A GCSE REVISION GUIDE
The American West
Mr. Young
CHAPTER 1
The Great American Desert
The area in between the Appalachian Mountains and the Rocky Mountians has been called ‘The Great Plains’ or sometimes, ‘The Great American Desert’. There are few rivers, few areas of woodland but lots and lots of grass. The main areas of woodland were near the Mississippi River and the most common forms of wildlife were the herds of buffalo and birds. 1
SECTION 1
The Great Plains
Interactive 1.1 Physical Map of the USA
Rocky Mountains Appalachian Mountains
The Great Plains
Interactive 1.1 (above) gives an outline of the main
‘The Great Plains’ lies in between. Gallery 1.1 (on
features of the physical landscape of the USA. High-
page 3) includes some photos of the area to give you
lighting the two main mountain regions, The Appalachi-
a better idea of the landscape of the Plains.
ans and the Rocky Mountains. The area known as
2
QA) Briefly describe the main features of the Great
Plains (5marks)
‘The Plains were very difficult to live on and there was
little rainfall. It could be very hot and dry or freezing cold.’
This is a question from June 2008 Paper 1
This answer would get 2 marks out of 5 for identify-
When addressing a question such as this based around the conditions on the Plains it’s worth thinking
ing ‘little rainfall’ and then the comment identifying
of the following things:
the temperature differences. Can you expand and improve the sample answer
Weather/Climate - red hot summers with little rainfall, blizzards and hail storms in the winter months.
above?
Landscape - grassland, little hills (sometimes referred to as ‘rolling grasslands’), few rivers and woodland only found near the rivers, desert-like in the southern states.
Gallery 1.1 Photos of The Great Plains
Wildlife - mainly buffalo herds, but also prairie dogs, in terms of crops/plants there are wild berries, grass, few trees.
For this 5 mark question you really need to describe/ explain each point you make, you can achieve 1 mark for each feature identified, and 2 or 3 marks for each feature that’s expanded in some way e.g. -
3
CHAPTER 2
The Plains Indians
The people who inhabited the Plains before any Europeans came and settled there are known as either Native Americans or Plains Indians. This chapter aims to help you review topics such as why they were on the Plains, how they lived and what their lifestyle and culture was like. Remember, there were different tribes (or ‘Nations’) of Indians, but we focus mainly on the Sioux. 4
SECTION 1
Why were the Sioux on the Plains?
There are various reasons why the Sioux nation moved on the
was assessed in a comparison question, ‘Did the Indians and
Great Plains. These are grouped into ‘Push Factors’ - things that
homesteaders want to live on the Plains for the same reasons?
forced the Indians onto the Plains, and ‘Pull Factors’ - things
Explain your answer. (8 marks)’ - this question was set in 2009.
that encouraged and pulled the Sioux onto the Plains.
At this stage of the revision guide we can’t tackle this - as we are yet to visit the homesteaders. You will have studied this in
Before the white settlers came to America many Indians lived east of the Appalachian Mountains (see Figure 2.1). This topic 5
class so there is no reason why you can’t tackle it now! Informa-
‘an enabling factor’ as they enabled, or helped, the Sioux to
tion on the push/pull factors is below:
move across the Appalachians.
Push Factors: Gallery 2.1 Push and Pull Factors
Other Indian Nations in the east were a threat to the Sioux, as were the new European settlers who arrived in America during the 1600s (17th Century). The Sioux were pushed onto the Plains to get away. These new settlers brought diseases that were common in Europe but could be fatal for the Indians who had built up no immunity over the years. A disease like measles could be fatal to a Sioux brave.
Pull Factors: The Plains were empty except for the herds of buffalo. The Sioux realised that they could survive on the buffalo and move away from the problems in the east. They were being
Conflict between the Sioux and other tribes were common, as were conflicts between all Native tribes and the new white, European settlers.
pulled onto the Plains. The Sioux also had horses. This meant they were able to travel the long distances and transport their belonging and family members with them. Having horses is sometimes called
6
SECTION 2
Who were the Sioux Indians?
Family Life
gifts, e.g. buffalo skins or horses, might impress the woman’s
Family life was lead by the men but there are a few more de-
her family did! A man would have more than one wife in some
family. The woman could decline if she didn’t like him even if
tailed points you need to be aware of.
tribes, but this was normally to make sure a widow and her children would be looked after.
- Marriage: Often it was monogamy (one man, one women) but could be polygamous (more than one wife) in some cases. Mar-
- Role of Men: Expected to hunt, fight in wars and look after
riages were often arranged. The man would need to show how
horses. Men were also the decision makers in Indian society,
well he could look after and protect his wife and future fam-
deciding issues from where to follow the buffalo to, to how
ily. Showing skills in hunting and warfare as well as giving
7
to fight a battle. Men were also involved heavily in religious
- Tipis: One family lived in one tipi. The base of a tipi was a cir-
ceremonies.
cle and other tipis would be placed around to form a circle camp. The Plains Indians were nomadic hunters, spending long
- Children: they were taught the skills needed to survive on the
periods of time travelling. A tipi was the ideal home. Its
Plains, and these focused upon what their role would be in the
shape meant it could withstand strong winds, in the summer
tribe. Teaching was done by parents and relatives and the chil-
the bottoms could be rolled up to give some cooler air and in
dren were never physically punished. Education differed for
the winter the sides could have mud banked against them to
boys and girls, both were taught to ride horses, boys had
keep the heat in. The tipi could be put up and taken down very
more lessons on this skill though. Girls were taught to repair
quickly to speed up the tribe’s movements. A dismantled tipi
and make tipis, cradles and clothes and were also taught
could provide a ‘travois’ which was like a sledge and could be
household activities such as cooking, food collecting, prepar-
attached to horses and used to transport belongings.
ing buffalo skins and preserving meat.
