Fresh Perspectives Spring 2015

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Table of Contents EDITORS’ WELCOME ................................................................................................................................ 3

CHALLENGING THE STATUS QUO: Education Reform: The Case for Career Academies and Talent Development High Schools .................. 5

By Terrald Hodges Raising a Child Prodigy ........................................................................................................................... 12

By Fernand Baldonado The Gift of Life: An Investigation into the Live Donation System .......................................................... 18

By Brittany Manabe Frankly, My Dear, Media Doesn’t Give a Damn: Influence of the Media on Perceptions of Obscenity 27

By Laura Garber Blending in or Standing Out? ................................................................................................................. 34

By Chelsey Santos Mustachianism: An Alternative to Consumerism .................................................................................. 40

By R.J. Simpson CULTURE AND CHANGE: Ta Moko Maori Tattoos.......................................................................................................................... 46

By Terena Koteka-Wiki My Love Made Me a Minority................................................................................................................ 50

By Paige Carlin Net Neutrality: Keeping the Internet Fair and Impartial........................................................................ 53

By Dustin Connis Ordinary to Unordinary: Becoming Homeless ....................................................................................... 60

By Alisandra Dominguez Through Alien Eyes: A Review of Studies on Immigration ..................................................................... 62

By Juana Meza Nieto COMING TO REALIZATIONS: Pursuit of Happiness .............................................................................................................................. 68

By Shianne Schorr What Clouds Our Judgment? Objective vs. Subjective Reality .............................................................. 73

By Jasmine Sagaysay The Development of Personality and Theories of Personality Change ................................................. 79

By Jennifer Rice Enjoy the Circus? The Animals Don't ..................................................................................................... 86

By Douglas Spencer Purifying a City: The Wrongful Criminalization of Homelessness .......................................................... 91

By Dien Nguyen Meet the Authors ............................................................................................................................... 1011 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................ 105

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EDITORS’ WELCOME Vanessa Vasquez Hello! My name is Vanessa Vazquez and I am a second-year student here at HPU majoring in Pre Health: Biology Human and Health Sciences. Originally from Granada Hills, California, I have lived here in Hawaii for almost two years and it has already been such a great adventure. I love so many things about Hawaii, but what I really love the most is the diversity of people here. I have had the pleasure of meeting people from all over the world, from local Hawaiians who love to share their history and rich culture, to Brazilian surfers here for the incredible waves and beaches, to students just like me, who came here in the search for adventure and education. Everyone has a story to tell and it really is something special to be able to hear all of them. That’s what I loved most about the opportunity of editing this anthology: Each essay has a story to tell and each author has something to share with you. I hope you enjoy this anthology as much as I have!

Kathleen Cassity As Chair of HPU’s English Department, I am pleased to introduce our sixth issue of Fresh Perspectives, featuring essays written for our firstyear writing courses in the Spring 2015 semester. As always, we solicited essays from our first-year writing courses, covering a variety of topics, academic disciplines, discourse communities, and rhetorical approaches.

You’ll notice a range of genres, from personal narratives to book reviews to traditional research papers; you’ll also notice an eclectic choice of topics as well as argumentative positions and rhetorical strategies. Because these writers are relatively new to the academy, we do not expect disciplinary mastery. (Note that in some cases, certain pieces have been edited to be more audience-friendly—particularly the submissions that came out of a book review assignment.) Our goal is to provide a venue for publication and dissemination of provocative and interesting ideas by the newest members of the academy—our first-year students, who may still be learning the nuances of academic discourse yet who have compelling things to say and who offer, in the words of our title, “fresh perspectives.”

Essays with potential were nominated by the students’ teachers and went through a full editorial process with the assistance of my student editorial intern, Vanessa Vasquez. The viewpoints expressed are the opinions of the writers themselves and are not necessarily endorsed (nor denounced) by HPU, the English Department, or the editors. Rather than selecting pieces that toe any particular “party line,” we have attempted—in the spirit of academic freedom and free speech—to present a range of views, some of which may be controversial. This is fitting for a first-year writing program that emphasizes argument, and we hope you will enjoy reading the arguments made by some of our most promising first-year writing students here at HPU.

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Education Reform: The Case for Career Academies and Talent Development High Schools

By Terrald Hodges It’s your high school graduation day. You made it! After a long, grueling four years, you finally met the school’s requirements, which will supposedly set you up for both college and for real life, if you want to work right out of high school. You walk onto the stage to receive your diploma, then turn your tassel with the class in unison, officially signifying that you have completed and passed the final stage of required education. High school has taught you everything you need to know to survive, everything from how to graph a quadratic equation to knowing that a mitochondrion is the powerhouse of a cell. You should be set for the rest of your life now, right? Or is there more to life than Algebra II and Biology?

High school is a great place of learning; however, there is far too much material that schools are failing to teach students. Many students graduate high school not knowing how to pay taxes, what a home mortgage is, how interest rates are determined, or what they want to do with their future lives. Education reform is needed to rearrange school curriculum into Career Academies or a Talent Development High School. Regardless of which career path a student takes, the general education requirement for every high school student should require completion of one business or money management course because every career relates to the basics of business.

Career Academies or Talent Development High Schools (TDHS) are far superior to high schools with only general education requirements, because both Career Academies and TDHS improve the school atmosphere and build connections between students, in return improving overall school attendance rates. Changing a high school’s curriculum to a TDHS-style curriculum will allow students to be properly educated in a career field they are interested in, which will give them a better idea of what to expect in the future regardless of whether they wish to go to college or start work. This will ultimately lead to an increase in average annual earnings without worry of being buried in debt.

Before understanding why a Career Academy or Talent Development High School is better than the current high school structure, you need to understand exactly what these schools are.

Erin Fender, Coordinator of the Graduate School of Education branch of University of California, Berkeley, explains that at the core of a successful career academy “is a welldesigned curriculum that provides logical, linked sequence of courses for high school students … that includes both academic and Career Technical Education (CTE) courses.” She then adds that “the courses should focus on the career theme and offer students a comprehensive, rigorous curriculum that prepares them for both college and career” (Fender).

This means that there are a set of courses for students to take within their academy that involve academic courses—classes such as English, Math, Sciences, and History. The set also includes CTE courses that relate to one’s career such as business, culinary, child care, and so forth. Both the academic and CTE courses will not only set someone up for college, but for their career as well, which is what many high schools fail to focus on. For example, someone

6 who is interested in becoming a chef or opening their own restaurant would be required to take a culinary or food safety course, while someone interested in accounting would take business and finance courses. A Talent Development High School is a high school with multiple career academies within it, which makes it similar to a Career Academy High School.

In addition to a Talent Development High School with many career academies, it is a must to require in every school an Introduction to Business or Money Management course. Brian Armstrong, writer for LifeHack and entrepreneur who achieved financial freedom working for himself, explains to readers that “people are never taught how to build wealth” and that “this is why we have a nation in credit card debt.” What is being said is exactly what it sounds like.

Too many people are not being taught how to build their wealth or manage their money correctly. Too many citizens in the U.S are being buried under too much debt. Students who get the proper education in business or money management begin to understand exactly why saving up for retirement and investing is so important and just how scary debt is, before reality hits them.

Brian Page, a personal financial advisor, explains: “Ninety-three percent of Americans believe all high school students should be required to take a class in financial education” and that “managing money is [no longer] a responsibility exclusive to adults” (Page) The question becomes, “Why aren’t all high schools requiring a class in financial education to graduate?”

Business relates to everything in life, and money management helps lead to a successful lifestyle. It is necessary that students be taught this while attending a Talent Development High School.

The first reason why a TDHS is better than the current high school curriculum is the overall improvement of the school atmosphere and climate. Will J. Jordan, James M. McPartland, Nettie E. Legters and Robert Balfanz, specialists in education reform, have found that the amount of teachers who rated school climate problems as “serious” dropped drastically, from 60% to 20% or less, while there was no change of votes for similar schools within the same district (164-165). When students are placed into a Career Academy with other people who share similar interests, there is a bigger feeling of belonging which reduces the amount of conflict between students and increases interest in learning. This in return will help to strengthen and build everlasting relationships with people some would never have expected to be so close with.

As mentioned previously, being in a Career Academy places you in classrooms with students who have similar interests as you do. College Tools for Schools, a site hosted by the University of California - Berkeley, explains that one problem of high schools is that “many high schools are very large today, and students often find them alienating and fail to make connections in them, thus becoming likelier dropouts” (“College Tools”). They go on to say one benefit of a Career Academy is that “grouping students into smaller units, showing them connections among their subjects … can help to address these problems” (“College Tools”).

From personal experience, being in a Career Academy has allowed me to bond with my fellow classmates, knowing that we all had something in common. That something in

7 common was an idea of what career we wanted to pursue after college, which in my case was a career in business or finance. With your curriculum requirements being the same as those in your academy, you see more familiar faces, as they will be taking the same courses as you.

One issue for a student not in a Career Academy is meeting new people during the new school year and growing some sort of bond, but having that bond broken or tampered with when you don’t see their faces the following year because you are taking completely different courses.

With the Career Academies in a TDHS taking place in the second, third, and fourth year of high school, for the next couple of years you see the same faces and people you grew a bond with the previous year, creating a sense of belonging and trust with those around you. Your fellow classmates in your academy can no longer be labeled only classmates, but more so become your family.

When the overall climate and atmosphere of school is more positive, the attendance rate will improve as well. When students are constantly absent, it is no surprise that students are not being taught material they need to learn which will be of use to them in the future. It is shown that students who attend a TDHS will attend school and classes more frequently, which will result in less material being missed due to absences. According to W. Jordan et al., at Patterson High School in Baltimore, “student average daily attendance increased by 10 percentage points school-wide and by 15 percentage points in the 9th grade at Patterson, while the district average at the eight other nonselective high schools declined by 3 points over the same 2-year period” (165). This shows that when students are in a TDHS, they feel more inclined to show up because the overall atmosphere and climate of the school is healthier.

This doesn’t necessarily mean that the students are more motivated to show up to school, but suggests that there is less discouragement when they feel less threatened.

Other studies have questioned how much the attendance rate of a school has improved. James J. Kemple, Executive Director of the Research Alliance for New York City Schools—well known for his work examining high school reform efforts—and Jason C. Snipes, Director of Alliance Research and an expert on U.S urban education policy and research, performed a scientific study on how much attendance has improved for students who were in a Career Academy in a high school. They divided students into three subgroups, depending on their risk of dropping out. These three groups were Low-Risk, Medium-Risk, and High-Risk. An amazing finding was that all three groups’ attendance improved for students who were enrolled in a Career Academy during their high school period, with the High-Risk group showing the most improvement.

For the High-Risk group, students in the Academy Group had a dropout rate of 21.3%, while the Non-Academy Group had a dropout rate of 32.2% (48). This means that there was a significant decrease in dropouts for students who weren’t in a Career Academy versus students who were enrolled in a Career Academy. The average attendance of students in grades 9 through 12 who were enrolled in an academy was 81.5%, while those not in an academy had a rate of 76% (48). This shows that there was a 5.6% increase in the attendance rate of students in an academy within the high-risk of dropout group.

Aside from improved attendance rates, another reason why schools need to be changed into Talent Development High Schools is that students are being educated and taught in courses

8 that will relate to their future aspirations and careers. When a student selects a Career Academy, they are also deciding on a career they believe they will pursue either after high school or college. Being a part of a Career Academy allows students to take courses that relate to their future careers. According to the College Tools site provided by University of California – Berkeley: “One of the biggest problems in high schools is boredom, caused in large part by students who don’t see the relevance of what they are being taught” (“College Tools”). When students are being taught and are learning something relevant to their future aspirations, they are more likely to pay attention and actively participate in their class and course.

What makes a TDHS unique is that students who plan to pursue a career in business may not be required to take as many science courses as someone whose future plan is to be a biologist.

Many high schools today require that students take more than one science course regardless of what the student wishes to do in the future, or take high levels of math even when a student wishes to become a customer service representative—which, as stated previously, may cause boredom and hinder the students’ learning because there is no relevance to their future aspirations.

Another troubling issue that many high school students face is not knowing what they wish to do with their lives after high school. Kemple and Snipes found that 7.3% of students at a high risk of dropping out of high school did not know if they wanted to go to college after school or start work. However, only 3.7% of the group of academy students did not know what they wanted to do what to do after high school, is almost half the amount of non-academy students (57).

An even more drastic improvement was the percentage of students who submitted an application for a two-year or four-year college. It was found that 50.5% of academy students submitted a college application, versus 35.3% of non-academy students who submitted a college application. This shows that there was a 43.1% increase of students who submitted applications when they were involved in a career academy (57). This evidence further supports the claim that those who are in career academies know what to do with themselves.

These statistics show that there are fewer such students who do not know what to do after high school, and that a bigger percentage of career academy students apply to a college versus those not in a career academy.

With all of these improvements in attendance, atmosphere, connections, education, and future plans, many are curious as to how these students are impacted in the long run. Kemple and Scott-Clayton conducted separate studies analyzing the long-term effects of monthly income of academy students versus non-academy students. The findings were just as interesting as those mentioned previously about attendance rate and future plans. Within the full study sample, it was found that the academy student group made on average $107 more than the non-academy student group. When calculated into a year’s earnings, it is found that academy students earned almost $1,300 more that year than those who were not placed in an academy, which shows a 10% increase in annual income for the academy students (12). Note that this increase of annual income only comes from the first year after graduation.

9 What I found to be truly shocking was that over the course of four years after graduation, Kemple and Scott-Clayton found that “through a combination of increased wages, hours worked, and employment stability, the young men in the Academy group earned over $10,000 (18 percent) more than those in the non-Academy control group over the four-year follow-up period” (iii). Although this quote focuses mainly on men, it still shows that men who were in a career academy earned $10,000 over the course of four years compared to men who were not in an academy. This $10,000 could cover one or two years’ worth of tuition, could be used toward a down payment on a car, or could even be saved toward retirement in the future. This does not mean that women were not impacted at all by being in a career academy, but rather, they were not impacted quite as significantly as men were in career academies. Both men and women can benefit from being in a career academy.

The previous study focused on the increase of annual income over the four years after graduation. A follow up study done by Kemple and Willner reviewed the same students again, eight years after graduation. Kemple and Willner reported that “through a combination of increase wages, hours worked, and employment stability, real earnings for young men in the Academy group increased by $3,731 (17 percent) per year – or nearly $30,000 over eight years” (iii). What was interesting about this eight- year follow up was that the academy students not only made make more than non-academy students, but seemed to have earned more than what was expected if the increase was linear. In other words, if in four years an academy student earns $10,000 more than a non-academy student, it is expected that in eight years this student would earn $20,000 more. However, this was not the case; in fact, the student earned even more, showing that academy students not only earn more money initially but also get their hourly wage raised more frequently or are given more hours as years go by.

One major issue that is very obvious about this sort of academic structure would be what sort of outcome would arise if someone were to change their job and/or career. Timothy J. Bartik, an American economist who specializes in public finance and labor economics, and Susan N. Houseman, a senior economist and expert on labor market issues, explain that for CTE courses: “A common argument against a career-oriented approach is that the mix of jobs changes so frequently that occupational skills easily become outmoded” (62). It is definitely likely that someone will decide on a career they believe is right for them but will immediately change their decision after doing some work in that field. In life, this happens quite often to a large number of people. This happens more often to high school students as well; they decide they wish to major in one thing when they go to college and have second thoughts about it while still attending high school. This happens frequently to college majors too!

The difference between high school diplomas and college diplomas, however, is that a high school diploma says you completed said required general education courses and earned the right amount of credits. Meanwhile, a college diploma says you completed general education courses plus courses specific to your major and degree. What is great about a Talent Development High School is the flexibility to change your career path early in your life. Even if you decide you wish to join another career academy, at least you know what you don’t want to major in while attending college, before it is too late to switch majors, and without dumping your life savings into next year’s tuition.

10 There may indeed be some people who wish to abuse this changing career academy approach in an attempt to get classes they believe are going to be fun, entertaining, or even easy. Work should definitely be done to keep this approach from being frequently abused. One simple way of tackling this problem, should it arise, would be to allow students an automatic acceptance into their first career academy but to set restrictions or required tests when they wish to switch to another academy. This test may have questions that people who are truly passionate or have done their research can answer, which also prevents students from falling behind in their career academy core curriculum. Another approach would be to meet with a counselor to examine exactly how this academy change will affect said student, and what steps and procedures should be taken in order to catch up to the rest of the class. A different suggestion could be to have students write an essay as to why they wish to join or change their career academy. The list of solutions to this problem can go on.

Given all of these points, it is easy to see just how much better a Talent Development High School with Career Academies fares against the current typical high school curriculum which is inferior to a TDHS structure. When a student enrolls in a TDHS, they are given so many different choices of careers to choose from. Students could possibly get a head start on their futures while still learning the basics of education. James J. Kemple, Will J. Jordan, James M. McPartland, and more, all of whom are professionals in education reform, have proven through statistics that TDHSs have better school climates and atmospheres, better attendance rates, and stronger classmate relationships, in comparison to regular comprehensive high schools.

When you combine all this with knowledge from your business or money management class, you have a school that properly educates and teaches students about their future careers. You also have a larger student body who are applying to college, with more of an idea of what they want to do with their life after school. To top this all off, a big majority of those students will end up making almost 20% more than students who have not attended a career academy.

Let us return to that flashback of your high school graduation day. This time, imagine that you are graduating from a Talent Development High School from an academy that relates to what your college major or future job will be. You know now how to save for retirement, how to invest your money responsibly, and how to avoid being buried in debt. There is a slim chance you may not know what a mitochondria is or does, but if you want to become an accountant and you know how to prepare a balance sheet or income statement, the question then becomes, “Which piece of information is more relevant to your future?”

WORKS CITED Armstrong, Brian. "8 Essential Skills They Didn’t Teach You In School." Lifehack RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2015.

Bartik, Timothy J., and Susan N. Houseman. A Future of Good Jobs?: America's Challenge in the Global Economy. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 2008. Print.

11 "Career Academies." Social Programs That Work. Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy, Sept.

2014. Web. 20 Apr. 2015.

Fender, Erin. "Course Sequences for Career Academies." CASN Resources. N.p., 2010. Web. 20 Apr. 2015.

Jordan, Will J., James M. McPartland, Nettie E. Legters, and Robert Balfanz. "Creating a Comprehensive School Reform Model: The Talent Development High School with Career Academies." Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR) 5.1-2 (2000): 159-81. Web. 20 Apr. 2015.

Kemple, James J., and Cynthia J. Willner. Career Academies: Long-term Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes, Educational Attainment, and Transitions to Adulthood. New York, NY: MDRC, 2008. Print.

Kemple, James J., and Jason C. Snipes. Career Academies Impacts on Students' Engagement and Performance in High School. New York, NY: Manpower Demonstration Research, 2000. Print.

Kemple, James J., and Judith Scott-Clayton. Career Academies: Impacts on Labor Market Outcomes and Educational Attainment. New York, NY: Manpower Demonstration Research, 2004. Print.

Page, Brian. "Why Personal Finance Should Be Taught in High School." Dollars Sense. H&R Block, n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2015.

"SLCs and Career Academies." SLCs & Career Academies: Why Are These Good Ideas?

N.p., 2010. Web. 20 Apr. 2015.

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Raising a Child Prodigy

By Fernand Baldonado Promethea Pythaitha started reading at the age of one, and learned college-level calculus at the age of seven. She became the youngest student to work for a Bachelor’s degree in Mathematics when she was just 13 years old. Ethan Bortnick started playing the piano at the age of three, composed his own music at five, and became a musical professional at the age of six. Arfa Karim became the youngest Microsoft Certified Professional (MCP) at age nine.

“Amazing,” “gifted,” and “rare” are terms that comes to mind when we hear about these cases. These accomplishments at a very young age are rare, but not impossible. Children all over the world, and for many generations, are doing the unthinkable. Prodigies are arising from all parts of the globe. Child prodigies are making their parents, and other parents, wonder how they ever became this way. Most parents think that there is a set way of raising a child prodigy, but this paper argues for different ways to raise a prodigy that is tailored towards the child’s specific needs, personality, and learning abilities, with the most important aspect being motivation.

Among child prodigies, the least understood issue is how they have come to exist. When you realize that you have a highly gifted child, how do you raise a prodigy? A known difference between a genius and a prodigy is their age. A genius is someone who is intelligent and creative in natural ability, in a general or particular aspect. A prodigy is someone with exceptional intelligence and abilities who masters a discipline or skill at a very young age. So how in particular do these child prodigies start out? What do these prodigies have in common?

How is parenting a prodigy different?

The combination of being born with a natural talent and then training these skills to mastery is what highlights a child prodigy. A child can be born with natural talent, but those skills could be diminished without proper honing and support. What should parents do when they first learn that their child is different in that they may have higher intellectual abilities? Parental guidance could play a big role in the development of a child prodigy. If a child were expected to develop these skills alone and without proper training and guidance, could he/she push through the struggles?

It is evident that if a child is motivated and passionate about a certain discipline, that child is more than likely to be interested in learning more about it. The mind, then, is able to excel in terms of developmental, patterns enabling the child to gain higher understandings of that certain craft. This could be the beginning of honing the basic fundamental skills of a child prodigy. In “Child Prodigies: Born or Made?” Katherine Smith, media and communications liaison for the humanities, arts, cultural collections and music for the University of Melbourne, states: There is scientific evidence to suggest that if children become intensely motivated in a particular area early in life, that developmental pattern is replicated in other parts of the brain and fundamentally “laid down,” such that the child can build on the

13 equipping skills of concentration and self-determination established while young, which is then reflected in their level of ability. (Smith, 2011) This is the first initial phase in unlocking a child prodigy’s potential. It is almost as if you are reprogramming or updating your brain at a young age. Now that the fundamental learning base is laid down, the training and development begins.

When a prodigy performs, whether it is music, math, or art, it is often clear that the child is very passionate about it. Combining passion, emotion, and fantasy could be the driving force that motivates a lot of these prodigies. Andrew Solomon wrote in the New York Times Magazine, “They put that fantasized emotion into their playing, and it is very convincing. I had an amazing capacity for imagining these feelings, and that’s part of what talent is” (Solomon, 2012). The fire is often kept alive by experience. A prodigy molds his/her set of skill to mastery, then executes with passion and emotion.

Experience is what enables a lot of prodigies to recreate or reproduce these feelings.

Experience is what refreshes the passion in their respective discipline: “That’s why so many prodigies have midlife crises in their late teens or early 20s. If our imagination is not replenished with experience, the ability to reproduce these feelings in one’s playing gradually diminishes” (Solomon, 2012). Imagination is our ability to be creative in our own ways; it is key in being motivated and staying driven.

Child prodigies have many things in common, but the most valuable trait that these children have is their mental capacity for “working memory.” In the article, “Child Prodigy: A Novel Cognitive Profile Places Elevated General Intelligence, Exceptional Working Memory and Attention to Detail at the Root of Prodigiousness,” researchers Joanne Ruthsatz and Jourdan B. Urbach state: In addition to having at least a modest elevation in general intelligence, each of the prodigies demonstrated exceptional working memory. The range in working memory scores for the eight child prodigies tested was 139–152 with a mean score of 147 (X = 147, SD = 5.32). Each prodigy scored well above the general population mean of 100; on average, the prodigies scored over three standard deviations above the mean for working memory. Every prodigy scored in the 99th percentile on this measure; all but two of the prodigies scored in the 99.9th percentile. (Ruthstatz & Urbach, 2012, p.

424) Whether it is chess, math, or music, these gifted and talented children have some way of being more than ordinary. Amanda Morin, a writer specializing in education and parenting, stated in “5 Ways Kids Use Working Memory to Learn,” states: “Working memory is the mental sticky note we use to keep track of information until we need to use it” (Morin, 2015). Another way of comprehending working memory is being able to remember patterns or sequences while being in the midst of doing something. Working memory is the natural ability to remember things while you are in motion.

14 The difference between working memory and memory is that memory is thought of more as short-term. In “The Mind of the Prodigy,” Scott Barry Kaufman explained a recent study conducted by The Journal of Intelligence. The experiment was conducted with eight prodigies in art, math, music, and gastronomy. The first test addressed their IQ scores. What the researchers found startling was that one prodigy obtained a total IQ score of 108 and a visual spatial score of 71. This was worse than 97 percent of the general population. This child was well-decorated, winning prestigious awards for his jazz improvisational abilities. IQ scores couldn’t be the correlation between the prodigies. According to Kaufman, “More striking is that every single prodigy [that] scored off the charts in working memory [is] better than 99 percent of the general population” (Kaufman, 2012). High-powered working memory was what all these prodigies had in common.

Prodigies are often viewed as children who have everything figured out, and it is assumed success will be a guaranteed outcome. Yet that is not always the case for most highly gifted children. They often lose sight in the process and find themselves not knowing what they want to do with their lives. The focus most of the time is on the qualities of being a prodigy and not so much on their long-term development. This diminishes the value of being a prodigy, potentially avoiding the full development of the child’s special gifts. On the website Geniusexperiment.com, the anonymous writer of “Why Child Prodigies Fail” explains: I think a major reason is the short-sighted focus on easily measurable qualities of “child prodigies,” such as an extremely high IQ, a near perfect memory or technical proficiency in an instrument, rather than a long term focus on originality, imagination and psychological characteristics that will support outstanding achievement (persistence, patience, focus, obsessive interest in a certain area, dealing with frustration, self-confidence. (The Genius Experiment, 2012) Such advanced traits for development should be emphasized for the long-term consequences of being a highly gifted child.

The complexity of parenting children who are highly intelligent can be challenging but rewarding. There is not a textbook way to raise a child. Now throw a variable in there, and that variable is a potential child prodigy. In the article “Raising a Child Prodigy,” Tom Scheve stated, “Raising a child prodigy has unique challenges and requires individually tailored time, attention and thought, because these children have amazing abilities in a specific field far beyond their years” (Scheve, 2010).

When a child possesses skills far beyond his/her years, the child needs guidance in cultivating these skills. Developing these exceptional abilities requires specific basic guidelines.

Individually tailored time allows the child to work on honing specific skills for certain periods of time. The learning and mastery of a discipline requires an approach, some kind of blueprint to effectively develop and not burn the child out. Documentation of the child’s progression, setting short-term and long-term attainable goals, and identifying and working on weaknesses could be concrete examples of periodization. Strengths are perfected and new approaches could be executed in phases during this process.

15 Organization and time management would be key in the developmental process of a child prodigy. The child has a very different intellectual capacity than other children, and the attention given to the prodigy has to be specifically tailored to the capabilities of the child.

The realization that the child has a higher understanding of certain skills enables the parent to train the child to his/her potential. Special attention, like getting a respected professional such as a musical instructor, art teacher, or coach to guide the child could excel his/her development. Analyzing the child’s strengths and weaknesses through tracking the child’s progressions, while monitoring success and failure rates carefully, is also a special consideration. Knowing the child’s “breaking point” is important so as to avoid “overtraining” or putting too much stress on the child. It is all about carefully listening and analyzing how the child responds.

With everything that happens in this world, there is also a different side of the spectacle that we often don’t see. Behind the mask of a child prodigy, there can be that dark, gloomy, and confused side. Intelligently gifted children sometimes find themselves in positions where they don’t fit in with other children or even with the community. Parents need to be aware of the struggles and obstacles that may come. Not all child prodigies will be treated the same, and some may be treated like any other kid. But how do you deal with a child who gets the worst end of the spectrum? There will be times when the child will feel confused, stressed, and separated from the crowd.

In the article “Parenting Highly Gifted Children: The Challenges, the Joys, the Unexpected Surprises,” Kathi Kearney, who has more than 25 years of experience working with gifted children, states, “Helping a highly gifted child find friends involves thinking about the concept of ‘peers’ in a different way” (Kearney, 1989, p. 12). What would most definitely help the child would be to find a set of friends that would allow them just to be kids and play.

Another set could possibly be older peers, for educational purposes. Finding another child with the same intellectual abilities and possibly someone who is also a prodigy could prove beneficial. They both could relate in many ways, sharing experiences, emotions, and the development process.

As a family, seeking other families who share the same criteria could make this experience a lot more beneficial. Kearney explains, “Families who share this kind of community with each other, and who take the time to understand the unique needs of their children, find support, courage, and understanding for the profound changes in their own lives that parenting a highly gifted child brings” (Kearney, 1989, p. 12). It is also important for parents to think of the family as whole. Being involved with other families, sharing experiences, trials, and success is showing excellent support for the highly gifted child.

