it impacts the meaning and the action of graffiti. Can individuals really say it is still freedom of speech if it is restricted to certain areas? Some would argue that restricting graffiti to certain areas is equivalent to restricting freedom of speech. It also eliminates one of the most important characteristics of graffiti. One could argue that graffiti's illegality gives it originality and creativity. Studies have shown that the illegality of graffiti does play a role; in Rowe and Hutton’s study “a majority of respondents, whether they wrote or not, tended to agree that the illicit nature of graffiti made it more exciting” regardless of age, gender, or ethnicity (79). However, this study also showed that writers did not just write because it was illegal (Rowe and Hutton 80). Although initially one may assume that changes in policy to legalize graffiti may have a detrimental effect on this art form, legalizing graffiti has many positive benefits and would allow many more artists to share their gift with others.

Even though graffiti is not legal, graffiti is art and is a form of expression. Graffiti has a purpose, so it needs to be considered art no matter how it looks; it is created by people who needed to put their marks on the world. As art, graffiti is judged by the same aesthetics and principles as any other painting or art form. Rene Ellis, a graffiti collector, stated graffiti is “the result of someone’s urge to say something, to comment, inform, entertain, persuade, offend or simply to confirm his or her own existence here on earth” (qtd. in Geason and Wilson). People say they want graffiti eliminated, but how would the world look without colors on the wall? Everything would be clean, the same, and only blank space with no differentiation. That a piece may not be pleasing to the eye does not negate the potential graffiti has in engaging others and bringing a community together. Art like graffiti is powerful and can make people feel a different way at any single moment in time.

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WORKS CITED Ganz, Nicholas. Graffiti World Street Art from Five Continents. Abrams, 2004.

Gastman, Roger, Trina Calderón, Caleb Neelon, and Chris Pape. Wall Writers: Graffiti in Its Innocence. Gingko Press, 2016.

Geason, Susan, and Paul Wilson. “Preventing Graffiti and Vandalism.” Australian Institute of Criminology, 1990. www.aic.gov.au/publications/previous%20series/crimprev/111/graffiti.html Gonzalez, David. “As Legal Graffiti Walls Disappear, Street Artists Ponder Future.” The New York Times, 24 Nov. 2013. www.nytimes.com/2013/11/25/nyregion/as-legal-graffitiwalls-disappear-street-artists-ponder-future.html.

Halsey, Mark, and Alison Young. “‘Our Desires Are Ungovernable’: Writing Graffiti in Urban Space.” Theoretical Criminology 10.3 (2006): 275-306.

Laitinen, Joonas, Niina Wooley, and Juhani Nirranen. “Helsinki to Introduce More Graffiti Walls – Halting Zero Tolerance.” Helsinki Times. 8 Mar. 2014.

Mac Donald, Heather. “Graffiti is Always Vandalism.” The New York Times. 4 Dec. 2014.

Maddox, David, Patrick Lydon, Sidd Joag, and Patrice Milillo. “Home.” The Nature of Cities. www.thenatureofcities.com Nordmarker, Anki, Fredrik Hjӓrthag, Renée Perrin-Wallqvist, and Trevor Archer. “The Roles of Gender and Personality Factors in Vandalism and Scrawl-graffiti among Swedish Adolescents.” PsyCh Journal 5.3, 2016, 180-90.

Nui. “DAIM Graffiti Art 3 May 2015.” ISSUE NO 206. N.p., 3 May 2015. www.issueno206.com/daim-graffiti-art/ One, Spar. “About New York City Graffiti.” Cyber Bench: Documenting New York City Graffiti. @149st, 1998.

Reisser, Mirko, Rik Reinking, Johannes Stahl, Belinda Grace Gardner, and Arne Rautenberg.

DAIM 1989 - 2014. Drago, 2014.

Rowe, M., and F. Hutton. “‘Is Your City Pretty Anyway?’ Perspectives on Graffiti and the Urban Landscape.” Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology 45.1, 2012, 66-86.

Sanchez, Noel. “Graffiti: Art through Vandalism.” Graffiti: Art through Vandalism. University of Florida, 2007. iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/fall07/Sanchez/index.html

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Speerstra, William. “About Graffiti and Street Art.” About Graffiti and Street Art - Speerstra. www.speerstra.net/en/about-graffiti-and-street-art Sporre, Dennis J. An Introduction to the Arts. Prentice-Hall, 1992.

Wu, Nina. “Art Meet Enlivens Kakaako with a Fresh Coat of Murals.” Star Advertiser. 19 Feb. 2017: 18-19.

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Does Hip-Hop Create Harmony or Harm for Black Women?

By Ella Willbrand When people think of hip-hop, the first image they picture will most likely be Black men; however, behind the scenes, Black women are the hidden faces of the genre. Many young Black girls are surrounded by hip-hop growing up. From waking up on Saturday mornings to their brothers blasting Jay-Z to seeing women who look like them dancing in music videos, Black women are bombarded with images that affect their ideals and perspectives. Although hip-hop has had a large effect on many Black women’s identity and culture, the messages in hip-hop music are seen as toxic and harmful to women because of the violent, sexist, and derogatory ways women are often represented as in the genre.

Hip-hop is a ruthless game where only the strongest are successful, and women rappers overcame many boundaries and conquered all the odds against them to become some of the most influential rappers in the industry. This triumph shows young Black women who aspire to become part of the hip-hop industry that, even in a male-dominated profession, they can still be at the top if they earn the respect of their rapper peers. Many female rappers speak about uplifting young women and speak positively about Black women, which is where the term “HipHop Feminism” originated. Many women, especially Black women, enjoy female hip-hop because the lyrics tell stories about their experiences of life, love, loss, racism, and sex. The music lets them have many voices that intersect and combine which they deeply relate to. In Killing Me Softly or on the Miseducation of (Love and) Hip Hop: A Blackgirl Autoethnography, Robin M. Boylorn discusses her “love-hate relationship to hip hop and feminism” and her allegiance to both (785). She says in her case, the women artists’ lyrics and sounds have helped her become a writer and feminist. She discusses the “intellectual, spiritual, and emotional implications of the genre on the formation of [her] feminism and self-concept” (785). When she was younger, most of the hip-hop and R&B she listened to was created by men, but then she started listening to Black women’s artistry and it eased her transition into womanhood. Boylorn claims that despite the restrictive and usually masculine culture of hip-hop, Black feminists refuse to give up their complicated relationship with the genre. In “‘The People Inside My Head, Too’: Madness, Black Womanhood, and the Radical Performance of Lauryn Hill,” La Marr Jurelle Bruce explains that the R&B/hip-hop artist Lauryn Hill was known for her “black womanly command of ‘genius’ and ‘prophecy’ within racist/sexist pop cultures and public spheres in America” (371). Lauryn Hill sang towards a “feminist truth” and to speak out against racist and sexist aspects of the world that she was tired of seeing.

This new genre of feminist hip-hop has created a new market for Black women who enjoy the music but want to hear different things said about women. A significant part of feminist hip-hop is the sexually explicit topics that women often rap about. The societal norm is that only men are supposed to be openly sexual, while women are supposed to remain muted, reserved, and innocent. In female hip-hop, the women talk about sexual topics and their romantic desires openly like men do. Women are able to keep and talk about their femininity in an open way that other women can relate to. By talking about sex in their music, female rappers are saying that they are the ones in charge of their sexual representation. They themselves are choosing to be sexual beings and expressing their sexuality in their own way, instead of being portrayed as sex objects by men. They are comfortable portraying themselves as sexual, not for the enjoyment of 21

men, but for their own personal empowerment. Female rappers release their desires in rap which allows them to lessen their sexual insecurities and to no longer feel victimized. Female rappers also show female independence in objectifying their own body to get what they want. In the article “Now That’s a Bad Bitch!: The State of Women in Hip-Hop,” Asha Layne states that for some rappers, “self-sexual exploitation can be seen here as a method in gaining financial freedom from the traditional messages.” Nicki Minaj’s song “Blow Ya Mind” provides an example: She said her name is Nicki She came to play and her body was sicken She gets what she wants, so sexy when she talks Oh, you know she gon’ blow your mind.

Minaj is objectifying her own body by talking about how “sexy” she is so she can get whatever she desires from men.

In feminist hip-hop, female rappers have taken back the word “bitch” and changed it from a disrespectful term to a term of endearment and empowerment. Layne states, “The change in meaning of the word subverts the tools of oppression used to dominate women to now empower them.” Some Black women outside of the hip-hop community call each other “bitch” not in a spiteful way, but in a friendly way. When a man calls a woman a bitch in a derogatory way, it does not take all of the power away from the word, but it takes some power away because these women have reclaimed the word as their own. In some ways, the word bitch in hip-hop, can be compared to the word “boss.” The female rapper’s definition of a bitch is a strong and independent woman who takes charge.

One way that hip-hop has largely influenced the personal identity of the Black woman is through fashion. Commonly referred to as “hood fashion,” Black women in the late 1990s and early 2000s created their own hip-hop style and way of dressing that fit the genre. They were influenced by artists like Salt-N-Pepa, Missy Elliot, Lil’ Kim and countless others. In Emily Barasch’s article “From Lil’ Kim to Missy Elliot, the ‘90s Hip-Hop Stars Whose Style Still Inspireds,” Barasch states that these artists have “popularized everything from excessive and campy jewelry to playful sportswear.” The women of hip-hop were never dull and always had a unique personal style that got them noticed. Barasch states, “It takes a bold personality and rare talent to break into the boy’s club that is the rap game.” If you take a look at popular beauty trends today, you can trace them back to Black women being the original creators. Long manicured nails, big earrings, track suits, afros, displaying baby hairs, bantu knots, etc., all started with Black women, and these are some of the world’s most popular trends today. Many women of other races and cultures are influenced by the nostalgic and highly creative styles of Black women from the 1990s and 2000s. Even today, hip-hop styles and fashion are being created and recycled by Black women to help them shape their personal styles and let them express themselves as proud hip-hop fans and creative Black women.

One of the most influential feminist female hip-hop artists, Queen Latifah, always portrayed herself as a strong, intelligent, and sexually empowered woman who did not let men disrespect

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her. In the song “Ladies First” from her album All Hail the Queen, she has a no-nonsense attitude and talks about breaking stereotypes as a woman in the hip-hop industry: I break into a lyrical freestyle Grab the mic, look into the crowd and see smiles Cause they see a woman standing there up on her own two Sloppy slouching is something I won’t do Some think that we can’t flow Stereotypes they got to go I’m a mess around and flip the scene into reverse (With what?) With a little touch of ‘Ladies First.’ (March) These lyrics talk about how Queen Latifah does not want to be seen as less talented and looked down on just because they see a woman standing before them. She switches up the maledominated rap game and proves that her rhyme and flow are just as good as the male rappers.

Queen Latifah is a good example of a positive role model for young Black women and is a good example of the way Black women should be portrayed in the media. She has “starred in movies, a few television series, has written books, earned a Golden Globe, two SAG awards, a Grammy award, and several other nominations for a variety of award shows” (March).

In her music Queen Latifah has also voiced opinions on women’s oppression in the industry and talked about the struggles faced by Black women. Layne provides Queen Latifah’s lyrics from “U.N.I.T.Y.” as an example: But I don’t want to see my kids getting beat down By daddy smacking mommy all around You say I’m nothing without ya, but I’m nothing with ya This is my notice to the door, I’m not taking it no more I’m not your personal whore, that’s not what I’m here for And nothing good gonna come to ya till you do right by me Brother you wait and see, who you calling a bitch!!

Queen Latifah raps about how a Black woman is disrespected and about the future she hopes to see, which does not involve women being insulted and abused by men. Queen Latifah and other Black women rappers used their music to talk about and help cope with the oppression inside and outside of the Black community. Through hip-hop, some Black women are able to discuss the issues that they face daily, and they can express themselves with lyrics to protect them from hate and negative attention that they receive.

Despite the power of feminist hip-hop, it is a small and niche aspect of the genre. Most of hiphop is dominated by male rappers, and many of their songs are dominated by misogynist and sexist lyrics. The lyrics often belittle and oversexualize women. When these sexual themes are overlaid with companion lyrics emphasizing male domination and strength, this can be damaging to women. Growing up as a Black woman, it is hard to have a healthy relationship with hip-hop.

It is hard to love hip-hop while also critiquing it. Again, while feminist hip-hop is extremely positive and pro-women, it is only a small sub-genre of the male-dominated rap game. Feminist 23

hip-hop has not yet affected the tone of mainstream rap. The rappers and the hip-hop songs that we hear every day on the radio, even though they are very catchy, unfortunately still have common themes of mistreating women, sexual violence, sexism, and misogyny. Most American Black women grew up listening to hip-hop, and Black women are often the main topic of songs, along with money and drugs. This affects Black women negatively because we often hear men of our own race viewing us as though we are only sexual objects. Even though the rappers rap about Black women being sexual, this is not always a compliment because that is usually the only “positive” quality they associate with Black women in their music. Black women in hip-hop are seen as objects rather than as women.

As I said previously, many Black female rappers have reclaimed the word “bitch.” To Black female rappers, it is a term of endearment rather than an insult which takes away some of the negative power behind the word, but not all of it. When male rappers use the word “bitch” when they rap about bitches, hoes, and sluts—they are obviously not using those words in a positive way. They are being disrespectful to women, and mostly to Black women, because Black women are usually the women being talked about in hip-hop. This situation can be compared to how some Black Americans have reclaimed the n-word as their own and how they use it with each other as a synonym for brother or family. When a non-Black person uses this word to a Black person, it is not positive at all and in any situation can be considered racist and offensive.

In hip-hop music videos, Black women are often exploited for their bodies. They are often shown half-naked, dancing, or fawning over the rapper in the video. They are established as only sex objects or trophies that rappers own. This is harmful to Black women, especially young Black women, because these are the people they see on television who look like them. These are their role models. While young White girls see women every day who look like them in commercials, magazine ads, textbooks, and sitcoms, it is rare for a Black girl to see a woman that looks like her in one of those outlets. This also affects Black women because the men watching these videos see Black women being portrayed as only sexual objects, so this affects how young boys view Black women as well. A lot of the time, Black women are fetishized for their body because men see them dressed skimpily in videos and associate that with all Black women, and they are not given respect as human beings. Even though some female rappers like Nicki Minaj claim to dress sexually only for herself, men are still objectifying her through the male gaze.

Unfortunately, what these feminist rappers see as empowering, many men still view the way they dress as women wanting to please them.

Anatomical descriptions when combined with the visuals in music videos can lead to bad body image and self-hate among listeners. Rappers often talk about how attractive lighter skinned or more “exotic” looking women are, instead of darker skinned women. This can also impact the performers. For example, even though a lot of Nicki Minaj’s songs have feminist or “girl power” messages, she decided to manipulate her body to fit a certain ideal body type of large breasts and buttocks that male rappers say is attractive. Lil’ Kim has been lightening her skin, wearing blond wigs, and wearing blue contacts since the 1990s; this most likely stems from the self-hate put on her by the colorist culture inside of rap. In Travis Lyles’s article “Here’s the ‘Straight Outta Compton’ Casting Call That Everybody Thought Was Racist,” the casting call for the movie Straight Outta Compton, a movie about the notorious rap group N.W.A., became public after the movie came out and caused outrage with people. The company broke down the women they 24

wanted to hire to be hip-hop groupies into categories: A Girls, B Girls, C Girls, and D Girls.