Gallery 2.2 Home on the Plains - the tipi
- Role of Old People: Speakers of history, telling others of their experiences and giving advice about hunting and warfare. They were greatly respected, but they also knew they could not be a burden on the tribe. When they were too old or infirm they would often stay behind after the tribe left or walked off to die. This was called exposure. Source A ‘When we were about to start on our way from the village, my attention was directed to a very aged man, who was to be left behind... a man who had once been a chief was now too old to travel...... This cruel custom of exposing their aged people belong, I think, to all the tribes who roam about the prairies...’ An extract from George Catlin’s book ‘Manners, Customs and Cndition of the North American indians’ published in 1841.
The tipis were made of buffalo skins and often had paintings of sacred animals or scenes from hunts or wars.
8
- Religion and beliefs: The Sioux Indians believed in the ‘circle
In an exam there could be questions on specific details about
of life’. The Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka) created the world
the lives of the Plains Indians, but the most common question
and everything within it. Every living thing, from plants to ani-
would ask you to evaluate how they survived on the Plains.
mals, has a soul and spirit and as such should be in harmony.
QB) Explain why the Plains Indians lived in tipis. (7
The Plains Indians attempted to communicate with Wakan
marks)
Tanka at their various ceremonies. An example of a ceremony would be the Sun Dance, as described by George Catlin below.
This question formed part of the June 2008 paper 1.
-Source B ‘We found him naked...with splinters or skewers run through the flesh on both breasts. He was leaning back and hanging with the weight of his -body to the top of the pole.... In the group that was reclining around him were several medicine men beating their drums and shaking their rattles -and singing as loud as they could yell, to encourage him and strengthen his heart to stand and look at the sun from its rising in the morning ‘til its setting at night.’
• 1-2 marks - general assertions (points) e.g. they needed somewhere to live, shelter from the weather etc. • 3-4 marks - identify specific reasons for the use of tipis e.g. nomadic, lack of resources on the Plains, good protection in the extreme weather conditions • 5 marks - explained one reason for the use of tipis. • 6 marks - one fully explained reason and another identified • 7 marks - more than one fully explained reasons (ideally 3 in total - just incase one of your explanations is weaker than you think!)
An extract from George Catlin’s book Manners, Customs and -Condition of the North American Indians, published in 1841. The Plains Indians believed that land was a crucial part of the circle of life and death. There were many specific places that were sacred to the Indians, such as the Black Hills. Indians believed they came from the land and would return to the land, therefore it could not be bought or sold as nobody owned it.
9
The Buffalo Interactive 2.1 The uses of the Buffalo
The Plains Indians lived on in an environment with very little natural resources. There were not many trees, plants or differ-
Fur
ent wildlife. The Indians therefore focused on using the buf-
Horns
falo. Herds of buffalo roamed the plains, in 1840 there was an estimated 13 million buffalos on the plains. The Indians followed the herds of buffalo, hunting as many animals as they needed, but never more than they needed. They used the buffalo in a variety of ways. • Bones were used for weapon tips (arrows) and knives. • Intestines were used for storing things, like a bucket. • Tanned hides (skin) were used as the tipi cover, clothes There are lots more ways the Indians used the buffalo -
Bones
tongues as hairbrushes, dung as fuel and the brain to create a
Hooves
paint-like substance for decoration. You should be aware of many examples to help you answer this exam question.
QA) Briefly describe how the Indians used the buffalo (5 marks) This question formed part of the June 2008 paper 1. • 1 mark for each correct use identified (e.g. skin used to cover tipis etc) • 2-3 marks for each correct use fully described or explained.
10
CHAPTER 3
The Settlement of the West
There was not just Native Americans in the United States during the nineteenth century. There was an ever-growing ‘settle population’ on the east coast. Cities like New York, Boston and Philadelphia were becoming more and more populated and space on the east of the Appalachian Mountains was running out. Something needed to change. 11
SECTION 1
Why did the white settlers move west?
There are numerous reasons why white settlers moved away from the eastern states. Cities such as New York, Philadelphia and Boston were over-populated and this meant a lack of jobs. There was also a lack of space, homes and streets were crowded and as such many settlers came to the eastern seasboard and found it all too much. During the nineteenth century there was also mass-migration from Europe, particularly from
Ireland in result of food shortages and famine. Migrants headed to the USA in search of prosperity. The US government, in the midst of the American Civil War 1860-65, encouraged people to move west. Some settlers moved west of the Rocky Mountains and settled in California and Oregon whilst others settle on the Great Plains from 1862 onwards.
12
• The Mountain Men
• The Pioneers
There was money to be had in the beaver fur trade from the 1800s. Beaver felt (fur) had become popular in cities like New York where it was placed onto hats or coats. The beaver numbers in the east fell and the beaver hunters moved west to the Rocky Mountains to find more beavers. They were lonely, living in small groups and using the land as their home - temporary shelters and wild food. They set their traps and once or twice per year moved back to the eastern cities to sell their skins to the fur companies. They did trade with the Indians, some even married them. Life as a mountain man was not easy and the hard life had many dangers.