The classification of a child prodigy is often highlighted by their mastery of certain skill sets and abilities far beyond their age. What parents do not often acknowledge is the possibility that their child may have a cognitive disorder? Could the child possess a condition such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) or Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)? Solomon quotes Yoheved “Veda” Kaplinsky, a classical pianist and professor of music at the prestigious Juilliard School: “Genius is an abnormality, and can signal other abnormalities. Many gifted kids have ADD or OCD or Asperger’s” (Solomon, 2012).

16

This may not be true for all child prodigies. I don’t believe that higher intellectual abilities are always the result of a mental disorder. Prodigies are mentally gifted. Taking away the name of their true nature and giving them a title related to a cognitive disorder is uncalled for. I also don’t believe that being a genius is an abnormality. Being a genius is a rare gift; you either have it or you don’t. People will often criticize other people for the things they don’t have themselves.

The approach that a parent should take in raising a child prodigy is based on the strategic yet effective approach of tailoring to the child’s needs, personality, and learning abilities.

However, the most significant influential factor is motivation. How child prodigies exist is fascinating to the public as well as scientific world. Highly gifted children should be monitored very closely in terms of guidance, development, and support. The underlying foundations of a child prodigy are their passion toward that specific subject or discipline that serves as a motivational influence.

It is not always bright and sunny in the world of a child prodigy. There will be obstacles, failures, and confusions. Many variables come in to play when a parent takes on the responsibility to raise their gifted child. There is not a set way to raise a prodigy. Personality, specific needs, and abilities all need to be taken into consideration and then strategized so that the process will be proven successful. With proper guidance and understanding, raising a child prodigy could be an extraordinary experience.

REFERENCES Kaufman, S. B. (2012). The mind of the prodigy. The Creativity Post. Retrieved from http://www.creativitypost.com/psychology/the_mind_of_the_prodigy Kearney, K. (1989). Parenting highly gifted children: The challenges, the joys, the unexpected surprises. Davidson Institute for Talent Development, 19(2), 10-12. Retrieved from http://www.davidsongifted.org/db/Articles_id_10107.aspx.

Morin, A. (2015). 5 ways kids use working memory to learn. Understood for Learning & Attention Issues. Retrieved from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attentionissues/child-learning-disabilities/executive-functioning-issues/5-ways-kids-useworking-memory-to-learn Ruthsatz, J., & Urbach, J. B. (2012). Child prodigy: A novel cognitive profile places elevated general intelligence, exceptional working memory and attention to detail at the root of prodigiousness. Intelligence, 40(5), 419-426. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.hpu.edu/science/article/pii/S016028961200076 1.

Scheve, T. (2010). Raising a child prodigy. How Stuff Works. Retrieved from http://health.howstuffworks.com/pregnancy-and-parenting/raising-a-childprodigy.html

17 Smith, K. (2011). Child prodigies: born or made? The University of Melbourne Media.

Retrieved from http://newsroom.melbourne.edu/news/n-581 Solomon, A. (2012). How do you raise a prodigy? The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved on from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/04/magazine/how-do-you-raise-aprodigy.html?_r=0 The Genius Experiment. (2012) Why child prodigies fail. The Genius Experiment. Retrieved on from http://www.geniusexperiment.com/2012/12/why-child-prodigies-fail/

18

The Gift of Life: An Investigation into the Live Donation System

By Brittany Manabe A life-threatening health crisis is occurring right now. On average, 21 patients die every day and over 6,500 patients die each year, as they are unable to receive the life-saving organ transplant they are in dire need of (Organ Procurement & Transplantation Network, 2015).

With a new patient being added to the waiting list every ten minutes, the National Organ Transplant Waiting List continues to grow at a rapid pace that cannot be supplied. As the current waiting list occupies 123,406 patients and growing, the mass majority of potential recipients—101,691 people—are patients standing by to obtain a kidney transplant (Organ Procurement & Transplantation Network, 2015). Kidneys are by far the most desired and, therefore, the least supplied organ in the United States. With the severity of this health crisis in the United States, the question arises: What can be done to solve this kidney donation shortage?

When deliberating possible proposals to increase kidney donations, many experts set their primary focus on cadaveric donors. Cadaveric donors are deceased individuals who have chosen to become designated organ donors upon their death. In the article “Limiting Financial Disincentives in Live Organ Donation: A Rational Solution to the Kidney Shortage,” Gaston, Danovitch, et al. (2006) conducted a study to determine the impact cadaveric donors have on the donation rate here in the United States. Gaston et al. (2006) revealed that, “In truth, if all potential DD [deceased donors] in the United States became actual donors, there would still be substantial organ deficit” (p.2548).

Furthermore, Israni, Halpern et al. (2005) of the University of Pennsylvania explain that the supply of kidneys received from cadaveric donors are insufficient, and even if every possible cadaveric donor went through with the donation process, the generated supply would not be able to meet the increasing demand (p.15). It is evident that relying solely on cadaveric kidney donors to supply the growing demand is not a viable solution, as Ajay et al., and Gaston et al. have already stated; there are simply not enough cadaveric kidneys to supply this demand. By excluding cadaveric donors as the primary target to increase kidney donations, the focus is then shifted to the only other source: live donors.

As live donors are the only possible solution to the kidney shortage problem, specific action with the primary focus of increasing live donations must be taken. Under the live transplant system today, potential live kidney donors are bombarded with serious financial and medical disincentives that prevent them from donating. To increase the live kidney donation rate, the United States should alter the current transplant system to address and possibly eliminate the financial and medical disincentives associated with the live donation process.

In the United States today, the Organ Transplant Act of 1948 governs the transplant system.

Under the National Organ Transplant Act of 1948, “The donation of an organ is properly considered to be a legal gift, rather than a contractual undertaking. The donor receives none, the recipient gives none and none is transferred to a broker” (Gaston et al., 2006, p. 2552). To protect the live donation process from straying away from strictly being a gift, the Act of 1948

19 rigorously prohibits monetary exchanges between organ donors, recipients, and/or third party mediators, as it is illegal. In result, the live transplant system adopted a no-compensation model and relies solely on altruism to attract donors. Medical professionals Gill and Lowes (2008), authors of “Gift exchange and organ donation: Donor and recipient experiences of live related kidney transplantation,” further explain the context behind the theory of a legal gift: “Indeed, ‘the gift of life’ metaphor has traditionally permeated organ translation companies, primarily because the apparently selfless act of donation by one inducible could transform and even save the life of another who is serially ill” (p. 1608). Paul and Lesley (2008) reiterate the main goal of the National Organ Transplant Act of 1948, clarifying that a live donation of an organ is deemed as strictly a gift of life.

Maintaining the guideline set by the National Organ Transplant Act of 1948 comes with a price. In “For Love or Money? Attitudes Toward Financial Incentives Among Actual Living Kidney Donors,” Buren, Massey et al. (2010) state, “Although these living donation programs, based on the idea of donation being a gift without a financial reward, have certainly resulted in more kidney translations, wait lists nevertheless continue to grow” (p.2488). As the current transplant system solely relies on altruistic donations to keep the donation of an organ strictly a gift, in return this is possibly causing the United States’ inability to meet these ever growing demands.

Not only does the National Organ Transplant Act of 1948 possibly hinder the United States’ ability to supply the growing demands for kidney donations, but due to solely relying on altruism, this act has also led to the inability to provide aid to live donors. In “Limiting Financial Disincentives in Live Organ Donation: A Rational Solution to the Kidney Shortage,” bioethics experts Gaston, Danovitch et al. (2006) address the current live donation system when they explain that “the current U.S. system, based on presumptions of pure altruism, fails to fully reckon the risks (financial and physical) assumed by live donors, and makes no provision to compensate for those risks” (Gaston et al, 2006, p. 2549).

Furthermore, in “Incentive Models to Increase Living Kidney Donation: Encouraging Without Coercing,” bioethics experts Israni, Halpern, et al. (2005) further explain that, “This model originates from beliefs that donation should be based purely on altruism, and that the altruistic donor should be willing to incur any personal expenses associated with kidney donation” (2004, p.16). Biomedical expert Nancy Jecker, adds to this conversation as she argues in her article, “Selling Ourselves: The Ethics of Paid Living Kidney Donation,” that the nocompensation model governing the current live translation system clearly depicts pareto optimality, as “no individual could be made better off without making at least one individual worse off” (2014, p.1).

Pareto optimality is an uneven distribution or outcome, usually resulting in one individual succeeding or benefiting from the situation, while the adverse effect is applied to the remaining individual who is also involved in the situation (Jecker, 2014, p. 1). As the current live transplant system does not provide any form of compensation for the live donor, the donors evidently get the short end of the stick. The evidence provided by authors et al. (2006), Israni et al. (2005), and Jecker (2014) reveal the harsh reality live donors are currently experiencing, as their best interests are not protected and/or valued under the current system

20 governing the donation process. Under the no-compensation model, live donors are essentially being penalized financially and physically for their altruistic donation.

The evaluation process is extremely extensive and requires great dedication on the potential donor’s part. Before completing the physical and mental health evaluation, the potential live donor must first be a compatible match with the recipient. Immunological tests are conducted to cross match the donor and recipient’s blood type and tissue compatibility, and a piece of skin will be extracted from the donor to crossmatch tissue compatibility (National Kidney Foundation, 2015). Participants who are matches will move on to the next stage, the physiological evaluation. During the physiological exam, the donor will go through laboratory testing, to insure that they are clear of potentially life-threatening diseases that can be transferred. Upon being cleared of potential health threats, the donor then receives an EKG to examine their heart function and a chest x-ray to examine their lungs. (National Kidney Foundation, 2015). After confirming proper functions, a medical history and physical examination will be completed.

Upon completing the major physiological examinations and being medically cleared by their physician, the donor will undergo a psychological evaluation. Though this evaluation, the transplant team will insure that the donor is not being pressured in any way to donate and that this plan of action is purely their own choice, at which time the transplant team will then start focusing solely on the donor's kidney. Function tests are conducted using urine samples to screen for signs of kidney disease, determine the total amount of protein excreted in a 24-hour period, and figure out the kidneys’ glomerular filtration rate (National Kidney Foundation, 2015). The live kidney donation evaluation process continues as donors undergo the last stage of the medical examination. Donors will receive a helical CT scan and an intravenous pyelography test to evaluate the structure of the kidney, ureter, veins, and arteries (National Kidney Foundation, 2015), which provides the transplant team with a general understanding of the donor’s anatomy, allowing them to generate a game plan prior to surgery. Thus, it is evident that great personal sacrifices are required on the part of donors.

Along with the various personal sacrifices, the evaluation process in place to declare potential candidates fit to become live donors also poses a financial threat, as unfit candidates are often not financially compensated. In “Limiting Financial Disincentives in Live Organ Donation: A Rational Solution to the Kidney Shortage,” bioethics experts Gaston, Danovitch et al. (2006) conducted a study at the University of Alabama at Birmingham to examine the live transplant evaluation process. According to Gaston et al. (2006), “1,003 potential donors were evaluated between 2001 and 2004, and 622 LD transplants were performed, indicating that 38% of evaluated donors never proceeded to nephrectomy. These persons also lost wages and costs of travel, and should be included in the compensation package” (p. 2552).

From the study conducted by Gaston et al. (2006), it is evident that the risk of ineligibility is high and, therefore, so is the chance of being financially burdened with medical and personal expenses. This penalizing of individuals for not passing the live donor evaluation is hindering the United States’ ability to attract new potential candidates, as the future candidates will view the possibility of having to potentially take on undue financial burdens during the evaluation process. Individuals should not have to experience those financial burdens simply for making

21 an effort to save a life. With the adjustment of the current live transplant system, this disincentive can be eliminated.

After the successful completion of the medical and psychological evaluation, the next step will be surgery. There are two types of medical procedures used to extract live kidneys, but many live donors are not provided with both options and are forced to endure the medical consequences associated with the more conventional invasive procedure. The standard surgical procedure used in the live donation process is called a nephrectomy. According to the New York University Medical Center, “A regular donor nephrectomy requires a long incision with removal of a rib, to allow the surgeon access to the kidney, blood vessels and the ureter” (NYU Langone Medical Center, n.d.).

With the advancement of medical technology, there is now a less invasive surgical procedure called the laparoscopic procedure. In the laparoscopic procedure, “the surgeon uses narrow instruments inserted through tiny punctures to free up the kidney and tie off blood vessels. A short incision—just over 3 inches lon—is made above the pubic bone (the same place as for a C-section, only shorter) to remove the kidney from inside the abdomen” (NYU Langone Medical Center, n.d.).

With the ability to remove the kidney without having to remove a rib, the donor's recovery time is greatly reduced. The donors who undergo the nephrectomy, the traditional procedure, are generally in the hospital for five days and take several months to fully recover (NYU Langone Medical Center, n.d). Unlike the nephrectomy extraction patients, the patients who underwent the laparoscopic removal reduced their hospitalization down to only one to two days and their recovery time to two to four weeks (NYU Langone Medical Center, n.d.).

Unfortunately, the laparoscopic procedure is not provided as an option at all transplant facilities, leaving many donors with no choice but to undergo the traditional nephrectomy, which ends up being a huge medical disadvantage.

Under the live transplant system, live donors must rely primarily on their recipient’s insurance to pay their medical expenses. On the National Kidney Foundation website, under the section entitled “Q and A on living donation,” it is explained: “Generally, the recipient's Medicare or private health insurance will pay for the following for the donor (if the donation is to a family member or friend)” (National Kidney Foundation, 2015). Family members or friends of the recipient “generally” have their medical expenses paid for by the recipient's health insurance provider.

It is clear that if the donor is a family member or friend of the recipient, they will receive coverage. But what happens if the donor is a complete stranger? In “An Evaluation of Financial Incentive Donations in the United States,” economists Alison Wellington and Edward Sayre (2011) reveal that, “Although occasionally people donate a kidney to an unknown recipient, the vast majority of live donors are given to a relative or friend” (p.11).

Being that it is possible for strangers to donate, will they be covered as well?

In hopes to find the answer to this concern, the origin of information provided by the National Kidney Foundation was traced back to the United Network for Organ Sharing informational

22 packet entitled, “Living Donation: Information you need to know.” The United Network for Organ Sharing reveals here that, “The transplant recipient’s insurance will cover your medical expenses as a donor, such as the evaluation, surgery, and limited follow-up tests and medical appointments” (United Network for Organ Sharing, 2013, p. 9). In the original source, there is no mention of the need for some type of relationship with the recipient in order to receive financial coverage by their insurance provider, nor do other kidney transplant organizations.

It can then be assumed that regardless of the donor and recipient relationship, the donor is entitled to financial coverage via the recipient's medical insurance. The fact that there is not a definitive answer regarding whether this recipient-donor relationship is covered financially creates a huge concern, as this shows the inconsistency of the transplant organizations who run the live donation process.

Not only is the coverage of the live transplantation scarce, but post-operative coverage for live donors is also uncertain. The United Network for Organ Sharing is the non-profit organization that operates the National Transplant Waiting List in the United States. In their informational packet, “Living Donation: Information you need to know,” the United Network for Organ Sharing addresses the post-coverage concern, clarifying that, “The transplant recipient’s insurance will cover your medical expenses as a donor, such as the evaluation, surgery, and limited follow-up tests and medical appointments. However, the recipient’s insurance may or may not cover follow-up services for you if medical problems occur from the donation. Your own insurance may not cover these expenses either” (United Network for Organ Sharing, 2013, p. 9).

The possibility that the recipient's health insurance nor the donor's personal health insurance will not compensate the follow-up appointments and/or the medical complications that may occur from the transplant process is a valid concern for live donors. In the article “Insurability of Living Organ Donors: A Systematic Review,” medical professionals Yang et al., introduce an important study conducted by the North American Transplant Coordinators Organization that observed the impact of uncertainty regarding health insurance on the live donors’ decision to donate. According to Yang et al., “In the recent North American Transplant Coordinators Organization (NATCO) Living Donor Insurability Survey, 39% of transplant centers reported having had donors decline donation for fear of future medical problems related to lack of health insurance” (Yang et al. , 2007, p. 1547). The 39% drop in willing live kidney donors, due to the fear of not having adequate insurance coverage to compensate for possible postoperative health problems, illustrates the importance of providing postoperative insurance coverage.

Despite the live donor’s medical expense coverage being indistinct, it is clear that on top of the uncovered medical procedures, all the expenses and losses incurred by the live donor during the donation process will not be compensated. Live kidney donors are financially burdened after donation, as their uncovered medical procedures, personal expenses, and personal losses are not compensated. In “Removing financial barriers to organ and bone marrow donation,” economists Lacetera, Macis, and Stith (2014) reveal, “Even though payers of organ and bone marrow transplants also pay the costs of recovery, both types of donors face costs in terms of time away from work, travel, and lodging” (p.46).

23

Along with the out-of-pocket medical expenses, live donors are further financially burdened as they must also pay for non-medical expenses that were accumulated during the live transplantation process. The United Network for Organ Sharing clarifies this matter when stating that, “Most medical costs associated with living donation are covered by the recipient’s insurance … These costs could include annual physicals, travel, lodging, lostwages and other non-medical expenses” (United Network for Organ Sharing, 2013, p.9).

Personal expenses, including lodging, travel, unpaid medical treatments, and other nonmedical expenses, can have a serious financial toll on live donors. In “Limiting Financial Disincentives in Live Organ Donation: A Rational Solution to the Kidney Shortage,” bioethics experts Gaston et al. (2006) disclose that, “The total actual and prospective donor personal costs from these historical studies ranges from $724 to $1449 per achieved donor.

Nonetheless, a wide range of personal expenses was reported ($0–$20000)” (Gaston et al., p.

2552).

For many live donors, having to pay for personal expenses estimated to range from $724 to $1449 for travel and possibly $0 to $20000 in personal expenses is definitely concerning, especially considering that lost-wages are not compensated. Furthermore, in “Long-Term Quality of Life After Living Kidney Donation,” Albany Medical Center transplant surgeons Glotzer, Singh, et al. (2013) examined 83 live kidney donors who donated between the years 2000 to 2010. Through a series of questionnaires it was found that following the surgery, 21.7% of participants had to miss four weeks of work (p. 3227). The findings of Glitzier, et al. and Gaston, et al. both put into perspective the harsh reality live donors face regarding live donation, as they are unable to work for approximately four weeks and then are expected to take care of all expenses not covered under their health insurance provider.

The live kidney donation process is a serious medical procedure, accompanied with many risks that are overlooked and oftentimes are not planned for. Vicky Young, a woman who experienced significant health complications after donation, is a prime example of this unfortunate reality. Her hear-breaking story was published by the National Public Radio segment entitled, “Organ Donation Has Consequences Some Donors Aren’t Prepared For.” To save the life of her dear friend, Young decided to become a live donor and donated her left kidney. Instead of recovering normally like the mass majority of live donors do, Young experienced medical complications that led to the development of kidney disease. According to Young, “All of a sudden I’m plummeting down to stage III chronic kidney disease, and that scared the hell out of me. Death, pneumonia, blood clots – that was what I was told, so I didn’t think that there would be anything else. I figured if I was in the hospital and didn’t have a blood clot, didn’t have pneumonia and was still alive, then I was going to be fine” (CudaKroen, 2012, p. 2).

Prior to donation, Young had no idea there were other side effects besides pneumonia, blood clots, and/or death associated with the live donation process. So when Vicky first developed numbness in her left leg, chronic pain, and groin complications, she was in complete shock.

She had absolutely no idea what was wrong with her, and sadly neither did her doctors. After years of searching for answers, medical experts finally discovered that Young’s symptoms were caused by nerve damage that possibly took place during surgery. Young’s years of

24 seeking medical expertise added up, as she spent approximately $15,000 in out-of-pocket medical expenses (Cuda-Kroen, 2012, p. 3).

In fact, in “Understanding risk in living donor nephrectomy,” Maple, Hadjianastassiou, Jones, and Mamode (2010) reveal that, “The risk of perioperative complications is around 10%15%” (p.142). The story of Vicky Young is a living reality for all those donors who experience post-operative medical complications and are not covered under insurance.

To alter the current transplant system and to address and possibly eliminate the financial and medical disincentives associated with the live donation process, a new proposal has been presented. The compensation model is an auspicious proposal that will potentially eliminate the financial and medical disincentives associated with the live kidney donation process, by addressing the shortcomings of the current compensation model. The compensation model is not designed to benefit the live donor financially for their donation, but rather, help them maintain their status through the donation process. Likewise, its main goal is to leave the live donor just as well off as he or she was before beginning the process. In “Limiting Financial Disincentives in Live Organ Donation: A Rational Solution to the Kidney Shortage,” Epstein, Kahn et al. (2006) propose a compensation system that will protect the donor's health and financial standing by addressing mortality risk, medical complications, loss of wages, and inconvenience by providing “an inalienable package of benefits that would not enrich anyone but rather is designed to leave the donor as well off (fiscally and physically) as before donation” (2006, p. 2549).

Likewise, Ajay Israni and Scott Halpern of the Department of Medicine, Sonal Sidhwani of the Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, and Arthur Caplan and Sheldon Zink of the Center for Bioethics at the University of Pennsylvania, have proposed a compensation model based on the shortcomings of the current system. According to Israni et al. ,(2004) the compensation model will provide, “ ...uniform compensation to all donors, standardized to ensure that all donors retain their personal financial status after donation” (p.17). Gaston et al. and Israni et al. have both attempted to address the shortcomings of the current live donation system, potentially increasing the live donation rate. As proposed the compensation model has not been implemented or studied, the impact of this particular model on the live donation rate is unknown, but it can be assumed that with major medical and financial disincentives eliminated, there will be an increase in live donors.

As the wait extends, the bodies of the patients waiting to receive a kidney transplant slowly start to deteriorate. Endless hours hooked up to the life-saving dialysis machines, the only thing physically keeping them alive, may give them just enough energy to cling back to life and fight another day, but really, what kind of life is that? The longer future recipients wait, the worse their well-being becomes, making the fight to hold on just a little longer completely impossible. Even the strongest patients will reach a point of no return, making the timeliness of the transplantation waiting process absolutely vital for survival. Given that the only possible solution to this kidney crisis is to increase the live donation rate, the compensation model should be implemented to alter the current system, by providing all live donors with the financial and medical compensation that they deserve. The inability to supply the kidney

25 shortage demand and provide medical and financial assistance to the live donors has been an ongoing problem in the United States for too long. It’s time for change.

REFERENCES Buren, M. C., Massey, E. K., Maasdam, L., Zuidema, W. C., Hilhorst, M. T., IJzermans, J. N., & Weimar, W. (2010). For love or money? Attitudes toward financial incentives among actual living kidney donors. American Journal of Transplantation, 10 (11), 2488-2492. Retrieved from Ebscohost.

Cuda-Kroen, G. Organ donation has consequences some donors aren’t prepared for. National Public Radio. [transcript of audio] Retrieved from http://goo.gl/6kUZkj Gaston, R. S., Danovitch, G. M., Epstein, R. A., Kahn, J. P., Matas, A. J., & Schnitzler, M. A. (2006). Limiting financial disincentives in live organ donation: A rational solution to the kidney shortage. American Journal of Transplantation, 6 (11), 2548-2555.

Retrieved from Ebscohost.

Gill, P., & Lowes, L. (2008). Gift exchange and organ donation: Donor and recipient experiences of live related kidney transplantation. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45(11), 1607-1617. Retrieved from Ebscohost.

Glotzer, O., Singh, T., Gallichio, M., Conti, D., & Siparsky, N. (2013). Long-term quality of life after living kidney donation. Transplantation Proceedings, 45(9), 3225-3229.

Retrieved from Ebscohost Israni, A. K., Halpern, S. D., Zink, S., Sidhwani, S. A., & Caplan, A. (2005). Incentive models to increase living kidney donation: Encouraging without coercing. American Journal of Transplantation, 5 (1), 15-20. Retrieved from Ebscohost.

Jecker, N. S. (2014, October). Selling ourselves: The ethics of paid living kidney donation.

American Journal of Bioethics. pp. 1-6. Retrieved from Ebscohost Lacetera, N., Macis, M., & Stith, S. S. (2014). Removing financial barriers to organ and bone marrow donation: The effect of leave and tax legislation in the U.S. Journal of Health Economics, 3343-56. Retrieved from Ebscohost.

Living Donation: Information you need to know. (2013). United Network for Organ Sharing, 1-16. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/EDPGQO Maple, N., Hadjianastassiou, V., Jones, R., & Mamode, N. (2010). Understanding risk in living donor nephrectomy. Journal of Medical Ethics, 36(3), 142-147. Retrieved from Ebscohost.

National Kidney Foundation. (n.d.). Q & A on living donation. National Kidney Foundation.

26 Retrieved from http://goo.gl/cSxRZh. New York University Langone Medical (n.d.). Transplant surgery: For donors. New York University Langone Medical. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/Z73RjN. Organ Procurement & Transplantation Network. (2015). Waiting list candidates. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Retrieved from http://goo.gl/PHroON. Wellington, A . J . & Sayre, E . A . (2011). An evaluation of financial incentive policies for organ donations in the United States. Contemporary Economic Policy, 29 (1), 1-13.

Retrieved from Ebscohost.

Yang, R. C., Thiessen-Philbrook, H., Klarenbach, S., Vlaicu, S., & Garg, A. X. (2007). Insurability of living organ donors: A systematic review. American Journal of Transplantation, 7(6), 1542-1551. Retrieved from Ebscohost.

27

Frankly, My Dear, Media Doesn’t Give a Damn: Influence of the Media on Perceptions of Obscenity

By Laura Garber Mary sits through her history class at a prestigious university, learning about the invasion of Soviet forces into the Ukraine. Her professor, highly educated on the topic, cannot resist his urge to show his passion for the knowledge he carries. “Shithead commies” rings through the overcrowded room. The only sounds that follow are the faint traces of giggles, smirks, and one response from the kid who had a strict childhood, “Yeah, shithead commies.” Mary recognizes the new comfort level with her professor, as if that was the needed lingo to relate to the new generation of college students. The lack of gasps and ridicule towards the professor for using slang that has been instilled at a young age as being taboo and offensive for most of America has actually been received as comedic and “cool” by the students.

Scenarios like this demonstrate that today, cursing has become less and less shocking to the average person. A poll taken by Survey.Pro (NY) gives anonymous users a plethora of options to answer the question “How often do you swear?” The highest amount of people answered 24%, “Almost every day”, followed by “Every day”, “Every week”, and then “Never,” which came in at 14%. What would have seemed to be a strikingly high amount of profanity users just a few decades ago appears to be the acceptable number now. But what is the driving force behind the attraction to cursing, even in an academic environment? Media can be the catalyst to cursing among the public, generating a less shocking view of once-forbidden language.

Some of America’s favorite television shows have produced notorious quotes that are often used throughout pop culture. AMC’s hit show Breaking Bad, a series about a science teacher turned meth dealer, had fans in a frenzy over one of the character’s catch terms, “bitch.” This phenomenon created a cult following that made montages of Jessie Pinkman using a variety of the word “bitch”. These videos were not only shown on YouTube but on late night shows also, adding to the growing number of people who fully accepted the vulgar language. Those who are fans of classic television shows such as “I Love Lucy”’ will find the premise to be very wholesome and sexually chaste, with Lucy and Ricardo sleeping in separate twin beds.

This is a perfect example of how media families in previous eras presented a preconceived notion of family values that did not include exchanges of the casual “screw you”. Fast forward to the present time, where a study done by Kenneth Jost (2012), member of the CQ Researcher team, reveals that even from 1993 to 2010, profanity used in television shows had increased by 69%. This overwhelming number has been the grounds for many court cases between a variety of networks and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), an independent agency for the United States that regulates television and radio.

The late comedian George Carlin, most famous for his “Filthy Words” standup, was the motive for the FCC to take action against Pacifica Foundation, the radio station that aired Carlin’s standup. A father complained that his son had heard “shit, piss, cunt, fuck, cocksucker, motherfucker, and tits” over the California broadcast. Taking action immediately, the FCC fought to ban words such as these and others from being aired, based on the connotations that the swearing held. Steven Pinker, professor of psychology at Harvard

28 University, later described an instance in which Bono, a Grammy award-winning singer, used “This is really, really, fucking brilliant” in his acceptance speech and the FCC had no interest in fining Bono, nor the network. Bono did not use his profanity to “describe sexual or excretory organs or activities” (Pinker, 2008, p. 5), according to the FCC, making it a “passable” use of foul language. Pinker also points out, however, that neither was Carlin.