Basically “A Girls” were light-skinned women who were not Black, “B Girls” were light skinned Black women, “C Girls” were Black women with a medium skin tone, and “D Girls” were dark skinned Black girls. The casting company released a statement saying “that the categorization of the girls ‘is not by any means a ranking of A is better than B. […] We obviously don’t want to leave anything up that’s offensive to people’” (Lyles). This apology did not make Black women feel better about this racist, colorist, and misogynist casting call, and they believe that this is saying that the darker you are, the less desirable you are in the media and hip-hop industry. It is true that you will rarely see a darker skinned Black woman as the main girl in a hip-hop music video, even though the majority of Black women are darker skinned. The main girl is usually a light skinned, racially ambiguous Black woman or woman of another race. Even in visual aspects, the majority of Black women do not feel represented correctly in hip-hop.

Hip-hop has always has misogynist messages in the music, but recently, hip-hop has been under fire in the media for being sexist. Darius Scott states, “For instance, on Kanye West’s new album, The Life of Pablo, he makes a misogynistic diss at Taylor Swift. The line goes, ‘I feel like me and Taylor might still have sex/ Why? I made that bitch famous.’” These lyrics are problematic because Kanye is saying that Swift owes him sex because he helped her career. It later came out that Swift knew and agreed to Kanye putting those lyrics in his song, but her consent does not excuse the overall message of the lyrics. Scott continues, “Black women and queer people have largely been the targets of sexism and homophobia in hip-hop,” and this is a problem because a large part of the Black community is made up of women and queer people. It is common for rappers in hip-hop to talk about women in a derogatory way. Not just calling them bitches and hoes, but by writing sexually explicit and violent lyrics about women. Many of the lyrics infer that women owe male rappers sex and are only good for their bodies. In Rocko’s song “U.O.E.N.O.”, which features rappers Future and Rick Ross, Rick Ross raps, “Put Molly all in her champagne, she ain’t even know it/ I took her home and I enjoyed that she ain’t even know it” (qtd. in Rhiannon). These lyrics imply that he drugged the woman by putting a hallucinogenic in her drink and has sex with the woman without her knowledge. These lyrics by this popular rapper are condoning date rape. When people rap along to these catchy songs, they often do not pick up on the hidden misogynist and scary lyrics towards women. Another case of blatant violence and misogyny in hip-hop that damages the women listeners are the lyrics from Jasper Dolphin from Tyler the Creator’s song “Bitch Suck Dick.” These lines go, “Once again I gotta punch a bitch in her shit/ I’m icy bitch, don’t look at my wrist/ Because if you do, I might blind you bitch.” Without a hint of subtlety, Jasper Dolphin says that he will hit a woman’s face with his jewelry if she “acts up.”

The problem with these kinds of songs and lyrics is that some people listening to them start to believe that this kind of behavior is alright because their favorite male rapper talks about disrespecting women, Black woman especially, like there is no problem with it. Many Black women do not have loud voices in society because they are often not given the respect they deserve in America. In an amazingly relevant speech given in 1962, Malcolm X states, “The most disrespected person in America is the black woman. The most unprotected person in America is the black woman. The most neglected person in America is the black woman” (qtd. in Rodriguez). Black women have always been the most oppressed group in America, and even if it is not as obvious now, Black women are still being oppressed in places like the media. The 25

places in which Black women are allowed to thrive, like the music industry and the media, have been devalued. If hip-hop artists, with their enormous social platforms, started to change some of the messages they say about Black women, then maybe Black women would start getting more respect, and their value in the media and music industry would be revived.

Not all hip-hop perpetuates violence, sexism, and sexual assault of women. Feminist hip-hop is extremely positive and healing for Black women who enjoy listening to hip-hop. However, a lot of mainstream hip-hop has harmed and continues to harm the Black women listening to it who are the objects of discussion in the music. Zeba Blay states that “rape, violence, and the degradation of women are not a ‘black thing’ […] Sexism in rap music didn’t spring forth solely from black culture […] Rather, the sexism we see in some hip-hop music is a reflection on sexism we see in society as a whole.” Even though hip-hop is the main genre of music that has a problem with disrespecting Black women, we should remember to critique all genres of music, not just hip-hop, that degrade women. Hip-hop can be toxic and harmful to Black women, but most Black women are intelligent enough to listen the music they love, while at the same time continuing to critique it for its harmful messages.

WORKS CITED Barasch, Emily. “From Lil’ Kim to Missy Elliott, the ‘90s Hip-Hop Stars Whose Style Still Inspires.” Vogue, 31 Jan. 2017, www.vogue.com/article/tbt-female-hip-hop-stars-90sfashion.

Boylorn, Robin M. Killing Me Softly or on the Miseducation of (Love and) Hip Hop: A Blackgirl Autoethnography. Sep 16, 2016. N.p., n.d.

Blay, Zeba. “What We Forget When We Talk About Hip-Hop’s Women Problem.” The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 17 Aug. 2015.

Bruce, La Marr Jurelle. “‘The People Inside My Head, Too’: Madness, Black Womanhood, and the Radical Performance of Lauryn Hill.” African American Review, vol. 45, no. 3, 2012, pp. 371-389.

Layne, Asha. “Now That's a Bad Bitch!: The State of Women in Hip-Hop.” The Hampton Institute. N.p., 14 Apr. 2014. www.hamptoninstitution.org/women-in-hiphop.html#.WQLMY1PyveR. Lyles, Travis. “Here’s the ‘Straight Outta Compton’ Casting Call That Everybody Thought Was Racist.” Business Insider, 13 Aug. 2015. www.businessinsider.com/racist-straight-outtacompton-casting-call-2015-8.

March, Chase. “The History of Women in Hip-Hop.” Silent Cacophony. N.p., 6 Apr. 2013. www.chasemarch.com/2013/04/the-history-of-women-in-hip-hop.html.

Minaj, Nicki. “Blow Ya Mind.” Pink Friday, Young Money, Cash Money, and Universal Motown, 2010.

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Queen Latifah. “Ladies First.” All Hail Queen, Tommy Boy, 1989.

Queen Latifah. “U.N.I.T.Y.” Black Reign, Motown, 1993.

Rhiannon, Alexis. “The Most Misogynistic Lyrics From Music This Past Year.” Crushable. N.p., 13 Jan. 2014. www.crushable.com/2014/01/13/entertainment/misogynistic-lyrics-in2013music/.

Rocko. “U.O.E.N.O.” Gift of Gab 2, Rocky Road Records, 2013.

Rodriguez, Matthew. “Here's the Malcolm X Speech About Black Women Beyoncé Sampled in ‘Lemonade’.” Mic. Mic Network Inc., 24 Apr. 2016. www.mic.com/articles/141642/heres-the-malcolm-x-speech-about-black-women-beyonce-sampled-in-lemonade#.

Myca4v5a7.

Scott, Darius. “For Those of Us Who Love Hip-Hop But Hate Misogyny and Homophobia.”

BGD. N.p., 04 May 2016. www.bgdblog.org/2016/02/for-those-of-us-who-love-hip-hopbut-hate-misogyny-and-homophobia/.

Tyler the Creator. “Bitch Suck Dick.” Goblin, XL Recordings, 2011.

West, Kanye. “Famous.” The Life of Pablo, GOOD Music and Def Jam Recordings, 2016.

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28

False Advertising, False Conception of Sweetness

By Suchanya Niyomkitjakarnkul How much do you know about the effects of overconsumption of sugar? I am pretty sure some of the first answers in your head would be weight gain, diabetes, metabolic dysfunction, or even heart disease. Welcome to the sickly sweet 21st century, where food contains anything but healthiness. Added sugars are present in 74% of processed foods under more than 60 different nicknames. In today’s world, food is made in mass production with only one thing in mind: profits. What is causing this addiction to sweetness? The answer to this question can be summed up in one word: advertisements. The persuasive techniques and marketing strategies of advertisements wittily gets you attracted to their promising claims. However, the only absolute truth on a box of frosted flakes cereal is the fact that it will slowly but unquestionably deteriorate your health. We are often too distracted to think about what we put in our mouth that we unintentionally relinquished our decisions to choose what is best for us. Unfortunately, our future generation, especially children, are dependent on us and our ways of living. They are being targeted by advertisements at a level that is too difficult for a child to understand. Serious actions should be taken in order to stop this epidemic of sugar before it becomes one of the essentials on our plate. The representation of sugar in advertisements influences today’s consumer toward an unhealthy lifestyle by underrating its consequences and advocating sugar intake through advertising techniques. Sugar has an addictive potential which encourages consumers to buy more sugary products.

Sugar is legal, socially accepted, and everybody loves it. Teachers reward us with candies for a job well done at school. We add sugar to our tea, ask for extra sweet in our coffee, and sprinkle it over our toast. We all love some sweetness on our plate. The question is, are we addicted to it?

The issue of sugar addiction should be taken into consideration by everyone because we are all consumers in today’s capitalist society. It is true that many factors could lead to addiction, but advertisements are encouraging the cravings of sugary food products; this leads to higher possibility of addiction as the preference for sweetness is stimulated.

There is a positive correlation between the frequency of sugar consumption and sugar addiction.

Several psychologists and researchers including David H. Epstein and Y. Shaham, Magarie Lenoir et al., C. Divert et al., and Ashley Gearhardt et al. have investigated the topic of sugar addiction through different disciplines and sciences. Epstein and Shaham, Gearhardt et al., and Lenior et al. chose rats as their object of the study. Epstein and Shaham’s experiment, “Cheesecake-eating rats and the question of food addiction,” feeds rats a high fat and sugar diet with foods like bacon, sausage, and cheesecake to see the difference in behavioral and physiological changes compared to rats on normal balanced diets. Gearhardt et al.’s experiment focuses on rats’ diet preferences after being fed food with a high amount of sugar. Similarly, at one point in their experiments, the rats were given the chance to exclusively choose between sweetened water containing saccharin, which is an intense sweetener, and intravenous cocaine.

The results from both researchers showed that there is a significantly higher preference of saccharin over cocaine. Lenoir et al. states in “Intense Sweetness Surpasses Cocaine Rewarf” that “the large majority of animals (94%) preferred the sweet taste of saccharin” (2007, p. 1).

Generally, this shows that the subjects of the experiment are much more easily addicted to sugar, compared to any type of drug. These results uncover the hidden effects of sugar consumption 29

that will never be mentioned on any advertisements because advertisers are trying to encourage consumers’ purchase of sugary food by only highlighting its great taste. Furthermore, this preference of sweetness cannot be overcome by increasing the amount of cocaine, or by using different methods of cocaine intoxication, sensitization, or intake escalation (Lenoir et al., 2007).

A behavioral experiment by Divert et al. found a positive relation between the frequency of added sugar in a child’s diet and sweetness preference. From these studies conducted on both rats and children, it can be speculated that the higher frequency of sugar in one’s diet would lead to a higher possibility of sweetness preference. The liking of sugar in the long run could lead to sweetness addiction, which will surely cause one to seek more sugar. The studies also insinuate that once an individual is addicted to sugar, it is very hard to overcome these unhealthy habits.

As a result, consumers will be more likely to purchase high sugar food products because they crave sugar.

Sugar addiction leads to binge-eating which creates a feedback loop, encouraging consumers to crave more sugar. Both Gearhardt et al. and Epstein and Shaham reported that even with mild electric shocks, the rats would still seek a high fat and sugar diet (2012). This is one example that indicates sugar addiction. Both researchers additionally discussed the topic of binge eating, an aspect that leads to addiction. Gearhardt et al.’s results contain evidence that “highly palatable foods activate similar brain systems and obesity and binge eating disorder are related to similar patterns of neural activation implicated in substance dependence” (Gearhardt et al., 2012, p. 47).

This stresses the effects of sugar on brain activity, which will eventually change an individual’s preferences toward a sugar-liking diet. Once sugar is favored in one’s diet, it is not hard to persuade her or him using advertising techniques by prioritizing taste and not the consequences of sugar intake. Likewise, Epstein and Shaham’s work proposed that irregular amounts of sugar consumption could lead to physiological and behavioral symptoms relating to discontinuation, such as binge-eating consumption of sugar or any type of food high in sugar, which are similar to those seen during drug withdrawal. Other than binge eating, Epstein and Shaham also found that rats with extended access to sugar show a disruption in their brain reward system. This behavioral change similarly reflects the symptoms of addiction in humans (Epstein & Shaham, 2010, p. 531). Conversely, Divert and his team of researchers believe that there is definitely a positive correlation between candy and snack consumption and an increase in the preference of sweetness. This preference of sweetness, however, is not associated particularly with sugar sweetened drinks, cereal, dairy, fruit product or added sugar consumption (Divert et al., 2016).

He explains that the conclusion was made upon the results which show some correlation, but was too weak to be valid as he states, “our results seem to be in agreement with other results showing no association between the overall consumption of sweet food products and sweetness liking in children” (Divert et al., 2016). Still, even if the correlation is weak, it does subtly hypothesize that sugar addiction is caused by the frequency of sugar consumption, which could be enhanced by sugar advertising. From this hypothesis, it can be deduced that if there is more stimulation of sugar intake leading to a higher frequency of sugar consumption, then it is more likely that an individual would become dependent on sugar without being aware of it.

Given these points, society’s awareness of the consequences of sugar should be raised as an issue. Consumers should be more concerned about advertisements around them, and the issue of sugar-related diseases needs to stop being underestimated. It is true that some of these diseases may be due to certain aspects of our lifestyle. However, advertisements are encouraging these 30

unhealthy habits. Therefore, consumers should stand for their rights and businesses should reflect on the consequences of marketing strategies, especially the audience for the advertisements.

Children are at risk from sugar advertising Together with the addictive potential, consumers are manipulated through advertisements, which are mainly targeted toward children as they are the easiest to influence. No one can argue that our daily life is surrounded by advertisements. They are in front of us on a billboard on the way to school, handed to us before and after entering the mall, and even on toilet doors. As mature individuals, we should have the ability to interpret what advertisements are selling to us.

However, children are less likely to be able to effectively understand advertisements. The lack of knowledge and inability to interpret this type of media could put children at the risk of false advertising, marketing techniques, and persuasive mechanisms of media.

Children are more likely to remember what is shown to them in advertisements and are easier to influence compared to adults. They also have the ability to persuade their parents’ decisions when it comes to grocery shopping. Public health researchers Natalie M. Schmitt, Nicole Wagner and Wilhelm Kirch discussed this issue in their article introducing the correlation between food advertising targeted towards young children and their diet preferences. She reported that there is a connection between promotional advertisements and children’s food knowledge, preferences and behaviors (Schmitt et al., 2013). She states, “The children themselves are able to actively change their parents’ attitudes” (Schmitt et al., 2013, 58). For this reason, children are targeted as they have a strong significance in the family. By targeting children, advertisers are therefore able to actively sell their products to the parents who will actually be the one to decide to buy the products. This is when the power of children to persuade their parents comes in play. As far as marketing and advertisements are mechanisms of today’s consumerism, I believe some limit should be seriously taken in consideration in order to protect young children against the venal interest of any stakeholders in the business hub. This is because children’s exposure to sugar advertisements could lead to some possible long-term habits.