Pioneers are those people who go somewhere first. The pioneer families of the 1840s were the first trailblazers to Oregon and California. The lack of jobs in the east, poor weather (it was warm in California), excitement and better and more farmland were some of the reasons given by families for moving. The trails were about 3,000 kilometres long and if you made it within 6 months you were quick! Life on the trail was very hard. Look at Image 3.1 and consider what problems may have been faced travelling 3,000 km across the Plains and then mountains in the extreme climate of the Plains.
Image 3.1 Pioneer Wagon Cart
QA) ‘Briefly describe the problems settlers faced when they crossed the Plains [5]’. This question formed part of the June 2011 paper 1. • 1 mark for each correct use identified (e.g. skin used to cover tipis etc) • 2-3 marks for each correct use fully described or explained. Use your inference skills as the diaries on page 28-29 to answer this question. • Gold Miners Whenever news reports of gold being found in California arrived in the east, it caused a massive interest, especially for
Pioneer families used wagons like this, pulled by horses, to cross the dangerous trails of the west. Use your textbooks to view the dangers. 13
those who were unemployed. They suddenly felt as though gold
What was Manifest Destiny?
was everywhere, and finding a nugget was their fortune. These
These people moved across the Plains, though very few settled
settlers too had to travel west, across the Plains and across
on the Plains. They were motivated to move west mainly for fi-
the Rockies in crowded and uncomfortable wagons similar to
nancial reasons - jobs, gold, materials to sell or lack of jobs and
that in Image 3.1. Some miners could afford sailing around
money in the east.
South America, but this was very expensive. The work was
There was another massive reason however, Manifest Destiny.
hard, bent over sieving river water looking for small amounts of
Pictures such as American Progress by John Gast motivated
gold. There were many nationalities working there and this
early settlers to do God’s work by settling the west.
could cause trouble, caused by stealing other people’s claims. Gallery 3.1 Gold Mining and its Effects
Interactive 3.1 ‘American Progress’ by John Gast, 1872 Light
Darkness Angel Settlers
Indians
As you can see from this picture, gold-mining was dangerous and dirty.
14
Law and Order in the Mining Towns Mining took place is remote places, miles from anywhere, and as such it was difficult to enforce law and order. The distances between each town was so great that it would take a while for the law enforcers to arrive. Mining towns that grew quickly from nothing into a bustling city had no US government or state law officers such as marshalls and sheriffs. Consequently, miners often took matters into their own hands. The Problems in a Mining Town • Claim Jumping - a very common crime in the west. Effectively stealing someone’s claim to have found gold. • Brutal punishments - e.g. cutting off peoples’ ears, floggings etc were not uncommon as there was no prisons. • Tension after slavery - tensions between different ethnic groups resulted in trouble. Mining was done by US settlers, Mexicans, Irish, Chinese, Indians and black former slaves. • Saloons - in 1855 San Francisco had 537 saloons, drinking often lead to gambling which lead onto fighting.
Deadwood, South Dakota, 1876. When gold was discovered in the Black Hills (sacred Indian ground) in 1876 7000 miners rushed in. In 1877 there were 75 saloons.
15
SECTION 2
The Mormons and their Leaders
In 1847 a group of religious migrants moved from Ohio and Illi-
mons, and their leaders were two very significant men, Joseph
nois and settled in the Great Salt Lake Valley in the Mexican
Smith and then Brigham Young.
territory of Utah. These people, 15,000 of them had travelled
The picture above is a very important anti-Mormon source.
over 3,000 kilometres to set up a city where no-one could inter-
When in an exam the questions focus around the ‘Message, Con-
fere with their religious beliefs. These people were followers
text and Purpose’ of the source. It is worth studying this
of the Christian Church of Latter Day Saints, known as Mor-
source in detail - it is very common.
16
Mormon Beliefs
Mormon Problems in the East
• Hard - work
• Joseph Smith upset the local population in Kirtland, Ohio, by claiming to be God’s prophet and that Mormons were chosen
• Mormons are God’s chosen people (much to the annoyance of
by God Himself.
many other Christians in America at the time.
• Mormons became successful through their belief in hard work, this resulted in jealousy from others.
• Joseph Smith had found golden plates in the hills outside New York City, they were translated and became the Book of
• Joseph Smith set up a bank in Kirtland, this collapsed in 1837 and non-Mormons who had invested lost money, as well as
Mormon. He preached to his followers that he, Smith, was a prophet.
Mormon investors. Non-Mormons decided Smith could not be trusted.
• Slavery was wrong
• In Missouri Mormons revealed they were against slavery, but Missouri was a slave-holding state and this upset the locals,
• Polygamy (men having more than one wife) was right and allowed Mormons to build God’s kingdom in America and pre-
as well as Mormon communication with Indians.
pare for
• In Nauvoo, Illinois, after being chased out of Kirtland, then out of Missouri, Smith announced Mormons could have more
QA) Briefly describe the main Mormon beliefs [5]
than one wife, polygamy. Non-Mormons saw this as a sin and feared a Mormon population explosion.
This question formed part of the June 2006 paper 1.
• In 1844 Joseph Smith was put in jail where an angry mob broke in and killed him. The Mormons were now without their
• 1 mark for each correct use identified (e.g. skin used to cover tipis etc)
inspirational preacher leader.
• 2-3 marks for each correct use fully described or explained. Use the bullet points above to answer this question in your
QB) Explain why the Mormons faced difficulties un-
notes.
der Joseph Smith’s leadership [7] This question formed part of the June 2006 paper 1. 17
• 2-4 marks for correctly identified difficulties faced by the Mormons.
questions are usually asking you to explain ‘Why this source was published’ at that particular time.