Carlin used those set of words to “show how people use taboo words and to advance the argument that the government should not regulate them” (Pinker, 2008, p. 5).

This raises the question of whether some swear words are becoming more acceptable than others, and soon enough Carlin’s words may be socially acceptable as well. In another article

by Pinker in 2007, titled “What the F***?”, he explains why the FCC, and people for that matter, are so concerned about profanity that even at a young age, humans know what is forbidden. Pinker explains, “Many people feel that profanity is self-evidently corrupting” (Pinker, 2007). To further examine why society believes that words could be damning, it is important to learn the history behind such foul language and how it has had an effect on the evolving brain.

Learning where swearing started is the first helpful clue into understanding the gap between what makes a curse word and what makes an acceptable, generic word. Psychologists Vingerhoets, Bylsma, and de Vlam contributed to, “Swearing: A Biopsychosocial Perspective.” They acknowledge the use of cussing as a primeval way of communicating: “Some scientists even propose that all modern languages have developed from primitive linguistic utterances that were comparable with swearing” (Vingerhoets et al. 2007, p. 288).

This could explain the reason that profanity has a direct effect on the human brain. Pinker concludes that swearing is not only denotative but connotative, meaning “an emotional coloring distant from what the word literally refers to” (Pinker, 2007).

To elaborate further, Pinker describes the relation between curse words and generic words.

Curse words seem to have an emotional connection to the brain, unlike generic words which are connected to a different linguistic part of the brain. Bowers and Pleydell-Pearce, authors of “The Utility and Ubiquity of Taboo Words,” experimented with 24 volunteers. Participants were all asked to read aloud certain curses, euphemisms, and neutral words. “Fuck” and “cunt” were used because of the view by English language speakers that they are on top of the list as the worst type of profanity. “F-word” and “C-word” were used as euphemisms, and “glue” and “drum” as neutral words that would unlikely have an emotional impact on the participants. Studies found that the greatest electrodermal response came when participants said swear words aloud. Studies such as these can give great insight into the inner workings of how and why humans view swear words to be shocking in the first place.

Cursing should be recognized as having different motives behind its purpose. Timothy Jay, psychologist at Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts, concurs with Pinker (2007) that modern swearing has its origins in Biblical times (Jay, 2009, & Pinker, 2007). Pinker reminds his audience that swearing once had an older definition. Take, for example, the classic 1930s movie, Gone With the Wind, where one of the most famous movie quotes spoken by the late Clark Gable shocked a nation: “Frankly, my dear, I don't give a damn.” Today this would

29 almost go unnoticed as offensive language, almost proving that decade by decade, people have grown accustomed to what was once offensive.

As the world turned more secular, so did the vulgar language (Pinker, 2007). Both Pinker (2007) and Jay (2009) agree on the different types of offensive profanity that English speakers tend to incorporate into their everyday language. Jay gives examples in the following paragraph that, while they may be offensive, are actually presented as scholarly, to give a sense that these words are just in fact words and the desensitization of these can help the audience understand the purpose of cursing: Although there are hundreds of taboo words and phrases, the semantic range of referents that are considered taboo is limited in scope. Taboos in English are placed primarily on sexual references (blow job, cunt) and on those that are considered profane or blasphemous (goddamn, Jesus Christ). Taboos extend to scatological referents and disgusting objects (shit, crap, douche bag); some animal names (bitch, pig, ass); ethnic–racial–gender slurs (nigger, fag, dago); insulting references to perceived psychological, physical, or social deviations (retard, wimp, lard ass); ancestral allusions (son of a bitch, bastard); substandard vulgar terms (fart face, on the rag); and offensive slang (cluster fuck, tit run). For clarity it is helpful to qualify references to “taboo words” by noting what category of taboo they represent—for example, sexual taboos, religious taboos, scatological taboos, etc. (Jay, 2009) With words such as these, it is not uncommon to be offended. However, in today’s society, especially among youth who have access to greater media resources, it is not wrong to say that these words are now often humorous to a certain audience. Sitcoms, especially, use words such as these to gain ratings and popularity. Sapolsky and Kaye, Professors of Communications and Journalism/ Electronic Media respectively, conducted a study examining the use of profanity on the airwaves with a focus on gender roles and vulgarity.

The study concluded that male characters were usually both the initiators and the targets of foul language used on television shows. However, the use of profanity by female characters is on the rise, especially if that character is a central focus to the plot or series (Sapolsky et al 2010).

Sapolsky et al. reminds the audience that media uses more profanity in utterance to effect the response of younger viewers. These results coincide with the study by Karyn Stapleton, professor at the University of Ulster. Stapleton argues that the reason women have been subjected to higher moral expectations when it comes to profanity is based on the societal assumption that cursing is a masculine method for conveying linguistic offenses (Stapleton, 2003). Her findings demonstrate that women have increasingly used profanity more frequently, while a lingering sense of old social habits still remains with regard to the context in which words are used.

Stapleton’s study took a group of gender-mixed friends who drank socially together every week at an Irish pub, and evaluated the use of taboo words amongst the sexes. The results fit with the Sapolsky et al. study, in that while men were more likely to incorporate foul language, the use between women is now rising and becoming acceptable without the

30 demeaning connotations that they are less classy or “womanly” (Stapleton 2003). With each swear word defining a different derivation such as Jay had stated above, between “religious, sexual, and scatological” (Jay, 2009), it is easy to compare which gender utilizes which curse words and why. Within the community that was studied, women and men were almost equally using words such as “bitch, bastard, and shit,” showing the growing popularity of swearing.

However, the use of sexual profanity dwindled among the women when it came to words such as “cunt, tits, and cock,” suggesting that instilled social standards still remain. Historically speaking, it is possible that eventually even these words will fade as society finds new words rendering blasphemy.

Although to English-speaking and westernized societies these words are among the most offensive, global studies show that cursing varies among different cultures. Levels of offense vary among each curse word. For example, “cunt” is known as the most intolerable word in the western part of the world, yet Australians will use it in a light-hearted fashion, once again raising the question, “Why are bad words bad?” Lauren McLeod conducted a study in which she observed local Australians who are more prone to using offensive language. The social stigma that is usually perceived as being present was absent to this group of people. They used the words “fuck” and “cunt” as forms of admiration and means to a better relationship (McLeod, 2011). This makes evident yet again that the social aspects of swearing are now being admired in some places rather than being seen as outrageous.

A study done by Drange, Hasund, and Stenström, authors of “Your mum! Teenagers swearing by mother in English, Spanish and Norwegian,” focuses on the use of profanity in youth culture. Drange, et al. discuss how culture influences what is offensive and what is not.

The authors give examples of how in Hispanic culture, mothers are highly upheld, meaning the most taboo references refer to the mother of the target. “Motherfucker” is a term often used throughout that culture, as it applies heavy emphasis on insulting the mother, unlike English and Norwegian- speaking countries. On the other hand, English does not necessarily connect with someone’s actual mother. The term is more a decorated form of the word “fucker,” while in Norway “motherfucker” has yet to catch on as a use of insult.

These studies can remind society that forms of culture matter when it comes to profanity.

Laws and regulations for censorship differ from country to country and are easily tied to the customs and functions of those societies. Europe is more prone to showing nudity and profane language on their television shows, which corresponds with their more relaxed views on public nudity at beaches, whereas in the U.S, nude beaches are privately owned or hard to come by. Movements such as “Free the Nipple,” a movement that aims to equalize both genders’ ability to show their nipples without sexual connotations, is now a common cause, giving another example of how culture is transforming. This resonates with the American policy of nudity on television and the lack of social acceptance for showing it on home television screens. A prime example is 50 Cent’s Disco Inferno music video which appeared with two different versions: a censored American version that showed women wearing little clothing, and a European version that hosted women’s breasts to be completely shown and did not alter more of the vulgar words.

31 Alongside television shows, music has especially influenced generations to curse along to their favorite songs. Rap music has been a moving force behind several generations’ use of profane language. A study by Christopher Schneider, an American behavioral specialist, takes note of the genre’s use of profane language, more specifically the word “bitch.” The controversy behind rap music and its use of profanity can be dated back to the 80’s when small run-ins with the police happened. Young amateurs would use public spaces to create art to share with the community, giving cops a reason to question them. According to Schneider’s research, many newspapers wrote articles blasting the new genre of music due to its use of bad language. However, it could be argued that the only reason journalists were so offended by the words was because of the negative connotation that hip-hop and rap and held with the police, even if just in minor cases (Schneider, 2011, p. 44). They stereotyped the genre as derogatory and too offensive. Newspapers called to get rid of the songs that gave light to life on the streets.

Yet no newspapers took a hard stance on other genres. Take, for example, the rock ‘n roll genre that had been producing music far before hip-hop was mainstream. A song such as Elton John’s “The Bitch is Back” was not deemed a product of insult but rather, a classic.

Many could say this motivated and inspired more rap artists to produce music that used those exact stereotypes journalists tried to use against them.

Flash-forward to today, where hip-hop and rap songs are amongst the top hits in the country.

With no cuts in swearing (other than clean broadcasted versions), it is more common to hear club-goers and listeners choose to listen to the explicit version. Many could argue this is another catalyst for the popular trend in profanity. In today’s day and age, many youth do not turn to the radio to listen to music. Instead they turn to social apps such as Pandora, Soundcloud and Spotify, which allow youth easier access to explicit music. These apps allow others to share music of all kinds, better enabling this music to reach a larger demographic and continuing the popularity of vulgar music.

With this generation being technologically advanced, it is no wonder many young kids have ease of access to explicit music. This resonates with the higher percentage of kids who now are swearing on a daily basis without ridicule from their parents or guardians. I can remember a time when “suck” was deemed inappropriate and was forbidden to be used in the family.

Many others can relate to later events in which our younger siblings or cousins would use “suck” without a blink from those in charge. This has now turned into popular videos of kids singing chart topping hits such as Big Sean’s “IDFWU” that includes lyrics that are typically shouted, “I don't fuck with you.” While these videos are still popular for the sense of taboo they carry, it is no longer not surprising to those who watch it. The judgment that was once carried is no longer present, even with children.

Not only has ease of access to songs with taboo language increased, but television shows are now easier than ever to obtain, no matter the rating. Gosselt, De Jong, and Van Hoof (2012), behavioral scientists, came to the conclusion that in many cases, the ratings given to television shows have a tempting effect on children. A “forbidden fruit” effect takes place where children now have a desire to view such material.

32 Today’s society has ventured into a new place that breaks standards and promotes a secular viewpoint. Media can be blamed for the ideal that “sex sells,” and profanity is just a sexy decoration to insults and admired phrases. I find myself swearing on a daily basis out of habit and for comedic value. This paper proved popular among my peers because it put most of them out of their comfort zone for an academic environment, but upon further reading, many grew accustomed to swearing. George Carlin has comedically changed many viewpoints, mine included, that words are just in fact words and they should hold only little meaning— even if those words are “shit, piss, cunt, fuck, cocksucker, motherfucker, and tit.”

REFERENCES Andersson, L.G., & Trudgill, P. (2007). Swearing. In L. Monaghan & J. Goodman (Eds.), A Cultural Approach to Interpersonal Communication (pp. 195-199). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Drange, E. D., Hasund, I. K., & Stenström, A. (2014). "Your mum!" Teenagers' swearing by mother in English, Spanish and Norwegian. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 19(1), 29-59.

Gosselt, J. F., De Jong, M. T., & Van Hoof, J. J. (2012). Effects of media ratings on children and adolescents: A litmus test of the forbidden fruit effect. Journal of Communication, 62(6), 1084-1101.

Jay, T. (2009). The Utility and Ubiquity of Taboo Words. 4(2), 153-161. Retrieved February 18, 2015, from http://pps.sagepub.com/content/4/2/153.

Jost, K. (2012, November 9). Indecency on television. CQ Researcher, 22, 965-988. Retrieved from http://library.cqpress.com.ezproxy.hpu.edu/ McLeod, Lauren. (2011, January 10). Swearing in the ‘tradie’ environment as a tool for solidarity. Griffith Working Papers in Pragmatics and Intercultural Communication.

1-10. (4) Pinker, S (2007, September 28). What the F****?. Retrieved from http://www.Harvard.edu Pinker, S. (2008). Freedom's curse. Atlantic, 302(4), 28-29.

Sapolsky, B. S., & Kaye, B. K. (2005). The use of offensive language by men and women in prime time television entertainment. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 13(4), 292303.

Schneider, C. J. (2011). Culture, rap music, “bitch,” and the development of the censorship frame. American Behavioral Scientist, 55(1), 36-56.

Stapleton, K. (2003). Gender and swearing: A community practice. Women & Language, 26(2), 22-33.

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Survey.pro Social Statistics. (No Year). Do you ever use swear words or improper language?

[Data File] Retrieved from http://surveys.pro/statistics/do-you-ever-use-swearwords.htm

34

Blending in or Standing Out?

By Chelsey Santos Many people are overly susceptible to gender roles, media and advertising, because they want approval from society. Since there are so many influences and expectations around all of us, why do some people allow external forces to affect them more than others? Society constantly pushes standards and expectations on individuals, especially for those who don't fit in. Those who strongly stand out and are often outcast.

Gender roles exist largely because media and advertisers make and control social norms. Yet people should stop having expectations for a specific gender because most individuals feel that they need to keep up with somebody else’s image or they will be rejected by society.

Similarly, parents who want to genetically manufacture their babies shouldn't be fixated on a specific image, because their child may assume that they to be exactly what his or her parents want.

In Male and Female: Identity, John Harrington argues that gender roles originated a long time ago and that many forces try to establish and manipulate identity groups, leading to his larger argument: Too many people want us to be too many things (Harrington x). I didn't previously realize that there are actual forces and influences that try to manipulate us to be something, or that there are expectations, because I'm the type of person to just go with the flow. Yet as a person who's born and raised in Hawaii, I realize that the norms in Hawaii actually did affect me as a person.

A question that came up from Harrington's book was, who is responsible for gender roles?

One expectation of me from my family is that as a lady, I am supposed to be wearing dresses to church, and to be more delicate than aggressive. Why are there so many expectations around us? Gender roles differ in every culture and specifically, as an American-Filipino, it's expected for me to be a good cook, one who can pass down a certain way of cooking certain meals, or to even be good at hand-washing laundry. My mom says that usually each family has a specific dish and it should be passed down. Growing up, I've picked up what I saw around me, and what I picked up became habits that are expected as typical “girl” behavior, such as crossing my legs while I sit. There was a time when I became interested in doing my nails and learning how to use make-up, simply because the women in my family influenced me to do so. There were also times when I wanted to physically fight my cousins, but I was taught that a girl shouldn't fight because it's un-ladylike.

While learning how a lady should act, I wondered, why is it so wrong to physically harm someone if they deserved it, just because I’m a girl? If it were my guy cousins, it would've been fine and the adults would have said something like, "Boys are boys." I've also noticed that my uncle has always told my male cousin to “suck it up” whenever he cried about something and to stop crying because boys don't cry. In my opinion, it is human nature to cry and to show weakness; even strong people fall, but what matters most is how they get back up. Teaching a child not to cry is a way of stripping down their human nature. I cry when I'm hurt, frustrated, mad, and sad. Crying helps me get my feelings out and actually does help me

35 feel better. Without the release of these emotions, a child will learn to bottle up his feelings, making him a time bomb that could blow up at anything. A boy may grow up not being able to sympathize or empathize, molding him into a selfish person.

While reading Harrington’s book, I was taking a Sociology 1000 class where I was learning more about gender roles. I learned that compulsory heterosexuality is when society forces a gender role upon a person based on their sex (Brinkerhoff & White et al., 215). Through this newfound term and knowledge, I was able to better understand why there are many males who emphasize how strong, aggressive, and manly they are. While looking at online databases for articles to help better my understanding, I found an article on how teenage boys act, especially in high school. Catherine Lugg, a political scientist, reviewed the book Dude You’re a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School, written by sociologist C.J. Pascoe and pointing out the prevalence of compulsive heterosexual behavior. As Lugg quoted Pascoe: The boys at River High School were constantly on guard not to be perceived as a “fag” or placed in the “fag position” socially. The boys continually invoked the slur “fag” as well as engaged in one-upmanship regarding heterosexual sexual exploits, all in an effort to prove and protect their dominant (and extremely fragile) masculine status. The boys were also sexually harassing their female peers, mocking and occasionally assaulting gender-transgressive kids, and completely objectifying women.

(Pascoe, qtd. in Lugg 1) Our sociology text said the same thing about boys acting this way, stating that the teachers did nothing to stop their behavior when the girls were placed at physical risk (Brinkerhoff & White et al., 215). I thought it was surprising that the teachers didn't do anything to stop the inappropriate behavior because it is assumed if something is not right, teachers would put an end to it. So why didn’t the teachers stop the boys’ behavior? Perhaps it was because even the teachers thought it was normal or common for boys to be aggressive, and that they needed to prove their masculinity towards their peers.

This observation strongly supported my understanding of compulsive heterosexuality. I remember when I was in high school, the majority of the boys in my school would call each other “fags” if a guy were seen doing something out of the male gender norms, such as being sympathetic, being cute and compassionate with their girlfriends, or even getting good grades.

Perhaps they needed to do that because if you don't fit in within your gender role, society judges you, and no one likes to be looked down upon and feel uncomfortable. Yet, as Harrington states, too many people want us to be too many things. I interpreted "us" as society, and "too many people" as the influences around us such as media, and peers, and advertisers—the people who are establishing certain images.

My next selection was Media, the Second God written by Tony Schwartz, a specialist in political media who perceives himself as the “media guru.” This book interested me because I was already aware of how social media and the Web have become so prominent in the recent years, especially in influencing young teenagers and their values. In the present day, it seems that for teenagers, the number of “likes” are important because this determines how popular you are. Schwartz states, "Electronic media is in a form of a god” (Schwartz 1). If you take a

36 look around, the majority of the people are on their phones, tablets, computers, and Apple watches. Considering that "God" has a spiritual and powerful connotation, it made me think: If that's the case, then media is basically a god. I know that technology has helped us with a lot of things, but if we take a look at the material that is being displayed freely out there, much of it is actually harming human values.

Harrington's book includes an article written by Harvey Cox titled, “Playboy’s Doctrine of Male,” which was about Playboy magazine's influence on teenage boys through their portrayal of how a man should be. What stood out to me was that there are actually teenagers who need to go towards a magazine to figure out how they should behave as the “ideal” version of a man. These Playboy magazines provide advice for teenage boys on how to act. I believe these types of magazines and anything similar to them are degrading because with that image of females, teenage boys will learn to look at females as objects rather than as human beings.

Being naked is natural, but the fact that it's just out there for anyone is teaching guys to look at females in a different way, while ruining human morals and values. I find it very strange that these young boys feel the need to go to a magazine for advice on how to behave because they are made to think that there is a one “right” way.

Cox makes another point, mentioning that "responsibility for character formation in our society has shifted from the family, to the peer group, and to the mass media peer group surrogates” (Cox 44). Media and advertising has a huge effect on society. Advertisers may not care what they're putting out there, but advertising is affecting young people because they feel the need to be similar to the images. Ideas are out there for anyone to see, whether it's on the Internet from your computer or phone, or in a newspaper, magazines, or even radio.

For example, “Bratz dolls” are fashionably dressed and very slim in figure. They all have a certain type of facial structure, long hair, with a face of makeup and long lashes. Sellers are making profit off of the dolls, but do they realize that they are also setting an example> Little girls could absorb the idea that they need to be similar to the doll in order to be acceptable, looking like the doll and dressing like a girly girl. I have a younger cousin who likes to play with pretend makeup because she wants to be just like her doll. A child’s innocence and confidence can easily be taken away because they want to grow up too fast. Once again, their human nature is being stripped down.

But a thought still wanders through in my mind: why do parents allow their kids to experience this type of influence? Advertisers may or may not know it, but creating dolls with a certain image sends out a message saying "this is how you should be" whenever a little girl buys and plays with those dolls. I've also noticed that the TV shows my little cousin watches are already influencing her. I'm sure I'm not the only one who noticed how extremely “girly” some characters are, but she thinks she should giggle all the time, be ditsy, be pretty, and stay delicate in order to be a “real” girl.

Take the Kardashian family, for instance. They've been role models to teenagers, young adults, and even adults, even though they may not be the very best role models, in my opinion.

As a young adult, I can see most of the "popular" teens and my peers being obsessed with the Kardashian family. Those people may not know it, but the Kardashians have a huge influence

37 on them. There are people trying to make their lips bigger by using a bottle that sucks and puckers the lip in order to be just like one of the members in the Kardashian family. Why are they allowed to set out examples, and why do people want to be like them? Is it just because they're famous? Most importantly, why do we allow these outside forces to influence and shape who we are, or to tell us how to be? If that's the case, what happens if someone could actually determine what sex we are, and how our attitude would be?

In the book Controlling Human Heredity, Diane B. Paul presents the idea of eugenics, which is the social movement to improve genetic features of the human population through selective breeding and sterilization. Paul's position on human breeding is that it's dangerous and unethical (Paul 135). She also claims that human breeding is moving towards tweaking genes to obtain a desired image because some people desire specific traits. At first I questioned why people would want to do such a thing because it seems very unethical, but Paul also mentions that people want healthy, good-natured, emotionally stable, sympathetic and smart children (Paul 2).

Again, just as Harrington states, too many people want us to be too many things. If I lived in a world where designer babies were common and I found out that I was “designed” when my parents had the choice, I would feel like I am who I am due to their expectations, and it's kind of taking away mother nature's freedom, considering reproduction should be a natural thing, not something to control and mess with.

However, many people want to do this process because they know that a disease or disorder could be passed down to their children. If I had a special child who might be mad at me because I could have prevented them from being that way, I would take tests to make sure that my partner’s and my gametes are healthy instead of removing the disease, and if the gametes are not healthy, there are other options for having a child, such as adoption. I wouldn’t want to bring a child into this world if he or she will suffer health-wise.

Paul concludes, "The history of eugenics teaches one lesson. As a story of attitudes toward people with disabilities, it teaches another. The first reinforces the view that reproduction should remain a private affair. The second leads us to reflect on attitudes toward the disabled" (Paul 135). I agree with Paul on this. Instead of “fixing” and preventing the existence of special people, others should change their attitudes towards them, accept people for who they are and cope with them. Society shouldn't look down on disabled and special kids, because it's not their fault that they are the way they are.

This made me think about how judgmental society really is. A lot of people expect "normal" people, but honestly, what is normal? We all have our little flaws, kinks and quirks inside of us, whether it's snoring, snorting while laughing, being clumsy, or stuttering while we talk.

But that's just human nature, and we shouldn't try to strip it down. If everyone were to be “perfect” and meet the perfect image, then everyone would be the same and thus, being perfect would be considered boring. Why doesn't society get tired of the same old expectations from a person? But most importantly, why do people allow these influences to influence them?

38 S. Almond, who is in the Department of Nutrition & Dietetics in Leeds Metropolitan University, wrote stated in “The Influence of the Media on Eating Disorder”: “In the mass media, shape and weight define perfection. Women perceive themselves as being bigger than they actually are. Their figure deviates from the ideal thus, resulting in self-body dissatisfaction” (Almond 367). When I read this, I thought: Instead of blaming media for making people feel bad about themselves, why should these people allow these opinions to shape their self-image and cause eating disorders? People often allow these ideal images get to their head even when they know sometimes it's unnatural and unachievable to look like models.

Almond further states, "Concern surrounds the appearance of such advertisements in magazines aimed at adolescent girls, as at this age they are particularly vulnerable to the influences of the media” (Almond 367). Sometimes when the pressure is always out there, a person can ignore it for a while, until they break down and respond to it. If society would just stop pushing these “perfect” images, then those people who are easily influenced might feel better about themselves.

However, people still have the choice of whether or not to accept that there is only one ideal image. I'm always questioning why these people allow these advertisements to get to them so easily. Has it ever occurred to them that there are people who actually don't care about not fitting into society’s ideal image and who are trying to push for something more natural and achievable?

For example, Sonia Singh is a woman who up-cycles old dolls for fun. I saw her video while looking through Facebook because her work went viral. She has bought second-hand Bratz dolls, removed their face paintings completely with eucalyptus oil and nail polish remover, and drawn in a more natural and child-like face. Her mother Silvia Singh knits and crochets new clothes so that the new dolls have a total change. At the end of the process, the dolls have a more conservative and natural look, versus the fashionable Bratz dolls covered in makeup.

Singh did this for fun and when she posted her work on the Internet, it went viral and people wanted to buy the dolls from her. These more natural-looking dolls were later named, “Tree Changed Dolls.” Kids who have played with these dolls have commented that they prefer these Tree Changed Dolls due to the fact that they don't have any dark makeup, and that the dolls looked more like their age. Sonia is one of the few who sets a "natural" image for her daughter. Natural or not, her daughter decided which she likes better due to her mom’s influence. Everyone has a choice whether or not they allow influences to take over their lives.

Ultimately, we all have the choice of who to be. Gender roles place social pressure on each sex and predetermine how a person should act and behave. There are many "ideal" images out there for both males and females, and it seems like if you don't fit in within these expectations, then society judges and looks down on you. One way that society influences and controls some people is through media and advertising. As Tony Schwartz mentions, media has the power to control and manipulate, whether it's through electronics or print. Designer babies are already being considered so that parents have the power to create a child that's already designed in their head. A lot of people place expectations on each other and will do anything

39 to fulfill these unnecessary expectations. What matters most is how we allow these influences and expectations to tell us what to be.

Yet I like to think that there are two sides: the side where people expect you to look like the ideal image, and the side where people accept others for who they are, and don't follow a certain path of trying to become just like everyone else. It depends on you. Who do you want to be? Who do you want to become? Do you want to become the person who is obsessed with fitting into the status quo? Or do you want to be the person who says, “It's impossible for everyone to be the same; I would rather stand out. You do you, I do me.”

The choice is up to you.

WORKS CITED Almond, S. "A11. The Influence of the Media on Eating Disorder." Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietics 13.5 (2000): 367-368. Academic Search Premier. Web. 14 Mar. 2015.

Brinkerhoff, David B., Lynn K. White, and Suzanne Trager Ortega. Essentials of Sociology.

St. Paul, MN: West Pub., 1992. Print.

Harrington, John, ed. Male and Female: Identity. New York: J. Wiley, 1972. Print.

Lugg, Catherine. "A Review of Dude You're a Fag: Masculinity and Sexuality in High School”." Journal of LGBT Youth 6.1 (2009): 96-100. Ebsco Host. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

Paul, Diane B. Controlling Human Heredity: 1865 to the Present. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities International, 1995. Print.

Schwartz, Tony. Media, the Second God. New York: Random House, 1981. Print.

"Tree Change Dolls I Feed" SBS2AUSTRALIA. Youtube. 2015. Web. 10 Feb. 2015

40

Mustachianism: An Alternative to Consumerism

By R.J. Simpson A life without.

That is the life of a Mustachian, but not the way you may imagine. There are several key principles that can define a Mustachian, but they depend upon the stage of ascent. A beginning Mustachian would be difficult to pick out in a crowd, because he or she most likely would not even be in that crowd. An intermediate Mustachian would be difficult to pick out in morning rush hour traffic, because he or she would not be in rush hour traffic. An expert Mustachian is best viewed in retirement, but he or she would look half the age of a regular retiree. This is the life of Mustachian: misunderstood, misrepresented, and trashed in public.

A Mustachian lifestyle is really nothing new for your grandparents, or maybe even your mom and dad if they grew up in the Great Depression. This lifestyle is essentially the opposite of how the average family lives today. If you want more specifics, we are talking about having one or no cars, no credit card debt, no spending money at the mall to feel good, and no eating out at restaurants for every meal. A Mustachian instead spends as little money as possible so that they may live a life free from a regular job and instead retire in their thirties, or any age at which they discover this new lifestyle.