Children’s behaviors and eating habits are greatly influenced by their receptivity to advertisements. Both A. Lebel et al. and Schmitt et al. put forward the idea that with more time spent on watching television and advertisements, children are more likely to be involved in sedentary activities. This means children are less likely to be willing to get active and be involved with outside activities, which correlates to Lebel et al.’s statement that fitness levels among children have decreased significantly over a period of time (Lebel et al., 2016). Amy Ustjanauskas et al., Auden McClure et al., and Schmitt et al. further stressed that with children's wider access to media through different branches of advertisements such as television, mobile phones, and the internet, children are more likely to become obese further leading to being diagnosed with diabetes. The issue with advertising is that children are introduced to more sugary food products. As mentioned before, this exposure to sugar intake stimulation will lead to a higher frequency of sugar consumption and eventually to sweetness preferences. Due to the representation of sugar being distorted by advertisers, children are not getting the right information they deserve. Schmitt et al. and McClure et al. proposed in their articles that television food commercials expose children to more unhealthy eating habits. In the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, McClure et al.’s research concluded that there is a positive 31

correlation between higher television fast-food advertising receptivity and obesity and sugarsweetened beverage consumption. Lesser et al. likewise discusses this correlation in his crosssectional study, where residents living in an area with 30% advertisement exposure would have about 2.6% higher chance of being diagnosed with obesity (2013). One of Schmitt et al.’s findings supports this correlation by pointing out that the representation of unhealthy diet in today’s media, especially fast-food, strongly influence children’s misunderstanding of the effects of unhealthy diets and therefore underestimates their negative health implications leading to an inordinate consumption of low nutritional food. Lebel et al. further supports the previous assumptions made by Schmitt et al. by saying that over consumption of low nutritional food has been an important factor leading to childhood obesity. Sugar sweetened beverages for example fall into the category of drinks that only add calories but are absent of useful vitamins and minerals. These kinds of calories are referred to as ‘empty calories’ in “The Sugar Controversy”

by Fernando Vio and Ricardo Uauy. The article explains how these sugar-derived empty calories may satisfy energy needs but could possibly lead to micronutrient inadequacy and correlated health consequences. This is a clear illustration of how the representation of sugar in media is being portrayed as healthy and beneficial leading to customer’s oblique understanding of what they are consuming.

Advertised food products on children’s websites are often under the standard of independent nutrition. Similarly, both Ustjanauskas et al. and Schmitt et al. pointed out that the food products that meet the standard are not heavily promoted to children. A survey conducted in Sweden by Schmitt et al. further discloses that about 50% of advertisements aimed towards children are promoting chips, candy, soda pop, cookies, and ice cream (2007). On the other hand, a study in America conducted by Ustjanauskas et al. confirmed that breakfast cereals and fast food were mostly advertised. Lesser et al. additionally claimed that “fewer than 5% of the ads were for vegetables or fruits” (2013, p. 2). For this reason, children are not protected from the promotion of unhealthy diets. It can be inferred that sugary food products are easier to sell to children as it has long been associated with the idea of good taste. This association of sugary food and its appetizing taste is a product of how advertisements have always portrayed sugar as being tasty and delightful, while its effects on our health are totally ignored.

Persuasive techniques are being used in advertisements to manipulate consumers Advertising has been used for promotional purposes and marketing strategies, suggesting its success in the business industry. It has exceedingly evolved in the past century, generating an escalation in both sales and capital for many companies around the world. While advertisers may not anticipate the negative impacts on today’s consumers, there is more than enough evidence to support that consumerism, together with the enhancement of advertisements, causes significantly more social problems than it does choices. Advertising techniques are being used to represent sugar as being healthy, creating a false image of its consequences. Especially with the evidence that 81% of food and drinks advertisements are composed of high calories, fat, and sugar (Guran et. al., 2010). It is, therefore, important for us to notice the persuasive techniques used by advertisers in order to persuade us into their loop of unending purchases.

With competition from different modes of advertising, television based advertisements still remain the most effective advertising medium. According to M.J. Vilaro et al., food advertisements often use techniques such as sound effects, fast moving images, music, and 32

special 3D effects in order to grab the attention of children (2017). By grabbing the audience’s attention, the advertisements are able to reach a wide range of audiences, subconsciously persuading them to be easily dominated by the content just with the use of persuasive techniques.

Andrew Cheyne et al. discusses in the article “Marketing Sugary Cereals to Children in the Digital Age” that music helps to create a kid-friendly atmosphere and, at the same time, create a mood of having fun and being entertained. Therefore, the use of music will encourage children to keep watching the advertisement and also obscure the fact that they are watching an advertisement. This reinforces the earlier argument made by Schmitt et al. that “young children are not necessarily able to distinguish between TV programs and advertisements” (2007, p. 58).

For these reasons, the advertisement itself will be interpreted by children as a form of entertainment as their auditory senses are being distracted. This is an incredibly prevalent tactic that should be recognized because it is one of the main contributions to why consumers, especially children, are unable to identify the use of advertising techniques. Once advertising techniques are overlooked, consumers are therefore more likely to believe in the claims proposed by advertisers. Guran also stated that more than 30% of all obesogenic advertisements targeted children by using audiovisual properties (Guran et. al., 2010). Vilaro et al. further argued that these techniques are often complemented with repetition. The lyrics of the music and the fast flashing images of the products are repeated over and over to ensure that the products will be memorable. This makes it easier for children to recall the products being sold. Repetition can be implemented in a subtle manner by placing it in context to create a coincidental situation.

Another important aspect of television advertising is product placement, which plays a vital role in brand awareness by connecting the brand to the idea of popularity. As explained in “Children Catchers: The tricks used to push unhealthy food to your children,” a Which? report based on research by The Food Commission, product placement has the ability to raise brand awareness and associate brands with excitement. The use of emotional appeal helps the audience to identify those excitements, and as a result, identify with the product. This helps to reinforce the positive image of their product, which is an effect that most sugary food products advertisements have adopted in order to neglect the consequences of sugar consumption. An example of food products that have been placed in a film includes Burger King in Scooby Doo II, Spiderman II, and Fantastic Four. Judging by the films in which these products have been placed, the target audience of these products is children and young adults. By targeting these groups, Burger King will be able to sell their brand image as being in trend and popular. Other forms of product placement might not be as obvious. For example, large Coca Cola cups are placed on the judges’ table in the TV show American Idol. The idea of product placement, however, can be discussed as a controversial issue. Schmitt et al. stresses how product placement disregards the regulation of the difference between advertising and editorial content. In short, it can be criticized that product placement jeopardizes consumer’s freedom of choice because the only way to withdraw from any advertising is by not watching the TV-program. The placement of the product plays a critical role in influencing consumers’ decisions, but it is also important to consider who is holding the product.

Marketing analyst Hassan and Rozendaal et al. shifted to a different perspective of television advertising by discussing the idea of celebrity endorsement. Celebrity endorsement is used to build brand awareness through famous name recognition, which influences consumers to purchase the products due to celebrity credibility. Hassan revealed that celebrity endorsement 33

leads to greater reliability of the brands, which further helps to raise product awareness and encourages purchases (Hassan, 2015). With greater reliability, the audience is also more likely to believe the content of the advertisement, making them easier to manipulate and persuade. The results from Hassan’s experiment shows a positive effect for purchase intention when a celebrity appears in a TV advertisement and endorses a specific product. The reason for this could be due to the fact that it is easier to grab consumer’s attention when they have some connection to product. As expert in consumer economics Han states, “Celebrities are eye-catching; there’s a pure awareness factor that makes you stop and look at an advertisement because you recognize the spokesperson.” (Han & Yazdanifard, 2015, p. 25). Celebrity attachment is also linked to how well a celebrity can relate to the product. The article “The Children’s Catchers” implies that companies are more likely to choose celebrities who appeal to young adults as they are the easiest group to be influenced. A surprising result from Rozendaal et al.’s experiment shows that young children of age 10-12 demonstrate a better understanding of advertiser’s intentions than teenagers or adults (2011). This is a clever way in which advertisers choose their advertising approach for different group of audience. It can be assumed that as the target audience moves toward teenagers, the products have to be able not to just sell the product itself, but the image that is attached to the product. Teenagers are at the age of trying to present who they are and, therefore, are more likely to conform to society’s standard in order to fit into a niche they desire.

For this reason, the image of a product can create the personality of an individual. Expert in consumer economics Han continued to discuss this topic of celebrity endorsement in her article, where she pointed out that another benefit of celebrity endorsement is brand recall. She later explains that: Ashton Kutcher has been in countless commercials for Nikon cameras. As a result, when people see Kutcher on television or anywhere, they immediately affiliate him with Nikon cameras. The more a product is on a person’s mind, the more likely it will influence their purchasing behavior. Because people see Kutcher constantly on television, the Nikon brand is on people’s minds much more (Han & Yazdanifard, 2015).

For this reason, having a famous celebrity endorsing a brand can be very influential on consumer’s purchases. It can be assumed that the effect of celebrity endorsement is to create the thought that “if this product works for a celebrity, then it should work for me.” As a result, the consumer reacts to the logical concept and therefore purchases the product. Due to technological progression, companies have to adapt to the changing world.

In the era of digital advances, increasing sales and revenues are highly dependent on a company’s ability to effectively use the internet for marketing technologies. Which? explained how online games can offer a much greater opportunity for companies of unhealthy products to publicize their products to children. Most importantly because they are presented repeatedly as the games are played. Expert on the food and beverage industry analysis Cheyne et al. adds on to this by saying that “the branded messages embedded in advergames blur the boundary between content and marketing while encouraging consumption of unhealthful foods and beverages” (2013). This is an occurring technique used by advertisers to oversee the consequences of sugar, which means that the representation of sugar is not being presented as unhealthy. Similar to television advertisements, online games have a positive correlation with an increase in user’s decisions to buy their products (Cheyne et al., 2013). The article reported that “more than 70% of 34

children who played advergames consider them to be just games, not advertisements” (Cheyne et al., 2013). This is a very common tactic used by advertisers possibly because when children are unable to recognize their medium as advertisements, the brand is more associated with entertainment instead of propaganda. An example from the Which? report is The Sims game where they included a McDonald’s character into the game. In context of The Sims, when a customer ate the food served by the McDonald’s character, they earn credits for hunger and fun.

This again put forth the image that McDonald’s is beneficial, fun, and appealing to children.

Along with online games, both Vilaro et al. and Which? revealed that competition is key to attract children to the game. For this reason, children are more likely to spend more time with the game, becoming more exposed to their products. Part of the competition can be a “Tell a friend” or “Invite” feature that asks the player to send messages to their friends about the game in order to earn online credits. Cheyne et al. uses an example from the frosted Mini-Wheat’s website that reinforces the feature of sharing the game with more people. As a result, these games will contain a peer popularity appeal making it easier to grab children’s attention, as suggested by Rozendaal et al.

Online games are also considered valuable data collection for advertisers. Quizzes and polls are often used to create an interactive environment and at the same time present their brand as being caring about their customers. Cheyne et al. stated, “Of websites, 29% included polls and/or quizzes to survey children about their personal preferences” (2013). This suggests how advertisers can use this feature to examine which products are being favored by their target audience. Again, data analysis can be applied for future decision making on marketing strategies, making them more effective and suited for the audience. Vilaro et al. further pointed out that these quizzes are also associated with pop culture characters, such as Disney princesses, Harry Potter characters, or Marvel superheroes, etc. Examples of this use of quizzes are “What Disney character are you based on your favorite cereal?” or “We can guess your favorite Harry Potter characters by your breakfast.” By using these famous characters, it is easier for children to associate with the brand as they are used to images of these characters in books or movies.

Similar to the effects of celebrity endorsement, the use of pop culture characters will enhance the idea of brand recall. There is no doubt that the use of the internet can influence one’s purchase to a certain limit; however, on-the-spot advertising is also essential.

Packaging for unhealthy food products are often associated with toys to grab children’s attention, influencing them to persuade their parents to purchase it. This idea was discussed throughout the report by Which?. One way in which toys are being used to promote food purchases is integrating them into people’s everyday life. Some companies produce plastic toys that integrate the brand into children’s play. Pizza Hut’s Barbie house and Burger King’s Play-doh food set are great examples to illustrate this. By doing this, children get used to the brand and therefore recognize the products when they see them in a store or an advertisement, reinforcing their brand awareness. Another aspect of packaging involves puzzles, cut-out games, and toys that are printed or attached to the product itself. These often appear on sugary breakfast cereals because the packaging allows a lot of material that could be potentially used. These gadgets do not only make the product more appealing to children in the store, but they also ensure that children will spend time reading the packaging, which often contains lots of food claims to grab both children’s and parents’ attention. The word choice used for their food claims also connotes to the idea of being fun, engaging, and healthy. Some examples are “natural,” “vitamins and minerals,” 35

“crunchy,” and “pleasure.” Competition can be presented in different forms, such as collecting part of the packing for prizes like their brands’ toys, which leads to more purchases or scanning barcodes on the box that connects to a game website. Again, these toy aspects often contain factors that encourage children to be competitive among their friends. This is because children are more likely to be interested an activity that allows them to show their skills and beat other competitors. Packaging can also be used for promotional advertisements to directly enhance parents’ interest in the products. Vilaro et al.’s article focused on the offer of vouchers and giveaways on cereal packaging. Most of the time these products are toys, but some can be seen as educational to grab parents’ attention. Tickets to educational attractions, books, or discounts for school equipment are the most popular tools that advertisers use on cereal packaging. All in all, the use of packaging first grabs the consumers’ attention, then influences them to believe in the advertising aspects, which leads to consumers purchasing the products.

With all things considered, one can conclude that the representation of sugar in advertisements can doubtlessly influence consumers’ preferences toward a high sugar diet. It is unethical that the consequences of a high sugar diet are not addressed by advertisers, while the appealing features in regards to taste are over-exaggerated. You may be questioning in your head, so what? Why should I care? Well, take a step back and think about how many spoons of sugar you put into your cup of coffee this morning, or even while you are reading this paper, and how many bars of Snickers have you eaten while studying for your exams. This epidemic of sugar is one of the leading causes of obesity and diabetes. It is spreading all over the world, and we have the choice to stop it. However, advertisements are stepping over the boundaries of marketing strategies, jeopardizing our right to choose what we consume. For these reasons, education and restriction must be implemented to raise awareness of the consequences of sugar consumption and protect consumers against false advertising mechanisms.

REFERENCES Cheyne, A. D., Dorfman, L., Bukofzer, E., & Harris, J. L. (2013). Marketing sugary cereals to children in the digital age: A content analysis of 17 child-targeted websites. Journal of Health Communication, 18(5), 563-582. doi:10.1080/10810730.2012.743622 Divert, C., Chabanet, C., Schoumacker, R., Martin, C., Lange, C., Issanchou, S., & Nicklaus, S. (2016). Relation between sweet food consumption and liking for sweet taste in French children. Food Quality and Preference, 56, 18-27. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual. 2016.09.009 Epstein, D. H., & Shaham, Y. (2010). Cheesecake-eating rats and the question of food addiction.

Nature Neuroscience, 13(5), 529-531. doi:10.1038/nn0510-529 Gearhardt, A., Roberts, M., & Ashe, M. (2013). If sugar is addictive…what does it mean for the law? Journal Of Law, Medicine & Ethics, 15(4) 4146-49. doi:10.1111/jlme.12038 Güran, T., Turan, S., Akcay, T., Degirmenci, F., Avci, O., Asan, A.,…Bereket, A. (2010).

Content analysis of food advertising in Turkish television. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 46, doi: 427-30. 10.1111/j.1440-1754.2010.01753.x.