• 5 marks for one correct difficulty explained and developed.
To score the best marks you must place the source within the
• 7 marks for more than one difficulty fully explained and developed.
context of the 1840s (Mormons being unpopular for a variety of reasons), then explain what the message of the source is (anti-Mormon) based on the content of the source. Finally think
Interactive 3.2 A cartoon from the 1840s commenting on polygamy
about the purpose of the source. Why was it published? What is it trying to do? What will people think when they see it? In this case it is to turn people against the Mormons and force them out the towns and away from America, and if possible to no longer exist.
Purpose Context
June 2008 paper 1 is a good example of this source being used in a source enquiry on the Mormons. Brigham Young and the exodus to Utah...
Message
After Joseph Smith’s demise the Mormons were in need of another leader. Mobs were attacking Mormon houses and Brigham Young (the new leader) realised that if the Mormon faith was to survive then they had to move west. The land around the Great Salt Lake was ideal - flat, isolated and above all else away from the US laws that prevented polygamy. He persuaded his followers the journey would be worth making to construct God’s kingdom on Earth.
The source in Interactive 3.2 is a very famous and widely used source. It has featured in an exam on a frequent basis. The
18
Gallery 3.2 The Mormon Trail West
4. Autumn 1846 - The rest of the Mormons will join us and spend the winter at the Winter Quarters. 5. Spring 1847 - advance party leads the way to the Great Salt Lake Valley, choose the best place to settle and build God’s kingdom. The others will follow later. Gallery 3.3 Brigham Young’s Plan for Salt Lake
A map showing the Mormon trail to the Great Salt Lake from Nauvoo, Illinois. A journey of 2,250 kilometres.
Moving 16,000 Mormons over two thousand kilometres across the Great Plains, a journey that would go through all seasons of the extreme Plains weather, required a man with a plan, and Brigham Young had one. 1. February 1846 - lead the Mormons from Nauvoo 2. Spring 1846 - advance party to leave - setting camps every few miles for those who follow. Crops planted and workshops
Brigham Young lead the Mormons out of Nauvoo, Illinois after persecution from angry mobs.
to fix wagons to be built. 3. Summer 1846 - Build a temporary settlement of log cabins the Winter Quarters.
19
How did the Mormons live in Salt Lake City?
be a non-Mormon governor of Utah but the Mormons would be left in peace.
• Land was distributed fairly, depending on need. Larger your family meant a larger plot of land.
• Things were still difficult as the Mormons ignored the 1862 polygamy laws. However, as the Mormons wished the state of
• The Mormons invested in an effective irrigation system, but this was only effective on parts of the land.
Utah to be accepted as part of the USA, they abandoned the practice of polygamy and Utah became a US state in 1896.
• New farming systems were adopted. • Brigham Young encouraged people to come from abroad, especially if they had some manufacturing skills. The Perpetual
QB Explain why the Momrons still faced problems after the move to Salt Lake [7]
Emigrating Fund was set up in 1849 giving money and animals to new emigrants.
2-4 marks identifies specific reasons but with noexplanation
• In 1848 the USA went to war with Mexico, and Young sent troops to help the USA government. In return he received
5 marks one specific reason fully explained 6 marks one specific reason fully explained and another cor-
money and approval to set up a Mormon state (Deseret) but
rectly identified
this was turned down, instead they got a smaller bit of land called Utah and Young was governor.
7 marks more than one specific reason fully explained.
• When gold was discovered in California in 1848, the Mormons made money out of charging people to cross Utah, and sold
For this type of question we recommend explaining three reasons. This way if one of them isn’t quite correct or not as fully
them supplies and this caused resentment to the Mormons.
developed as it should be, you can still score full marks (provided your other two are fully explained)
• The US government sent an army to control the Mormons, the so-called Mormon War of 1857, when the Mormons were
Reasons might include: problems of water, problems of money,
fighting for their lands and way of life. Mormons were flee-
skills and resources, problems with the US government (Mor-
ing Utah but soon the newspapers took the side of the Mom-
mon War 1857), Deseret/Utah issues, Brigham Young wishing
rons. The US government reached a compromise, there would
to be governor but being replaced.
20
SECTION 3
The Homesteaders
Until the 1860s the Plains were a vast area of land that people
be able to see that their house is very typical of Homesteader
moved through, en route to somewhere else, for example to
homes at that time. In this section we will review the reasons
California for the gold rush, or the Mormons heading to the
why Homesteaders moved onto the Plains, the problems they
Great Salt Lake. In the 1860s that began to change and people
faced and their solutions to those problems.
began to settle on the Plains. In the picture above you can clearly see a young American family in the 1870s. Their house may look a little unusual but from your knowledge you should 21
Reasons why homesteaders settled on the Plains:
• Black people in the south - they were still racially abused and weren’t given jobs, despite the end of slavery. They found
• The Homestead Act 1862 - the government wanted people to settle on the Plains
jobs on the Plains.
and gave 160 acres of land for free to
Source A - Mrs. O. C. Bell describes her experiences of home-
families as long as they farmed it and
stead life in Nebraska in the 1880s ‘Still we ploughed and sowed and planted, tried to do our level best ‘gainst hot winds, cyclones and hailstorms and every other doggone paest. Year by year we toiled and laboured, ‘til we almost broke our backs. ‘Half a crop’ or ‘total failure’ scarce enough to pay the tax...’
lived there for five years. • The Timber and Culture Act 1873 - this awarded another 160 acres of land as long as the families dedicated 40 acres to growing trees. • Railroad Companies - the government wished to improve transport across America. The railroad companies were given land
Problems homesteaders faced and their solutions
to build on, they sold this land cheaply to be able to carry on
Lack of timber - problems of building materials were solved by
building the railroads
building ‘sod’ houses, made of grass and mud bricks. Some homes were dug into hills
• Letters - people in the east received letters from family members who had moved and were successfully farming their
Lack of fencing - this was a big problem as buffalos could tram-
land, this encouraged people to move themselves.
ple over crops. This was only really solved with the invention of barbed wire in 1874.