P. Adeney invented Mustachianism in 2011 when “Mr. Money Mustache” and his wife started a blog about “reaching financial freedom through bad-assity” (Adeney 2015). Like many Canadians, he saved most of his income and shunned the American lifestyle of spending everything he earned, plus more on credit cards. Through his frugal lifestyle, his family saved over 50% of their income and invested it in Vanguard funds. One day, about seven years into his career, he realized the interest from his Vanguard investments paid more than he needed to live on. Thus he began his retirement to focus on his family, his passions, and his blog to show other people the way he accidentally discovered how to reach financial freedom.

The number one thing a beginning Mustachian does when crossing over from consumer culture is to cut all unnecessary expenses. The biggest expenses generally being housing, food, and transportation. All three of these expenses are closely related to each other and can be solved with wise choice of shelter. A Mustachian would choose a place to live that is within walking or biking distance to their work and local food sources. If there is not an inexpensive place near their work, then they would find a different line of work. Once the living situation has been worked out, they would then get rid of their car. Who needs a car when work and food are within walking distance? The next step is to reduce spending on food to around $3 per day per person in the family, because one can eat well on this amount.

This is the life of a beginning Mustachian, in the baby phase. The next phase is much easier.

An intermediate Mustachian making $36,000 a year after taxes, as an example, handles all expenses and income in such a way that $18,000 to as much as $28,800 of earned take-home pay goes into savings and investment. The goal of the Mustachian at the intermediate stage is to build up a savings and investment account with enough money so that the interest covers

41 living expenses. At $28,800 savings per year, the intermediate Mustachian is able to “retire” in around five years, give or take a few months. By the five-year time period, assuming 7% yearly return, the account would be worth over $180,000. The Mustachian could then safely withdraw 4%, $7,200 per year for the rest of their life. The Mustachian is no longer a slave to an employer and is free to choose how to live their life.

This may seem like an extremely small amount of money for a person to live on, but one could live in San Francisco on $7,000 a year without being homeless. Fisker describes different methods of choosing a living space and goes as far as setting a price of $400 per person or less that should be spent on a place to sleep (Fisker, 2008), While some people would not go to this extreme to reach retirement, many Mustachians will. As a culture, most Mustachians choose to move to a place that supports the “waste nothing” lifestyle and has much lower expenses than San Francisco or Hawaii.

An expert Mustachian is essentially the opposite of a consumer, but still lives with all the comforts of a consumer. By this stage there is no longer a need to save 80% of one’s paycheck or scrimp on every little purchase. There is no longer a need to save 80% of a paycheck because a Mustachian generally does not work a job and receive a paycheck anymore. When choosing to do “work,” the Mustachian does not base the work on how much they make, but instead on how much they value the time spent and accomplishment of the work (Adeney, 2013). When a problem arises, the Mustachian does not run out and purchase a new gadget, but instead figures out a way to solve the problem with what is on hand or can be procured for free.

The life of an expert Mustachian is one of little waste but maximum reward. I am an intermediate Mustachian, and here is my life.

A little over a year ago during my Internet stumbling, the browser landed on a website called Mr. Money Mustache. The author was a sarcastic buttonhole who said everything I hold dear means nothing and that I am just a pawn in somebody’s plan. Basically I learned that by saving a chunk of money and living differently, I could retire in a couple of years. The website was not trying to sell me anything or set up any seminars; it was just telling me that most of the stuff I do makes no sense. I started thinking about what social group I was currently in and if that group was really working for me. After talking with my wife, we decided it was time to switch social groups and become Mustachians.

First thing first was to reduce our expenses from the original 0% savings to 80% savings, but how would this be possible? We sold the luxury car that we paid $580 for monthly and only drove 5000 miles a year. Our second car was an obscenely fast sports car, but it was paid for and is still in the family. We got rid of our cell phone plans, cable plans, splurge spending, and pretty much any unnecessary spending. We reduced our grocery bill to less than $200 per month from where it had previously been, over $1000. We accomplished this feat with planning and food substitution. We eat more beans, rice, and vegetables. At one point we considered moving in with family to save even more money, but that did not work out. We had always been savers and really only had our mortgage debt and car loan. The reason we

42 were at 100% spending of our income was because my wife lost her job a year ago and had gone back to school.

By the time we had finished cutting expenses, we were saving around $4,200 of our income and living on $2,800, with $1800 for a condo we haven’t sold yet. Because of our savings when we started this lifestyle and the time frame needed to fully retire—less than two years— selling the condo and saving an additional $800 by renting a cheaper place was not worth the work to us.

Initially when considering this lifestyle, we thought about it much like anyone else from the outside: Seems like life would be pretty crappy as a Mustachian because you would no longer go out shopping. The new iPhone would be off limits for many years to come. Instead of driving a brand-new or recently brand-new luxury car, you would be stuck with an older plain car. No more eating at the new fancy restaurant and finishing the night at a bar or watching a movie. No more blowing money on little gadgets for the kitchen or buying video games and books. We would be eating lentils and rice for every meal while sitting at home. Luckily, these preconceptions ended up being incorrect and it primarily has to do with the amount of waste in a normal lifestyle.

After cutting all of our expenses and spending, we were left in almost a daze. We did not know how or what to do with our time. But we learned there are alternatives to our old lifestyle; we just had to seek them out. Our first real challenge came when we had to deal with family. My wife's family has several events each month that require spending plenty of money, and then some events every few months that require tons of money. A birthday party for a sibling is around $50 for a gift and $100 for the dinner, whereas a party for a parent easily doubles that amount.

At first we tried to explain that we were not spending money anymore. If they wanted to have a party or something we would hang out, but not spend money eating out and buying gifts.

This was a pretty big hit for the family because they really like buying things. Every new thing at Costco and Sam’s Club, they buy; every new toy, new laptop, new phone, they have it the first day. Their house is filled with all this stuff that they never use. They also have tons of food that they never eat before it goes bad. So my wife just started asking her mom and dad if they wanted the food. If they said no, she took it. Now every week we have at least 20 papaya, 20 oranges, chocolate, candy, and all sorts of great stuff that they buy and never eat.

Just the other day we nabbed a pumpkin cheesecake with five days left before expiration; they never got around to opening it because they had so much food. We learned how to live a great lifestyle by taking advantage of the waste of others, but we still needed something to do for fun.

Today we do a lot more free stuff than we used to do. On the weekends we generally find things to do at home or within walking distance. This can include going to the park and throwing a Frisbee, or just chilling in our lounge chairs and watching the birds. We have always been avid readers and now that buying books is out of the question, we just walk two miles to our local library. There are a few really close hikes near our home also, and we still have not reached the end of those trails. We have a pool and hot tub at our condo that gets

43 more use than before, but nothing like a walk-up close to the ocean. We have even spent an entire day just walking around our city and seeing things we never knew existed here. When push comes to shove, we hop in the car and drive ten miles to the beach. This costs us $3 in gas, but every now and then that is okay. We also hang out with family, and right now we are both finishing up school work. But we still get a lot of questions from friends and coworkers.

When we started down this journey, my coworkers kept telling me that I need to “live now” and that meant spending money. They believed that this new lifestyle was crazy and would never last. How could I not have a $160 cell phone plan? What would I do at work all day?

How could I sell my wife’s luxury car? How could I not spend $1000 on Christmas gifts for everybody? What did I mean that I wasn’t going to spend $30 to go see the newest Iron Man movie?

Well, all of this changed about a year into the Mustachian adventure. Now my coworkers are starting to go along with what I have been saying. They no longer think about only living today; they started planning for their retirement.

After all their misconceptions, they started to fall in line and see that maybe there is a different way to live. One of my coworkers realize after I showed him the numbers that he was already set up to retire and has been for many years. Another one of my coworkers sold a rental property and bought land free and clear on the Big Island to build his house, and he plans on retiring in two years. My third coworker is a lost cause and spend way too much money on everything and will probably work his whole life, but that just makes him normal.

Mustachians a group are growing in numbers and allegiance. While the main focus of the group is the blog mr.MoneyMustache.com, there is also a forum and there regular meet-ups around the country. Because this lifestyle is based on production instead of consumption, a Mustachian finds it difficult to get along with the regular folk. This is why it is best to find new friends with similar interests and goals, to make the transition as easy as possible. There is plenty of support available online through the forums. Instead of bragging about the newest gadget or car, one would be ridiculed for buying a new car or gadget.

In a way, the Mustachian is an anti-consumer, but not quite an entrepreneur. The main underlying goal of a Mustachian is to use their time to the best.

REFERENCES Adeney, P. (2013, Feb 22). Getting rich: from zero to hero in one blog post. [Web log].

Retrieved from http://www.mrmoneymustache.com/2013/02/22/getting-rich-fromzero-to-hero-in-one-blog-post/.

Adeney, P. (2015, Apr 15), Great news-Early retirement doesn’t mean you’ll stop working.

[Web Log]. Retrieved from http://www.mrmoneymustache.com/2015/04/15/greatnews-early-retirement-doesnt-mean-youll-stop-working/

44 Fisker, J. (2008, Dec 9). Day 1: finding a place to live. [Web log]. Retrieved from http:// earlyretirementextreme.com/day-1-finding-a-place-to-live.html

45

culture and change

46

Ta Moko Maori Tattoos

By Terena Koteka-Wiki

I know a few people in my home country of New Zealand who have their entire faces tattooed. Back when I had never seen someone with a facial tattoo, my first impression upon seeing them as strangers was that the Maori men with the facial Ta Moko were scary and mean. At the time I was only seven years of age and was still learning about my culture and the people in my family. Every year my family and I would travel back home to New Zealand and the Cook Islands to visit family, so seeing this was a shocker. I know that this was a stereotypical thing for me to do, but let’s face it, I was a child who didn’t know any better and I would just stare with fright in my eyes because seeing a facial tattoo was not something I saw on a daily basis.

On the other hand, I had heard people say that they think the Maori tattoo is scary and that it makes Maori men and women look like “tough asses.” (From my Introduction to Communications class I would put this type of perception under, “How people view other people.”) The reality is that Maori with facial Ta Moko are of kind nature and truly respect the land they come from and those who passed away in their family. It has been noted in the past that the Ta Moko was meant to scare off enemies. The Ta Moko is an artifact on their faces that other cultures from different countries either judge because they are uneducated about it, or respect and understand its art and find it rather fascinating to glance at. Truth be told, Maori are friendly and the facial Ta Moko is just one important part of the New Zealand culture that Maori like to show to the world.

The Maori tattoo, or in the Polynesian language, Maori “Ta Moko," are permanent face markings done by the Maori, indigenous people of New Zealand. Ta Moko is not just done for men; it is for both men and women, as it is very meaningful to both groups of people in New Zealand. The term “Maori” refers to a number of different tribal and sub-tribal groups that view themselves and each other as distinct in nature.

Taking this into consideration, I recently interviewed my Uncle Craig Harawira Pearless about his facial Ta Moko, and he said, “The Maori people who have the facial Ta Moko have varying world views similar to mine, and that is we are all remembering the old people and where we come from.” According to “Ta Moko” written by Brad Giles, “When a person decides to have a Moko done, they will discuss their thoughts with the elders, their parents...”(Giles, 2015).

Curious to find out what my Uncle Craig had to say about this, I asked him and he stated, “I can’t say I decided. It was the old people that decided at the time I was born.” My uncle then continued, “Permission to receive Ta Moko is given from birth. Permission to be Moko’d is given by the Ringa Ta, the one who applies the Moko.”

One of the most commonly asked questions about the facial Ta Moko tattoos is, do they hurt as much as a modern tattoo that is applied to the skin on your face? The answer to that

47 question is yes. According to Australian Museum, “Originally, Ta Moko was chiseled into the skin using an albatross cone. The pigmentations used were Carui gum and dye from other vegetation that was rendered to a soot and then mixed with oil. Each tribal area used different pigments” (Meaning of Ta Moko, 2012). This form of art on the face has several different meanings, including backgrounds on a person’s life and the place where stories are told.

Back in the 1900’s, only certain indigenous people from New Zealand were allowed to get the Ta Moko on their face. According to the “Zealand Tattoo,”A person who did not have any high-ranking social status, such as slaves, could not have a face tattoo. Those who had the means to get a tattoo but did not were seen as people of lower social status” (Maori Tattoo, n.d.). Of course in the 21st century, any person from New Zealand can get the facial Ta Moko.

By all means, you are an individual who can make your own decision and have the freedom to go ahead with the process. But it is your elders who decide if it would be appropriate for you to get the Ta Moko done when you are born.

With respect to the process of choosing the location and area of the body to place the Ta Moko. I have seen many different types of tattoo art, not only on the face, but on other areas of the body that can be very interesting and spiritual. For example, some of the common Maori designs are the spiral also known as the “Koru.” The Koru depicts new beginnings, growth and harmony. The fish hook, also known in the Maori language as the “Hei Matau,” symbolizes prosperity, strength, determination and good health. There are many other common Maori designs that have their own meanings.

Although Maori get the Ta Moko done on their faces, no facial Ta Moko is similar—they are all different. Within the common Maori designs are the different patterns. For example, there is the Pakati which is a dog skin cloak representingwarriors, battles, courage and strength.

Ahu Ahu Mataroa represents talent and achievement in athleticism or sport. Unaunahi are fish scales that represent abundance and health. These are only a few examples of Maori designs and patterns that are tattooed on a Maori man or woman.

Though I have seen many Maori and Polynesian tattoos from my family, I do not know what the stories tell. I just find the art of the tattoo to be very interesting and beautiful. I think the only way to really figure out a Maori or Polynesian tattoo is to go up and ask.

My eldest sister Tiana, who is thirty years old, has a tattoo on the top area of her back that tells the story of our family tree, as well as our Polynesian culture. Even though Tiana did not get a facial Ta Moko, she made the decision to get a tattoo, talked to my parents about the designs and patterns she would like on her back, and proceeded to get it done by a tattoo artist.

You may be wondering, why do your elders make the decision about the Ta Moko and not make it for any other tattoo? The reason is because the Ta Moko is much longer to do and it is a very spiritual process. My Uncle Craig stated, “Collectively my Moko took 18 hours to complete and was completed by Derek Lardelli.” Just like any tattoo, it takes long periods of time to complete the process.

48 Not long after he gave his responses to my interview questions, I came across the Massey University Alumni Magazine article “Security Man,” where they spoke about my Uncle Craig Pearless’ Ta Moko and how “the symbol on Craig’s forehead is the sign of the hammerhead shark and signifies Tumatauenga, the god of war. Tumatauenga is commonly adopted by the Maori in the army as their guardian” (Massey, 2002). The Ta Moko is of great importance and is a story to be told for generations. Though the process of the Ta Moko may be longer than expected, it is a journey that is worth taking.

With the Ta Moko, for males especially, this tattoo is divided into eight sections on the face.

The center of the forehead, called the Ngakaipikirau, designates a person’s rank. The area under the brows is called the Ngunga ,which designates his position. The eyes and nose, also known in the Maori language as the Uirere, designates his sub-tribe rank. The area around the temples shows his detailed marital status, and the area under the nose known as the Raurau, Taiohou or the cheek area, shows the nature of the person’s work. The chin area known as the Wairua shows the person’s prestige, and lastly, the jaw area or Taitotot designates a person’s birth status.

Each of these areas puts a specific mark to the region on the face. For example, as seen on “Zealand Tattoo,”The forehead designated a person’ rank, the eyes and brows designates his position…” (“Maori Tattoo,” 2015). The sections of the face convey important meanings that make the Ta Moko so different to modern tattoos from the United States. Although so much work goes into any tattoo, the Ta Moko has a more spiritual aspect, especially when it is being done by the Ringa Ta, the person who does the Ta Moko.

As a native Cook Island Maori, I now understand what a Maori facial Ta Moko is and why Maori people have this form of art on their face: to show people where they came from and to remember the family members that have passed on. Though this form of art can be quite deceiving to some people, especially to those who are not well educated about the Maori Ta Moko, it provokes interest and leaves people wondering about the person and their Ta Moko.

Ta Moko is a link to our lands and the older generations who have passed on. I have come to appreciate my culture more because of this. As my Uncle Craig says about his facial Ta Moko, “This is for my grandchildren. This is to say we are still here.”

REFERENCES Giles, B. (n.d.). Ta Moko. Retrieved May 20, 2015, from http://www.dozta2.com/moko.html Maori Tattoo: The Definitive Guide to Ta Moko. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.zealandtattoo.co.nz/tattoo-styles/maori-tattoos/ Riria, K., & Simmons, D. (2000, January 1). The Tattoo. Retrieved from http://www.history-nz.org/maori3.html Security Man. (2007, May 8). Alumni and Friends Magazine.

49 The Meaning of Ta Moko- Maori Tattooing. (2012, August 8). Retrieved May 2, 2015, from http://australianmuseum.net.au/the-meaning-of-ta-moko-maori-tattooing Ta Moko- significance of Maori Tattoos. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://media.newzealand.com/en/story-ideas/ta-moko-significance-of-maori-tattoos/

50

My Love Made Me a Minority

By Paige Carlin This is the story about a girl who fell in love with a culture that was completely unfamiliar to her. That girl is me.

I grew up in America—Ohio, to be exact. Caucasian, Christian and middle-class, I never understood what it meant to be judged or to be a minority. I always did well in school and treated others how I would want to be treated. I planned on eventually getting married (or maybe not). I worked hard, but I was selfish and naïve. I thought being white and having a mediocre life, without any risks, was all I needed. I met some cool people along the way, but they were doing the same thing I was doing, going to school or working, nothing spectacular.

I thought the cliché of meeting someone that would change your life was lame, although somewhere deep inside me there was a hope for this to happen.

Wow, it sure did, but it was not just the person that changed my life; it was the many things I learned along the way. I realized that the culture I grew up in was not for me. All the elements of this new culture intrigued me—the language, morals, religion—all the way to the mouthwatering food. I was in love. I was in love with the Arab-Muslim culture and nobody was going to stop me. Although they sure did try. And believe me, it put me into a minority, something I never saw coming.

On August 23rd, 2012, the Arab American Institute released a study where they found very parallel results: “Most Americans say they do not know any Arabs or Muslims; but the 30% who do have significantly more favorable attitudes toward Arabs, Muslims, Arab Americans, and American Muslims” (p.6). I belonged to the 70% that wasn’t familiar with any Arabs or Muslims, and my idea of them is completely different now that I have met many Muslims and Arabic people. It is true that I have a more favorable attitude towards them now: Human Rights Watch stated in the “We are not the Victims” article in 2002, that the September 11 hate crime backlash confirmed the fears of Arabs and Muslims in the United States: a major terrorist attack gave rise to a nationwide wave of hate crimes against persons and institutions perceived to be Arab or Muslim. Unlike previous hate crime waves, however, the September 11 backlash distinguished itself by its ferocity and extent. The violence included murder, physical assaults, arson, vandalism of places of worship and other property damage, death threats, and public harassment. (cite) After the terrorist attacks, the attitudes toward Muslims and Arabs in America changed drastically, including my own. I was just nine years old when I gained this disturbing image of an Arab or Muslim. It was one of the first ideas I had of them which then stuck with me throughout my life. Following the attacks, the media and government planted this idea into the heads of people in America, that the Middle-East offered nothing but war and bombs. I was afraid to get on a plane; I questioned the women wearing hijabs; I even thought the language

51 sounded threatening. I listened to the information that I heard from family, friends, and even strangers, and I never second-guessed it.

Years later, I met a guy playing soccer, who was so sweet and polite. He was a Palestinian Muslim. After being introduced, I was so awed by the way he spoke, with such confidence and respect. He was completely singular to any other guy I met before. He revealed an abundance of information about himself, his religion, and culture. As I got to know him, he quickly unraveled the stereotype I had woven in my mind, and I finally realized how sheltered I had been over the years. I realized how wrong I was about the Muslims and Arabs. I learned that the word “Islam” translates to “peace,” and peaceful is exactly how I would describe every Muslim or Arabic person I would meet over the next few years. They would give the shirt off their back to anyone who needed it. Yet America’s people, my own people, were calling them terrorists, bombers, and every name under the sun. I felt so ashamed to call myself American. After falling in love with these people, I now felt like a minority in America, and from then on I was a part of that 30%.

I asked Mohammed Mansour, my Muslim-Arabic boyfriend from Palestine, how he feels about the Muslim-American stereotype. He said: I sometimes feel unwelcome in America. I get confused about how a country with such diverse people can single one religion or type of people out. I have observed many Americans and their lack of global education which makes them ignorant to Islam, and Arabic traditions causing them to stereotype. Some Americans believe what they are told through the media. I am American just like everyone else, so where is the freedom in practicing religion? I also knew dating Paige that there were going to be comments said but I told her to stay confident. I know things will get better in America, we just have to open their minds to new things and perspectives. (personal communication, April 25, 2015) While spending time with my new Arabic friends, I observed a few things that seemed insignificant but still were beautiful. When they greet each other, it is either with a handshake, a kiss on the cheek, or a hug. If you are sitting down when someone arrives, you stand up and show them respect by offering one of these gestures. It is never a dull “Hey, what’s up?” as many American friends receive when entering the room. They are also willing to share their food or drinks, even if there is not enough for everyone. They will make sure you are happy and comfortable whether they know you well or not. Receiving this generosity was rare within my group of friends, so I felt like I was treated as a queen. This is not what the media showed.

The kindness I was offered was not what I saw on television.

I still get frustrated when I tell people stories about the Arabic culture. Their religious and cultural ways are not very abnormal to other religions and cultures, yet people question it. For example, in the Muslim religion, you are not to do anything that harms your body. You are supposed to take care of your body and do what is best for it, but I grew up in an environment where people were judged if they said they did not drink, smoke, get tattoos, and even participate in abstinence before marriage. I decided I also wanted to treat my body with respect just like these peaceful people I began to love. I was shocked by how many friends I

52 lost because I did not want to go out and drink every night. Those same friends questioned my new choices and judged me, but I had never been happier.

Weddings in the Muslim culture are very important and are usually big, and they do not include alcohol. I really admired that they could enjoy and celebrate this day without alcohol.

The day I found myself confused was the day I told some of my family and friends I did not want there to be alcohol at my wedding if, and when, I get married in the future. Instead of saying “That’s fine” or “That’s a great decision and we respect that,” I was asked “Why?” I was questioned by some of my family and friends, and I was embarrassed that they judged me for not wanting to serve alcohol. Weddings are a celebration of two people getting married, and I now had to worry about who would show up to my wedding after hearing there would not be alcoholic beverages. I was beginning to feel like a minority amongst people I knew my whole life, just by introducing something as small as this.

I have now been with my boyfriend Mohammed for over three years and we have both had our fair share of comments from other people. “Why are you dating a white girl… you can’t find an Arab girl; you know she will just cheat on you, right?” “You’re dating a terrorist?”, followed by some more ridiculous comments: “You got on a plane with him?” “Does he own a gas station?” “If you get married, you know you have to wear the hijab and convert right?”

We both were confronted with these stereotypes at full speed. It has been tough explaining and convincing people that we could work, and that the Muslims are not what you think they are. At times it was tiresome, but I can say that it has been the most fulfilling experience I have been through. Mohammed’s family and friends have completely opened their doors to me and have shown me more hospitality than any other race or religion of people I have ever met. The stereotype of Arabs in America is so far off, and I could not be more ashamed of the American people. Muslims are passionate, loving and humble.

The world holds many different cultures, and the ones you grow up in are not always the ones you have to follow. There are many things to learn in the world, so do not just listen to others’ opinions. Find out for yourself. If you keep your mind open, you can learn things about yourself that you never knew. If you find yourself falling into the beliefs of other people or being pressured to judge, stand up for yourself.

I will continue to try and raise that 30% of Americans, because Muslims and Arabs deserve another look. But for now, Al salmu aalaikum, meaning, may peace be upon you. That is now how I live my life.

REFERENCES Arab American Institute. (2012, August 23). [Data tables of attitudes toward Arabs and Muslims in America]. The American divide: how we view Arabs and Muslims, 6.

Retrieved from http://b.3cdn.net/aai/4502fc68043380af12_oum6b1i7z.pdf Human Rights Watch. (2002, November). We are not the enemy. United States, 14(6), 5.

Retrieved from http://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/usahate/usa1102.pdf

53

Net Neutrality: Keeping the Internet Fair and Impartial

By Dustin Connis Have you ever stopped to ponder how flexible your access to the Internet is? How you are able to visit any webpage you desire freely, at any time? How about how you are able to stream whatever material you like with no regard as to what service you are using? Your right to have such flexible use with the Internet is because of a policy called “net neutrality”. Net neutrality ensures that all data on the Internet must be treated equally. In other words, if you use a lesser-known Internet source, your Internet Service Provider (ISP) must treat the data being sent your way, the same way it would treat the data of a big company. Without net neutrality in place, your right to use the Internet as you see fit is jeopardized.

Imagine attempting to connect to Vimeo, only to find that your connection is painstakingly slow. But when you connect to YouTube or Netflix, your connection could not be better. Your favorite forum page will not load at a reasonable time, but the Microsoft Help forums seem to work perfectly. This is a glimpse of an Internet without net neutrality, where data is not treated equally. When net neutrality is removed from the picture, you lose your ability to choose which service you prefer. That is because tiered-based connections would be enacted

by ISPs. In this version of the future, only monopoly holders will benefit, and the rest will suffer for it. As a policy, net neutrality should be upheld since it encourages innovation and education by removing tiered-based services, which in turn allows for healthy competition and a smaller digital divide.

Before discussing the topic of net neutrality and its effect on society, it is a good idea to become familiar with its recent history. The net neutrality debate has been active for a long time, but it was in 2012 that the topic gained the spotlight. Marcia Clemmitt (2012), veteran social policy reporter, provided a helpful summary of this event. Hollywood and the entertainment industry were upset with how their work was being pirated online. In an effort to stop the illegal downloads, they pushed for the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the Protect Intellectual Property Act (PIPA). However, for the first time in the film industry’s history, it was up against opponents with an even larger war chest than its own. Internet giants such as Google and Wikipedia stood against SOPA and PIPA, since the acts would prevent access to websites that were deemed to have illegal content (p. 327).

While piracy is something that should not be supported, the way SOPA and PIPA would have fought it was wrong. By preventing access to websites that were deemed to have illegal content, the acts would have caused more harm than good by violating net neutrality. By forming this loophole in net neutrality, monopoly holders would have been able to put their foot in the door and find weaknesses to exploit in the system.

The situation got worse for net neutrality on January 14, 2014, when the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ruled that the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) lacked the authority to regulate the Internet. Dr. Vickie Cook (2014), director of the Center for Online Learning, was concerned by this since “this ruling opened a door for ISPs to charge for a tiered level of service” (p. 47). In short, the ruling deemed that the FCC could

54 not uphold net neutrality. Without proper protections in place, there would be little to nothing to prevent ISPs from starting tiered-based services.

Tiered-based services mean ISPs are able to create “fast lane” connections for a fee, and they are a massive threat to free Internet should they come to pass. This means that the ISPs will throttle the data of those who pay to be in these fast lanes. However, according to Hong Guo, an assistant professor in the Department of Management at the University of Notre Dame, et. al. (2010), ISPs have a limited amount of resources they can devote to their customers (p.

270). In other words, when someone’s data gets prioritized, everyone else gets slowed down.

If your connection is not a “fast lane” connection, you are effectively in the “slow lane.” “Fast lanes” and “slow lanes” are the heart of the problem when tiered-based services are introduced.

The FCC is responsible for regulating communication technologies such as the Internet. It is the responsibility of the FCC to enforce a policy such as net neutrality. However, the FCC’s ability to enforce these rules is dependent upon how it defines the Internet. Marvin Ammori (2014), a lawyer, explained how a definition could have such a strong effect. The FCC provided the definition of “information service” to ISPs, and not “common carriers” (para. 56). By labeling ISPs as an information service, the FCC handicapped its ability to regulate them. If the FCC decided to define ISPs as a common carrier, it would have had the ability to prevent tiered-based services from beginning.

Thankfully, the FCC (2015) decided to uphold net neutrality on February 26, 2015: Consumers will demand more and better broadband as they enjoy new lawful Internet services, applications and content, and broadband providers cannot block, throttle, or create special fast lanes for that content. The FCC’s Open Internet rules protect and maintain open, uninhibited access to legal online content without broadband Internet access providers being allowed to block, impair, or establish fast/slow lanes to lawful content. (para. 1).

This is a victory for Internet freedom. By treating data equally, innovation and education may flourish over the Internet without the threat of being hindered.