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Han, O. W. & Yazdanifard, R. (2015). The Review of the Effectiveness of Celebrity Advertising that Influence Consumer’s Perception and Buying Behavior. Global Journal of Management and Business Research, 15(4), 23-29. https://www.academia.edu/12317241/ The_Review_of_the_Effectiveness_of_Celebrity_Advertising_that_Influence_Consumer _s_Perception_and_Buying_Behavior Hassan, A. (2015). Effects of TV advertisement on consumer buying behavior: A comparative study of rural-urban and male-female consumers. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Sciences, 11(3), 608-614. doi:10.10.1038/nphys1170 Lebel, A., Morin, P., Robitaille, É., Lalonde, B., Florina Fratu, R., & Bisset, S. (2016). Sugar sweetened beverage consumption among primary school students: Influence of the schools’ vicinity. Journal Of Environmental & Public Health, 1(10). doi10.1155/2016/1416384 Lesser, L. I., Zimmerman, F. J., & Cohen, D. A. (2013). Outdoor advertising, obesity, and soda consumption: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 1-7. doi:10.1186/14712458-13-20 Lenoir, M., Serre, F., Cantin, L., & Ahmed, S. H. (2007). Intense sweetness surpasses cocaine reward. PLoS ONE, 2(8), 1-10. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000698 Mcclure, A. C., Tanski, S. E., Gilbert-Diamond, D., Adachi-Mejia, A. M., Li, Z., Li, Z., & Sargent, J. D. (2013). Receptivity to television fast-food restaurant marketing and obesity among U.S. youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 45(5), 560-568. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2013.06.011 Rozendaal, E., Buijzen, M., & Valkenberg, P. (2011). Children's understanding of advertisers’ persuasive tactics. International Journal of Advertising, 30(2), 329-350. doi:10.2.S01/ IJA-30-2-329-350 Schmitt, N.M., Wagner, N. & Kirch, W. (2007). Consumers’ freedom of choice—Advertising aimed at children, product placement, and food labeling. J Public Health, 15(57), 57-62. doi:10.1007/s10389-006-0080-2 Which? (2006, January). Child Catchers: The tricks used to push unhealthy food to your children. . London, UK: Which? Retrieved from http:www.teespublichealth.nhs.uk/ document.aspx?id=3706&siteID=1012 Ustjanauskas, A. E., Harris, J. L., & Schwartz, M. B. (2014). Food and beverage advertising on children’s web sites. Pediatric Obesity, 9(5), 362-372. doi:10.1111/j.2047-6310.2013.

00185.x Vilaro, M., Barnett, T., Watson, A., Merten, J., & Mathews, A. (2017). Weekday and weekend food advertising varies on children’s television in the USA but persuasive techniques and

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unhealthy items still dominate. Public Health, 142(22), 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.

2016.10.011 Vio, F., & Uauy, R. (2007) The sugar controversy, Cornell University Libraries 9(5), 1-12.

Retrieved from http://cip.cornell.edu/dns.gfs/1200428197

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Thorough Analysis of the Great Recession and Assessment of the Dodd-Frank Act

By Jasper Jay Marcelo The global financial crisis of 2009 has casts its ominous shadow over many countries, resulting in what is infamously known as the Great Recession. Who knew a seemingly isolating occurrence in subprime mortgages in the U.S, exacerbated by financial instruments known as derivatives, most notably credit default swaps, coupled with lax government regulation and a prolonged period of lowered interest rates could lead to a near global economic disaster? A complete and total collapse of the global financial system was, at the time, a very likely realization. To illustrate how serious the Great Recession was, the S&P 500 had fallen by forty percent (see figure 1); global credit was at a standstill; Americans sustained an approximate eight percent change in gross domestic product (Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2017); and the U.S economy was hemorrhaging several thousand jobs per week. Industry, or blue-collar jobs, sustained the greatest damage, such as motor vehicle body and parts manufacturing as well as retail and employment services.

To understand how the Great Recession came into fruition, one needs to analyze fundamental characteristics of bubbles and bursts, in particular those of the housing bubble of the twenty-first century: complex financial instruments known as derivatives, perverse incentives that not only allowed, but rather encouraged predatory lending practices; creative financial vehicles such as over the counter (OTC) derivatives, mortgage-backed securities, and collateralized debt obligations; and finally, lose government policies. The crisis was many years in the making and was fueled by several factors, but fundamentally it was caused by excessive leverage at each level of the economy and an unwarranted amount of systemic risks. At the end of 2009, the U.S recession—spanning from December 2007 to January 2009—caused 8.7 million Americans to lose their jobs while global gross domestic product (GDP) decreased by two percent (Public Information Office, 2010; Deal & McCann, 2013).

The events of 2007 and 2008 caused a sharp reassessment of the strength and self-correcting abilities of the financial system. In response, The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, passed by the Obama Administration and signed into action on July 21, 2010, addressed key weaknesses in the financial system. It is my belief that the act is a valuable tool to hedge against risk and offers important protection not only to consumers but to the economy.

The act is comprehensive in scope—composed of over 2000 pages—and extends greater authority to the Federal Reserve, the Securities Exchange Commission, and other regulatory agencies (Hensarling, n.d.). Moreover, this act, sponsored by U.S. Senator Christopher J. Dodd and U.S. Representative Barney Frank, is highlighted by enhanced oversight and regulation of financial institutions, methods to combat systemic risks, increased transparency in regards to the trading of derivatives, regulation of credit rating agencies, and the creation of consumer protection agencies.

It can be a particularly profitable, yet dangerous time in a period when credit is easily available, investors utilize excessive amounts of leverage, systemic risk is in every crevice of the market, and people thoroughly believe asset prices will increase. In short, the Great Recession was

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caused by the elusive yet expanding housing bubble of the twenty-first century. Throughout this paper, I will argue the benefits and advantages of the Dodd-Frank Act. A bubble (boom) is characterized by rapid increase in asset prices followed by a sharp contraction (bust or burst). Components include exuberant investor behavior, devising creative instruments to make profits, and unwavering postulation that asset prices will go up.

Unfortunately, these boom and busts have a devastating impact in the real economy. Because history offers so many great examples of bubbles and bursts, every consumer should recognize the general traits and characteristics of past financial booms and bust to ensure not only a robust economy, but a strong future as well. Thorough analysis of the tulip craze and housing bubble of the twenty-first century will render a crucial foundational understanding of booms and bust, which in effect will lead to proper judging how effective the Dodd-Frank Act is at reducing risk and increasing consumer protection.

The first bubble recorded in human history happened in 1593, when a professor from Vienna brought to Leyden a collection of peculiar plants that had its origins in Turkey. Little did he know he would catalyze tulip mania which lasted until 1637 (Malkiel, 2015, p. 38). Word had gotten around, and the Dutch wanted nothing but to add the adored flower to their gardens.

Demand soared as did the price. It is worth noting that, at the height of tulip mania, one bulb of tulips could command a new carriage, two grey houses, and a harness (Jones, Jones, & Timlett, 2015).

With the amazing money to be made, almost everyone got in the practice of buying with the intent of selling for a higher price, a practice known as flipping. Like flipping, the Dutch introduced a unique type of derivative, aptly named “call options.� A derivative is a bilateral contract where the value of the contract is derived from some other security, index, or measurable event. Think of a side-bet. To demonstrate, suppose I purchase a call option for ten guilders (the basic monetary unit of the Netherlands preceding euros) covering a month's span.

The current market price is fifty guilders. If demand price increases to one hundred guilders, I have the right to call (buy) at fifty and simultaneously sell for one hundred, earning forty guilders. Thus, tulips traded several hundred times a day, with each person in the chain realizing a profit. These two practices increased investors’ insatiable appetite for speculation and thirst for profit.

Consequently, around 1637, the collective price for tulips had risen so high that some people figured it would be prudent to sell their bulbs (Jones, Jones, & Timlett, 2015). Thereupon, more and more sold their bulbs, and a snowball effect rippled through the value of tulips. As the demand for tulips decreased, a sharp contraction in tulip prices occurred, followed by a widespread panic. A couple of years later the once mighty tulips cost no more than a piece of produce (Malkiel, 2015, p. 41).

Like the tulip craze of the seventeenth century, the real estate bubble approximately four centuries later featured energetic crowd behavior and exponential increase of assets prices. As time went on, however, investors began to devise creative means and utilize vehicles to realize high profits while minimizing their risk. In many ways, financial institutions practiced regulatory arbitrage, which is attacking loopholes in capital requirements and adopting financial 40

innovations to circumvent the regulatory oversight designed to limit risk. In conjunction with analyzing the real estate bubble, we need to properly examine the factors that caused the bubble.

First, consider the circumstances at play prior to the housing bubble. A mild collapse of the technology stock bubble and downward pressures on the economy following the devastating September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks caused US monetary authorities to aggressively reduce national interest rates (see figure 2). The Federal Reserve began to incorporate reductions to fund rates, lowering it from approximately six percent in 2001 to one percent by 2003 (see exhibit 3).

It stayed that way until 2004, which lead many households to delight in heavy “consumerism” (see figure 3). In effect, the 2001 recession was rather short; on the other hand, it sowed the seed for the Great Recession several years later.

Low interest rates proved to be a problem for most financial institutions with bonds, stocks, U.S treasury bills, and other securities offering little rate of return (Jost 2008, para. 91). Berkeley Professor Pierre-Olivier Gourinchas warned of the danger claiming that low “[interest] rates can be dangerous in a rapidly expanding economic environment because they relax long-term budget constraints, allowing households, governments and firms to be lulled into a false sense of financial security and leading to dangerous increases in leverage and potential misallocation of capital” (Gourinchas 2010, p.12-13). It can be reasoned that Gourinchas possessed macroeconomic intelligence; consumers adore a daydream and despise a nightmare. This dichotomy stems from the tendency that security leads to instability and vice versa.

Second, we must examine a major contributor in the housing bubble: mortgage backed securities.

MBS are a type of security representing an investment in a pool of real estate loans. Typically, before the invention of MBS, prospective home buyers looking to purchase real estate requested mortgages from a bank. The bank would exercise due diligence and investigate the applicant’s income, debt, and credit score. Then if the customer were qualified, the bank would issue a mortgage for the interest, principals, and any fees associated (Jobst, 2008). The home owner would then pay the principal plus interest for a certain amount of time towards the bank. The disadvantage of the “originate and hold” arrangement is that the bank’s capital and resources are tied up until its assets (mortgage) is paid off. With the introduction of MBS, mortgage originators were still able create the loan—earning a fee in the process—then package it with hundreds, perhaps thousands, of other mortgages and offer it to a spectrum of investors, firms, or investment banks with different needs, while simultaneously freeing up its books.

MBS allowed investors to buy into mortgages and banks to free up capital. A major advantage of MBS was the fact that the risk of default was substantially low. For example, consider a pool of one thousand mortgages which represented one MBS. If Adam Smith and John M. Keynes are the only two out of one thousand mortgages to default, the other mortgages could absorb the loss and still make the MBS an attractable asset. The principal and interest payments from the assets are passed to the purchaser of the security. In addition, from the financial institution’s perspective, it is often price effective to raise money through “securitization,” the process of turning mortgages, credit card loans, and other debt into marketable securities (Jobst, 2008, para.

3). Furthermore, securitized assets were then less costly for banks to hold (Jobst, 2008, para. 3).

Thus, previously unmarketable securities were now proper financial instruments that could be traded both domestically and internationally, beyond the scope of regulatory measures.

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In hindsight, securitization came out of a real desire for banks to capture a higher yield. In addition, with transferring the risk of default to other investors, MBS offered a great tool to realize profits and hedge against risk. This “originate and distribute” approach theoretically brought broad economic benefits by disturbing credit exposures, thereby lowering risk concentrations and reducing systemic vulnerabilities.

Having exhausted the demand of credit-worthy, income producing home buyers, banks began to target a subgroup they typically avoided in the past: subprime burrowers. Remember, all the banks had to do was originate the loan then trade and pass on the risk to other investors. In effect, households were taking on adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs), sometimes with no down payment. To further entice borrowers, these loans had low initial repayments for the first few years (interest-only mortgages) and some mortgage originators did not verify for income or assess credit scores of these subprime group (Meyers, 1998). Moreover, the U.S government expressed a genuine desire for increased homeownership in the U.S. Thus the Community Reinvestment Act encouraged financial institutions to extend mortgages to lower income neighborhoods and residential areas.

New mortgage products that employ low or no down payments and up to 100 percent loan-tovalue ratios are made possible by credit scoring and automated underwriting. And many of the products have received secondary market acceptance. These new technologies also have significantly expanded consumer access to credit cards and are being used by many lenders to underwrite small business loans based on the creditworthiness of the business owner. This led to perverse predatory lending practices targeting citizens from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.

This provided downward pressure on mortgage originators to produce as many MBS as possible.

Between 1980 and 2005 in aggregate, the financial sector profit increased eight hundred percent (Clemmitt, 2010, para. 102). Similar to MBS, asset-backed securities and collateralized debt obligations were pressed into service. It can be rationalized that securitization compromised lending standards to allow for easier lending, especially considering mortgage default rates prior to 2004 were stable (see figure 4) and the wide availability of hedging tools were encouraging investors to take more risk to achieve a higher yield.

Third, the quickly expanding over-the-counter derivative market combined with securitization to increase exposure to risk. OTC Derivatives are not traded on an exchange and are directly traded between two parties. Therefore, these instruments were not subject to the same regulatory measures and procedures as those securities that were traded on the public market. It should be noted that the total value of the derivative market is said to be $1.5 quadrillion (Lendmen, 2015).

Compared to the world's gross domestic product (GDP) of $74.3 trillion, $1.5 quadrillion is truly an unimaginable number (The World Bank, 2017). Due to the inherent difficulty of accurately assessing derivatives, the total value of the derivative market is not entirely right. That is why Warren Buffett aptly called derivatives “financial time bombs” (Buffett, 2002).

Fourth, bankers introduced credit-default swaps, a type of derivative, as insurance policies on the mortgage-backed bonds. To illustrate, suppose I hold corporate bonds from Nike. Then, news breaks out about Nike’s CFO committing accounting fraud or some other major incident, causing me to worry about their solvency. The worry manifests on itself, and I begin to seriously 42

contemplate about my bonds and if Nike will honor them. I could buy and hold an insurance policy from a company such as American Insurance Group (AIG), which will pay me if Nike defaults. The problem with credit-default swaps are that anybody can get in on them, even without owning the underlying security. More importantly, and perhaps most surprisingly, AIG does not have to meet capital requirement when offering CDS. In addition, many firms figured that it would be prudent price-maximizing practice to provide credit-default swaps on MBS. After all, who doesn’t pay their mortgages? Referring to my example mentioned above, consider it from AIG’s point of view: Nike rarely defaults on its bonds, and Nike is doing well earning profits and sustaining growth. AIG can capitalize on my pessimism and earn a steady stream of income by offering CDS to susceptible investors who hold an opposing view. In other words, AIG is speculating that Nike will not face insolvency while I am speculating that Nike might default on its loan. It is, in every sense of the word, pure speculation.

Against this backdrop, a bull market was imminent. Then the unthinkable happened; there was a correction in the housing market. The Federal Reserve increased interest rates to five percent beginning in 2007, thus increasing interest on mortgages. Homeowners faced an “upside-down” scenario where they owned more than their houses were worth (Trejos, 2007). This caused some to simply walk away from payment causing home defaults to rise (White, 2015). As residential insolvency began to become more widespread so did foreclosures, thereby offering cheaper homes to prospective homebuyers (Clemmitt, 2010). The presence of more homes brought residential property values down. The housing bubble had effectively burst.

One can decipher how all externalities mentioned are sensitively interconnected and dependent upon each other. The fallout of bubbles is not unique and merely confined to the financial sector.

People were not paying off their homes (Trejos, 2007). Investors were not receiving payments from their MBS. The owners of CDS got their big payouts. The Insurers of the CDS were extremely undercapitalized; therefore, they were unable to sustain all of the insurance payouts and heavy losses (Billitter, 2008). Financial institutions started to hoard liquidity, unwilling to extend credit to others (Jones, Jones, & Timlett, 2015). Americans, with lost homes and jobs, were unwilling to exercise in consumerism (see Table 1). With decreased consumption of goods and services, firms were not actualizing profit, thus, ushering in a severe recession.

A fitting example of this problem can be found in Burton G. Malkiel’s A Random Walk Down Wall Street. After a long day of trading sardines, a trader had asked his broker if he could buy some of the delicious salty treat to share with his visiting in-laws. The broker agreed and during dinner, when it was time to unveil the sardines, (to his astonishment) there was nothing but sand in the container. He angrily notified his broker, who then quick-wittingly replied, “Son, these sardines are for trading, not for eating” (Malkiel, 1999).