• Shortage of jobs and farms in Europe - this meant a lot of people emigrated to the USA looking for land or employment
Lack of water - windmills were invented in 1874 (what a year!)
and found both on the Plains
and this was used to pump water to the surface, allowing irrigation systems to develop on the Plains.
• Shortage of jobs and farms in the eastern states - this meant people moved across the Appalachians and onto the
Lack of fuel - with no coal available, the homesteaders did what
Plains to get both work and land.
the Indians had done and used the buffalo chips (dung). Extreme weather and difficult farming conditions - homesteaders developed new farming techniques, e.g. ‘dry-farming’. Land 22
was ploughed whilst wet, this put moisture into the soil and al-
• Housework - looking after children, collection of water, making soap, making clothes, preparing and cooking the food. All
lowed a layer of dry dust to settle on top, thus protecting the west soil from the hot temperatures and blazing sun. In the
these jobs made a woman’s role in the home very important
1880s Turkey Red Wheat from Russia was grown, this could
but also very difficult. The roles are similar to Indian women
stand up to the extreme conditions.
in the family.
Lives of Homestead Women
• Farm work - helping out with the animals, sowing the seeds or ploughing the land, as well as the housework. This farm work was different to the Indian women.
Gallery 3.4 Homestead Women Review 3.1 Settling on the Plains Review
Question 1 of 5 In what year did the US government pass the Homestead Act?
A. 1862 B. 1863 C. 1873 D. 1872 As you can see here, women were involved in farming on the homesteads, looking after the animals; cows, sheep and pigs. Check Answer
23
CHAPTER 4
The Consequences of Cattle Ranching
This chapter will focus on the growth and spread of the cattle industry from the southern state of Texas, northwards onto the Great Plains. We will review the lifestyle of the cowboy, the great trails they followed north and the important cowtown of Abilene and the development of the open range. The cattlemen and the homesteaders come into conflict at this point as well. 24
SECTION 1
The Development of the Cattle Industry
The homesteaders on the Plains were developing new and inno-
the 1850s, but when the USA was plunged into Civil War in
vative ways to farm in the extreme conditions on the Plains.
1861 a lot of the Texan farmers went off to fight. THe Long-
Further south, in Texas, a different type of farming was devel-
horns were left to wander and their herds got bigger and big-
oping, cattle ranching. The Texas Longhorn (above) was a very
ger each year. The cattle ranchers were worried, when they
tough animal and could survive in the dry and hot state of
returned from war they had far too many cattle than could be
Texas. The meat was sold in the local area of Texas and this
sold to the usual markets. This meant the cattle had to be
helped to fund the growth of the cattle industry. This was in
drove north to meet the railroads and the markets in the east. 25
The map to the left shows the different routes the cattlemen took to take their meat to markets. If you look closely you should see the names of the different trails, some have become very famous. The most famous one was the ‘GoodnightLoving Trail’ which was the first route to the north. The Chisholm Trail was equally as famous and this ended at a famous cowtown called Abilene. Abilene was ideal as it was next to a railroad so cattlemen could trade their cattle onto the trains and send them to places like Chicago or even New York. The Cattle Drives • These drives were hard and
Gallery 4.1 The Cattle Trails
tough. • Homesteaders were building farms and fencing land off so the cattle trails had to move around them, making the trails even longer.
26
Cattle could be bought for $3 in Texas and sold for $30 in the north. This made the difficult trails worth their while.
Causes of Ranching on the Great Plains
Consequences of Ranching on the Plains
• Railroads became more important and were being extended across the Plains and to the north, making transportation of
• Overcrowding meant the grass could not grow as well as too many smaller ranches were being set up. The increase in the
cattle easy.
numbers of cattlemen forced the price of cattle up, and therefore reduced the profits for the cattlemen. When the
• Cold-Storage and refrigeration meant meat could be stored easily on the long journeys.
price of beef also fell it caused massive economic problems for the cattlemen.
• New breeds of cattle were able to withstand the harsh conditions on the Plains. Texas Longhorns were bred with other
• The rising costs drove many smaller ranches out of business, and these were bought up by wealthier ‘cattle barons’ and
breeds that could live there already, and as such there was
ranching corporations. Conflict between the smaller ranches
more meat of better quality.
and the cattle barons became more and more common.
• The Homesteaders were in the way more and more, and driving cattle north each year was becoming increasingly diffi-
• Droughts and terrible winters between 1883 and 1887 caused lots of cattle to die. The winter of 1886-87 is the
cult.
most famous and has featured in exam questions.
• More lands were available as the US Army was positioning the Indians on reservations.