Innovation is a term that supporters of net neutrality will bring up in almost every speech to support it, and with good reason. With net neutrality, innovation is able to blossom, which in turn allows for businesses to form, as shown by Ammori who argued that it was a contributing factor to the success of the Internet economy: “Imagine, if years ago, MySpace had cut deals with cable and phone companies to block Facebook” (2014, par. 19). Facebook won the fight while net neutrality was in place. However, if net neutrality had not been enforced, MySpace could have paid an ISP so that its data would be prioritized over Facebook’s data, making MySpace the more optimal of the two to use. Thus, MySpace would have won.

Under net neutrality, start-up businesses have a fair chance to compete with well-established ones. Consumers are to choose which service they prefer. However, if net neutrality is removed, the well-established business that is able to afford “fast lane” connections will likely

55 win every battle with its competition. Start-up businesses are unlikely to be able to afford the “fast lane” fees, which could render their Internet-based service worthless due to slow connections. Cook expressed her concerns over these fast lanes: “This type of a damaging effect on innovation and potential development of applications could severely limit how the Internet is used by individuals, in education, in business, and internationally” (2014, p. 48). If well-established businesses are the only ones able to afford “fast lanes,” there will be a lack of competition, and therefore, less innovation. If net neutrality is removed, we can expect to see little advancement.

Enacting net neutrality lowers the bar to entry for start-up businesses. Without tiered-based services, start-up businesses do not have to worry about paying “fast lane” fees to stay competitive. It is less of a financial burden to these new businesses to provide their services.

By having this lower entry bar, more businesses will be encouraged to start. When more businesses are in the picture, competition is sure to follow. In an effort to be the most optimal of all similar services, these businesses will look to innovation as a means of outperforming the others. Monopoly holders would have little to no reason to innovate in the field when they already control the market. But when a new business threatens their grip on their monopoly, they will have to innovate to stay relevant to society.

Net neutrality not only promotes innovation by encouraging competition, but it also provides consumers the power of choice. If two identical businesses had their data treated equally, it would be up to the consumer to decide which service he or she prefers. In this scenario, the business that gathers the most consumer support would win the market. However, if one business’s data were treated significantly better than the other business’s, then the power of choice would be removed from the consumer. In this scenario, the only service that is optimal to use belongs to the business that bought its way to the “fast lanes.” The other business, stuck in the “slow lane,” would not be practical for the consumers to use due to how painstakingly slow it is. This effectively means that the “fast lane” business wins the market because, unlike its competitor, it is the only effective means of obtaining that service. The victor of this battle was not chosen by the consumers, but rather, by the biggest wallet.

Tiered-based systems are a hassle to both businesses and individuals. Those who are not able to afford the “fast lanes” will find that their attempts to connect to services that also refused to pay the “fast lane” fee will receive a minimum amount of service from their ISP. The only services those in the “slow lane” will be able to reasonably use are from those who paid for the “fast lanes.” This is a violation of the individual’s right to choose who to associate with, since that person is limited to conduct business with those who paid for throttled data.

One aspect of our society that has received little attention in the net neutrality debate is education. The majority of the debate revolved around the economy and innovation.

Fortunately, Cook explained how net neutrality supports education by showing that “fast lanes” could damage the quality of education youths receive: “Many Internet practitioners in the United States are anticipating a wider digital divide among students whose families can afford ISP packaging ... and those students whose [families] cannot afford additional access pricing” (2014, p. 48). This would mean that schools with little funding and families that are not well off would be unable to use Internet resources as an effective means of educating

56 themselves. Students who come from these schools and families would have a disadvantage against students who came from schools and families that were able to afford “fast lanes.” To remove net neutrality would damage the education of those who are struggling financially.

Furthermore, libraries would also be hard pressed. Sara White (2014) from the Pratt Institute School of Library and Information Service pointed out how net neutrality matches with the ideology of libraries: Net neutrality is a concern for libraries in two different respects. The first is more ideological and has to do with the purpose and mission of libraries to facilitate the spread of information ... Secondly, net neutrality is an issue for libraries because it will affect their ability to provide high quality services to their users. (pp. 154-6) Libraries would have more difficulty in providing their services to the public if tiered-based services are in place. Libraries would have to appropriate funds to afford “fast lanes” if they want their Internet-based services to be viable. While some libraries would be able to afford faster connections, the majority would not. When libraries have difficulty providing their resources to the public and when the digital divide becomes larger, it is not a good prospect for education.

As a controversial issue, net neutrality does have its critics. Douglas Hass (2007), director of Business Development, pointed out how net neutrality is not essential to innovation. The Commercial Internet eXechange’s (CIX) is an example of innovation taking place in a nonneutral environment. CIX was an interconnection point for commercial ISPs that attempted to remove non-CIX members who failed to pay their fine from using its connections, going against net neutrality. However, the effort failed: “CIX quickly faded in obscurity. Its decisions served to encourage the major backbone providers to build new platforms and to offer downstream customers ways to interconnect and bypass CIX’s network altogether” (2007, p. 1585). Despite CIX’s attempts at setting up tiered-based services, CIX repelled its customers, who worked to develop an even better system. Hass argues that this example proves that innovation can take place in non-neutral environments, thereby rendering moot the claim that net neutrality is needed for innovation.

Furthermore, Gireesh Shrimali (2008), from the Indian School of Business, added that net neutrality is not necessary for the long term: “It may not be necessary to restrict a monopoly network provider in the long term since, due to its impact on long-term profits, it is in the best interests of the network provider to promote innovation” (p. 553). Shrimali claims that ISPs will be looking for ways to encourage innovation, since it assists a monopoly holder with making a profit.

It is true that innovation is able to survive in a non-neutral environment, but innovation will not be able to thrive to its fullest. Innovation is resilient and it will survive in a world without net neutrality. However, the innovation produced by healthy competition in an environment without tier-based services is far greater than the innovation produced by a monopoly holder in a tier-based environment. As Ammori has shown, “The Internet’s openness has radically transformed all kinds of industries ... by lowering the bar to entry” (2014, para. 10). In an

57 environment with healthy competition, numerous businesses are working on the next “big thing” to outdo their opponents in the market. A monopoly holder does not have that incentive to stay relevant.

Another point is that the public supports certain types of non-neutral environments. Hass also argued that there is non-neutrality in the current Internet. He pointed at Google’s Safe Search feature, which filters out explicit results (2007, p. 1590). By preventing the user from seeing these results, Google, one of the top supporters of net neutrality, has defied net neutrality in a way that is accepted by society.

However, by looking closer at Safe Search, one can see that it is not a violation of net neutrality. Google’s Safe Search does not treat data equally when it is active, but after the results of the search are produced, the user is able to disable Safe Search and include the explicit results if desired. This is not a violation of net neutrality, since safe search can be disabled. A violation is when data is not treated equally, and the service provider does not allow the user to disable the inequality with or without a fee of some sort.

Another concern over net neutrality is security. The freedom versus security debate is another issue in and of itself, but there is a portion that intersects with net neutrality. Security and freedom are both desirable. However, it is difficult to have one without damaging the other in some form. Google’s Safe Search is an attempt to offer security with freedom. Ammori is a strong advocate of net neutrality, but he and Keira Poellet (2010), a Law LLM Student, argued that ISPs and the government should be able to deem what is safe. However, that power must be checked by safeguards (p. 63). If no preventive measures are in place, Internet users might become the victims of cyber attacks.

The topic of cyber security is perhaps the greatest concern regarding the Internet. The potential damage of a cyber attack warrants preventive measures. Ammori and Poellet make a good point that discretion should be taken. It would be ideal to have an open and secure Internet. The government should be able to warn Internet users about potentially dangerous content. However, if the user still decides to venture into a dangerous section of the Internet, it is that user’s choice. The government should be able to have the power to determine what is harmful, as long as there are safeguards to prevent an abuse of power. ISPs, however, should be excluded from having such power. ISPs have found loopholes in the past, one such example being Comcast, which blocked peer-to-peer technologies (Ammori, 2014, para. 12).

As a private business, an ISP would find some way to twist this power to their advantage.

Net neutrality may be an intimidating topic, but the United States is not the only nation that is deciding upon the policy. Other nations are working on policies regarding the topic and how to enforce it. According to Maria Leal (2014) from the Centre for Commercial Law Studies, the European Union (EU) is working on policies to allow for “fast lanes” that do not force “slow lanes” on those who do not pay the fee. However, the EU did not define net neutrality (p. 519). Since the EU does not have a solid definition of net neutrality, policies regarding it will be difficult to uphold. It will also be interesting to see how this plays out in the EU, especially when you consider that ISPs have limited resources and are unable to speed one entity up without slowing another down.

58

Furthermore, South Korea upholds net neutrality. However, the way South Korea enforces net neutrality differs from the U.S. Dong-Hee Shin (2014), from the Department of Interaction Science in Sungkyunkwan University, noted that the U.S. focuses more on preventative measures, while South Korea remedies violations. South Korea also lacks a solid definition for net neutrality (p. 1131). South Korea recognizes that net neutrality is an important policy, but the country has difficulty with enforcing it.

With widespread confusion over what to do with net neutrality, the U.S. has an opportunity to be a leader in this field. By supporting net neutrality, the U.S. would show the world that it supports fair competition and the right of choice.

Net neutrality is a policy that is to the advantage of our society. An open Internet ensures that ideas may spread freely from individuals to the masses. Such unrestrained usage of the Internet is a gift that all users should cherish. It was a long fight, but thankfully, the FCC took a stand to support net neutrality. However, this recent victory is now under fire: The new F.C.C. rules are still likely to be tied up in a protracted court fight with the cable companies and the Internet service providers that oppose it, and they could be overturned in the future by a Republican-leaning commission. But for now, Congress’s hands appear to be tied. (Weisman, 2015, par 5) Although the ruling was a victory for net neutrality, there is still the possibility of it being overruled. There are ISPs that desire to change the FCC’s regulations on the Internet, and there are politicians who desire to strike down net neutrality. Rest easy now, but when net neutrality is threatened, it will take strong support from the people to keep the new ruling active.

Net neutrality keeps our Internet free and open for all to use. The flexibility it grants users brings benefits to businesses and the individual alike. The Internet has intertwined itself into our daily lives. It is difficult to go a day without using one of many services that rely upon it, ranging from video streaming to e-mail. Net neutrality ensures that access to the services we choose remain viable. Think of the Internet as a road that leads to many places. We choose were we want to go every day when we connect to this road. Why should we allow ISPs to tell us which roads we can use and which ones we should avoid? If net neutrality falls, we will lose our ability to choose where to go on the Internet. We will lose the power to vote on which services to use. And, we will lose the power to spread our voices indiscriminately across the virtual world. When net neutrality is challenged, our society must fight to keep it in place.

REFERENCES Ammori, M., Poellet, K. (2010). “Security versus freedom” on the Internet: cybersecurity and net neutrality." SAIS Review of International Affairs, 30 (2) 51 65. Retrieved from Project Muse.

59 Ammori, M. (2014). The case for net neutrality. Foreign Affairs, 93(4), 62-73. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.

Clemmitt, M. (2012, April 13). Internet regulation. CQ Researcher, 22, 325-348. Retrieved from CQ Researcher.

Cook, V. S. (2014). Net neutrality: what is it and why should educators care?. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 80(4), 46-49. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.

Guo, H., Bandyopadhyay, S., Cheng, H. K., & Yang, Y. (2010). Net neutrality and vertical integration of content and broadband services. Journal of Management Information Systems, 27(2), 243-275. Retrieved from Business Source Premier.

Hass, D. A. (2007). The never-was-neutral net and why informed end users can end the net neutrality debates. Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 22(4), 1565-1635. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.

Leal, M. C. (2014). The EU approach to net neutrality: Network operators and over-the-top players, friends or foes? Computer Law & Security Review, 30(5), 506-520. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier. “Open Internet� (2015) FCC. Federal communications commission. Web. Apr. 2015 Shin, D. (2014). A comparative analysis of net neutrality: Insights gained by juxtaposing the U.S. and Korea. Telecommunications Policy, 38(11), Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.

Shrimali, G. (2008). Surplus extraction by network providers: Implications for net neutrality and innovation. Telecommunications Policy, 32(8), 545-558. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.

Weisman, J. (2015, Feb. 24) F.C.C. net neutrality rules clear hurdle as republicans concede to Obama. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/25/technology/path-clears-for-net-neutrality-aheadof-fcc-vote.html White, S. (2014). Net neutrality and libraries: Conflicts of access. Serials Librarian, 67(2), 151-157. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier.

60

Ordinary to Unordinary: Becoming Homeless

By Alisandra Dominguez

It had started as a normal week, but one day when I arrived at home, I could feel that something was wrong. My mother told me that we needed to pack our things and leave the house. I could not believe what was happening, but I could see it in her face that this was reality. With utter confusion running through my mind, my siblings and I packed our bags and drove to a homeless shelter. This warehouse was filled with little rooms and a dining room that doubled as a kitchen. It seemed somewhat like a home, and it would have to do for now.

Later on, my mother explained to us what was going on; we would have to stay here for a while until my dad worked overtime to pay the rent we were late on. After learning this, I was shocked and nervous. Would people and my friends look at me differently?

There are many reasons why homeless people become homeless, but one of the main causes is drug abuse. However, there are other reasons that also need to be understood. Becoming homeless can happen at any point in time. Some prime examples are: when money is tight, when someone is laid off, and when someone has family issues and fallings-out. As a young teenager, I would have never imagined that I would be in a homeless shelter helping my mother get back on her feet. I grew up seeing homeless people on the street and thinking that I would never have to worry about ending up that way because I never had to worry about those causes. My family never had a lot of money, but it was always enough to remain stable.

Becoming homeless was never a thought in my mind.

I was just a young teenage girl who never thought she would experience what she had only seen on the streets and in movies. I was about sixteen years old, and I had been living in a homeless shelter for a week due to financial issues that my family had been dealing with.

Many people do not realize that becoming homeless is not always a choice.

That is one of the problems; why is it that we look down on homeless people? Shouldn’t we be helping them instead? We don’t know their situations and their stories of how they became homeless. Nobody’s life is perfect, not everyone can have it all, and you cannot completely understand a person’s situation unless you put yourself in their shoes. That is what I, myself, came to realize.

There have been many famous videos of people becoming “homeless” for a week to understand what it is really like. But it is not the same thing because once completing this project, they are able to return to their normal lives. Being homeless is not just about being in a shelter and having to endure that for certain periods of time. It is also about how they got there, why they are there, and all of the emotions that accompany the situation.

While being in the shelter, I began to feel lonely and awkward because I had never experienced anything like it before. I soon met a young girl, Angelique, and her family. She was about eleven years old and I grew very fond of her and her family. One night while chatting with my mother and Angelique’s mother, we began discussing the stories of how

61 each of our families became homeless. Angelique’s mother, Angela, was a worker at a local Albertsons and had been laid off due to a huge economic crisis. The family was living just fine, until one day everything changed and they quickly had nothing. I remember feeling a sense of similarity between the stories and our families. However, they had been in the homeless shelter for three months.

About a week had passed and we were able to return to our house. The funny thing was that I did not necessarily want to leave the shelter because of how much was needed to do there and because the people I met were so nice. After that experience, I immediately wanted return to the shelter to get involved. I began volunteering every night serving food and helping the children with homework. The shelter was called Operation H.O.P.E., and going there was my favorite thing to do after school. I continued to volunteer there until I was eighteen years old.

I have gained so much respect and an even better understanding for homeless people and homeless shelters. This carried on with me after I moved to Hawaii. I immediately noticed the immense amount of homeless people here, like I have never seen before. I walk around and I see people who are either disgusted with the homeless or simply ignore them.

My view on homeless people changed after experiencing the reality of it in their shoes.

Without this experience, I would have never appreciated the power of helping others. Next time you see a homeless person on the street, before judging them and being scared, or simply ignoring them, try to help them or ask about their story.

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Through Alien Eyes: A Review of Studies on Immigration

By Juana Meza Nieto Like any other culture, American culture promotes the idea of “us” versus “them.” Outsiders, or in this case, immigrants, can be judged incorrectly because of fear of the unknown, or simple misinformation. This becomes more obvious in America’s political sphere. In recent years, the immigration debate has risen to the forefront of the American political consciousness and with it, a wave of presumptions. The kaleidoscopic immigrant experience in the United States has been dwindled to a twofold branch by many American politicians.

Whole lives diminish to a black and white landscape; immigrants are the paintbrush used to smear the other as a victim, while media is the artist. Left-wing politicians tend to portray immigrants as victims, while right-wing politicians demonize immigrants as unlawful abusers.

As a Latino immigrant, the immigration debate is one that hits close to home. Because of the intensity of this debate and its continual coverage in political news media, it has become a central part of my Latin identity. For my class project I selected several books. The first was Adventures in Chaos: American Intervention in the Third World by Douglas J. Macdonald.

The title immediately jumped out at me. To me, politics seems to be “chaotic,” as the book title states. Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy by Kathleen Hall Jamieson encompassed a view that I already held about media and its role in politics. At times, it seems that the loudest voice in politics is heard and not the truthful one. My selection of The Immigration Mystique: America’s False Conscience by Chilton Williamson, Jr., Illegal Immigration: A Reference Handbook by Michael C. Lemay, and Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation by Alejandro Portes and Rubén G. Rumbaut, arose from my own need to learn more about what the immigration conversation looks like outside of cable television.

All of these books got me thinking beyond what I already knew about the subject of immigration and my own reality of what that meant. On first impression, most of the books appeared to be pro-immigration, which truthfully was why I selected them in the first place.

However, upon further reading, I discovered that I had made a grievous assumption about most of them.

The immigration debate can be understood in the United States as the relationship “us” versus “them”. This theme presents itself in Macdonald’s Adventures in Chaos and continues in Williamson’s The Immigration Mystique, and to a lesser degree in Lemay’s Illegal Immigration: A Reference Handbook. Jamieson’s Dirty Politics, however, studies media as a tool for politicians to spread their own agendas. Overall, it appears that media coverage on immigration, particularly when focusing on Latino immigration, has been negative. While liberal media tends to portray immigrants as victims, right-wing media does the opposite. In their eyes, the American people are the true victims and immigrants are the aggressors. Portes and Rumbaut, however, challenge the prevalent perception that immigrants are the antagonists in their book, Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation.

63 How is “victim” defined? In “A Theory of Victimhood: Politics, Conflict and the Construction of Victim-Based Identity,” political scientist Tami Amanda Jacoby attempts to define who and what is a victim: Negative group experiences commonly unify a group against potential others in the form of rivals, enemies and perpetrators. The common experience, whether real or perceived, of trauma says as much about a group as what the members of that group perceive themselves to be. Obstacles to the achievement of group goals, whether current or historical, influence the boundaries and very essence of the group, its unity, prosperity and capacity to survive. Victimhood then, results from the exercise of power, but is equally a basis for identity. (Jacoby 515) As humans, we all fear change. The idea of the unknown is terrifying. Some accept it and move on; others reject change and attempt to cling to the past. In a way, this represents a significant part of the Republican Party. Though American culture has changed, it seems that some Republicans are attempting to stand firm and stem the tide. In essence, many Republicans see immigrants as the obstacle to achieving their goal of the “American dream”.

Jacoby writes, “In order for victims to be recognized, it is necessary to ascertain who is responsible” (526). In this case, the Republican finger points toward immigrants, creating a distinctive division of “us” versus “them”.

Macdonald analyzes the political relationship between the United States and China, Vietnam and the Philippines in Adventures in Chaos: American Intervention for Reform in the Third World. Superficially, this book seems to make a different argument about victimhood. It paints a picture of the United States as the successful older brother who might be brought down by “leeching” younger siblings. Even though this is a relationship played internationally and the relationship has changed since the book was published in 1996, it still bears weight.

Immigrants living today in the United States are viewed much the same way that Macdonald portrays China, Vietnam, and the Philippines.

Take for example, the state of Arizona. The article “Latinos Lean Left: Bringing Down GOP’s Big Tent” by Roberto Lovato highlights immigrant Elias Bermudez’s relationship with Arizona’s Republican Party. Beginning in 2004, Arizona politicians presented new, radical reforms to deal with undocumented immigrants. The proposal was to create a labor camp comprised of undocumented immigrants to build a wall along the border, among other proposals denying basic rights to immigrants (Lovato 22).

Initially, Williamson’s The Immigration Mystique : America’s False Conscience seemed as if it would defend the immigrant position, but it does not. Similar to the Arizona politicians, Williamson depicts immigrants as invaders. Three ideas stand out: first, that immigration is ineffective because of the immigrant’s own failure to assimilate into American culture.

Williamson states, “If America owes multiculturalism to the New Immigration, the ‘culture war’ is attributed to the failure of immigration as an ‘American tradition’. Immigration is a failure because assimilation, contrary to national myth, never really occurred” (198). Here, Williamson expresses the idea that immigrants should come to the United States embracing American culture and leaving behind their own. He rejects the idea that immigrants

64 irrevocably bring change to a new host country, stating that an influx of migrants should not eat away at American values.

Further, Williamson proposes that “New Immigration” is more disruptive to American society than beneficial, because it erodes American values. Unlike early European immigrants, Williamson argues, new immigrants are not assimilating to American culture (Williamson 135). He concludes that multiculturalism is chaos: “It is an imperative of every human culture to seek ascendency over those others with which it is juxtaposed” (Williamson 142).

Essentially, he views the influx of immigrants as a challenge to American normal values.

Lastly, according to Williamson, the United States is making a mistake by allowing what he calls “moral conscience” to dictate its immigration policy: “Nowadays, the law of an unwritten sensitivity code induces nearly all commentators of all political persuasion to refer in the passing ‘difficult choices’ that everyone makes before taking a stand on the immigration question” (Williamson 3). In other words, we are thinking in terms of social justice, where perhaps instead we should be thinking in terms of survival. In effect, Williamson says that instead of focusing on the needs of one group within the United States, we should focus on what is beneficial for America as a whole. However, what is perceived as good for America varies, depending on which group one talks to.

Lemay’s Illegal Immigration: A Reference Handbook is on the surface a simple handbook geared to educate on American policy changes towards illegal immigration. Whereas the other books were more transparent in their bias, this book simply states events that happened and the effects that each specific event had. Conceivably, the most significant event is the terroristic attacks on September 11, 2001. Lemay discusses its drastic impact on immigration policy, leading to what he calls the “storm-door era.” Americans’ fear of foreigners dramatically increased, ushering in an even more hostile opinion of immigrants.

One of the more important questions that Lemay poses is how the United States should deal with illegal immigrants in the United States, since when speaking about immigration, it is also important to discuss illegal immigration. The controversial question seems to be “to deport or not to deport.” Ultimately, immigration is a reality for any nation, as it is a global problem: “As the worldwide economy becomes more intermingled, the flow of migration becomes even more massive (200 million plus) and nearly uncontrollable” (Lemay 112).

Jamieson’s Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy focuses on relationships; in this case, the relationship is between the media and its viewers. All of the books speak of a problem facing America today, specifically immigration. All view it as a problem. Yet the aspect that each author regards as a problem is different. Media is used heavily to sway masses’ political perceptions. Immigration, especially illegal immigration, has been aggressively demonized to the American public. Media is a propaganda tool that has erroneously presented immigration as America’s greatest folly. As Lemay writes, “They view illegal immigrants as coming here to exploit our welfare and public health care systems” (Lemay 33). Jamieson studies the use of media as a propaganda tool: “The evocative power of television’s visual grammar couples with its use of music to invite strong emotional

65 reactions to what is seen in ads” (Jamison 51). Various advertising techniques are used in political campaigns to skew a viewer’s perception of a candidate/policy.

Perhaps the most compelling case Jamieson makes is that repetition creates reality: “By airing segments of the Rapport, Helms, and Bush ads uncontested, news legitimized their false inferences and fudged claims” (Jamieson 144). Jamieson describes a multitude of complex and invisible ways that the public can be swayed by use of Hollywood techniques to create a drama that the public can believe. Repetition stands as the simplest and most effective. As she notes, “we have conventionalized journalistic norms that reward messages that are dramatic, personal, concise, visual, and take the form of narrative” (Jamieson 17). This leads Jamieson to conclude that political discourse should be driven by data, not drama. People need to be informed, not entertained, and as the bearers of the fruits, we should demand an honest dialogue from news media starved of that preference.

Three assistant professors at the University of Texas at Austin conducted a study examining the effects of selective exposure to Fox News (a major conservative network) and CNN on its viewers’ opinions on Mexican Americans. Hornero Gil de Zúñiga, Teresa Correa, and Sebastian Valenzuela concluded that people’s views on immigration are driven by media (de Zúñiga, et al., 602). They argue that people deliberately select information channels that match their predispositions and beliefs (de Zúñiga, 599). By associating immigrants with negative metaphors like “invaders” and “pollutants that contaminate American ‘purity’” (de Zúñiga 602), media generates “extremity and polarization” (de Zúñiga 601) causing ideas to become amplified and to reject any opposing views. Their study showed that the more conservative a person already is, the more inclined they will be to watch Fox News, a conservative news station. More interestingly, the study also showed that even liberal Democrats who watched Fox News developed more anti-immigrant attitudes than their counterparts who did not (de Zúñiga 610). Thus, this study supports Jamieson’s point about media influence specifically with regard to immigration.

A lengthy social study into the lives of second-generation immigrants in the United States, Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation by Alejandro Portes and Rubén G. Rumbaut, lends an atypical insight towards the subject of immigrant assimilation. Instead of portraying immigrants as aggressors, they offer the opposing view that immigrants are the victims. Williamson, and to a slighter degree, Lemay, both portray immigration as a failure, in part because new immigrants refuse to blend into the American fold and instead attempt to change America to suit them. They contend that this process erodes American values.

Rumbaut and Portes, however, state: “Even when the process involves embracing the parents’ original national identities, this is less a sign of continuing loyalty to the home country than a reaction to the hostile conditions in the receiving society” (Portes 285). They also argue that ethnic groups who have a “favorable reception and resettlement assistance appear more likely to develop such ties than those subject to systematic persecution” (Portes 65). They claim that clustering of immigrant ethnic groups and failure to assimilate is a by-product of a negative reception in the host country.

66 Prejudice is a reality of daily life. We all make presumptions of others even as others make presumptions about us. I would venture to say that those presumptions are more often than not inaccurate. Growing up in the United States as a Latino immigrant has presented some challenges because of prejudice that saturates the news media. Though I was not born in the United States, I was raised here and in many ways, I consider myself an American. Like any organism introduced to a new environment, one has to learn to adjust to survive. The biological term “acclimation” comes to mind, wherein an individual organism adjusts to a gradual change in its environment, allowing it to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions in the process. I believe that I, like many other immigrants, have wholly embraced American culture, even as some American politicians deem us undesirable.

WORKS CITED de Zúñiga, Hornero Gil, Teresa Correa, Sebastian Valenzuela. “Selective Exposure to Cable News and Immigration in the U.S.: The Relationship Between Fox News, CNN, and Attitudes Toward Mexican Immigrants.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 56.4 (2012): 597-615. Academic Search Premier. Web. 6 Apr. 2015.

Jacoby, Tami Amanda. “A Theory of Victimhood: Politics, Conflict and the Construction of Victim-Based Identity.” Millennium (03058298) 43.2 (2015): 511-530. Academic Search Premier. Web. 15 Apr. 2015.

Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. Dirty Politics: Deception, Distraction, and Democracy. New York, New York: Oxford UP, 1992. 1-162. Print.

Lemay, Michael C. Illegal Immigration: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2007. 1-341. Print.

Lovato, Roberto. “Latinos Lean Left: Bringing Down the GOP Big Tent.” Nation 283.21 (2006): 22-24. Academic Search Premier. Web. 15 Apr. 2015.

Macdonald, Douglas J. Adventures in Chaos: American Intervention for Reform in the Third World. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1992. 1-282. Print.

Portes, Alejandro, and Rubén G. Rumbaut. Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation. Berkeley; New York: U of California; Russell Sage Foundation, 2001.

Print.

Williamson, Jr., Chilton. The Immigration Mystique: America's False Conscience. New York: BasicBooks, 1996. 1-202. Print.