In many ways, the parallel banking system reflected Wall Street’s ability to expose any crack in the system and side step the very rules in place that were meant to contain excessive risk. By avoiding examination of various financial vehicles, these participates played hot potato with the MBS and CDS. After all, those securities and derivatives were filled with several thousand mortgages and replete with speculation. Who reads contracts besides lawyers?

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Despite experiencing financial prosperity during the first half of the twenty-first century, in which the S&P 500 increased nearly one hundred and sixty percent, Wall Street’s knack for regulatory arbitrage forced the housing bubble to pop. The S&P 500 lost nearly one thousand points during late 2007 to early 2009 (see figure 1).

As mentioned previously, the Dodd-Frank Act is a far-reaching measure, the likes of which had not been seen since the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act, but it is necessary to circumvent another major financial episode. To review, Dodd-Frank seeks to mitigate systemic risk, heighten regulation of derivatives and securitization, and increase consumer protection, among others. The effectiveness of the act should be judged on its ability to address the critical flaws that led to the financial crisis.

First, systematic risk, defined as spillover from an economic transaction, can never be completely eliminated and was (somewhat) accounted for prior to the Great Recession.

Therefore, failure of systemically important firms imposes economic costs beyond their own losses to individual households and the economy at large. It is prudent that these firms pay in advance for contributing risk throughout the financial system. The Dodd-Frank Act seeks to further lessen risk through several initiatives.

Perhaps the most substantial intervention is the creation of the Financial Stability Oversight Council. The council can deem certain institutions “too-big-to-fail� (fifty billion dollars or more in assets); thereby, the Fed or other regulatory agencies will subject them to harsher regulation, including short-term debt limits, a 10% liability concentration limit, risk-based capital requirements (that account for off-balance sheet activities), annual stress tests, and the requirement to prepare living wills in the event of failure (Webel, 2010). The living wills include procedures for appropriate and orderly exit and proper selling of assets, designed to lessen the aftershock in the event of insolvency.

The council, chaired by the Treasury Secretary and made up by eight heads of regulatory bodies, on the other hand, does not have the authority to exercise enforcement or rulemaking of its own (Hunington, 2010). Hence, they are only able to conduct research and notify regulatory agencies such as the Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and the Fed, citing a major weakness in the provision. Nonetheless, the increased requirements on those systemically important firms should curb risk.

Second, the act seeks to make significant regulatory strides on OTC derivatives. As displayed by the collapse of AIG (Billitteri, 2008), large OTC derivative positions that are not backed by collateral or margin welcomes exorbitant amounts of risk. If AIG had been required to maintain more capital or provide more margin on their transaction, they would likely not have built such a large position, therefore reducing risk in the event of a correction.

The act authorizes the CFTC or the SEC to mandate that OTC derivatives be processed through a central clearing house (like a public market exchange) to increase transparency and reduce opaqueness. Likewise, important data such as trading volume and pricing will be publicly available to investors, enabling markets to better deal with counterparty risk. Moreover, the CFTC or the SEC will be able to determine which derivatives will be subject to capital 44

requirements and punish those who purposely evade those capital requirements (Hunington, 2010, para. 36). This provision establishes a regulatory position on OTC derivatives, which was lacking prior to 2008. This will increase clarity and reduce obscurity in the OTC derivative market.

Third, the act seeks to properly manage shadow banking—financial activity either conducted by nonbanks or sponsored by banks off their books—and addresses securitization, which, in effect, support each other. Issuers of asset-back securities, MBS and CDOS must retain an economic interest of no less than five percent in case the security is transferred (Hunington, 2010, para.

21).

This “skin in the game” arrangement seeks to combat perverse lending incentives by keeping the underwriting standards authentic. Another advantage is that both the originator and investors share the risk. Hence, a mortgage originator must be able to determine in advance a homebuyer’s income and ability to pay, preserving honest and higher lending standards (Clemmitt, 2010). In addition, the Act requires greater disclosure in terms of the quality of the underlying assets.

Fourth, the act allows for greater investor and consumer protection against risk. Provisions include whistleblower protection, where whistleblowers will receive a variable monetary award if enforcement actions surpass one million dollars. This will keep firms honest and forthright in their day-to-day activities. In addition, the act extends greater authority to penalize those who knowingly or willingly provide substantial assistance to violators. In turn, this will reduce collusion between abettors and aiders, lessening the likelihood of fraud.

Moreover, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) will have the power to autonomously promulgate rules for consumer protections governing an umbrella of financial institutions, such as deposit taking, mortgages, credit cards, loan servicing, collection of consumer report data, debt collection, and money transmitting, among others (Webel, 2010). The creation of the CFPB consolidates consumer protection responsibilities previously handled by several entities such as the FDIC and the Federal Reserve. Additional duties include fair and equal access to credit, as well as serving as the primary consumer protection adviser and enforcer.

In hindsight, the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act does indeed have its shortcomings, which include the inability of the council to perform disciplinary action-- the lack of effort that regulatory agencies put forward stems from the fear of monetary or personal vindication from the financial sector (Jost, 2012, par. 14). Nevertheless, the financial episodes of yesteryear and its painful lessons need not to be in vain.

Armed with the information available at this time, it can be argued that, perhaps, it is reasonable to simply acknowledge that both recessions and bull markets are the products of capitalism. Or rather than creating additional financial reform tools, perhaps regulatory agencies should start enforcing regulations to a harsher degree. Take, for example, that in the six years of the FSOC inception, it has failed to identify a single hedge fund as systemically important (Shelby, 2017).

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Is financial crisis endemic in capitalism because periods of prolonged economic prosperity encourage reckless borrowing and over-leveraging? Will the passage of time bring us more speculation and complicated financial instruments? The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act is an exceptional policy to address these concerns (Webel 2010). The act does a substantial job at mitigating systemic risk, increasing transparency of financial instruments, and providing greater consumer protection. This will ensure a vibrant and robust economy to come.

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The World Bank. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org.

Trejos, N. (2007, April 27) ‘Upside Down’ home sellers own more than they can get.

Washington Post, 1-3. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/ content/article/2007/04/19/AR2007041902924.html Webel. B. (2010, July 29) The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act: Issues and summary. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved from http://www.llsdc.org/assets/DoddFrankdocs/crs-r41350.pdf White. G.B. (2015, May 26) Stuck with a house that can’t be sold. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/03/stuck-with-a-house-that-cant-besold/388715/

Figure 1. S&P 500 index. Historical Chart

Source: Macrotrends.net.

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Figure 2. National Interest Rates

Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.

Figure 3. Consumption vs. earnings.

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Table 1. Career Declines. (2007-2009)

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. October 2014 Monthly Review. Consumer spending and U.S. employment from the 2007–2009 recession through 2022.

Figure 4. Delinquency Rates on Single-Family Mortgages.

Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.

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The Relationship Between Coastal Bound Communities and Coral Reefs

By Isabella Andersson Coral reefs have been around for about 500 million years; they occupy less than one-quarter of 1% of the marine environment but are still home to more than 25% of all the marine species.

Right now, 58% of these reefs are potentially threatened by human stressors (Bryant, 1998, p. 6).

Coral reefs have always been vital to coastal bound communities. These communities depend on coral reefs as a primary animal food source, an economic contributor in the form of tourism, and a source of construction material. This dependence has started to put pressure on the coral reefs due to communities expanding and requiring more resources. The increasing demand on resources is too heavy for coral reefs; coral reefs are unfortunately very fragile, so this has caused the population to decline. With proper management, coral reefs can generate about fifteen tons of fish per square kilometer each year. For the sake of all 450 million people who depend on coral reefs for food and income (Bryant, 1998, p. 6), it is important to find a more sustainable relationship. Presently, there is no way for communities to economically benefit from coral reefs without destroying them; however, we can find a solution more sustainable than the one we have today.

Tourism is a significant economic contributor to coastal bound communities; unfortunately, tourism has shown signs of contributing to the recent decline in coral cover. Although there are several reasons for the decline in coral populations, according to Michael A. Gil et al. (2015) in the article “Rapid tourism growth and declining coral reefs in Akumal, Mexico,” tourism is a significant contributor. Gil et al. (2015) did a three year study in Mexico to determine how coral reefs reacted to snorkelers. The authors found that coral cover declined by 79% as snorkelers simultaneously increased by 400% (Gil et al., 2015, p. 2225). A reduction that rapid in such short time is severe; Gil et al.’s (2015) conclusion was that uncontrolled tourism is most likely the key factor to the decline in coral cover (p. 2225, 2229). There are two categories of tourism on coral reefs: recreational scuba diving and snorkeling. In the article “Impacts of Recreational Divers on Palauan Coral Reefs and Options for Management,” Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton (2010) discuss the effects recreational scuba diving have on coral reefs. Due to the increasing growth in popularity, recreational scuba diving is considered to be a threat to the economic and ecological sustainability of the reefs, and it is estimated there are about 400 coral breakages caused by diving annually (Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton, 2010, p. 557, 561). Most widespread damage caused on coral reefs by divers is unintentional; divers accidentally break coral by kicking with their fins while maneuvering (Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton, 2010, p. 562). The second most extensive damage caused by divers is touching or holding coral. Divers were observed intentionally holding on to coral for stability in a current or while taking photographs. Divers who touched corals more frequently were seen wearing gloves (Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton, 2010, p. 562), which means that divers with gloves were more prone to touch corals. To solve this problem, many countries have issued a ban on usage of gloves in Marine Protected Areas (Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton, 2010, p. 562), but because not all reefs have this protection, there is still a long way to go.

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Snorkeling is believed to have less of an impact on coral reefs than recreational scuba diving. In the article “The effects of trampling on Hawaiian corals along a gradient of human use,” marine biologists Ku‘ulei S Rodgers and Evelyn F Cox (2003) explain that snorkelers mainly float above the reefs on the surface. This means that damage is mostly restricted to shallower areas where snorkelers either kick or stand on corals (Rodgers & Cox, 2003, p. 388). Even though snorkeling is not considered to cause as severe damage as recreational scuba diving, it still causes many injuries if the location of the reef is in a shallower area because tourists have the ability to stand on the coral surface, as for example, in the study carried out by Gil et al. (2015) in Akumal, Mexico, where coral cover declined by 79% simultaneously as snorkelers increased by 400% (p. 2225). The reefs in the study were mostly located in shallower areas where snorkelers had the ability to stand directly on the coral surface, which resulted in a massive decline in coral cover.

All blame for coral decline cannot be put on tourism; some decline is due to fishing. Fishing is a common problem for coral reefs because reef fish are very sought after in aquariums, and communities near the reefs use fishing as a primary food source. In the book Reefs at risk: A map-based indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs, environmentalists Dirk Bryant et al., (1998) explain that fishing divides into two separate types of threats, overexploitation and destructive fishing. Overexploitation, more commonly called overfishing, causes less abundance in species and shifts in fish size. Studies show that removing key predator and herbivore species can lead to a population increase in burrowing urchins. Burrowing urchins cause accelerated reef erosion through feeding habits, which causes the reef to eventually die (Bryant et al., 1998, p.

12). In the Caribbean, researchers noticed that after years of overfishing, the population of grazing fish species had severely declined. Grazing fish populations eat the algae that grow on corals, keeping it at a low growth level. Without grazing fish populations, algae grow quickly and will, within a short time, dominate the reef and overgrow living corals (Bryant et al., 1998, p. 12). Destructive fishing is defined by fishing methods that not only catch fish and untargeted species, but also destroy everything around the fishing area. Destructive fishing is a less widespread problem than overexploitation, but it destroys entire coral populations when it is used. Some destructive fishing methods include cyanide fishing, trawling, and explosions.

Luckily, overexploitation and destructive fishing on coral reefs have a simple solution, according to Roberta M. Bonaldo et al. (2017). In their article about small marine protected areas in Fiji, Bonaldo et al. (2017) state that by providing a no-take marine protected area (MPA) around the coral reef, one can increase the coral cover by 2.6-2.8 times the current coverage (p. 15). No-take MPA means that no one is allowed to take anything from that particular field, and it applies to both corals and fish. Both problems that Bonaldo et al. (2017) and Gil et al. (2015) raise require action; however, we cannot forbid tourism and snorkeling on coral reefs. In the article “Coral Reefs and People in a High-CO2 World: Where Can Science Make a Difference to People?” environmental economists Linwood Pendleton et al. (2016) show the importance of coral reef fisheries and tourism for coastal bound communities. These communities rely on coral reef fisheries as a primary food source, and the tourism coral reefs bring in is a significant economic contributor (Pendleton et al., 2016, p. 2). Therefore, if fishing and tourism on coral reefs are banned, communities that rely on these sources will be severely negatively affected. Both Gil et al. (2015) and Bonaldo et al. (2017) agree that enforcing stronger regulation on fishing and

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tourism quotas will be beneficial for both reefs and communities, as opposed to a complete ban that benefits coral reefs but neglects the coastal bound communities that depend on them.

Proximity to human populations will affect the condition of the coral reef even if the reef is assigned protection. Environmental scientist Joshua E. Cinner et al. (2013) discusses in the article “Global Effects of Local Human Population Density and Distance to Markets on the Condition of Coral Reef Fisheries” how proximity to human populations and markets influence reef biomass. The closer the coral reefs were to the human population, the worse condition they were in. This means that even if the reef is not affected by fishing or tourism, it will still be affected by its proximity to human populations in the form of coastal construction, pollutants, and nutrient loading through the use of fertilizers (Cinner et al., 2013, p. 454). Pollutants and excessive nutrients in the water cause smothering and reduced light levels which affect coral growth (Bryant et al., 1998, p. 12-13). Pollutants can also cause the corals a great deal of stress; when corals experience stress, a phenomenon called coral bleaching occurs. Coral bleaching means that the coral loses its zooxanthellae, which provide coral polyps with necessary nutrients.

This immensely weakens the coral and may cause death (Bryant et al., 1998, p. 14). Cinner et al.

(2013) saw that coral reefs did not start to show improvements until they were about fourteen kilometers from the nearest human population. Even if regulations are enforced on these reefs, they would still be affected by the pollutants in the water (Cinner et al., 2013, p. 455-456).

Cinner et al. (2013) suggest that active local management is essential to stop the pollution (p.

457). As Pendleton et al. (2016) earlier explained, coral reefs are important to human populations, so finding a way we can live in symbiosis is a huge step in the right direction.

Even though protecting coral reefs from extinction is a crucial issue right now, we should also think about how introducing regulations will affect fisheries that depend on free access to coral reefs. Marine biologist Nils C. Krueck et al. (2017) discusses this problem in the article “Marine Reserve Targets to Sustain and Rebuild Unregulated Fisheries.” There is not enough research completed to know exactly how fisheries would be affected by regulations, but it is hypothesized that communities will suffer a significant loss in food sources (Krueck et al., 2017, p. 2). Krueck et al. (2017) suggest that enforcing 25% no-take MPAs would be ideal for rebuilding biodiversity and unregulated fisheries (p. 6); this solution would benefit both parties because all fish species would have a place to grow, feed, and reproduce in peace. In turn, this would lead to more fish being born. The more juvenile fish born inside the no-take reserves, the more adult fish would migrate outside the reserves. This would allow for fishermen to catch spillover fish and provide food for their community. Krueck et al.´s (2017) solution is different from what Gil et al.