QA Briefly describe the main effects of the rapid
• People like John Wesley Illf realised Texas Longhorns themselves could survive the winter and indeed were healthier as
growth of cattle ranching on the Great Plains during the early 1880s [5]
the cold winters killed the ticks and bugs that lived on them. This encouraged other cattlemen to keep their cattle on the
1 mark for each correct effect (overcrowding, price of beef/
Plains over winter.
cattle, rise of cattle barons, end of the open range) 2-3 marks for each effect described or explained
27
SECTION 2
The Life of the Cowboy
Cowboys are often shown in films as wild and exciting men who
dress outfit, is it the reality or the myth that makes it excit-
sometimes do the wrong things. A cowboy outfit is a common
ing?
fancy-dress outfit for children and adults alike. But why? This Section will outline who the cowboys were, what their jobs were like and the type of equipment they had to use and carry. The you can decide for yourself why it’s such a popular fancy
28
The Work of a Cowboy Cowboys needed to be tough - the Texas Longhorns were dan-
Gallery 4.2 Diagram indicating the equipment a cowboy might need
gerous and big. As the cattle grazed on the open range cowboys spent their days on horseback looking after them. In the winter cowboys moved to the outskirts of their ranches and lived in tents. These ‘line riders’ were there to help protect the cattle against the wolves and help any cattle caught in the deep snows. After the introduction of barbed wire they became ‘fence riders’ helping to repair the fences. As the snow melted their job was to look for and help cattle stuck in the mud. The round-up was the big job for a cowboy and was done twice a year. The young calves were rounded up and branded in the springtime and in the summer the round-up was for sorting which cattle was to be moved north. The round-ups were dangerous as due to the nature of the ‘open range’ the cattle were effectively wild animals. On the long drives north the cowboys were responsible for keeping the cattle together and preventing stampedes at night. The wages were low, the food was poor and the days were long. As cattle ranching became established on the Plains cowboys lived a more settled life, staying and working on one ranch, but still with boring work, low wages and hard work. The reality of the cowboy’s life was very different to that of the myth in Western films.
29
The Dangers of the Long Drives for Cowboys
boys had the job of catching and returning the stampeding cattle.
• Weather - heavy rains made life difficult as not only was it uncomfortable but the land became muddy and dangerous.
• Conflicts with settlers - cattle-rustling was a common crime and resulted in conflict. The homesteaders were also not so
• Native Americans - Indians often attacked drives, hunting the cattle and attacking the cowboys. Other Indians re-
pleased by the trampling of crops or damage to fences caused by the drives.
quired payment before allowing a cattle drive through their land.
The long drives could last for anything between 2 and 6 months from Texas to Abilene. The average distance travelled was 23
• Stampedes - caused by anything, a thunder clap, a flash of lightning or someone dropping a pan in the dead of night. Cow-
kilometres a day, rising at dawn, resting in the middle of the day and completing the ride when the temperatures dropped.
30
SECTION 3
Law and Order in a Cowtown
Another myth of the cowboy is their rather rowdy behaviour
Abilene
once they had finished their long drive north. Cowtowns grew
In the winter Abilene had a population of about 500 people, at
quickly, places like Abilene and Dodge City experienced some
the end of the driving season this jumped to 7,000 as the cow-
disorder but in general it has been exaggerated. Once the cow-
boys arrived as well as people looking to make some money
boys received their pay they went and spent it, in saloon bars,
from the cowboys. As well as drunkenness the town also saw
gambling and visiting prostitutes. Gunfights were not uncom-
violence caused from the aftermath of the Civil War, as people
mon. 31
from the south came into conflict with people who had fought
• Town Marshalls - appointed by the people of a town and could also appoint deputies.
for the Union. Abilene’s reputation as a place of lawlessness grew, but until
• Judges - appointed by the President to try cases and each state or territory had three. This was not enough for big
the population also grew big enough to put in place a system of effective law and order, problems would continue.
states and cases took a while to get to court. Sometimes this would lead to vigilantes taking the law into their own hands.
Abilene had a Mayor in 1870 who appointed a Town Marshall to
Source A - ‘Just a Little Pleasure’ by Char-
clean up the town. Guns were prevented from being brought
les Russell, 1898
into the town but violence still continued. Eventually when families moved into Abilene cowboys were banned from the town all
This source
together.
clearly shows a rather tired and
Law and Order
perhaps drunk
After 1865 things in the cowtowns became the responsibility
cowboy. What can
of the US Federal government, based in Washington D.C. The
we infer about
cowtowns had a population so small they did not raise enough
the life of a cow-
taxes to pay for a proper system of law and order and relied on
boy and life in a
Washington to pay and arrange it. The long distances and lack
cowtown from
of reliable people involved in law enforcement meant it re-
this source?
mained a cause of concern. • US Marshall - appointed by the President and had a huge area to be responsible for. • Sheriffs - appointed by people within a county and were in charge of another large area and so appointed deputies and could also swear in posses of people to chase criminals.
32
SECTION 4
The Johnson County War 1892
The Johnson County War was a battle between the cattle bar-
The Problems (1880s)
ons and the homesteaders in Johnson County in the state of
• Cattle ranching was in trouble due to over-grazing (see Chapter 4: Section1). The poor winter of 1886-87 had left many
Wyoming. Cattle ranching in Johnson County grew in the 1870s and there were huge ranches, each baron had thousands of cat-
cattle unbranded and therefore ‘unowned’. Some smaller
tle. These wealthy barons formed the Wyoming Stock Growers
ranchers saw nothing wrong with claiming unbranded cattle.
Association which also included very powerful politicians as members. Every member protected each other’s interests. 33
Gallery 4.3 The controversial murder of Jim Averill and Ella Watson
• The barons fenced off their land and blocked access to water for other settlers and the smaller ranchers. • Homesteaders and smaller ranchers were also rustling (stealing) cattle off the larger ranches (unbranded). • People on the side of the wealthy cattle barons killed several alleged rustlers, even without much evidence. In 1889 there was a particularly famous case, Jim Averill and Ella Watson were lynched because they were allegedly farming someone else’s (Albert Bothwell’s) land. After their murder Bothwell took their land, they were killed on very dubious evidence.