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coming to realizations

68

Pursuit of Happiness

By Shianne Schorr Every person is enticed by the temptations of lust, wrath, gluttony, greed, slothfulness, envy, and pride. We strive to conquer our goals or overcome our struggles based upon these appetites. How we respond to these temptations ultimately determines many of our actions and behaviors as we try to find satisfaction or purpose in life. My selected books—Finding Me, Stories and Other Stories, and Lost Lake—pertain to interpreting the pursuit of happiness, drawing me to analyze how people live their lives when influenced by temptations and challenges. Most of these writers focus on the subject that preoccupies most Americans, the pursuit of happiness. But when put into the larger context of pressing problems that face most people throughout the world, many of these issues seem less significant when compared to the vastness of the planet we live on.

Since the beginning of this planet, people have behaved in an entitled way. Adam and Eve had the fleshly desire to bite the forbidden fruit. A young child gets into a fight or takes another child’s toy. No one taught us these actions, yet we feel we have the justification to commit them, as if the world owes us something and we deserve to receive what we desire. But what have any of us done to truly deserve anything?

The Seven Deadlines is a novel by Gigi Levangie from the perspective of a fourteen-year old girl from a hard-working, less fortunate Latino background, living in Beverly Hills, exploring her understanding of lust, wrath, gluttony, greed, slothfulness, envy, and pride. This young lady, a freshman in her public high school, writes a college application essay with personal stories concerning these seven deadly sins. Reading Levangie’s novel prompted me to search for more outlooks on the matter of these so-called sins or “natural appetites.”

Why does humanity struggle with these desires? “Humanity I Love You” is a poem written by E. E. Cummings, who lived from 1894 to 1962. Cummings discusses the irony of humanity: how people make huge deals from little issues, and how the answer to life could be right in front of our faces and we could walk right past it. “Humanity I love you because you are perpetually putting the secrets of life in your pants and forgetting it’s there and sitting down” (Cummings 17-21). I interpret this portion of Cumming’s poem as saying that we search high and low for answers we already have, yet we forget, or fail to realize, that we have always had them. These “sins” are what clouds our judgment.

Levangie’s exaggeration of these sins all lead to major deadlines. Whether to the extreme of death or not, the sins can lead people to live a life more horrid than they imagined. A point made in Levangie’s novel is that there should be a deadline to these nasty sins, but there isn’t.

Instead we watch people, similar to what Cummings explains, putting the answers they need to the side, or in their pockets, and letting temptations guide their lives instead. In every chapter we watch the foolishness of these sins and how blind people are to what is right in front of them.

69 In the chapter “Greed”, Little Rodney Bartholomew loves money, so much that the only thing he cares about is how to make money as quickly as possible. His greed takes over his life to such an extreme that he loses everything. School goes down the drain because it is not paying him. Loved ones give up on him. He was given so much help and so many opportunities, but instead he follows his greed and gets into a mess with a bad crew by scheming them, and Little Rodney is gone for good.

From the outside looking in, it is so clear, yet many times we are blinded when it is in front of our faces. Levangie’s novel makes her readers look at things differently, just as Cummings does with his poem. I am not sure who Levangie’s intended audience is, but what comes across is that these exaggerated seven deadlines are the results that each and every sin creates.

Her readers should learn that no good comes from any of these behaviors.

Each and every one of us struggles with a temptation on a day-to-day basis. Levangie’s book makes you question which one you suffer from. This book has shown me that it is truly natural, this dark flesh of ours. Yet we find life unfair. If we are always sinners, why do we feel entitled to a fair life in the first place? Clouded judgments can be fun and fulfilling, but eventually should come to an end.

We all start off with a sense of entitlement, and our clouded judgments increase, so what do we deserve? In Michelle Knight’s memoir, Finding Me, Knight was unhappy and did not seem to deserve anything that occurred in her life. Instead of starting her memoir from her kidnapping, she begins with her childhood and describes what she withstood into adulthood, after being kidnapped for eleven years. I have mixed emotions in my response to Knight’s memoir because she was always unhappy with every occurrence in her life before she was kidnapped, making it difficult for me to get halfway through as I did not want to deal with more of the uncompromising negativity. On the other hand, her life was so difficult, it softened my heart to read what she powered through. But since there was no ounce of hope in her, I did not want to read another dark two hundred pages. Neither did I want to let the negativity extend into me.

The pursuit of happiness does not depend on how well or how troublesome your life is going, since there will always be someone with a better or worse life than yours. I do not want what is occurring in front of me to take control of my life. I understand what it is like to be emotionally and physically abused for years. I understand what it is like to lose all hope until depression is comfortable and you do not know how to function. Being a victim of anything, no matter how large or small, is horrible, and pain is experienced differently by every individual.

“The Dark Triad, Schadenfreude, and Sensational Interests: Dark Personalities, Dark Emotions, and Dark Behaviors” is an article that discusses personality and individual differences, focusing on patients who have become comfortable in a dark state of mind.

Knight was in a horrible state of mind, though she eventually developed an appreciation for positivity in her son Joey, after the kidnapping. Although it can feel good to feel sorry for one’s self, it is better to search for joy and happiness, even in sorrow. When I was younger, every time I was in a state of sorrow, my parents would tell me, “Stop feeling sorry for

70 yourself,” then snap a picture of me pouting. I became embarrassed to show weakness, since that meant I was feeling sorry for myself.

Perhaps that is why I felt as if all Knight wanted her readers to take in was pity for her, though I understand she was kidnapped and that is horrible. Many of the Dark Triad Patients had a trigger for their experience of darkness as well. The objectives of Knight and the Dark Triad authors were to give a voice to the voiceless and provide visibility for the invisible, or those who had suffered scarring lifestyles. I was fascinated and heartfelt by these struggles and how real this all was.

Sometimes it is hard to find a positive sense of hope when you are suffering. But when searching for happiness, I never want to pity myself in the process. I find humor a great way of coping with suffering, to laugh at yourself and scenarios around you, and to encourage others to do the same. In the short story “Rematch,” from One More Thing: Stories and Other Stories by well-known comedian, B.J. Novak, the tortoise and hare suffered from fleshly desires. The hare envied the tortoise’s life after he won the race, and the tortoise was prideful since he did win. Hare demanded a rematch to prove himself. The hare, of course, won the rematch after learning his lesson; his envy and anger from losing were his sources of motivation, although what caused Hare’s loss in the first place was his pride. If he had not lost in the first place, would he have ever learned humility? Which prodded me to ask: Is there a moral or purpose to all circumstances, even when we yield to one of the temptations?

Although this book is a compilation of Novak’s sixty thoughts intended to make his audience laugh, every individual can learn and relate to his short stories if he or she takes the minute to analyze them. Maybe Novak asked himself how to look at situations. These stories are humorous, but if you really think about these “foolish” stories, they become less foolish and create more significance if readers choose to find it. Some of the stories did go right over my head, but others into my heart. I enjoyed the joy, simplicity, and hidden depth this book brought me because it is similar to my outlook on life and its temptations. Whether or not Novak’s stories make you laugh or teach you something, they lead to a pursuit of happiness and a way to change our outlook on life and circumstances for the better. What I found interesting was that in many ways a moral was not clear; many were found only if you wanted to find one. In life I find it much the same.

In his 1969 discussion “The Ends of Man,” Jacques Derrida makes the point of man’s authority “not surprising given that so much attention has been given to ‘man’ during the past decades” (Zaner 384). Man has the authority to make our own decisions or perceptions towards what we seek: “Thus, the current concern for ‘man’ is one which, he recognized, is set in a context of disquiet and uncertainty” (Zaner 384). Whatever your worries, the struggles you face, it is up to you whether or not they should truly affect your happiness.

In “Rematch,” Hare took control of his attitude and turned his life around. He did not need to worry and struggle about his loss and need to prove himself, but he followed his natural inclinations. Novak’s book makes me think about how life can either drain you, or inspire you and others. It is up to you whether or not you want to take a step back to realize that your circumstance is a tiny dot on the map of the whole universe. Even if Hare didn’t win this

71 rematch in the end, there would have been a valuable moral to be found. Do you believe that everything happens for a reason? Life never occurs exactly how we expect it to. Life is spontaneous, and we need to have purpose to press forward.

Sarah Anderson Allen’s novel Lost Lake draws you in right away, taking you back in time with a short, spontaneous, enticing story that somehow ties into the present. The novel begins with a honeymoon couple on a late-night stroll, who encounter a girl about to jump off a bridge. Right after she jumps, the novel jumps into the present tense with a story about a small, broken family who lost a dear father and husband. The mother of the fallen husband had lost him a few years back, and the newly widowed wife lost her parents as well. Although there is much darkness (similar to Knight’s memoir Finding Me), the difference was the hope and motivation to keep pressing forward. Drawn into their small-town lifestyle, I found it very relatable. Coming from a small island, I have watched many people in my life, and in the lives of my best friends, die; I watched my mother decay, and miraculously awaken.

What is the purpose of life and death? Are coincidences really coincidences? Although Allen’s characters kept pressing forward through trials, people still die. Whether or not you press forward, death is one of the only things we are sure of. In a 2012 review of C.S. Lewis’ 1961 book A Grief Observed, Alden Thompson states, “Not that I am (I think) in much danger of ceasing to believe in God. The real danger is of coming to believe such dreadful things about Him. The conclusion I dread is not ‘So there’s no God after all,’ but ‘So this is what God’s really like. Deceive yourself no longer’” (Thompson).

Though God is not relevant to Lost Lake, grief is, and grief can come in many forms.

Thompson’s grief was found in his understanding of God. More than once Allen mentioned her protagonists as “waking up” or finding themselves, just as Lewis was finding himself in his analysis of the concept of God. Just like Thompson and her protagonist, Allen woke up from her life-threatening struggles and wrote Lost Lake.

Happiness can occur in a split second, and happiness can also disappear in a split second. Life and memories can be so lovely and cherished but, without even realizing it, they die.

Although you cannot control what occurs in your life, you can control how you deal with it. I remember watching my mother dying, along with all her memories. I question, what do we leave here? If you just die, even if your life is incredible, what was the point if it just ends?

Thompson questions himself on whether or not God is real; it is scary to think what God is like, scary to think of a greater being in complete control of your life. Maybe you believe it is the universe in control of your life. Nonetheless, we are here, then we die. Then why were we brought into existence? Why do we attempt happiness if we are never satisfied and none of it lasts anyway? The Universe, God, whoever you believe to be in control, can give or take everything away from us. We do not have control of when we die. We do not have control of our lives. If this is so, why do we feel so entitled to happiness or satisfaction?

The pursuit of happiness is subjective and relative to every individual. Reviewing these books has inspired me to analyze human desire and the pursuit of happiness, while recognizing that

72 so much of what we do here has such little significance. Every physical attribute we work for, decays. I want to leave a lasting, purposeful mark.

If people are so important, instead of feeling entitled to our appetites, I’d like to find purpose in altruism, to leave people better than the way I met them. We expect something from the world as if it owes us something, when we were never pure to begin with. We struggle day in and day out, yet people will never stop messing up. And we will never be satisfied. From Levangie’s characters to Knight’s journey, what it means to be human is that we are all searching for our own pursuit of happiness.

WORKS CITED Allen, Sarah Addison. Lost Lake. New York: St. Martin’s, 2014. Print Cummings, E.E. “Humanity I love you.” Hello Poetry. N.p., n.d. Web. Colebrook, Claire. Happiness, Theoria, and Everyday Life. Symploke Volume 11. 2003.

Web. Knight, Michelle. Finding Me: A Decade of Darkness, A Life Reclaimed: A Memoir of the Cleveland Kidnappings. New York: Weinstein, 2014. Print.

Levangie, Gigi. Seven Deadlines. New York: Penguin, 2013. Print.

Novak, B. J. One More Thing: Stories and Other Stories. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2014.

Print **authors*** “The Dark Triad, Schadenfreude, and Sensational Interests: Dark Personalities, Dark Emotions, and Dark Behaviors.”

Scrutton. “Personality and Individual Differences.” Elsevier. Web. PDF file. 19 April 2014.

Stankiewics, David. “From the Rising Sun.” Religion & the Arts Vol. 9 Issue 3/4 p284-312.

Web. September 2005 Thompson, Alden. C.S. Lewis, A Grief Observed: A Study Guide. Spectrum. Web Article. 16 July 2012.

Zaner, Richard M. Discussion of Jacques Derrida, “The Ends of Man.” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research Vol. 32, No. 3, pp 384-389. International Phenomenological Society. Web Article. March 1972

73

What Clouds Our Judgment? Objective vs. Subjective Reality

By Jasmine Sagaysay Objective and subjective reality are opposites. Objective reality refers to the whole situation, which is what or how things really are, while subjective reality is what or how we perceive things as individuals. Reality is either external to us so we have very little control over it, or it is internal, a projection of our inner being, and we have some control. These two types of reality determine almost everything in life. Living in this society, this generation seems to expect some right or wrong answer, and that one has to look a certain way or think a certain way. The books I review in this essay show that the “answers” either shape our realities or cloud our judgment.

The five books that I chose to review were: Where the Moon Isn’t by Nathan Filer, Ugly Girls

by Lindsay Hunter, A Girl Is a Form Thing by Elimear McBride, I Don’t Know What You Know Me From by Judy Greer, and Un-Remarried Widow by Artis Henderson. These books all address how objective and subjective realities affect the way we perceive situations. How do we really know what is real or what true reality is? These five books help to illustrate the different ways that objective and subjective reality both align and fail to align. The idea of self-realization is connected because part of the process we go through to find out who we are and become mature is becoming aware of objective and subjective realities. As I explored the books, two main ideas were floating around in my head: my grandpa’s passing and the mental state he was in, and the questions, “How do we know what the true reality is? How do I know what is real? What clouds our judgment?”

Where the Moon Isn’t is about a boy who reveals to his parents a “secret” that he kept for over 10 years about his schizophrenia, only to find out that his family knew the whole time and they were just playing along. The question that stood out the most to me was, “Is the family hurting the person more when they are supporting their sickness or disorder?” Asking this question made me realize that I went through a similar situation with my grandpa because he was in a phase of dementia; he was there but he was not himself; just like Matthew, the main character of Where the Moon Isn’t, was present but not living in actual reality. For example, my grandpa would tell other family members and me things that were not true and he asked us for certain things, but even if the things he said were false and he could not have what he asked for, we would still cater to him and just went along with whatever he said.

This story is an example of subjective reality because it shows how someone who is “different” in his or her subjective reality will have a hard time connecting with the objective reality. For example, when driving, if someone cuts you off you may assume they did it on purpose to make you mad. However, in reality, this person probably does not even know you and it is not as if they woke up that morning thinking, “My intention today is to make someone mad.” In this particular situation, illness clouds judgment. In Matthew’s case, his illness is schizophrenia.

In The Subjective Experiences of People with an Intellectual Disability and Diagnosis of Schizophrenia Who are Detained in a Medium Secure Unit, Cookson and Dickson state:

74

The majority of the participants appeared to have engaged in an ongoing process of making sense and searching for a meaning for the onset of their various psychotic experiences by linking the onset of their symptoms with past experience. Participants tended to normalize their symptoms within the context of their past life experiences and to integrate this into an understanding of what had happened to them. (383) It sounds as if these schizophrenic patients are stuck in subjective reality and they cannot get out of it, with their past experiences clouding their judgment because they are using those experiences to make sense of objective reality. In other words, schizophrenia patients are so caught up in their own subjective reality that when the light of objective reality shines on them, they get confused and do not know what to believe. This article also states that these schizophrenic patients preferred to think of the cause not as a “mental illness,” but as something external to themselves, such as another person (383). I found this interesting because they are able to find an alternative explanation to describe their experiences and even though they already know that they stand out from the “norm” in our society, they do not want to be known as someone who has a mental illness.

Another main point made by Cookson and Dickson is: Authors such as Boyle (2002) and Bentall (1992, 2003) have argued against the view that schizophrenia is a biological brain disease that is diagnosable. Both have challenged the reliability and validity of the diagnosis of schizophrenia, with Bentall (2003) arguing for the adoption of a symptom⁄complaint focused approach, which takes into consideration the person’s social environment and life experiences. The common discourses within this area of thinking reject the use of the term schizophrenia and adopt the term psychosis, which refers to a loss of contact with reality and incorporates experiences of hallucinations, paranoia and delusions. (380) Whom do we blame for the cause of these experiences—internal forces or external forces?

Illnesses such as schizophrenia show that our subjective and objective perceptions do not always align because even though people are physically present in the objective reality, their minds are not correctly perceiving their own subjective reality.

Un-Remarried Widow provides another example of subjective reality and how illness clouds one’s judgment. Although Artis Henderson does not have a disease like the character Matthew in Where the Moon Isn’t, she is depressed and grieving, which is another situation where one does not act or feel like themselves. This memoir is about a woman who loses her boyfriend in a war, and she is learning how to cope with the situation and trying to move on. According to Cynthia W. Lubow, a specialist in depression: When this reality shift happens, it’s difficult to remember or believe what seemed normal before the episode. What the person believes during the episode seems absolutely real, and anything that conflicts with it is as unbelievable as a memory or message telling him or her that the sky is purple. For example, if the person is unable to feel love for a spouse, and someone reminds the person that he or she used to feel

75 that love, the person may firmly believe he or she had been pretending to himself/herself and others—though at the time he or she really felt it. The person can’t remember feeling the love, and can’t feel it during the episode, and thus concludes he or she never felt it. The same process happens with happiness and pleasure. Attempts to tell the person that he or she used to be happy, and will feel happy again, can cause the person to feel more misunderstood and isolated because he or she is convinced it’s not true. (380) This provides an example of how illness clouds one’s judgment and subjective reality because they are allowing illness and internal perception to take over objective reality since they do not, or cannot, even feel the way that they once felt. After finding out that Artis lost her boyfriend, her mother would try to convince her that everything will be okay and she’ll be happy again by telling her happy memories, but Artis did not want to buy it (Henderson 115).

This quote also suggests that a depressed person does not want to deal with the objective world, and they would rather just believe that everything that they ever did or feel was fake.

Since Artis is trying to move on and learn how to become independent, her state of mind is maturing.

With grief clouding one’s judgment, one questions themselves; “Am I okay? How do I know if I am truly okay?” It is hard to figure out how you feel or understand what is going on if you do not even know for yourself if you are okay or not. An illness causes objective and subjective realities not to align, because one is so stuck in their subjective reality.

On the other side of the issue, Ugly Girls and A Girl Is a Half Formed Thing both deal with how external forces, such as society, shape a person’s subjective reality. Ugly Girls is a story about two rebellious best friends who find themselves going separate ways because they end up wanting different things in life. A Girl Is a Half Formed Thing is about a young girl who learns how to deal with responsibility and independence because her parents are abusive alcoholics and her younger brother has brain cancer. In A Girl Is a Half Formed Thing, the protagonist lives only in subjective reality and based on her circumstance she must function in objective reality, which she is unable to see. This is not fair for her, and no one should have to go through this kind of situation alone, especially at a young age. If our subjective reality is being questioned by society, then we have to question ourselves, “How do we really know what is normal in the world outside of our own situations?”

One example of how society shapes our subjective realities is the standards and expectations of the way things are supposed to be and the way people are supposed to look. In an article by Harriet Williamson, she states that the workplace, specifically clothing stores such as American Apparel and Abercrombie and Fitch, only hire people who fit the expectations of being tall, skinny, and naturally beautiful. Having these “model” type workers devalues the skills and labor of the company, because retail is not some sort of modeling career.

Workplaces should not be allowed to discriminate against races or specific looks and sizes, because it is unfair for someone to think that it is not okay to “be this fat” or look a certain way.

This is the exact situation that the characters in Ugly Girls and A Girl Is a Half Formed Thing

76 go through because society is dictating what it accepts as “normal.” This affects our subjective reality because we feel obligated and forced to have to look a certain way. Society misaligns our subjective and objective realities when we are made to think it is okay for the pressures and influences of outside expectations to shape our subjective reality.

I Don’t Know What You Know Me From is an example of how one’s self shapes and creates both subjective and objective reality. In this autobiography by film actress Judy Greer, she opens up about herself, her personal experiences, and the process of starting her career. Her title explains it all: “I don’t know what you know me from.” She states in her autobiography: “I have to create this front to give my fans what they want while keeping it genuine at the same time. It’s like giving all of me, but not really” (224). Celebrities create their own persona, defined as an assumed identity or role, to protect who they are, and to give the fans what they want and the illusion of thinking they are familiar with who this person is. These celebrities project an artificial subjective reality, because their true subjective reality is their private lives and those are the details that they do not want the public to know. A Washington Post article described how American singer Beyoncé Knowles created an alter ego for herself and named her Sasha Fierce. Sasha Fierce was stated to be: A mechanism Beyoncé could use to safely and publicly experiment with performances of her sexuality while keeping her ladylike integrity intact. (And make no mistake, ladylike integrity was paramount to Beyoncé’s early bankability). But Sasha Fierce was also limiting for that very reason. Beyoncé didn’t have to be Sasha Fierce, she just pulled her out when necessary, and no one really knew who Beyoncé was, except that she was a fabulously talented and hard-working performer with a genuinely good voice. (McDonald) Since Beyoncé is a worldwide celebrity, she is supposed to have class and act professionally because her image is not supposed to be that of sexual icon. However, with this alternate subjective reality that Beyoncé was able to project, Sasha Fierce, she was able to exceed the fan expectations and give fans what they wanted from her without having to ruin the image of who she really is. The statement that Beyoncé is trying to make about the objective and subjective reality with “Sasha Fierce” is that it is okay to have an alter ego or this persona so that we are more comfortable doing what we want to do. This relates to the book by Judy Greer, who was able to build a different character so that she would feel more comfortable experiencing different situations (Greer 225). Without even realizing, we have alter egos that we create on a daily basis because we often take on different personas, whether it is with a different group of friends or doing something that we would not normally do. These personas help to make performers feel confident and comfortable; it is just like being a whole other person, but in their own body.

According to “The Culture of Celebrity”: Yet for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, and so a certain cynicism has set in among us all, and a rabid fascination not only with the false beauty of the glorified, sterilized celebrity, but also with the dark and seamy underside. ‘We live in a media culture that encourages people to think two different things,’ notes Harris.

77 ‘One is that celebrities live lives we can't possibly imagine, and they are worthy of our slavish devotion, attention, and respect. The other is that celebrities are just like us, they're people with problems, and they drink too much or hit their wives or have bad relationships. Of course those are opposing beliefs, that they are just like us and nothing like us, but the illusion that we can get to know these people gives fuel to a lot of subsidiary enterprises in the media.’ ” (Neimark) This passage shows why it is important for celebrities to have a persona or to create an alter ego because it is important for them to protect themselves. Even though they are just human beings, we regular people will not treat them as such because we have been taught to believe there are rankings and that these people are “higher” than us. It is unfair for us to barge into these people’s subjective realities and assume that we know them. These personas provide an example of how objective and subjective realities can sometimes align, and there can be a fine line between objective reality and one’s alter ego.

In conclusion, considering objective and subjective realities can help us to realize if we really know the actual truth, or reality. Three factors that cloud our judgment are illness, society, and one’s self-perception and ideas of how things are supposed to be. So do we ever really know the real truth about objective reality? Everyone has their own answer. However, we are only able to understand this reality of ours through our own personal experiences. Therefore, whether our subjective and objective realities align or not, we still do not know what is the objective truth or “real “reality, because there are so many different factors that cloud our judgment.

WORKS CITED Cookson, Alex. Dickson, Joanne M. "The Subjective Experiences of People with an Intellectual Disability and Diagnosis of Schizophrenia who are Detained in a Medium Secure Unit." Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 23.4 (2010): 379-389. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

Filer, Nathan. Where the Moon Isn't. New York: St. Martin's, 2013. Print.

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Henderson, Artis. Un-Remarried Widow: A Memoir. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014.

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78 McDonald, Soraya Nadia. "Finally Free of Sasha Fierce, Beyoncé Is a ‘Grown Woman’." The Washington Post, 28 Dec. 2013. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

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79

The Development of Personality and Theories of Personality Change

By Jennifer Rice Are we simply victims of our circumstances, and of our genes; or can we freely choose how we behave? Personality theories have been chiefly concerned with the factors that determine and explain different individuals’ personalities as they are, and the factors that brought about the given personality. Since the study of personality began, theories have offered a wide variety of explanations for behavior and what constitutes a person. Eric Erikson, a leading figure in psychology, describes an eight-stage theory of the life cycle development, in which it is clear that throughout the life course, a person’s personality continues to develop well into old age. However, William James, also known for his groundbreaking work in psychology, argued that for most of us, by the age of thirty, the character has set like plaster, and will never soften again.

Is it true? By our fourth decade we are “set in plaster”? Or does an individual’s personality continue to grow and develop well into adulthood? Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers both argue a concept of self-actualization as an important aspect of positive personality change.

“Self-actualization” represents a concept derived from humanistic psychological theory. It is defined as growth of an individual toward fulfillment of the highest needs.

A similar concept is argued by Eugene Gendlin, who believes in personality change in terms of “the feeling process.” Gendlin says, “Having conceptualized some such rough aspect of ‘it,’ the individual usually feels the felt meaning more strongly and vividly… It comes to be deeply valued as ‘I am in touch with myself’” (Gendlin, 1964). It is difficult to argue that a permanent change within an individual’s personality can simply just happen in adulthood.

Gendlin looks instead at the idea of positive personality change in terms of mean level change, gains and/or losses in specific personality traits over time, as well as individual differences. Personality change can occur as we continue to grow well into adulthood, and certain aspects of our behavior can change over time as a result of our environment as well as by the influence of our “growth potential” to be able to integrate the “real self” with the “ideal self.”

What is “personality”? Personality is an enduring predisposition that characterizes a person, such as styles of thought, feelings and behavior, according to Richard E. Lucas, professor of psychology and editor in chief of the Journal of Research in Personality. Lucas and psychology professor Edward Diener argue that personality traits reflect people’s characteristic patterns of thought, feelings, and behaviors (Diener & Lucas, 2015). The most important feature of personality traits is how they reflect continuous distributions rather than distinct personality types (Diener & Lucas, 2015). People differ from one another on behaviors related to their traits. Diener and Lucas argue that the challenge of the trait approach was to discover the major traits on which all people differ (Diener & Lucas, 2015).

The Five-Factor Model, otherwise known as, “The Big Five,” is a system that includes these five broad traits: extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness.

Extraversion refers to the general degree of positivity, approach motivation, and sociability.

80 Neuroticism refers to the general degree of negativity, avoidance motivation, and emotional reactivity. Agreeableness is the tendency to get along, be warm, sympathetic, and understanding. Conscientiousness is the extent of organized planning, responsibility, and achievement motivation, while openness is the desire to experience novelty, connect with new feelings, and learn new things (Diener & Lucas, 2015). Every individual has uniquely varying degrees of each of the five traits, and according to this theory, our “personality” is a product of those traits. Some theories argue that we are born with these traits.

Certain aspects of personality traits can start to show when we are just days old, according to Brian Little at the University of Cambridge. As reported by Melissa Dahl in Science of Us – New York Magazine, Little argues that such features of personality can be detected in the neonatal ward (Dahl, 2004). If you make a loud noise near the newborns, what will they do?

Some will orient towards the noise; others will turn away. Little said, “Those who are attracted to the noise end up being extroverts later in development; those who turn away are more likely to end up being introverts (Dahl, 2004).”

Much of the way we behave is a product of our core personality traits. Little argues that our personalities are “half-plastered” by the time we enter our fourth decade (Dahl, 2004).

However, you can control your behavior, even if it is at odds with your core, genetically given traits. The general idea is that, no, we are not victims of our circumstances, of our genes; we can freely choose how we behave, to a certain extent.

Newer research in the emerging field of personality neuroscience suggests that personality traits are biogenic, stemming from our genes (Dahl, 2004). A review of 152 longitudinal studies by Paul T. Costa Jr., an American psychologist associated with the five-factor model, found the biggest changes in personality traits occur from childhood through the 20s. In the 30s, 40s, and 50s, “we can and do still change, but these changes come more slowly and they require more effort,” says Costa (Dahl, 2004).

Physical maturity happens rapidly throughout childhood and adolescence, and begins to stabilize once adulthood is reached. If personality has biological basis, then it would only make sense that personality would also follow a similar developmental arc. Many of our traits are influenced by our environment. Think of all the changes we go through that occur in adolescence and early adulthood: college, first jobs, first loves, frequent moves, and the list goes on. Speaking broadly, assuming that life settles down at about the age of thirty, it makes sense that personalities do too. “There is nothing magical about the 30s, Costa says, but if you look at it from a developmental view you can see the wisdom in William James’s provocative view” ((Dahl, 2004). Costa argues that in adulthood our lives become more constant, and that it would take a relatively powerful change in our present environment to change behavior.