(2015) and Bonaldo et al. (2017) agreed upon. Gil et al. (2015) and Bonaldo et al. (2017) do not want to enforce no-take MPAs. Instead, they want regulations in the form of fishing quotas and such because communities who depend on coral reef fishing as a food source will still have a chance at survival. It is impossible to say which solution would be the most beneficial without doing extensive research first, but I would hypothesize that the solution Krueck et al. (2017) proposed would be better in the long run for both sides. If fishers have unlimited access to coral reefs, the reefs will soon face overfishing, and, in turn, there will be no fish left. So by enforcing regulations, you ensure there will be fish left for the future.

Coastal bound communities have a strong dependence on coral reefs. In the article “Investigating coral reef ethnobiology in the western Solomon Islands for enhancing livelihood resilience,” 53

anthropologist Shankar Aswani (2014) studied the ways coastal bound communities are dependent on coral reefs. The community Aswani (2014) studied used coral reefs in many diverse ways; they relied on coral reef fishing as an animal food source, they used corals as construction material, they sold shells as handicraft, and they understood reefs to be of profound cultural and historical significance (p. 242, 257). Aswani’s (2014) study shows how big a part coral reefs play in the everyday life of coastal bound communities; limiting the use of coral reefs would significantly change the way these communities operate on a daily basis because they would be forced to find a new primary source of food. Chantal M. Huijbers et al. (2014) discuss in the article “Conservation Benefits of Marine Reserves are Undiminished Near Coastal Rivers and Cities” how governments are more likely to spend money on protecting reefs further away from shorelines. Governments presume that reefs closer to shore already have suffered enough damage by human impact to be beyond saving. However, Huijbers et al. (2014) showed that the difference between reefs near the shoreline and reefs in secluded areas are, in fact, indistinguishable (p. 315). The research Aswani (2014) did further showed that Huijbers et al.´s (2014) argument for increased shoreline reef protection is necessary. Considering that coastal bound communities depend on coral reefs for a vast part of their everyday life (Aswani, 2014, p.

242), shoreline reef protection is vital not only to ensure the survival of the reef, but the survival of the communities by establishing a sustainable relationship between coral reefs and communities. A sustainable relationship is imperative to make sure the communities have a continued source of food.

There are many threats towards coral reefs, and there are many possible solutions. To decide what solution would be most beneficial, one first needs to know if there is any chance of recovery. Marine biologist M. Aaron MacNeil et al. (2015) studied 832 coral reefs over 82 different locations to see if there is a way to restore already damaged coral reefs (p. 341). The results are presented in the article “Recovery potential of the world's coral reef fishes.” MacNeil et al. (2015) concluded that a reef could fully recover in 35 years if a no-fishing protection is placed over the reef, or 59 years if the reef is heavily damaged (p. 342). Considering that many communities depend on reef-based resources for survival (Aswani, 2014, p. 242), a no-fishing ban is not an optimal solution for reefs that play a vital role in providing resources for communities. However, for reefs where human dependence is not a factor, a no-fishing ban would be an optimal solution. MacNeil et al. (2015) then studied reefs with fishing restrictions.

Fishing restrictions mean that people are allowed to fish but only certain amounts and during specific times. The reefs will never fully recover if they are under fishing restrictions, but reefs with fishing restrictions had a 27% higher biomass than reefs with no restrictions at all (MacNeil et al., 2015, p. 343). Therefore, even small restrictions help the coral reef recovery process. The reefs may never fully recover, but as of right now, fishing restrictions are the best solution that benefits both coral reefs and the communities that depend on them. By combining Huijbers et al.

(2014) and Aswani’s (2014) research with the findings MacNeil et al. (2015) achieved, it is clear that protection dedicated to coral reefs is essential if coral reef biomass is to increase.

Enforcing restrictions will be an excellent protection against overfishing, but it will not protect against tourism activities, such as snorkeling and recreational scuba diving. As of right now, there are no protections against tourism. It used to be assumed that snorkeling and scuba diving had no effect on coral reefs and that overfishing was the real threat. Taking into consideration the study made in Mexico, where coral cover declined by 79% simultaneously as snorkelers 54

increased by 400% (Gil et al., 2015, p. 2225) and that recreational scuba divers break about 400 corals annually (Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton, 2010, p. 561), we see that it is a serious problem. There are many possible solutions to make sure the tourism industry is kept sustainable.

First, strict regulations must be put in place for coral reefs to have a slight chance of recovery (Gil et al., 2015). Regulations mean that all water activity around the reef will be restricted to certain seasons of the year and that only a specific number of people are allowed in the water at the same time. This ensures that the reefs will not become overcrowded and that they will have a chance to regenerate between the crowded seasons. Restrictions will need to be considerably more urgent during the breeding season to ensure a peaceful environment for juvenile fish.

Second, every tourist establishment must take responsibility and institute their rules of protection. For example, visitors would not be allowed to wear gloves when in the water.

Wearing gloves has shown to make people more prone to touching corals, and by banning gloves, the coral breakage will hopefully decrease in numbers (Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton, 2010, p. 562). Unfortunately, there is no way to restrict people from unintentionally kicking corals while swimming (Poonian, Davis, & McNaughton, 2010, p. 562). The only way to stop that kind of breakage would be to ban activity around the reef altogether. However, a ban is not a possible solution for coastal bound communities that depend on coral reef tourism as income. By placing a ban, coastal bound communities lose their primary source of economic revenue (Bryant, 1998, p.6; Aswani, 2014, p. 242).

To add protections to coral reefs sounds good theoretically, but to know if they would work they must be applied in practice. In 2014, I visited The Manta Resort Hotel in Pemba Island, Tanzania. The hotel is located right on Pemba Island’s coast with a spectacular view over the turquoise water. They offer both snorkeling and scuba diving trips for tourists to experience the marine life of Tanzania. Right off the beach, within swimming distance, there was a small coral reef. I was amazed by the diversity and biomass in marine life on the coral reef despite the number of tourists that swam there every day. One of the co-owners, Matthew Saus, explained to me that it was not always like this. When they took over the land and started building the hotel, local fishermen had free fishing access to the reef. The biomass was much lower, but since Matthew and the other owners wanted a beautiful and biodiverse coral reef to show the guests, they filed an application to make the water mass outside the hotel a marine protected area. By doing this, it would mean that the local fishermen would not be allowed to fish the reef at all.

The government on Pemba Island did not approve of this idea to begin with, and Matthew had to fight the government for six years before they finally got the approval to declare the reef as a marine protected area. After only a few years, they started to see an increase in biomass, and even the local fishermen who fished right outside the MPA border noticed a big increase in their daily catch. A few years later, Matthew and the other owners wanted to expand the hotel, and at the same time improve the coral reef even more. The compromise they created was a floating hotel room. Because it is floating, it does not disturb the coral reef itself but instead acts as a refuge for juvenile fish. The extra space for juveniles increased the biomass even more, and, thanks to the underwater bedroom, tourists get a first-row seat to marine life and gain a greater appreciation for the protection of it. With this first-hand view of marine life and Matthew’s continued dedication and teaching, tourists get a feel for what marine protection can do and why it is important.

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Taking into consideration the research mentioned above, I do not believe it is possible for communities to benefit economically from coral reefs without destroying them. We can, however, slow down the destruction process by applying protection to coral reefs in the form of stronger regulations on fishing and tourism quotas. This will not only improve the reef biomass (MacNeil et al., 2015, p. 343) and coral cover (Bonaldo et al., 2017, p. 15) but also benefit communities that depend on coral reefs as a source of income and food (Krueck et al., 2017, p. 67).

REFERENCES Aswani, S, 2014. Investigating coral reef ethnobiology in the western Solomon Islands for enhancing livelihood resilience. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 123(3): 237-276. http://dx.doi.Org/10.15286/jps.123.3.237-276 Bonaldo, R. M., Pires, M. M., Guimarães, P. R., Hoey, A. S., & Hay, M. E. (2017). Small marine protected areas in Fiji provide refuge for reef fish assemblages, feeding groups, and corals. Plos One, 12(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170638 Bryant, D. G., Burke, L, Spalding, M, & McManus, J. W. (1998). “Reefs at risk: A map-based indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs.” World Resources Institute. Retrieved from http://www.wri.org/our-work/project/reefs-risk Cinner, J. E., Graham, N. J., Huchery, C., & Macneil, M. A. (2013). Global effects of local human population density and distance to markets on the condition of coral reef fisheries.

Conservation Biology, 27(3), 453-458. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01933.x Gil, M., Renfro, B., Figueroa-Zavala, B., Penié, I., & Dunton, K. (2015). Rapid tourism growth and declining coral reefs in Akumal, Mexico. Marine Biology, 162(11), 2225-2233. doi:10.1007/s00227-015-2748-z.

Huijbers, C. M., Connolly, R. M., Pitt, K. A., Schoeman, D. S., Schlacher, T. A., Burfeind, D. D., & Rissik, D. (2015). Conservation benefits of marine reserves are undiminished near coastal rivers and cities. Conservation Letters, 8(5), 312-319. doi:10.1111/conl.12128.

Retrieved from: Sustainability Reference Center Krueck, N. C., Ahmadia, G. N., Possingham, H. P., Riginos, C., Treml, E. A., & Mumby, P. J. (2017). Marine reserve targets to sustain and rebuild unregulated fisheries. Plos Biology, 15(1), 1-20. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2000537.

MacNeil, M. A., Graham, N. J., Cinner, J. E., Wilson, S. K., Williams, I. D., Maina, J., McClanahan, T. R. (2015). Recovery potential of the world's coral reef fishes. Nature, 520(7547), 341-344. doi:10.1038/nature14358.

Pendleton, L., Comte, A., Langdon, C., Ekstrom, J. A., Cooley, S. R., Suatoni, L., & ... Ritter, J. (2016). Coral reefs and people in a high-CO2 world: Where can science make a difference to people? Plos ONE, 11(11), 1-21. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0164699.

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Poonian, C., Davis, P. R., & McNaughton, C. K. (2010). Impacts of recreational divers on Palauan coral reefs and options for management. Pacific Science, 64(4), 557-565. doi:10.2984/64.4.557.

Rodgers, K. S., & Cox, E. F. (2003). The effects of trampling on Hawaiian corals along agradient of human use. Biological Conservation, 112(3), 383. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(02)003361.

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Homelessness in Hawai‘i

By Miki Tanimura The high number of homeless people in Hawai‘i was one thing that I was shocked to learn about when I arrived in Honolulu. The tourism industry, on which Hawai‘i’s economy is heavily dependent, relies on the image of an ideal, heavenly paradise to attract visitors. I am from Japan and have been to several cities in other countries, but I have never seen such a large number of homeless people anywhere else. One day, in the middle of a hula lesson with several other girls, an allegedly homeless and mentally-ill lady walked into the halau (studio) yelling and swearing at the Kumu (teacher). Outside the hula halau, there were homeless tents lining the river. This experience was quite unbelievable to me. Another day, as I was waiting at a bus stop, a homeless person tried to obtain fifty cents from me. I did not have coins at the time, so he went to ask other people. I was surprised because I had never been asked for money before. Because of my previous experiences, I did not have a good image of homeless people. Before researching this topic, I thought homeless people were just lazy, and I have heard other people saying the same.

They do not work, and they obtain aid from the government. Another reason why people have a negative image about homelessness is the myth that the Hawai‘i government is benefiting financially from having homeless people sent to the islands from New York. However, these images are not always true. Some people are veterans, mentally-ill, substance abusers, HIV/AIDS patients, or victims of domestic violence. Homeless people are not always lazy; moreover, we can change these common assumptions and be more aware of this cruel situation.

Culture difference is one of the factors of homelessness. In Polynesian cultures, people do not have the same concept of property. Such people consider Hawai‘i their home; hence, some people stay and move from one beach to another. In an interview, Mark Tjarks, playwright and author of Houseless in Paradise, told me that a man said being called “homeless” is irritating and that he would rather be called “houseless” because his home is this island (personal communication, August 9, 2017). This concept also applies to some other homeless people; one example given by Tjarks is Twinkle, a woman who calls herself “the Mayor” and lives on an Oahu beach. She has a job, but has been houseless for a while. Despite the difficulties, she feeds other homeless people, especially children, with her earnings and feels comfortable and satisfied with her situation (Tjarks, personal communication, August 9, 2017). There are some houseless people who find happiness in this situation, which is related to Hawaiian culture. They are usually taught well-known Hawaiian stories from their parents or at school.

The story of Hāloa is one of these tales. In his lecture on the development of Hawai‘i, Kaleikoa Kaʻeo (2011), associate professor of Hawaiian Studies, explained the story of Skyfather Wākea, his divine daughter Hoʻohokukalani and the child they had together (as cited in KeauhouKahaluʻu Education Group). However, the baby son was stillborn, so they buried him on the east side of the house, where the sun shines. A few days later, a new bud began to sprout from that spot and became the plant known as kalo (taro). Later, the second son Hāloa, also known as the first human, was born and was fed kalo. He lived healthily, and kalo became the traditional food of Native Hawaiians (Keauhou-Kahaluʻu Education Group, 2011). Kaʻeo concluded that “survival of who we are depends on the food which depends on the land… and survival depends on how we look upon this land,” and this means that there is a concept which humans and crops 59

or animals are owned by land (as cited in Keauhou-Kahaluʻu Education Group, 2011). Another story is related to Hawaiian religion. According to Luomala (1987), “Believing that supernatural forces filled sea, sky, and earth, the Hawaiians personified them in countless named and individualized deities, who controlled nature and mankind through their mana, or supernatural power. . . . A god communicated its will through dreams, an image, something in nature such as a shark or thunder, or a human prophet” (p. 1). Because of the close relationship between Hawaiians and the land, it is understandable that their concept of property is different.

According to Craig Howes, who specializes in writing, and Hawaiian Studies expert Jonathan Osorio, on the American mainland there were many conflicts between Native Americans and Western immigrants throughout the 19th century. Westerners created the concept of "this is mine, not yours." This “uncompromising individualism and social fragmentation” remained on the mainland; on the other hand, Hawai‘i did not have a major conflict (Howes & Osorio, 2010, p. 127). The concept of land here is extended to family and community (Howes & Osorio, 2010, p. 127). A 2014 paper written by Herb Kawainui Kāne, a key figure in the renaissance of Hawaiian culture, explained that “Aumakua were invisible to the living but able to possess or inhabit many visible forms, animate or inanimate,” which includes land. This is why some of Hawai‘i’s homeless consider their home to be Hawai‘i and why the connection between humans and land is tight. In other words, some people do not have a concept of “homelessness.” In a 2012 homelessness census, 42% were lifetime Hawai‘i residents (Whtviper1, 2013). Additional data is available about the Native Hawaiians. It is difficult to determine by ethnicity in this state because race does not always relate to the culture, but looking at the Native Hawaiian category can give a sense of the Hawaiian cultural property concept. Data shows 33% of the homeless are Native Hawaiian (see Table 1). Another statistic shows that Native Hawaiians are the largest population of homeless people at 29% (see Table 2).

Another factor of homelessness is related to the economy of Hawai‘i. Prices in Hawai‘i are high because most things need to be imported. According to The Economist, Honolulu has one of the highest rates of homelessness; however, the jobless rate is under 5% (“Homelessness in Hawaii,” 2014). This means that homeless people are not necessarily unemployed. Tjarks mentioned something similar in the interview; namely that some homeless people have jobs, but do not make enough to pay rent. For example, one lady was kicked out of her house because she has nine dogs (Tjarks, personal communication, August 9, 2017). She has a job but does not have enough money to buy a house that would allow these pets. Instead, she has to stay and live at the beach. Statewide homeless point-in-time count in 2014, which is prepared by the government of Hawai‘i, shows data on employment. Table 3 shows the demographic characteristics of sheltered adult individuals in Oahu; employed people make up 13.8% of the population in emergency, 25.1% in transitional, and 4% in Safe Haven shelters (The State of Hawaii, 2014). This proves that some homeless people are, in fact, employed.