The Trigger Cause of Conflict: 1892’s round-up The smaller ranchers decided to set up a rival association - the Northern Wyoming Farmers and Stock Growers’ Association to take on the cattle barons. In 1892 the smaller ranchers and homesteaders planned a round-up of cattle on the open range. The barons feared for their stock and planned an armed invasion of Johnson County. The cattle barons plan: • They got support of local politicians
A picture of Ella Watson before her lynching and murder following accusations from cattle baron Albert Bothwell
• They were given guns by the governor of Wyoming
34
• They hired 24 gunfighters from Texas who were paid $5 a day with a $50 bonus for each rustler killed
The ‘War’ 1892
• They made a list of 70 ‘rustlers’ names to be targeted
• The Regulators went into Johnson County and headed for the biggest town - Buffalo.
• They were given a special train by the Union Pacific Railroad Company to take the Texas gunmen to Wyoming
• They were spotted and the alarm was raised, the sheriff of Buffalo gathered a large force.
• They also brought in local journalists to report what the small ranchers had been doing
• The Regulators retreated to the TA Ranch and the Sheriff and his men surrounded them. One Regulator escaped and got the US Cavalry to help them.
• They named themselves as ‘The Regulators’.
• The US Cavalry persuaded to sheriff’s men to stop shooting at the TA Ranch and arrested the Regulators who were put in prison. The Trial • The Regulators were put on trial but the cattle barons used their influence to move the case to where they were strong. • The residents of Johnson County were forced to pay for the Regulators’ food costs and housing costs during the trial, and Johnson County ran out of money. • The case was dropped and the Regulators went free. • The cattle barons received lots of negative publicity during the trial and the smaller ranchers were able to resume with
The Regulators photographed 4th May 1892
their lives as the cattle barons association was broken down.
35
CHAPTER 5
Why was there conflict on the Plains?
Once people began to settle on the Plains - ranchers and homesteaders - conflict with the Native Americans seemed inevitable. Relations between the settlers and the Indians gradually went downhill. The US Army became involved to protect the settlers and we shall see the conflict that is called ‘The Plains Wars’. 36
SECTION 1
The Stages of Conflict
Stage 1: 1825-40
Stage 2: 1840-50
The Great Plains were Indian lands, the settlers were not inter-
The different groups - pioneers, gold miners, mountain men
ested in this area.
and Mormons - were just passing through the Indian lands on their way somewhere else.
37
Stage 3: 1850-59
Stage 6: 1878-1890
Settlers began to settle on the Plains as they were encouraged
Indians suffered defeats and the gradual ruining of their tradi-
to move west by the government. The 1851 Fort Laramie
tional way of life. Buffalo herds were being destroyed and Indi-
Treaty was passed defining which areas were Indian lands. Peo-
ans were being resettled onto smaller and smaller reservations.
ple in the US government began to consider the ‘Indian Prob-
Strengths and Weaknesses of the US Army
lem’ - negotiators and exterminators.
Stage 4: 1859-69
STRENGTHS
Indians and settlers are in conflict, wars and massacres occur
Forts - strong buildings that the
in this period (e.g. Sand Creek Massacre in 1864) In 1865 Red
Indians found difficult to attack. Acted as a safe base away from
Cloud’s War began and in 1868 the Second Fort Laramie Treaty
Indian attack.
was signed creating the ‘Great Sioux Reservation’ which highlighted land that non-Indians could not enter.
Indian Scouts - US Generals could
Stage 5: 1869-79
to scout the Indian armies - they
More and more conflict between the Indians and settlers. In
preparations.
1874 gold was discovered in the Black Hills (sacred Indian
End of the Civil War - this released
pay for members of opposing tribes were experts in tactics and
a lot of professional soldiers to deal
lands) and the Second Fort Laramie Treaty was broken (a
with the ‘Indian Problem’ whereas
pretty useless set of treaties...). Miners entered the hills and
before they had volunteers and
were attacked by the Indians. In 1876 the Great Sioux War be-
poorly trained troops
gan and in June of 1876 the Battle of the Little Bighorn took place, with the Indians winning the battle but ultimately losing
New Tactics - total war and winter campaigns were things that the
the war.
Indians could not cope with or deal with.
38
WEAKNESSES Indian Tactics - US soldiers were not used to how the Indians fought (smaller raiding parties and ambushes) Poor conditions - food and living conditions were an issue for the soldiers. Poor uniforms in extreme weather was difficult too. Poor soldiers - with professional soldiers tied up during the Civil War with a more important war troops were poorly trained and often drunk.
SECTION 2
The Battle of the Little Bighorn
The 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty outlined Indian lands, lands
Army moving between forts, they may not be beaten by the In-
which could not be entered by any non-Indian. In 1862, how-
dians but they were restricted by them. A new Fort Laramie
ever, gold was discovered in the Rocky Mountains in Montana,
Treaty was signed in 1868, creating the Great Sioux Reserva-
and mining towns sprang up which meant miners moving across
tion and making the US Army abandon the forts. Non-Indians
Sioux land. The Sioux attacked the traveling miners so the US
would never be allowed onto the Great Sioux Reservation.