If we are born with certain traits, then are we victims of our genetics? Many theories would argue no, that we develop as a result of our environment, and that we behave in such a way because of the culture we grow up in. Two twins separated at birth may have similar biogenetic traits, but if one is raised in, let’s say, a lower middle class family in Detroit, Michigan, and the other is raised in a wealthy family in Connecticut, their personalities and the way they behave would be completely different. A longstanding debate in psychology has

81 been whether who we are is more the product of our inner personalities or more of the product of our environment. Erikson extends human development past adolescence, into adulthood and old age. He rejects the Freudian notion that personality is fixed by early childhood experiences alone, writes Charles L. Slater in the Journal of Adult Development (Slater, 2003, p.53), Erikson argues that the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature. He assumes that a crisis of a psychosocial nature occurs at each stage of development, involving psychological needs of the individual conflicting with the needs of society (Slater, 2003). According to Erikson’s theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and acquisition of basic virtues. Failure to complete a stage successfully may result in an unhealthy personality and sense of self (Slater, 2003). Erikson says that unsuccessfully completed stages can be resolved at a later time. He maintained that a personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage (Slater, 2003).

Personality development may not be simply influenced by our environment, as some theories argue that who we are and how we may change are greatly influenced by “self-actualization.”

Self-actualization is a term commonly associated with humanistic psychology and the theories of Abraham Maslow, writes Sam McLeod. Maslow says, “What a man can’t be, he must be.

This need we may call self-actualization … It refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely to the tendency for him to become actualized in what he is potentially (McLeod, 2007).”

Maslow developed his hierarchy of human needs, placing self-actualization at the top of his pyramid. He argued that self-actualization becomes achievable once lower order physical and social needs have been met (McLeod, 2007). Maslow explains that self-actualization is growth motivated, rather than deficiency-motivated (McLeod, 2007). Maslow, too, argued that we continue to develop well into adulthood.

If personality change can occur well into adulthood, how do these changes come about? Carl Rogers, a leading figure within psychotherapy, developed a groundbreaking theory of personality development, as well as a theory of six sufficient and necessary conditions which can bring about positive personality change. Similar to Maslow, Rogers believed selfactualization was the key tenet of human psychology (McLeod, 2007). In Rogers’ conception of congruence, the individual can function optimally when there is little to no distance between one’s self-concept and one’s actual behavior and experience (McLeod, 2007). His theory of positive personality change was based on acceptance, affirmation, and selfactualization. Rogers stated, “The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change (McLeod, 2007).”

Rogers discovered how, in practice, the individual can be helped to overcome challenges. He found that at first if the therapist did nothing more than to rephrase the patient’s communication—that is to say, if the therapist were to show that he was receiving and directly understanding what the patient was trying to communicate—a very deep and self-propelled change process began in the patient. Something happens to an individual when he is understood in this way. Rogers referred to it as “unconditional positive regard,” one of the six

82 conditions which he describes as necessary and sufficient for positive personality change (Rogers 1957, p. 98).

Similar to Rogers, Eugene Gendlin emphasized the individual with his “focusing process,” but he developed a different view. Gendlin developed the therapeutic process called “focusing” (Gendlin, 1964), arguing that most theories have been chiefly concerned with the factors that determine and explain individuals’ personalities as they are: “Personality theory has primarily focused upon the factors which explain why an individual is the way he is, how he has become so, and how these factors maintain him so” (Gendlin, 1964). It is true that most theories discuss what explains an individual and his behaviors and the conditions in which personality change can occur, but theories are often not clear on how these changes happen.

Gendlin goes on to explain that since structure and content do tend to maintain themselves and distort present experiences, we can account for personality change only if we show exactly how change resistance yields to change (Gendlin, 1964). Many theories assert that change does indeed occur, and have not wanted to portray change as an impossibility (Gendlin, 1964).

Gendlin presents two main ways in which current formulations of personality make change appear theoretically impossible. The first is the “Repression Paradigm” (becoming aware).

Most theories, says Gendlin, agree that an individual’s early family relations will interject certain values, according to which we are accepted only if we feel and behave in certain ways.

Experiences that contradict these demands come to be “repressed” (Freud), or “denied” (Rogers). The ego (Erikson) or self-concept (Rogers) here thus basically influences awareness and perception, and a great deal of behavior can be explainable.

So if people needed merely to be reminded, or to have the “repressed” factors called to attention, they would soon be straightened out? According to Gendlin, “The individual will misunderstand or reinterpret so as to prevent himself from noticing the aspects of events and persons which would bring these factors to his awareness” (1964). In other words, an individual may recognize that he or she can be guarded because of past events, and perhaps they know this about themselves but do not want to recognize why they are guarded. The individual might rather forget and just live the way they are rather than confronting the underlying truth.

In Gendlin’s second theory “The Content Paradigm” (Gendlin, 1964), he argues that we cannot explain change through theories that define personality only as content, in terms of “traits,” “self-concepts,” “motivational systems,” and so on (Gendlin, 1964). We require some personality variable to formulate how, under what conditions, and through what process change in the nature of “traits” can occur. Gendlin says; “For example, during psychotherapy the patient finally comes to realize these essential contents (they will be conceptualized in whatever the vocabulary of the particular theory the psychotherapist uses). He realizes now that he has been full of ‘hostility,’ or that he has felt and acted from ‘partial, fixated sexual desires;’ or that he ‘hates his father,’ or that he is ‘passive- dependent,’ or was ‘never loved as a child’” (Gendlin, 1964).

After becoming aware of such a thing, what happens next? How do you change such contents? No clear way is given. The fact that these contents that actually do change is our

83 good fortune. The theories cannot explain how these contents meld and lose their character to become something of a different character. Yet they do describe ways which change could perhaps come about. So what is the answer to the question of how we change? What brings about these changes, and in what ways can we change?

Gendlin observed two basic factors of personality change. First, a major personality change involves some sort of intense affection or feeling process occurring in the individual. Second, a major personality change occurs nearly always in the context of an ongoing personal relationship. Gendlin call the first the “Feeling Process” (Gendlin, 1964); major personality change occurs when intense, emotional, inwardly felt events are observed. The individual’s own concepts and constructs become partly unstructured and his felt experiences at times exceeds his intellectual grasp. As Gendlin explains, when a therapist is asked how the individual is to change, an explanation may be given, but nothing very clear is said. Somehow knowing his problem, the individual should change, yet knowing is not the same process as changing. There is little to be said about how one can measure and observe this process, and in what way this theoretical “feeling process” functions to permit personality change.

Gendlin explains that some years ago a therapist told him: "Of course interpretation is not enough. Of course the person doesn't change only because of the wisdoms which the therapist tells him. But no technique really expresses what makes the change itself. The change comes through some kind of emotional digesting; but then you must admit that none of us understand what that is” (Gendlin, 1964).

Change within a person can come about in many different ways, and it will be different for every individual. Thus it proves to be difficult to pinpoint a specific reason for change. It is something that we cannot clearly understand, how exactly this change happens within an individual.

Gendlin’s second observation is “the personal relationship”: “Can theory define this enormous and critical difference which makes the individual live in relation to another person?”

(Gendlin, 1964). We can observe that when an individual does think about his experiences and emotions by himself, there is often little change. However, when it comes to “therapeutic” or “effective” personal relationships, we say that “approval or reinforcement,” “therapeutic attitudes”, or “unconditional positive regard” (Rogers 1957, p. 98), somehow make it obvious which relationships shape our experiences. For example, for those with whom we hold a close relationship, their opinion of these “factors” matter and carry certain influences.

Rogers’ hypothesis stated that a significant positive personality change cannot occur except in a relationship. Psychotherapy is a special kind of relationship, different from all others that occur in everyday life, and it is evident that many good friendships fulfill many of the six conditions that Rogers presents as the conditions necessary for positive personality change (Rogers 1957, pp. 96-101).

This question remains: Are we simply victims of our circumstances, and of our genes; or can we freely choose how we behave? It is evident that yes, we may be born with certain biogenetic traits; however, we are not victims. Every individual can choose to behave as he or she desires. Our personality continues to develop well into adulthood, and it makes sense that

84 as we begin to “settle down” in own lives, that our personalities settle down as well and we can become more set in our ways.

As for making a change within ourselves, of course it is possible, to a certain extent. An individual’s personality is highly influenced by the environment, but they may behave however they choose. How a “positive” personality change may occur is somewhat a mystery; there is no definitive black-and-white answer. There is only this: an individual may know that there is a problem and know they should change, yet knowing is not the same process as changing. There is still little to be said about the process of change within and individual and how one can measure and observe this process, as well as in what way these theories can account for personality change.

There is so much more to know and understand about human psychology and how we change before any sort of answer can be given. All that can be said for now is this: that every individual is different, that each of us can freely choose how we behave, and that change comes through some kind of emotional digesting; but then we must also admit that none of us fully understand what that process is.

REFERENCES Dahl, M. (2014). How much can you really change after you turn 30? The Science of UsNew York Magazine. Retrieved from http://nymag.com/scienceofus/2014/11/how-much-can-you-really-change-after30.html Diener, E. & Lucas, E. R. (2015). Personality traits. NOBA Project. Retrieved from http://nobaproject.com/modules/personality-traits D’Sa Savio, N. (2014). Self-actualization and its philosophical underpinnings. Academia.edu.

Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/9417978/ Gendlin, E.T. (1964). A theory of personality change. In P. Worchel & D. Byrne (eds.), Personality change, pp. 100-148. New York: John Wiley & Sons. From http://www.focusing.org/gendlin/docs/gol_2145.html Gordon, J. (2009). The extent of personality change: Rank order consistency, mean level change, individual level change. Griffith University Undergraduate Student Psychology Journal Vol. 1.

Henriquez, G. (2012). Another big five for personality. Theory of Knowledge. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theoryknowledge/201204/another-big-five-personality McLeod, S. (2007). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html

85 Olson, A. (2013). The Theory of Self-Actualization. Theory and Psychopathology.

Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html http://www.academia.edu/9417978/SelfActualization_and_its_Philosophical_Underpi nnings Rogers, C. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change.

Journal of Counseling Psychology Vol. 21, No.2, 95-103.

86

Enjoy the Circus? The Animals Don't

By Douglas Spencer Animals aren’t actors, spectacles to imprison and gawk at, or circus clowns. Yet thousands of animals are forced to perform silly, confusing tricks under the threat of physical punishment; are carted across the country in cramped and stuffy boxcars or semi-truck trailers; are kept chained or caged in barren, boring, and filthy enclosures; and are separated from their families and friends – all for the sake of human “entertainment” (PETA, 2011). When kids see the negative messages sent by circuses and other animal entertainment companies, it completely contradicts lessons they learned early in school, and through programs such as “Animal Planet” and “The Discovery Channel.”

For circus animals, life is monotonous and brutal. According to a research study conducted by the University of Wroclaw, Department of Zoology (Elzanowski & Sergiel, 2006, para. 1), circus animals are confined virtually all of their lives, while forced to suffer extreme physical and psychological deprivation. According to the Wildlife Advocacy Project (2015), circuses that use animals still exist today because of several myths that they want the public to believe: Myth 1: Performing elephants are engaging in their “natural behaviors,” Myth 2: Circus elephants receive the “highest standard of care,” and Myth 3: The Ringling Brothers are “conserving” Asian elephants (Wildlife Advocacy Project, 2015).

The U.S. Department of Agriculture settled the largest civil penalty ever assessed against an exhibitor (Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey) under the Animals Welfare Act (AWA) – for dozens of AWA violations dating from June 2007 to August 2011 (PETA, 2011). Many of these animals are sentenced to an eternity of imprisonment and loneliness, causing sheer terror, and sometimes even pay with their lives. There was a time when a circus represented the only exposure a child had to a wild animal. The circus industry claims that it only trains animals to do the types of tricks they might naturally perform in the wild. In reality, animals in the wild live their lives looking for food, sleeping, or raising their babies. Behaviors such as costumed bears lying on their backs spinning giant balls, tigers jumping through flames, or elephants walking on their hind legs and then balancing on their heads, are not natural behaviors.

The Wildlife Advocacy Project (2015) reports that Asian elephants are the only elephant species used by most circuses, including Ringling Brothers. They are endangered in the wild, due to poaching, hunting, and the destruction of their natural habitat. Asian elephants’ range includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. They are listed as “endangered” under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, which prohibits anyone from “killing,” “harming,” or “harassing” them. Asian elephants are extremely intelligent and social animals.

The Wildlife Advocacy Project (2015) further reports that Asian elephant adults weigh between 6,000 and 10,000 pounds, and live to be approximately 65 years old. In the wild, Asian elephants live in matriarchal family groups, or herds, in which mothers, grandmothers, sisters, and aunts all play roles in raising babies and young elephants. There are strong bonds

87 within these family units and baby elephants are not usually weaned until they are about four years or older, when their mothers are ready to give birth again. Female elephants remain with their mothers and other members of their herds for their entire lives, while male elephants leave their natal herds when they are roughly thirteen years old. Elephants’ close-knit family groups stay together, assist in the rearing of the young, support their sick, and mourn their dead (Wildlife Advocacy Project, 2015). The matriarch of the herd mentors other elephants by passing on wisdom and knowledge paramount to the survival of the herd. Both female and male elephants learn important social and survival skills from their mother, aunts, and the rest of their natal herd. Each elephant family group roams within an area, called the home range, and searches for food, water, and other resources together. In the wild, elephants typically travel about thirty to fifty miles a day, foraging for food and socializing with their herd.

Circuses such as Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey claim to actively support education and conservation of wild species (Ringling, 2015). A captive life in the circus for elephants consists of shackles measuring as little as five feet in length. In the wild, these elephants would have a natural territory covering up to 2,300 square miles. By spotlighting captive breeding programs in North America for animals to be used for entertainment, these circuses do nothing to raise awareness of the wild elephant's largest threat today—human encroachment into elephant territory and loss of habitat.

Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey’s website (Ringling 2015) claims: “A lifelong symbol of The Greatest Show on Earth, the Asian elephant is a respected and revered member of the Ringling Bros.” Further down the article Ringling (2015) states, “In the interest of the species’ present and future well-being, the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Center for Elephant Conservation was established in 1995. Located in central Florida, this 200-acre, $5 million, state-of-the-art facility is dedicated to the conservation, breeding and understanding of these amazing animals.”

However, a fact sheet (PETA, 2011) from a U.S. Department of Agriculture investigation proves differently. According to the investigation, at least 30 elephants, including four babies, have died since 1992. Numerous elephants used by Ringling carry a strain of tuberculosis that is highly transmissible to humans, even without direct contact (PETA, 2011). Approximately half of the elephants owned by Ringling were captured from the wild. When circuses portray unnatural and inaccurate images of how wild animals live and act in such an unrealistic context, this creates a greater disconnect between people and wild animals, promoting the notion that it is acceptable, even enjoyable, to exploit animals for entertainment. Circuses perpetuate an outdated attitude that wild animals are ours to use at any cost to their welfare — an attitude that PAWS, other animal protection groups, wildlife organizations and zoos work tirelessly to counteract through outreach and education.

In 2010, Ringling Brothers was exposed by an animal activist group, PETA, when they uncovered a video (PETA, 2010) of Ringling workers beating elephants with bull hooks and other tools to break, confine, and transport these wild animals. According to Wildlife Advocacy Project (2015, para. 1), a “bullhook” or “ankus” is a two to three-foot long club or stick with a sharp metal hook attached at the top. It is used repeatedly to beat, hit, and poke the animals, especially when they are young, to “train” and “break” them, and to make sure

88 that they perform as required. Although elephants are thought to have strong hides, in reality their skin is extremely sensitive, particularly behind the ears, on the trunk, and on the head — places where they are often most struck with the bullhook. The elephants’ skin is so sensitive that the animals often throw dust or mud on their backs to protect their skin from sunburn.

Once the animals have been hit repeatedly throughout their lives, just showing them the bullhook will often instill enough fear to get them to act as demanded.

Wildlife Advocacy Project (2015, para. 2) advises that heavy metal chains are used to confine circus elephants and keep them under control. One front leg and the alternate back leg are almost always chained in circus elephants. If you look at the ankles of a circus elephant carefully, you can often see lines from where the chains have tightly clasped the animal’s leg. Chaining in this manner limits the elephants’ ability to engage in normal behaviors, interact with other elephants, and lie down. More often than not, the elephants are chained on hard surfaces like cement, instead of the soil their feet and joints are designed for. As a result, elephants suffer painful foot problems, arthritis, and other physical ailments.

According to Elzanowski & Sergiel (2006), the constant chaining also causes these highly intelligent and social animals severe psychological distress, which is displayed by the elephants’ constant swaying back and forth in repetitive motion, called “stereotypic behavior.”

The Institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London ("Behavior," 2015, para. 1), defines stereotypic behavior as a repetitive, invariant behavior pattern with no obvious goal or function.

A research study conducted by the University of Wroclaw, Department of Zoology (Elzanowski & Sergiel, 2006, para. 1) argues elephants that kept in circuses and zoos are known to perform several stereotyped movements described as weaving, swaying back and forth, nodding, head bobbing, trunk (proboscis) swinging, pacing, and occasional lifting of feet. However, slight bobbing of the head and body, occasionally accompanied by lifting of one leg but without trunk swinging, was observed in resting, wild, Asiatic elephants. Transient weaving was recorded among African elephants in social situations, possibly as an expression of submission and apprehension.

Ted H. Friend, a professor of Animal Science for Texas A&M University, studied stereotypes predominantly in the circus elephants that were — at least temporarily — chained or shackled (Friend, 1999, p. 73). Friend (1999) observed “weaving” in the majority of observed female elephants and head bobbing as an exclusive alternative in a few of them. A field study conducted by Dr. Fred Kurt, a professor of Population Ecology and Conservation Biology for the University of Veterinary Science of Vienna, Austria, and Dr. Marion E. Gara’i of the University of Pretoria, South Africa, recorded stereotypes in 44 Sri Lankan elephants who were kept under various conditions (in temples, jungle camps, circuses, and an orphanage) but chained for the night. They described the ontogeny of stereotypic movements as predominantly to and fro (“parallel to body axis”) in the young and then replaced by predominantly vertical movements and nodding (Kurt & Gara’i, 2001). Friend (1999) and Kurt & Gara’i (2001) showed that younger elephants are more likely than older elephants to show stereotypic activity. Picketed elephants spend much more time stereotyping than elephants free to move in a paddock.

89 Circuses have been around for centuries, providing entertainment to some and anger to others.

Mention “Tyke the elephant” to anyone who lived in Honolulu twenty years ago and chances are they will shake their head and talk about what a dark moment it was in their city’s history.

James Cave reports in The Huffington Post (Cave, 2014) that Tyke, a 20-year-old female African elephant, was in Honolulu with Circus International. During a show on August 20, 1994, Tyke entered the ring at the Blaisdell Arena, kicking around what looked to audience members like a dummy. “We thought it was part of the show,”one witness told the Honolulu Star-Advertiser. They soon realized the supposed dummy was a severely injured groomer.

Panicked, audience members fled for the exits. Tyke went on to fatally crush her trainer, who was trying to intervene, before fleeing the arena herself. For nearly 30 minutes, Tyke ran through the streets of the Kakaako neighborhood’s business district at rush hour, nearly trampling circus promoter Steve Hirano when he tried to fence her in. It was a foot chase between her and the Honolulu police, who eventually shot Tyke 87 times before she succumbed to nerve damage and brain hemorrhages. People watched aghast from their cars, apartments and the sidewalk.

According to an article on Net Geo Wild (2014), in 2001 in Chicago, a teacher filed a formal complaint against the Shrine Circus for the alleged abuse of one of the circus’ elephants.

According to the teacher and her 8-year old child, an elephant was removed from the ring for failing to perform up to expectations and then chained by one leg and beaten with a bullhook until the animal began to scream. In Norfolk, Virginia in 2002, a handler with Sterling and Reid Circus faced animal cruelty charges after being accused of beating an elephant, resulting in bloody lacerations on the animal. The chief animal handler with the circus was also arrested (Net Geo Wild, 2014).

Circuses have been criticized for many years, both by animal rights activists and those members of the public who care about the treatment of animals. Whether you think circuses are for conservation or for profit, we do not have the right to take wild animals and abuse them, all for our entertainment and amusement. Today our children learn early in school and through programs such as Animal Planet and The Discovery Channel, that wild animals live complex and fascinating lives, and have natural instincts, developed over thousands of years.

When kids see the negative messages sent by circuses and animal entertainment companies, it completely contradicts these lessons. When parents take their children to the circus, they indirectly send them the message that animals are objects to be used, and that it is okay to ignore any pain and suffering that the animals might be experiencing. These children may grow up lacking empathy, or the ability to understand the feelings of others. If they are unable to recognize when someone else is in distress, they may have difficulties getting along with people.

On the other hand, children who are taught to treat animals with dignity and respect will also learn to treat humans in this manner, considering the needs of others as well as their own. The development of empathy and the ability to work collaboratively in social settings are key components of emotional intelligence, proved by research studies to be vital for success in school, the workplace, and personal relationships. To promote these positive traits, we can help bring information and evidence to the general public that circus elephants are extremely sensitive and perceptive creatures, born and meant to stay in the wild with their herds, not to

90 be confined virtually all of their lives while forced to suffer extreme physical and psychological deprivation, all because of elephant-human engagement.

REFERENCES Cave, J. (2014). Remembering Tyke, rebellious circus elephant, and her tragic death.

Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/19/tykeelephant-honolulu-circus_n_5689932.html Elzanowski, A., & Sergiel, A. (2006). Stereotypic behavior of a female Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus) in a zoo. Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.hpu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=12&sid= 3b0458fa-ad9c-4604-8d01-2e4d3ccbea47%40sessionmgr4002&hid=4114 Friend, T. H. (1999). Behavior of picketed circus elephants. ScienceDirect. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016815919800210X Kurt, F., & Gara’i, M. (2001). Stereotypies in captive Asian elephants—A symptom of social isolation. MSRA Library. Retrieved from http://libra.msra.cn/Publication/5286466/stereotypies-in-captive-asian-elephants-asymptom-of-social-isolation Net Geo Wild. (2014). Animal intervention. National Geographic. Retrieved from http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/wild/animal-intervention/interactives/exoticanimal-incidents/ PETA. (2011). Ringling Brothers and Barnum &Bailey Circus. PETA. Retrieved from http://www.mediapeta.com/peta/PDF/RinglingFactsheet.pdf PETA (Producer). (2010). The Brutal Truth - (Ringling Bros. exposed) [recording]. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v100GiJp4jM Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey. (2015). Ringling Brothers Center for Elephant Conservation. Retrieved from http://www.ringling.com/ContentPage.aspx?id=45729&section=45696 Understanding behavior. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.awionline.org/lab_animals/biblio/at-phil.htm Wildlife Advocacy Project. (2015). About Asian elephants. Wildlife Advocacy. Retrieved from http://www.wildlifeadvocacy.org/current/circus/about_asian_elephants.php Wildlife Advocacy Project. (2015). Circus myths. Wildlife Advocacy. Retrieved from http://www.wildlifeadvocacy.org/current/circus/circus_myths.php Wildlife Advocacy Project. (2015). Tools of the trade. Wildlife Advocacy. Retrieved from http://www.wildlifeadvocacy.org/current/circus/tools_of_the_trade.php

91

Purifying a City: The Wrongful Criminalization of Homelessness

By Dien Nguyen Imagine yourself hungry, broke, with no place to go, and relying solely on the kindness of strangers to give you money to buy the things you need—the things that make you feel normal, to feel like the person you used to be. So you do the smart thing and go to the busiest, most populated sidewalk you can think of in Honolulu’s Waikiki, and wait all day in the hopes at the chance for donations from a kind stranger. However, your hopes turn to dread as you are confronted by a Honolulu Police Department (HPD) officer—a public servant who is supposed to protect the innocent and the weak, such as yourself—and he tells you to leave.

You ask him why, and he tells you that you’re breaking the law. You defend what little dignity you think you have left and tell him you are not hurting anyone, that this is a public area, and you know your rights. The officer gives you an ultimatum: to leave Waikiki, to go anywhere else but here, or be possibly fined and put in jail. You resist his orders because you are not an animal or pest to be shooed away. As a result, the officer cuffs you and drives you off, forcing you to leave behind all that you own—a large luggage case with all the things you hold dear. How are you to start over now?

The scenario above seems like something you would find in a police state like China, but unfortunately it is all too real for the thousands of homeless here in the United States, a country which prides itself on freedom. States such as Hawaii are using these anti-nuisance laws as a possible means to beautify their cities by ridding the streets of the homeless, whom many consider as unsightly (Nagourney, 2014).

One can deduce that the most targeted areas are with high volumes of tourists such as Hawaii’s Waikiki area. As you can imagine, the effect of such laws that fine or jail the homeless based on actions that are natural for their survival can have detrimental outcomes for that individual. There are better solutions that cost less, and just as importantly, do not demean those we are trying to help. One such solution is “Housing First,” which will be discussed later. The criminalization of homeless people through the use of anti-nuisance legislation by states such as Hawaii, is doing more harm than good to communities, for four reasons. First, anti-nuisance laws further alienate the homeless from the rest of society by adding another level of stigmatization. Second, they increase homeless crime rates by making it difficult for homeless people to get jobs. Third, they cost taxpayers more than just providing homes for the homeless. Finally, it is immoral and unconstitutional to further subjugate those in society who need the most help.

Homelessness is a growing problem in the United States, especially in Hawaii, where its demographic is as varied and complex as the problem itself. Therefore, even among experts, homelessness is a hard-to-define issue (Saelinger, p. 547). The reason the definition of homelessness is elusive is based on how one defines a home, and various agencies have differing viewpoints based on their own biased agendas (Saelinger, p. 547). For example, if someone temporarily sleeps on the couch of a friend or family member, is that person considered homeless? Is the cardboard box inside an alleyway in which a person can reside considered a “home”? Or, are the makeshift tents built on beaches and parks a home? These

92 questions can run on endlessly when asking how one defines a home; for what a home stands for is based on individual interpretations that are abstract in meaning (Olufemi, p. 458). To use an old proverb, “Home is where the heart is,” leading to a complex definition of “home” when so many people value different things. Therefore, the definition of adequate housing also comes into play when defining homelessness (Olufemi, p. 455).

According to Dr. Olussola Olufemi (2002)—a prior researcher for the Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER)—the definition of adequate housing is as debated and varied as homelessness itself (Olufemi p. 455). The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) uses words such as safety, infrastructure, environmental quality, accessible, and affordable as some of the requirements to describe what they consider as adequate housing (Olufemi, p. 456). Thus, UNCHS seems to define it more on the basis of a structural dwelling than that of an abstract place of belonging. To quote Olufemi (2002), “Home and homelessness are essentially ideological constructs involving compounds of cognitive and emotive meanings, and embracing within their meaning complex and variable distinctions between ideality and reality” (Olufemi, 459).

Because of the complexity in defining the different ideological or philosophical explanations of what a home can stand for, to simplify its meaning in regards to the criminalization of homeless people who are most affected, I will use the “street homeless” category who lack the UNCHS definition of home as the primary definition in this paper. The street homeless (or unsheltered homeless), like the name implies, are made up of any category of the “chronically” or “temporarily” homeless who primarily live on the streets of cities like Honolulu, whether in tents, cardboard boxes, or nothing at all (Saelinger, p. 548).

The street homeless, or the homeless population in general, also have a complex demographic, with one particular group increasing in size. Most medical and sociological professionals who have studied homelessness have agreed that the larger portion is made up of mentally and physically handicapped individuals, whose illnesses range from psychological illnesses to physical disabilities and or drug/alcohol addictions (Holden, p. 570). William R. Breakey, psychiatrist at John Hopkins University, found in a survey of a shelter population in Philadelphia that 35% of its occupants were diagnosed with psychiatric problems, and he estimates that 84% were qualified for psychiatric diagnosis (Holden, p. 570). While at a shelter in Boston, Ellen Bassuk of Harvard Medical School found that 90% of its population was comprised of people with “schizophrenia, alcoholism, or major personality disorders” (Holden, p. 570). However, Bassuk’s research also found that a growing number of the homeless population consists of families (homeless men or women, single or married, with at least one child) with a 33% overall increase within the general population (Bassuk, Geller, p.