In 2014, The Economist clarified that it is illegal in Honolulu to “sit or lie on the busiest public pavement between 5 AM and 11 PM”; those who were caught violating this law risked fines up to $1000 or 30 days of jail time (“Homelessness in Hawaii,” 2014). This city is highly dependent on the tourism industry, so keeping up a clean image of paradise is important. Even though homelessness is usually society’s fault, people tend to think these people are lazy because they have a different lifestyle from the majority of the population. Some people work at nighttime and 60

sleep during the daytime. The government makes it harder because its people are officially not allowed to sit or lie on the road. Other states are harsher. Surprisingly, The Economist stated that “20 cities have made it illegal to feed homeless people in public” (“Homelessness in Hawaii,” 2014). Honolulu is not included in these 20 cities, but it could be in the future.

It is difficult for homeless children to break the cycle of poverty and homelessness. Clifton S. Tanabe, and Ian Hippensteele Mobley say the number of homeless children and families using shelters is increasing, and these children are struggling to attend school regularly on account of lack of transportation. According to The Economist, “30% of family’s income declined. Nearly 13% has been lost since 2001” (“Homelessness in Hawaii,” 2014). In addition, children isolate themselves from school because of lack of supplies (Tanabe & Mobley, 2011, p. 5). They fail to attend school, making it difficult to get a job, and they also become homeless as adults. It is not the children’s fault; they are simply stuck in a difficult situation.

In addition, America does not have National Health Insurance, which explains why poor citizens cannot afford to obtain health care and end up mistreating themselves. They can become mentally-ill or physically disabled. Tjarks interviewed a mentally-ill man who said that he always feels suicidal. Another lady believes that homeless women are at risk of being sexually assaulted (personal communication, August 9, 2017). Ironically, the fact that she is HIV-positive protects her. In the past, Micronesians immigrated to these islands to obtain advanced medical care and welfare benefits (Tjarks, personal communication, August 9, 2017). Nevertheless, people fail to take advantage of that high-level medical service. In spite of difficulties, some organizations are trying to help. For example, Safe Haven provides shelter for mentally ill or disabled homeless people. Despite this support, the total number of severely mentally ill homeless has increased since 2013 (see table 4).

The governmental effect for homeless people is large too. According to Tanabe and Mobley, the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act is supposed to provide homeless children with equal rights and help; however, insufficient funding prevents the act from providing enough support.

Moreover, the authors claim that not many homeless people are informed about the act, which is why they fail to claim what they can. For example, homeless children have the right to stay at their school even after moving to a shelter in another district. They also have the right to receive transportation to school. The authors claim that “the Hawaii Department of Education (DOE) regularly fail to provide outreach, technical assistance, opportunities, and advocacy for homeless children and their families” (Tanabe & Mobley, 2011, p. 17). It is ironic these children are not able to access the key to breaking the cycle of homelessness: education.

Even the government departments that are not doing enough are trying hard to solve this social issue. The Economist explained that “Housing First” is an important first step for homeless people to obtain constant support and that “the government provides the home up front and then delivers the support needed to stay there” (“Homelessness in Hawaii,” 2014). Applicants are only eligible if they are employed and not on drugs. Having a permanent address gives people a stable life. It is not only healthy for homeless people, but also for society because “[a] night in jail can cost three times more than a night in a shelter” and “[a] study from Los Angeles found that the public saves over $27,000 a year for every person in such a program” (“Homelessness in Hawaii”, 2014). According to Tjarks, what is important is for our community to see homeless 61

people as part of the community instead of “sweeping them away” (personal communication, August 9, 2017).

From the point of culture, economy, society, and government, it is not easy for people to get away from homelessness. There are many misconceptions, and it is important to change people’s minds. To obtain attention and change public perception through plays like Tjarks’ is one option.

He mentioned in the interview that the purpose of his play was to give homeless people the opportunity to tell their truth and story because most people misunderstand the condition of homelessness (Tjarks, personal communication, August 9, 2017). Another effective way to persuade public opinion would be through advertisements on social networking sites (SNS), television, and newspapers. People nowadays are obsessed with smartphones, and it is a powerful way to change public opinion. In addition, advertising on TV and putting pressure on major TV companies to publicize the critical condition of homeless people can inform and influence many people. Another way to convince people in Hawai‘i is through advertisements on the bus. The only public transportation in the state is the bus system, so these advertisements can reach and convince especially the middle- and lower-class. Another way to persuade people is to encourage studying the topic. Researching this topic is very effective. I changed my mind on homelessness after researching it. By analyzing data, reading, and hearing real voices, I was able to obtain much information and understand the seriousness of the issue. As Tjarks mentioned in the interview, it is very important to accept them as a part of the community and cultivate knowledge and understanding about homelessness (personal communication, August 9, 2017).

Culture, economy, society, and politics are all contributing factors to the homeless issue.

Hawai‘i’s sense of property is connected with family and community. People consider Hawai‘i home. In addition, high cost of living, lack of sociological understanding, and lack of governmental support also add to homelessness. It is not easy for people to get away from homelessness. There are many misconceptions about homelessness, so it is important to inform people of the reality of homelessness through entertainment, advertisements, (TV, SNS, the bus), and research. It is important to welcome homeless people as a part of the community and not treat them as somebody else’s problems.

REFERENCES C. Peraro Consulting, LLC. (2017). State of Hawaii Homeless Point-in-Time Count [Data file].

Retrieved from www.partnersincareoahu.org/sites/default/files/2017%20Statewide% 20PIT%20Report%20-%20Full%20Report%20-%20FINAL.pdf Howes, C., & Osorio, J. (2010). The value of Hawai’i: Knowing the past, shaping the future.

Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaiʻi Press.

Kane K. H. (July, 2014). The ‘Aumakua - Hawaiian ancestral spirits. Retrieved from http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/sharks/files/2014/07/APaperbyHerbKane.pdf Keauhou-Kahaluʻu Education Group. (2011, September 20). Puana Ka ʻIke - Feb. 26, 2010.

Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/29338988

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Luomala K. (1987) Hawaiian religion. Bishop Museum Archives. Retrieved from http://www.hawaiialive.org/resources/manuscript/583.pdf Tanabe, C. S. & Mobley, H. I. (2011) The forgotten students: The implications of federal homeless education policy for children in Hawaii. Brigham Young University Education and Law Journal, 2011(1). Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/elj/ vol2011/iss2/ Homelessness in Hawaii: Paradise lost. (2014, December ). The Economist. Retrieved from https://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21636768-catering-tourists-comes-heftyprice-locals-paradise-lost The State of Hawaii, Department of Human Services, Homeless Programs Office. (2014).

Statewide Homeless Point-in-Time Count 2014 Methodology and Results [Data file].

Retrieved from humanservices.hawaii.gov/bessd/files/2014/06/2014-Statewide-PITReport-Rev-CP-5.91.pdf Whtviper1. (2013, January 12). Where do Hawaii's homeless come from? (Waianae: low income, to rent, university) [Msg 6]. Message posted to http://www.city-data.com/forum/hawaii/ 1771119-where-do-hawaiis-homeless-come.html

Table 1: Percentage of Native Hawaiians in the Homeless Population Individuals (n=1,445) Adults in families (n=82) Oahu Native 313 21.7% 31 37.8% Hawaiian Rural Native 198 17.4% 64 48.1% Hawaiian Source: The State of Hawaii, Department of Human Services, Homeless Programs Office, 2014.

Table 2: Homeless population by ethnicity Native Hawaiian Caucasian Other Pacific Islander Source: Howes & Osorio, 2010, p. 132.

29% 28% 22%

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Table 3: Employment for Sheltered Individuals Emergency Transitional Safe Haven Employed 45 13.8% 135 25.1% 1 4.0% Part or Full Time Source: The State of Hawaii, Department of Human Services, Homeless Programs Office, 2014.

Table 4: Rates on Mental Illness in Homeless Populations Severely 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 …

2017 mentally ill Sheltered 272 256 353 369 413 403 …

390 Unsheltered N/A N/A N/A N/A 492 521 …

698 Total N/A N/A N/A N/A 842 924 …

1088 Source: The State of Hawaii, Department of Human Services, Homeless Programs Office, 2014, & C. Peraro Consulting, LLC, 2017.

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The Effects of Marijuana Legalization in Colorado and Washington

By Filip Soban There is an ongoing debate worldwide on whether or not marijuana should be legalized in the same way as alcohol and tobacco. Marijuana is the most commonly used “illicit” drug in the United States today, with about 12% of people twelve years of age or older reporting use in the past year in addition to particularly high rates of use among people under the age of twenty-one (Ingraham). In November 2012, residents in both Colorado and Washington voted for the legalization of marijuana for recreational purposes. The legalization policy came into effect one month later, and, in January 2014, Colorado allowed retail sales of marijuana. These two states have done something that has never happened in the modern era. It has been over four years since the implementation of the policy, and many experts continue to debate if the act was more beneficial or detrimental to society. Meanwhile, five other states—Oregon, Alaska, Massachusetts, Nevada, and California—have joined Colorado and Washington in voting for initiatives that legalize the consumption of marijuana for adults. In addition, people in Canada have followed this trend, and, as a result, marijuana will also become legal nationally there in 2018 (Freeman). In this essay, I will examine the consequences of the legalization policy in Colorado and Washington. There are some detrimental effects of long-term use of cannabis; however, if somebody does use cannabis for recreational purposes, the government should minimize the harm resulting from the use of cannabis. The legalization of marijuana helps Colorado and Washington by decreasing the number of people arrested for crimes related to cannabis use and possession, regulating the process around cannabis consumption and therefore preventing marijuana from becoming a gateway drug, and redirecting the flow of cash away from the black market and into the government through taxes.

The first positive effect of legalization in Colorado and Washington is that arrest rates related to marijuana have dropped significantly. In the past, it was common in these states for people to be arrested for marijuana possession and, as a result, lose their job and good social status. For example, four years ago, a 31-year-old man in my hometown was arrested for possessing 3.5 grams of marijuana. He was a recreational user for many years and only bought it for his own use. As a consequence, he was accused of a felony, spent a few months in jail, and lost his job as a shop assistant. Long after the incident, he was unable to find a job because many companies required a criminal background check. Because his family did not have money, he could not provide a good life for his daughter and wife, and after a few months after being released from prison, he began suffering from depression. This is a clear example of how a prohibition policy can harm marijuana users who never had bad intentions. Thousands of people’s lives are destroyed by strict cannabis laws. In 2016, the Drug Policy Alliance (DPA) published a summary titled “So Far, So Good: What We Know about Marijuana Legalization in Colorado, Washington, Alaska, Oregon and Washington, D.C.” The DPA is a New York City-based nonprofit organization, led by executive director Ethan Nadelmann, with the principal goal of ending the American “War on Drugs.” The stated priorities of the organization are the decriminalization of recreational drug use, the promotion of harm reduction and treatment in response to drug misuse, and the facilitation of open dialog about drugs between youths, parents, and educators.

The DPA states that “In Colorado, marijuana arrests fell by nearly half from 2012 to 2014.

Marijuana possession charges in Washington State fell by a more dramatic 98 percent between 65

2012 and 2013. Alaska, Oregon and D.C. show similar declines” (2). These are numbers that clearly show an extremely beneficial phenomenon resulting from the legalization. The example that I provided earlier, where a small amount of marijuana could completely ruin someone’s life, would no longer exist.

The second positive effect of marijuana legalization is that it moves money from the black market to the government through tax revenue. Before the legalization in Colorado and Washington, the black market made enormous profits from marijuana, which in turn bolstered criminal activity. However, the whole situation radically changed after the legalization policy was passed. Nobody is saying that the black market has completely disappeared from the cannabis industry, but this legislation has significantly weakened its power in the field.

Christopher Ingraham, a reporter for the Washington Post who has dedicated a large portion of his journalist career to cannabis issues, wrote an article entitled, “Here’s how legal pot changed Colorado and Washington” and claims that the legalization helped the economy of these two states. He says that “by the second year of legalization, marijuana tax revenues exceeded projections in both Colorado and Washington. In the most recent fiscal years, recreational marijuana brought in $129 million in taxes in Colorado and $220 million in Washington” (Ingraham). These numbers represent less than one percent of the two states’ budgets. The more important aspect is that the millions of dollars that would have gone to big drug cartels and dealers instead went to the government, which in turn weakens the power of the black market.

Another benefit is that this tax revenue is used to fund substance abuse prevention and treatment programs, youth and adult drug education, community health care services, and academic research on the effects of marijuana legalization (DPA 7). An even larger economic impact of marijuana legalization is that it tremendously reduces government spending on law enforcement.

The government spends billions of dollars every year in war against marijuana, and I believe that the potential financial benefit is huge if cannabis is legalized through various regulations.

On the other hand, while some people believe in the popular notion that marijuana is a harmless pleasure, access to which should not be regulated or considered illegal, there are many contradicting studies that have found potential detrimental effects, especially in cases of longterm use. Nora Volkow explains in the article “Adverse Health Effects of Marijuana Use” that there is a lack of studies regarding the health effects of marijuana use, but she points out some with high confidence. Volkow is the current Director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), which is part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). She claims that marijuana use can lead to addiction, and states that “indeed, approximately 9% of those who experiment with marijuana will become addicted, and the number goes up to about 1 in 6 among those who start using marijuana as teenagers and to 25 to 50% among those who smoke marijuana daily” (Volkov). In addition, she is quite confident that marijuana use can lead to disorders like schizophrenia, depression, chronic bronchitis, and negatively influence memory and learning processes. This is especially true when people under twenty-one are exposed to large doses of THC, the primary active ingredient in marijuana (Volkov). Marijuana is a psychologically addictive drug; however, according to the NIH, alcohol and nicotine, which are both legal substances, have a much higher rating of addictiveness than marijuana (“Commonly Abused Drugs Charts”). What Volkow proposed in her hypothesis has never been scientifically verified.

Although some studies have reported detrimental effects, others have not, so the question of whether marijuana is harmful still remains the subject of heated debate.

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The degree of damage done by marijuana use is still widely debated. Doug Benson’s documentary and experiments have come up with results that differ greatly from Volkow’s.

Benson is an American stand-up comedian who produced a documentary similar to Morgan Spurlock’s Super Size Me. In the original documentary, Spurlock eats nothing but McDonald’s food for thirty days. In his version of this experiment, Benson completely abstains from marijuana for thirty days, followed by thirty days of consuming the drug in large amounts. The documentary is titled Super High Me. Through both stages, Benson took medical, IQ, sperm count, and psychic tests to examine the effects of cannabis consumption. Benson suffers from a common major depression disorder and uses medical marijuana to treat it. After seventeen years of smoking marijuana nearly every day, general body tests showed that Benson did not have any permanent damage. His lung capacity changed by almost 3% between the two stages, from 92% when he was not using pot to 89% during the 30-day period of heavy use. In addition, his SAT score increased by 50 points while using the drug, from 980 points to 1030 points (Blieden). I strongly believe that this documentary fully refutes Volkow’s theory and shows that marijuana does not have as damaging health consequences as alcohol and tobacco.