781).

In Hawaii specifically, individual homelessness declined; conversely, homeless families increased by 30% in 2011 according to Dr. Clifton S. Tanabe, an assistant Professor of Education at the University of Manoa, and co-author Ian Hippensteele Mobley, a researcher at the University of Chicago (Tanabe, Mobley, p. 51). David A. Patterson, Courtney Patterson, Stacia West, and Director of Chattanooga Regional Homeless Coalition Jennifer Lantz also cited a statistic by the National Alliance to End Homelessness (NAEH) stating, “11 states

93 reported a 20% increase in homeless families during 2009 and 2010” (Patterson, et al. & Lantz, p. 235). Consequently, the increase in family homelessness has added to a growing total homeless population.

The statistical population of homeless people depends on the agency who keep its count. This is done through a Point-in-Time (PIT) method where volunteers and government agencies go out and count any homeless they can find on the streets, in shelters, or who are using homeless programs at any given night (Holden, 1986). Another population census quoted by Patterson, et al, and Lantz (2012), conducted by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), shows: “In 2010, 649,917 persons were staying in emergency shelters, transitional housing, or on the street on any given night in the United States. Although 63% were single individuals, more than one third (37%) were families” (p. 236).

Adam Nagourney, a long-time reporter for the New York Times wrote in “Honolulu Shores up Tourism with Crackdown on Homelessness” that there has been a 32 percent rise in homelessness within the past five years (para. 8). That percentage contributes to the 6,355 homeless in Hawaii reported by HUD in 2013 (Nagourney, 2014). That statistic certainly is alarming; however, even more alarming is that such numbers might be a lowball estimation.

These numbers might not reflect the actual population of the homeless, because of the debatable difference between HUD and the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), whom in the past have had much greater PIT estimates in the overall population of homelessness. In the 1980’s, HUD estimated between 250,000 to 300,000, and NIMH estimated between 2 million and 3 million (Holden, 1986, p. 569). This issue is caused by the previously mentioned complexity of defining homelessness and which definition agencies decide to use. Regardless, both of their numbers are in the hundreds of thousands; therefore, one wonders how so many people have come into such poverty.

Contrary to the convenient belief that homelessness is a consequence of self-infliction due to drug or alcohol abuse, a life strewn by bad choices like criminal behavior, or poor work ethic associated with laziness, the truth is that many become homeless due to their social and economic environment. This popular belief was iterated in research done by Lee, Jones, and Lewis (2009), who surveyed and compared Nashville, Tennessee residents to other national polls, asking them what they thought was the cause of homelessness. The researchers found that those surveyed adhered to the 1950-1960’s cultural belief that homelessness is due in part to “personal traits (such as lack of thrift, effort, or talent)” (Lee, Jones, & Lewis, p. 253). This is rooted in the deeply seated American ideology that anyone can become wealthy if they work hard enough.

In addition, this idea that homelessness is a choice has prevailed throughout mainstream society. In “Skid Row”—a designated homeless space within Los Angeles—police officers coined the term “shelter resistant” for the homeless who shy away from shelters (Stuart, p.

1917). One officer quoted, “About 99 percent of the people that remain down here are here because they ‘choose’ to be here” (Stuart, p. 1917). This stereotype is far from the truth and stems from ignorance.

94 These popular views are misguided. The statistics itself, which I quoted earlier, show that causal factors of homelessness tend to be out of a person’s control. Mental illness, for example, is out of a person’s control if he or she initially lacked access to treatment. Mental and emotional instability can derive from various sources, such as loss of a job, a loved one, or a caregiver, which then can lead to financial hardships. With regard to the view that homelessness is a choice as quoted by the Skid Row officer, in actuality this was a broad, nonresearched projected stereotype. In fact, in a New York study of “street homeless,” 60% were said to have worked at least seven days per week and 65% worked over seven hours per day, making less than $200 a week (Saelinger, p. 559). The fact that homeless families are a growing demographic also must point toward another causation.

Since children within homeless families are homeless by default, it is clear that one cannot blame their personal traits for causing their homelessness. Holden (1986) writes about Ellen Bassuk’s research, saying, “She found a high rate of emotional instability in the mothers, twothirds of whom were from broken homes. Forty percent of them had been in a relationship where they had been battered” (Bassuk, p. 570). Bassuk also said, in regards to homeless preschoolers, that they had “developmental failures of major proportions” (as cited by Holden, p. 570). Thus, for homeless children who are well behind other children due to financial hardship, it is imperative that they succeed in education to get out of homelessness. As stated

by Tanabe and Hippensteele (2011), “Although the educational needs of homeless children might not seem like an immediate threat, it is perhaps the most important key to breaking the cycle of poverty and should be given more attention” (p. 51). Therefore, the cycle of homelessness can also be attributed to homeless families as well as other mental and physical problems.

However, the major contributing factor to both families and individual homelessness is the economic environment with its lack of affordable housing and employment (Saelinger, p.

236). Byrne, Munley et al. (2012), researchers for the U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, concluded in their statistical research: “Once again, rent level and the proportion of singleperson households were confirmed to be positive and highly significant predictors of homelessness in metropolitan areas” (p. 620). Their conclusion refers to one result of their research that looked not only at the availability of affordable housing and jobs, but also other possible factors like racial, gender, and class demographics. Blacks, Hispanics, women, and transients did have positive correlations with homelessness, but this can be due to having a higher population in the poverty class, which also positively correlated to a predictable higher risk of homelessness (Bryne, et al. & Culhane, 2012). The explanation of race and gender correlating to poverty includes variables too vast to cover in the space of this paper.

So, what does this all mean for definition of homelessness, the large and increasing homeless population, and the causes of homelessness? It is necessary to put into perspective that almost anyone, including you and I, can become homeless; and that if we are susceptible to this condition, we too are susceptible to its criminalization.

How are the homeless being criminalized? In an attempt to “clean up the streets,” cities are implementing what they call “quality-of-life” campaigns or, as Mayor Kirk Caldwell calls it, “compassionate disruption” (Nagourney, 2014), which make certain behaviors in public

95 unlawful (Stuart, p. 1909). These behaviors usually follow the prefix “anti;” such as antisleeping, anti-panhandling, and anti-sitting, all revolving around public spaces such as parks and sidewalks. To quote Forrest Stuart (2013), professor of sociology at the University of Chicago: “By expanding the number of commonplace behaviors subject to criminal law, police officers are granted new legal authority to expel homeless people from coveted public spaces” (p. 1910).

City “officials,” however, say that these laws are aimed at everyone, or the “lawless,” not just the homeless; therefore, there is no such thing as the criminalization of homelessness, and that it is in the best interest of public safety (Amster, p. 200). Unfortunately, anyone with a single iota of intelligence can connect how such a statement is false. If a law were to be passed restricting a broad behavior like speeding in a vehicle, then such statements would be true.

However, these anti-nuisance laws are aimed specifically at behavior where only a small group, in the minority, do it out of necessity. Therefore, it is obvious that such laws are directed at the homeless since it is the homeless who primarily sleep, sit, and panhandle in public spaces. When violators are caught, depending on which city they are in, fines can be up to $1,000 or 30 days in jail (Nagourney, 2014). These are hefty fines for people who make less than $200 a week.

When most think of criminals, the idea comes to mind of individuals or groups of people breaking laws for profit or self-gain that is beyond the necessity for survival. Society, for example, excuses those who kill in self-defense while punishing those who do it for any other reason.

So why then is homelessness criminalized when society should be able to empathize with a person’s need for survival? This is because it is not the majority who determines criminalization. Instead, it is the privileged minority, who feel the need to use the law to force the homeless away in an attempt to keep up sanitary appearances (Amster, p.203). As best quoted by Faith (1999), “White [Mayor of Cleveland, Ohio] said this ‘crackdown’ is designed to ‘move poverty out of sight so they (shoppers) will have a peaceful shopping season’” (as cited in Amster, p. 203). This perspective is an elitist view that bars any unsightly appearances in “their” public spaces. To cite Saelinger (2012), it is “a psychological desire of elites simply to make the homeless invisible, as they are a population to which the elites cannot relate and which they do not understand” (p. 558).

It is clear that this is more about beautification of space rather than public safety; and that this “beautification” stems from a misguided attempt by businesses to find scapegoats during economic downturns (Wollan, para. 13). Hawaii’s Mayor Kirk Caldwell said, “We cannot let homelessness ruin our economy and take over our city” (Nagourney, para. 6). The fact that someone can believe that people whom have met misfortune and possess little to nothing in terms of political, social, or economic power can “take over a city” in any shape or form is ludicrous. How can the homeless trust a city whose goal is to subjugate them and extricate them to the edges of civilization?

It is human nature to be suspicious of those who subjugate us, and in the context of homelessness, the enforcements of police officers in restricting, confining, and preventing

96 non-harmful actions for survival is subjugation at its worst. When we look at subjugation throughout history, we find some of the worst crimes against humanity. The Nazis, for example, subjugated the Jews and committed mass murder on one of the largest scales that history has ever known. To achieve this, Adolf Hitler had to turn the Jews into outcasts, into “the other” (Amster, p. 200), believed to be “deserving” of their fates. This is an extreme example, and though criminalization is not close to mass murder, it does share the commonality of separating a group of people from the majority. Randal Amster, author of “Patterns of Exclusion: Sanitizing Space, Criminalizing Homelessness,” states: “Disturbingly, many proponents of regulating and criminalizing the homeless readily embrace such disease metaphors and their ethnocidal implications” (p. 198).

What Amster (2003) is referring to when he says “disease metaphors,” is the projection of the homeless as being an infection, and like all infections, the goal is extermination (p. 197). Josh Keys, a 35-year-old homeless man, said it best: “When you’re homeless, you feel like a hunted animal” (Wollan, para. 22). The criminalizing of homeless people therefore contributes to their stigmatization and further alienates them from society. This alienation will then cause more issues for the public as a whole if homelessness is continued to be criminalized.

Further, when a homeless person is jailed, he or she ends up with a criminal record and possible loss of possessions, including identification—making it difficult for them to find jobs. This then might cause some to turn to “real” criminal activity such as theft. Saelinger (2012) states, “Long criminal records and indebtedness to the city lead to the possibility that the offender will be excluded from jobs, housing, credit, and public assistance benefits” (p.

560). This sentiment is best illustrated by Ronnie Cruz, age 34, who many times had his belongings taken by HPD: “Now I can’t get back. And I can’t get a job,” (Nagourney, para.

23). He was referring to not being able to fly back to the mainland from Hawaii, where he is now stuck as a homeless person (Nagourney, para. 23).

If homeless people are labeled as criminals just for being in destitution, then what would stop them from not accepting such a label and fully embracing actual forms of criminality? I bring up this question because if someone were to take away your ability to provide for yourself, either through panhandling or work, how would you support yourself other than by stealing in desperation?

For all the efforts cities are putting into criminalizing homelessness to keep them out of sight, the actual cost is high and the method ineffective. Instead of using the police to protect citizens against violent crimes, cities are spending an exorbitant amount of police resources to herd the homeless from prime spaces. For example, in Los Angeles, municipalities deployed an additional 80 police officers within the 50 square blocks of Skid Row, and within only one year the homeless were given 12,000 citations and 9,000 arrests, all for violations of antinuisance laws (Stuart, 1910). This is just in one marginal area within one city. Think of the thousands more within an entire state. These thousands are processed through our judicial system, costing us tax dollars, and since these “criminals” are the poorest among us, I doubt many would be able to pay the fines necessary to offset judicial costs.

97 Facility costs must also be taken into consideration for the use of jails. Somers, Rezansoff, Moniruzzaman, Palepu, and Patterson (2013), Canadian health professionals, write: “Individuals commit more offenses after becoming homeless than before and, in a reciprocal manner incarceration contributes to homelessness through the destabilization of housing, unemployment, and the erosion of human rights” (p. 2) Aside from judicial costs, the fact that criminalizing the homeless makes it harder for them to get out of homelessness is apparent.

Thus, the overall cost of the continued use of emergency care, social programs, and reprocessing through the judicial system lends to cumulative costs in the end.

In addition, homeless legislations created by elitists whose goal has been to oust them off of streets and out of cities have proven to be ineffective. Saelinger (2012) cites research done in New York where 93% of the homeless population there stayed for more than five years, despite the laws which were trying to force them out by making life harder for them on the streets (p. 564).

It is clear that anti-nuisance laws are not working—laws that should not have been implemented in the first place. Municipalities have circumvented the U.S. Constitution by having lawyers use broad words to convince courts of the legality of anti-nuisance legislation.

The criminalization of homelessness existed in the past as vagrancy laws; however, such laws were repealed by the Supreme Court in 1972 because they were found unconstitutional (Saelinger, p. 550). Vagrancy laws back then had the same goal as laws today, allowing city police to “‘at their discretion’ get rid of “undesirables” (Saelinger, p. 550). But because of the Papachristou v. City of Jacksonville trial, the court deemed that such laws were unconstitutional because they could effectively be used to discriminate against minorities (Saelinger, p. 550).

Elitists then put new laws in place disguised as laws which apply (according to them) to everyone, which rapidly turned the into anti-nuisance laws adopted nationwide. This is by stating that it is “behavior” which is being criminalized, not homelessness per se (Wollan, 2012). But how many of the rich sit on sidewalks and panhandle for hours a day to make a living, or sleep on benches, and push shopping carts filled with cans all day? Therefore, it is pretty clear as to which group of people these laws are intended to restrict.

Homeless advocates argue a plethora of Amendment violations by such laws, from the First Amendment to the Fourteenth Amendment; however, courts now have shot each argument down (Saelinger, p. 557). The reasons all came down to perspective. If a court perceived that begging is not a violation of free speech but is a behavior, it is hard to counter because behavior encompasses so many human actions. Or, in terms of the Eighth Amendment, the courts deemed, “that being homeless does not constitute a protected ‘status’ necessitating suspect classification under Equal Protection doctrine” (Saelinger, p. 557).

It is all a matter of perspective rather than clear-cut definitions; therefore, it is difficult to argue with the courts on acceptable terms. Some courts have, however, deemed anti-nuisance laws unconstitutional. As stated in a New York Times article: “In recent years, advocates have filed suit, and in some cases received multimillion-dollar settlements, after cities cleaned up indigent encampments, in some cases destroying the property of the homeless. The courts

98 found such actions a violation of the Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable search and seizures” (Wollan, para. 17). It’s unfortunate that courts can’t all come under one consensus.

The only solution to homelessness—which would not violate any Constitutional rights and would get homeless people off of streets and out of sight, as well as aid in their recovery out of homelessness—is to have cities fully endorse initiatives such as “Housing First” (HF) and associated supportive programs. HF, is a program initiated by HUD, with the goal to promptly house the homeless and give supportive counseling. Research has found that it works and is cost effective (Somers et al., & Patterson, p. 1).

In an attempt to find whether providing housing for the homeless reduced their criminal offenses, researchers in Canada did an experiment using 297 prior convicted homeless offenders and randomly selected participants in two models of rapid rehousing, “scattered site” and “congregational” (Somers et al., & Patterson, p. 2). “Scattered site” refers to housing the participants in different areas of the city, whereas “congregational” had them living in neighboring dormitories (Somers et al., & Patterson, p. 4). Their research found that in both HF models, there was a significant reduction in reoffending by the participants, compared to “treatment as usual” (Somers et al., & Patterson, p. 8).

Housing First goes beyond reducing judicial costs. It has proven to stabilize the lives of both chronically homeless individuals and that of homeless families. Bassuk and Geller (2010) concluded in their research, which reviewed the experimental results of many other research experts, that Housing First, coupled with supportive programs, showed positive results in helping to keep families housed and in a stable environment, which also helped in increasing employment. To cite one statistic from Bassuk and Geller (2010): “The odds of residential stability were 20.6 times higher for families that received subsidized housing than for those that did not” (p. 786). Therefore, it is clear that HF could reduce the rising population of homeless families.

Contrary to the wide belief that homeless people are there by choice, in an article published in the American Journal of Public Health by Collins, Malone, and Clifasefi (2013), only five out of 166 (3%) individuals declined participation in HF (p. S271). Being that the chronic homeless are most likely to have multiple run-ins with the judicial system (Somers, et al., & Patterson, 2013, p. 2), HF would “kill two birds with one stone. “ Many might be worried about the cost of such solutions like Housing First, but when compared to the continued use of services like hospital emergency rooms, which we pay for, it ends up being cheaper over the long term. It was estimated that public services used by the homeless would run taxpayers an average of $44,733 per person in 2006 dollars, and that the initial first year cost of providing housing for the homeless would run us $55,600 per person (Moulton, p. 601-602). However, that initial fixed cost is due to having to build or buy the homes needed to house the homeless, including the cost of supportive services (Moulton, p.

602). With successive years, those costs will dwindle over time, due to the obvious fact that new structures would not need to be built or bought as one homeless person transitions out and another in (Moulton, p. 618). Therefore, not only does HF do everything that anti-

99 nuisance laws cannot do, like beautify public spaces in a humane and constitutional way, but it can also reduce the spending of our tax dollars in solving our homeless crisis.

Imagine yourself homeless, sitting at a corner hoping for a kind stranger’s meager donations.

However, instead you are confronted by a social worker who offers you a hand, and asks if you would like help getting out of homelessness. You accept, and days later find that you’re now living in a home and have been given a second chance at life. This is the scenario that the United States should adopt as a world leader in humanitarianism—not the police state which we have grown accustomed to and accepted, with a blind eye to those who suffer the most under its laws.

Homelessness is not a disease that ruins “spacial beautification.” it is a human condition that can befall our neighbors, friends, and family members. It is the result of economic and social hardships, of physical and mental illness, and of lost support and foundations which we all require in our lives to provide for ourselves and our loved ones. To criminalize homelessness is to endanger our community to actual crimes of desperation and further costs to our justice system. To criminalize homelessness is to belittle the Constitution which this great nation has adopted in the search for justice and fair treatment of all. To criminalize homelessness is to put aside our humanity and empathy for those who need the most help in our society.

REFERENCES Amster, R. (2003). Patterns of exclusion: Sanitizing space, criminalizing homelessness. Social Justice, 30(1), 195-221.

Bassuk, E. L., & Geller, S. (2006). The role of housing and services in ending family homelessness.

Housing Policy Debate, 17(4), 781-806.

Byrne, T., Munley, E. A., Fargo, J. D., Montgomery, A. E., & Culhane, D. P. (2013). Journal of Urban Affairs, 35(5), 607-625.

Collins, S. E., Malone, D. K., & Clifasefi, S. L. (2013). Housing retention in single-site Housing First for chronically homeless individuals with severe alcohol problems. American Journal of Public Health, 103(S2), S269-S274.

Holden, C. (1986). Homelessness: Experts differ on root causes. Science, 232 (4750), 569-570.

Lee, B. A., Jones, S. H., & Lewis, D. W. (1990). Public beliefs about the causes of homelessness.

Social Forces, 69(1), 253-265.

Moulton, S. (2013). Does increased funding for homeless programs reduce chronic homelessness?

Southern Economic Journal, 79(3), 600-620.

Nagourney, A. (2014, June 22). Honolulu shores up tourism with crackdown on homelessness. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/us/honolulu-shores-uptourism-with-crackdown-on-homeless.html.

Olufemi, O. (2002). , April 8,Barriers that disconnect homeless people and make homelessness difficult to interpret. Development Southern Africa, 19(4), 455-466.

Patterson, D. A., Cronley, C., West, S., & Lantz, J. (2014). Journal of Social Work Education, 50(2), 234-246.

100 Saelinger, D. (2006). Nowhere to go: The impacts of city ordinances criminalizing homelessness.

Georgetown Journal on Poverty Law & Policy, 13(3), 545-566.

Somers, J. M., Rezansoff, S. N., Moniruzzaman, A., Palepu, A., & Patterson, M. (2013). PLOS ONE, 8(9), 1-8.

Stuart, F. (2014). From ‘rabble management’ to ‘recovery management’: Policing homelessness in marginal urban space. Urban Studies (Sage Publications, Ltd.), 51(9), 1909-1925.

Tanabe, C. S., & Mobley, I. H. (2011). The forgotten students: The implications of federal homeless education policy for children in Hawaii. Brigham Young University Education & Law Journal, 2011(1), 51-74.

Wollan, M. (2012, October 19). Free speech is one thing, vagrants, another. The New York Times.

Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/20/us/berkeley-targeting-homelessproposes-ban-on-sidewalk-sitting.html.

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Meet the Authors R.J. Simpson is originally from Atlanta, Georgia: “My major is mathematics and my career plans are to pursue investing and retirement planning. My favorite thing about attending HPU is meeting new and different people, which introduces me to fresh perspectives on life.”

Alisandra Dominguez is originally from Santa Ana, California: “My major is Communications for broadcasting. My favorite thing about Hawaii is the weather, and my favorite thing about HPU is that there is so much diversity and different cultures.”

Paige Carlin is originally from Akron, Ohio: “My major is International Business, and I am not set on a certain business in general, but I hope to move to another country and do business on a global scale. My favorite part of attending HPU and living in Hawaii is the diversity of people. Everyone is from somewhere different. I learn so much about the world just by having small conversations with people, which in fact is why I chose my major; I am eager to learn about the world and find a way to work together.”

Shianne Schorr is from the island of Kaua'i: “My major is Integrated Multimedia. My favorite thing about attending HPU is the international diversity and study abroad program HPU has, broadening their students’ learning.”

102 Chelsey Santos is from Ewa Beach, Oahu: “My major is Biology, and I have not decided what career I want to pursue yet, but I do know that I want to help people medically. My favorite thing about growing up in Hawaii is the culture. There is something very special about locals that connects us all together such as the colloquial language, the food, and especially the secret places. My favorite thing about HPU is the diversity of students! I love hearing stories from other people's hometowns, and hearing different types of languages around campus. I also love the city life of this school, and the variety of food choices from different types of restaurants scattered around the downtown campus. Go Sharks!”

Jasmine Sagaysay was born and raised in Honolulu, Hawaii: “I am currently a pre-nursing major with a minor in psychology, in hopes of becoming a nurse practitioner. My favorite things about attending HPU are the small classes, the diversity around campus, and its closeness to home.”

Dustin Connis is from Aiea, Hawaii: “My major is English. I am still in the process of deciding what career I would like to focus on, but I want one that involves writing. I like Hawaii for its diversity, and shun it for its traffic.”

Laura Garber is from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: “I’m a cinematic productions major, and I hope to get into screenwriting. My favorite thing about living in Hawaii is being surrounded by the big mountains.”

Brittany Manabe is from the island of Maui by birth, but considers her true origin to be Ewa Beach: “I am currently majoring in Pre-Nursing, in hopes to one day become a Medical-surgical Nurse. My favorite things about living in Hawai’i include the endless abundance of aesthetic beauty, the perfect tropical weather, and the diverse cultural atmosphere. I am truly fortunate to call this amazing tropical paradise my home.”

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Terrald Hodges was born and raised in Honolulu and attended McKinley High School: “My major currently is Accounting and I hope to one day be able to pass the CPA exam and receive my certificate. I wish to land a career as an accountant and maybe work for a large firm somewhere in the mainland that also has great traveling benefits, as I do enjoy traveling outside of the island.

What I really enjoy about living here in Hawaii are the many different visitors we get from all over the world. Working in retail, I have been able to meet a variety of people from all over the world who all have their own stories lived and it's really interesting to hear them. Another great thing about Hawaii is the amazing and wide selection of food we have here. Hawaii is a giant pot of many different races and it's great to know we can try different foods from many different places around the world. I can see myself spending my whole life here!”

Fernand Baldonado, originally from Maui, is a USAF Veteran: “My major is BSBA Management with intended career plans of becoming an entrepreneur. My favorite things about Hawaii are the climate, people, and the ocean. My favorite things about HPU are its location, diverse culture, and traditions.”

Douglas Spencer is originally from Southern California: “I'm majoring in elementary education and TESOL. After serving in the U.S. Army for 14 years and working alongside military working dogs, I am looking forward to switching gears and having a career as a teacher here in the islands. What I enjoy most about Hawaii is that this is now where my family is, having met my wife here. We are ‘parents’ to four adopted fur babies and love getting outdoors with them. I also enjoy playing a round of golf on any of the amazing courses on Oahu. We recently returned from a three-week trip to Thailand which has furthered my inspiration to write more about animal welfare, especially after volunteering for a week at Elephant Nature Park in Chiang Mai (www.elephantnaturepark.org) Seeing firsthand the tragic physical and mental scars of these beautiful creatures at the hands of the tourism and logging industry there was life- changing, and I urge everyone to learn more and help.”

Terena Koteka-Wiki is originally from Auckland, New Zealand, and the Cook Islands in the South Pacific: “My major is oceanography, and I want to do research on seabed minerals and work in fisheries. In addition, I plan on doing an internship over this coming summer back home in the Cook Islands. My favorite thing about HPU is its diversity of students, and I also feel that my education at HPU will help prepare me well for my future in the working world.

Some of my favorite things about living in Hawaii are the laid-back lifestyle and the outdoor adventure. It's a beautiful island and people are so happy.”

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Dien Nguyen was born in Vietnam and immigrated to the island of Kauai at the age of 3; he then moved away at the age of 11 and lived in California, Connecticut, and Nevada before moving back to Hawaii due to my Navy service: “I am majoring in Management Information Systems and my short-term goal is to graduate as soon as possible. My long- term goal is to find a job and gain enough experience and recognition to become a COO. However, deep down I would like to start a company of my own. My life has come full circle and led me back to this beautiful state of Hawaii, as if it were fate. Meeting my wife and having our first child as well as buying our first house has cemented my stay here. I love the weather, the food, and the culture of Hawaii. There is no place like it and I hope that enough career opportunities will allow my family to continue to live here.”

Jennifer Rice is originally from Calfornia and moved to Hawaii from Dover, Delaware, where she served four years in the Air Force: “After my four-year contract was up I moved here. I had a job in the Air Force that kept me very busy, I traveled all over the world, and it was great. However, it was time for me to move on and pursue a different career. I love it here in Hawaii; it reminds me more of home than the east coast. My favorite things about Hawaii include the beach and the ocean, and of course, the weather. I really enjoy college, so much so that in order to take all the classes I want to take, I decided to pursue a double major to pursue both my interests, a BS in Biology-Human Health Concentration, and a BA in Psychology. In high school I was not the science-loving type; however, after my first two semesters, I have discovered a passion for the brain and the science of us. Our bodies are absolutely amazing, and our body’s ability to heal itself is, even more, fascinating. I am currently pursuing a career in Neurologic Physical Therapy.”

Juana Maria Guadalupe Meza Ñieto was born in a small town in Michuacãn, Mexico: “At 6 years old, my family and I moved to the Big Island, where I lived until I was 21. This is my second year at HPU after transferring from Hawaii Community College. My major is Finance and I am hoping to graduate the 2016 fall semester. My goal is to get a job at a local bank and then move to Portland, Oregon, continuing to work as I obtain an MBA. I really enjoy living in Honolulu. On the Big Island, I am used to having to drive long distances to get where I need to go. However, here everything is within a 20-mile radius and public transportation is great. There are a wider variety of activities to enjoy here as well.

Attending HPU has also been great. I have met amazing new people from all over the world. I am really looking forward to finishing my education here at HPU.”

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mahalo to all those who have contributed in various ways to Fresh Perspectives, our FirstYear Writing Program at HPU, the Department of English and Applied Linguistics, and the College of Liberal Arts: David Lanoue, Dean, HPU College of Liberal Arts William Potter, Associate Dean, HPU College of Liberal Arts Joan Ishaque, Assistant to the Dean of the College of Liberal Arts Stephanie Fepuleai, Administrative Assistant for English & Applied Linguistics Shane Teranishi, HPU Web Services

Kathleen Cassity, Chair, HPU English Department and Editor Vanessa Vasquez, Editorial Intern Jun Dennis Sadang, Student Assistant Melody Sakado, Student Assistant

Lily Nazareno, Cover Artist Lorraine Jimenez, Section Cover Art Chrislin Hearn, Section Cover Art Mahalo also to those First-Year Writing Instructors who nominated the essays included here: Kathleen Cassity David Falgout John Kahle Lisa Kawai Micheline Soong Christy Williams