Lastly, the legalization of marijuana has prevented it from acting as a gateway drug. It is common for drug dealers to provide a variety of illegal drugs, as opposed to sticking to one particular substance. Marijuana often becomes the gateway to harder drugs because dealers want to sell the most profitable goods. The most profitable drug is cocaine; the price of less than ten grams of pure cocaine on the black market is more than 150 dollars per gram (Woody). Drugs like cocaine can cause almost instant addiction and might completely destroy one’s life. In my opinion, it is very important to draw a line between hard drugs and soft drugs. This idea was first proposed in the Opium Act, where the regulations on drugs were laid down. Jan Ours, a professor of Applied Economics and former Scientific Director at Rotterdam University in the Netherlands, wrote an academic article in 2011 concluding that people should move from neverending theoretical debates about the potential effects of cannabis legalization to actual implementation of policy. In the article “The Long and Winding Road to Cannabis Legalization,” Ours describes the consequences of decriminalization and establishment of popular coffee shops in the Netherlands. He claims that “The Dutch coffeeshop system may have been responsible for separating the soft and hard drug markets and rather than increasing the gateway from soft to hard drug use may have reduced this gateway” (Ours 6). In the twentieth century, a majority of Americans thought that marijuana was a gateway drug because of its effects on the human brain. Today we can see that it was a myth, and the reason marijuana acted as a gateway was that most drug dealers in the U.S. supply harder drugs along with marijuana.

Another misconception is that many people argue that the legalization of marijuana would result in much higher consumption. According to Ours, this is not true: Commercialization of sale in the Netherlands may have led to an increase in consumption but the increased access has not led to the Dutch population showing higher than average rates of cannabis use or longer cannabis use careers. The use of cannabis in the Netherlands shows trends that are very similar to those in other European countries that did not decriminalize cannabis. (6) The Netherlands’ example proves that easier accessibility does not necessarily mean a higher consumption of cannabis.

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In conclusion, I believe that the legalization policy in Colorado and Washington is beneficial for society in many ways. At the same time, people in these states have to continuously consider potential improvements in legislation and regulations because the marijuana industry is very sensitive. Many other states and countries are at that point where legalization laws are passed but not yet implemented. Even if opponents claim that marijuana is extremely damaging for one’s health and that legalization will result in radically increased consumption, it is important to realize that alcohol and tobacco, two well-accepted substances, have considerably worse health consequences. There are many people who will use marijuana regardless of its legal status.

Society should therefore reduce the negative consequences resulting from cannabis consumption.

Marijuana should be legalized everywhere because, through a well-regulated process, it can decrease the number of people arrested for crimes connected to marijuana, reduce the expenses spent on law-enforcement, increase states’ incomes through taxation, and weaken the power of the black market.

WORKS CITED Blieden, Michael. Super High Me. Red Envelope Entertainment, 2008.

“Commonly Abused Drugs Charts.” National Institute on Drug Abuse, July 2017, www.drugabuse.gov/drugs-abuse/commonly-abused-drugs-charts#marijuana-cannabisFreeman, Alan. “Trudeau Vowed to Legalize Marijuana Across Canada by July. It Hasn’t Been that Easy.” The Washington Post, 5 Oct. 2017, www.washingtonpost.com/world/ the_americas/trudeau-vowed-to-legalize-marijuana-across-canada-by-july-it-hasnt-beenthat-easy/2017/10/04/cda4ccb8-a87b-11e7-9a98-07140d2eed02_story.html?utm_term=.

513c50eeee7e Ingraham, Christopher. “Here’s How Legal Pot Changed Colorado and Washington.” The Washington Post, 13 Oct. 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/ 10/13/heres-how-legal-pot-changed-colorado-and-washington/?utm_term=.

1b59e290404f “So Far, So Good: What We Know About Marijuana Legalization in Colorado, Washington, Alaska, Oregon, and Washington D.C.” Drug Policy Alliance, 12 October 2016, www.drugpolicy.org/node/9582.

Ours, Jan. “The Long and Winding Road to Cannabis Legalization.” Addiction, vol. 107, no. 5, 2012, pp. 872-873, doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03625.x.

Volkow, Nora, et al. “Adverse Health Effects of Marijuana Use.” The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 370, no. 23, pp. 2219-2227, doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1402309.

Woody, Christopher. “Cocaine Prices in the US have Barely Moved in Decades - Here’s how Cartels Distort the Market.” Business Insider, 13 Oct 2016, www.businessinsider.com/ how-much-does-cocaine-cost-in-the-us-2016-10.

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A Meeting with the World

By Christopher Williams Did international affairs cause the rise of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement? Some believe that international affairs helped to increase trade, improve economies, and establish allies. However, others believe that the result of meetings like the conference of Berlin and the United Nations Charter caused strife among a group of people that did not have a voice in the decisions made.

The consistency of international affairs gives countries the opportunity to settle their social and economic problems. On the other hand, some of the solutions created by international affairs have the potential to damage cultures unlike those of the countries making the decisions. These global meetings affect the world in both ways. Because I am a Black male, and because the 1960s Civil Rights Movement is a very important event in Black history, I am curious about the “come-up” of this action taken by Blacks around America. The impact of international affairs, such as the United Nations Charter and the Treaty of Berlin, influenced the future rise of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement because of the actions taken as to how to deal with the civil rights of Blacks/African Americans. Such meetings and interactions on a worldwide scale contributed to the methods, discussions, and practices found in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement.

The American Civil Rights Movement was composed of social movements, plans, and groups in the United States with the objectives of ending racial segregation and discrimination against Blacks and ensuring legal recognition and federal protection of the citizens’ rights listed in the Constitution and United States law for Black Americans. From 1954 to 1968, civil disobedience and nonviolent protests created stiff tension between the government and activists. Examples of this civil disobedience include the Selma to Montgomery marches, the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the Greensboro, North Carolina sit-ins. The 1950s and 1960s were a period of struggle and chaos as Americans fought for the rights of human beings that have a different color skin from the majority of the population, and this struggle brought about political change. In result, multiple pieces of federal legislation were passed, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, and sex in employment practices, voting requirements, etc. and the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 that removed racial and national “walls” and opened the gate for non-white immigrants.

In my public schools, I was taught the short history of the Civil Rights Movement: Martin Luther King, Jr., Rosa Parks, bus boycott, black power, black power, “I have a dream,” and “Free at last, Free at last.” Unfortunately, those classes were never able to dissect and list the factors that made up the movement in the first place. I always thought of questions like “What inspired these acts of nonviolence?” or “What happened in the past that got them to this point of wanting to protest for their rights?” Slavery was and will always be a focal point of why the events that happened during the Civil Rights Movement took place; however, it stands to reason there is more. As a young Black man, I am curious about my history and feel the need to look more into what strategies and ideas outside of the United States grabbed the attention of the activists and slipped their way into the creation of what society will remember as the “Martin Luther King, Jr. & the American Civil Rights Movement.”

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To understand what influenced the American Civil Right Movement, one must first understand the Black International Tradition. Henry J. Richardson III, a Professor at Temple Law School, explains that “The Black International Tradition is a documented historical pathway of Black claims and demands to ‘outside law’ often focused on international events. It compromises claims and demands to be governed by better, more liberations-promising normative authority ‘outside’ of local American law and policy, which upheld slavery and national racism” (61). This “tradition” is almost like a club for Black individuals who have an interest in international law.

Blacks have always been involved in the international environment, even before the transatlantic slave trade and the birth of the United States of America. The reason this characteristic of Black culture has not been brought to light in the United States is because slavery, the battle for civil rights, and the overall narrative for Blacks living in America hide the strong aspects of Black people with an American flag as if they never existed. American Blacks’ involvement in civil rights and international affairs goes as far back as the War of 1812, which “confirms early evidence of Blacks in the United States asserting claims to a right of general equality and freedom under outside law in return for their military service” (Richardson 61). This war was a way for escaping Black slaves to gain freedom and land in exchange for putting their lives on the line by fighting “to defend the then foreign-held territory of Florida” (Richardson 61). Pre-1960s, there was nothing new about Blacks fighting for their freedom. History simply repeats itself, not exactly in the same way, but events and scenarios in the 1960s are similar to ones that took place in the past. The War of 1812 was just the beginning of the record of Black activists turning to international affairs and events to justify their fight for freedom and civil rights.

The United Nations Charter, a major treaty that was ratified and put into effect by the United States in 1946, was the focal point for Blacks to explain what they wanted for Black rights in America. This treaty led to “a debate among Black Americans in which the American white establishment, invoking the rise of the Cold War with the Soviet Union, increasingly interfered and attempted to shape the terms and issues to limit Black influence in defining them” (Richardson 75). This debate caused many people in the Black community to realize that they did not all have the same mindset. They argued “about whether African-American rights in America could be finally secured, including under law, only by their making common cause in the world community with the rights struggles of the colonized and newly independent African and other peoples of color still trapped in or just emerging formally from European empires” (Richardson 75). Blacks against Blacks focus of this debate would eventually lead to a split in the NAACP and would have W.E.B. Du Bois released from the organization in 1948.

The impact of The United Nations Charter is a key piece of evidence that shows how international affairs affected the minds of those who started the American Civil Right Movement in the 1940s. The debates over the charter resulted in differing opinions and arguments about how to secure rights for Black Americans. The American Civil Rights Movement was a movement for people of color to voice their opinions on segregation and discrimination, but not everyone was on exactly the same page as to how to achieve it. Yet history is full of stories of Black people locking arms and fighting for their rights despite having different perspectives.

Black communities listened to people who were involved in both American and international civil rights movements. Richardson explains that “An example of the linkage between the early Civil Rights Movement and the global human-rights-self-determination decolonization narrative is the presence of Adam Clayton Powell, a leader of Harlem civil rights marches in the 1940s, 70

pastor of its largest church and a crusading Congressman, at the 1955 Bandung Conference, which was the first self-identified Conference of ‘third world’ peoples” (Richardson 64). The American Civil Rights Movement began receiving support from newly independent countries such as Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya, and Black activists looked to successful international civil rights movements for inspiration.

Given the effectiveness of marches like Selma to Montgomery in obtaining civil rights for Blacks, it is only right to look back and see where the idea for nonviolent protests came from.

Martin Luther King, Jr., one of the most influential leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, had an eye on one man who had the same motives he did and wanted his people to be free. Mahatma Gandhi was the mastermind behind the India’s plan to become independent from Great Britain.

Gandhi’s strategy to encourage his people to fight for their rights began with the Salt March. The Salt March, which occurred approximately thirty-five years before the Selma to Montgomery marches, provided what Martin Luther King Jr. was looking for: an act of civil disobedience.

Both leaders knew that to get the point across and provide their people the opportunity to live on their own land in peace, they had to “break the peace” or “break the law” in certain nonviolent measures. Thomas Weber, author of Gandhian Nonviolence and the Salt March, gives a clear indication of the Salt March’s purpose, saying the Salt March “was not merely about removing the British but to demonstrate what an ideal nonviolent society should look like, how ideal lives should be lived” (47). This statement is almost exactly what Martin Luther King Jr. had in mind for his nonviolent protests, but for a different time, a different area of the world, and a different context. The Salt March had a very positive effect on society and united the people of the native land, and it contributed to the independence of India in 1947. King did not have to look far to see that there was a solution that could achieve peace and equality in the United States of America without creating dread and hatred toward another race of people. An admirer of Gandhi, King had long dreamed of visiting India to observe the science of the nonviolent movement and apply that knowledge to the American Civil Rights Movement.

The American Civil Rights Movement was heavily influenced by international affairs. Multiple international meetings contributed to the process of figuring out how Black people could be become equal in America, the land that they were forced into, and discussing how they could overcome their European enemy. That international law has been flowing through the bloodstream and brain cells of Black people since Pre-Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade time shows that Black people knew how things worked; however, they did not get the recognition for it.

Black people getting little to no recognition for knowing international law and having a high interest in the subject is not surprising when you know that it has been that way with every aspect that falls under an academic standpoint. A perfect example would be “Why did it take America till 2016 to show a movie about the Black women who were the ‘human calculators’ for NASA?” It is a very important topic for Americans to know, but, because the women were of color, the United States of America swept it under the rug like it was something that should be not seen. Yes, international affairs did help people of the world out; the result of some of those meetings or events caused a stir up of unfortunate scenarios that led to mindsets that contributed to the rise of the American Civil Rights Movement.

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WORKS CITED Richardson, Henry J. “Two Treaties, and Global Influences of the American Civil Rights Movements, Through the Black International Tradition.” Virginia Journal of Social Policy and the Law, vol. 18, no. 1, 2010. papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_ id=1960672.

Weber, Thomas. “Gandhian Nonviolence and the Salt March.” Social Alternatives, vol. 21, no. 2, 2002. connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/6930641/gandhian-nonviolence-salt-march.

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MEET THE WRITERS Isabella Andersson is originally from Sweden and came to Hawai‘i to study Marine Biology. In the future, she aspires to work with endangered marine species with a specialization in coral reefs. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i/ HPU is all the hikes and the fantastic diversity HPU offers.

Kianna Bagdon was born and raised in Anchorage, Alaska. She is in the 3:2 Math and Engineering Program, and she plans to pursue electrical engineering. Her favorite part about living in Hawai‘i is the beautiful weather and not having to shovel the driveway.

Ian Lactaoen is an HPU student majoring in a Bachelor of Arts (BA) Degree in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). He has lived in Hawai‘i since birth. In the future, he plans to be an English Professor at HPU or his former school.

Jasper Jay Marcelo is from Waipahu, Oahu. He is an accounting major who is determined to become a Certified Public Accountant. He loves the scenery in Hawai‘i, the beaches, the wide array of food available, and how Oahu is truly a melting pot of different cultures so exquisitely encompassed by our absolutely wonderful culinary establishments.

Suchanya Niyomkitjakarnkul [not pictured] is originally from Bangkok, Thailand. She is a sophomore majoring in marine biology. She is still exploring the many different aspects of the oceans in order to learn more about herself and her career goals. Her favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is the beach and poke bowls.

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Tori Skees is from Kentucky, and she moved to Hawai‘i in January 2017.

She is currently majoring in Psychology. Right now, she’s unsure about what her career plans are, but she’s leaning towards neuroscience right now. She loves living here, and her favorite part is how friendly everyone is and the fact that it doesn't snow!

Filip Soban is originally from Slovakia. His major is Business Administration with a concentration in International Business, and he would like to open up a business in the future, probably something related to tennis. His favorite things about Hawai‘i are the weather, the laid-back and positive atmosphere, and that he is part of such a good tennis program here in HPU.

Miki Tanimura is originally from Japan. She is majoring in Marketing, and her goal is to start own business. Her favorite thing about Hawai‘i is the beach.

Christopher Williams is originally from Vicksburg, Mississippi. He is majoring in Business Administration with a concentration in Accounting, and his goal is to become a professional soccer player and an accountant.

His favorite thing about living in Hawai‘i is that the culture is great.

Ella Willbrand [not pictured] is a Hawai‘i Pacific University student.

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MEET THE EDITORS

Dr. Christy Williams is an Assistant Professor of English. She teaches courses in Modernism, fantasy literature, fairy tales, video games, television studies, and first-year composition. She writes primarily about 20th- and 21st-century fairy tales. Dr. Williams is originally from East Tennessee. Her favorite thing about HPU is the students’ wide range of experiences, backgrounds, and talents.

Julie Flores is originally from Los Angeles, California and has been in Hawai‘i for three years.

She is majoring in English with a triple minor in Psychology, Film Studies, and Gender and Women’s Studies and hopes to become an English Professor. She has enjoyed learning about the various components that make up the Hawaiian culture including the history, customs, traditions, and practices.

Jun Dennis Sadang stay one senior trying for get one degree in English, and den sum moa minors in Japanese, writing, and gender and women’s studies (ho, one overacheiver, yeah?). His plans for da future is he like teach people how for write or try publish books or whatevah. His favorite ting about Hawai‘i? Ah, not even one question brah. Pidgin brah. No even act.

Kylie Cummings is a senior from Kapolei, Hawai‘i majoring in English and minoring in Japanese. She is working towards becoming a lawyer but is also considering teaching or getting involved in politics. She is very interested in local issues and is passionate about Hawaiian history and music.

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