Army moved in to build forts to protect the miners. The Sioux
In 1874 this would change......
were lead by Red Cloud whose army did well to prevent the US 39
The Great Sioux War 1876-1877
his men to join Sitting Bull’s force, the combined force was over 2,000 men strong.
• In 1874 the US 7th Cavalry, commanded by George Custer, discovered gold in the Black Hills. This expedition broke the
In an exam question on the Battle of the Little Bighorn, it is
terms of the second Fort Laramie Treaty 1868.
likely to assess your understanding of how the battle was lost (by examining the role of General Custer and other factors) or
• Miners flooded into the Black Hills, the US Army couldn’t stop them and the government didn’t want to stop them. The
to evaluate whether the Indians victory was, in reality, a defeat.
Sioux attacked the miners.
Reasons for the Indian Victory
• In December 1875 the government ordered the Sioux onto the reservations, several thousand, led by Sitting Bull and
• Colonel Custer -
Crazy Horse refused to move.
• he made several wrong decisions in the build up; he refused machine guns as they would slow him down and extra men,
• In February 1876 the US Army was ordered to attack any Sioux not in the reservation. Three columns of the army, un-
• he wished to meet the Indians himself and claim the glory so he marched his men through the night to get to the
der General Crook, Colonel Gibbon and General Terry would attack and trap the Sioux.
Sioux a day early,
• The plan was weak - they had predicted 800 Sioux, there were in fact over 2,000 and there was ineffective communica-
• Custer ignored the advice of his Indian scouts who had seen the size of the Indian forces,
tions between each commander.
• Custer also divided his band of men into three each numbering only 125 or 250 men),
• The Battle of Rosebud - June 1876. Crazy Horse used different tactics to normal and attacked General Crooks’ column repeatedly all day. The Indians had 1,500 men and were
• by dividing his men Custer had also divided his commanders and there was ineffective communication between them.
equipped with Winchester Repeating Rifles, better guns than the single-shot Springfield rifles used by the US Army. Crook was defeated and retreated south. Crazy Horse lead
40
• Other factors -
mediately after the battle and which was painted after much more research and reflection?
• Indians had better weapons (Winchester Repeating Rifles) than the US army.
Gallery 5.1 Interpreting the Battle of the Little Bighorn
• The size of the Indian army had been underestimated beforehand • Sitting Bull had had a vision the night before the battle of American soldiers lying in his Indian camp with their faces down. The Indians took this as a sign and were inspired to victory. • The Sioux leadership - Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse - were both very good tacticians in battle and made the correct call in each difficult part of the battle.
The Battle of Interpretation Following on from the battle there has been much debate about what happened. Several artists have depicted the defeat of
Which painting was painted immediately after the battle and which was painted much more recently?
the US Cavalry in different ways. Some show Custer’s Last Stand as a heroic defeat, lead by a man of true American grit and determination, even in the face of danger. Others have shown it as a complete and total defeat of the US Cavalry. One of the following paintings shows the heroic ending of the battle, and another shows a weakened and defeated US Army. Which one is which? Can you work out which one was painted im-
41
SECTION 3
Why did the Indians lose control of the Plains?
After the victory for the Indians at Little Bighorn, the US gov-
across the Plains, as it became a hobby of some to shoot the
ernment set out to solve the Indian Problem forever.
buffalo from their train carriages. The buffalo hunters were even supported by the US Army. The army did not want to
In 1840 there were 13 million buffalo on the Plains, by 1885
bother hunting the buffalo, but seemingly gladly gave ammuni-
there were just 200 buffalos left. The price of buffalo skin
tion to those that did. The impact of the decreased numbers
had shot up and white settlers also began hunting the animal.
cannot be underestimated. Indian food supplies, resources and
Their survival was not helped by the increased transport links
42
even homes were now in danger, remember the Indians used
Reservations
the buffalo for virtually every aspect of life.
Reservations were land where the Indians were forced to live, it was separate from the ranchers and the homesteaders. The
Source A - Tall Boy, a Cheyenne chief talking to Gen-
Indians were supervised by government appointed agents and
eral Winfield Scott Hancock in 1867 ‘The buffalo are diminishing fast. When they all die we shall be hungry; we shall want something to eat and we will be forced to come into the fort.’
were expected to live as farmers. The wars of the 1860s and 1870s meant their freedom was increasingly reduced. The land was of poor quality - the land that was unwanted by the settlers, making it difficult for the Indians to feed their families. Increasingly the Indians became dependent on the government.
Source B - Teddy ‘Blue’ Abbott, a cowboy in the 1880s ‘The buffalo slaughter was a dirty business ... a put up job on the part of the government to control the Indians by get-
Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse were both killed on the reservations whilst being arrested. Warriors could not gain importance as their was no way of proving yourself or maintaining status. Suffering from poor health, no resources and ever decreasing amounts of land the Indians were unable to fight back.
Source C - Frank Meyer, a buffalo hunter, 1873 ‘I would go into an army camp on a Sunday morning and seek... the commanding officer. After a while I would ask if I could seek some ammunition. Sure I could...I asked an officer ‘What should I do with all this ammunition - kill Indians?’ ‘Hell no, that’s our job’ replied the officer, ‘You must kill the buffalo...Only when the Indian becomes absolutely dependent on us for his every need will we be able to handle
Land - divided into smaller and smaller areas, separating tribes so they could not join forces and fight back Political - heads of families were needed to collect food, weakening the structure of Indian society as the Chiefs were no longer relied upon to organise Economic - the ban on hunting meant horses were no longer valuable, no buffalo to trade and they were unable to make war with enemies.
Study the sources above. What do you think is the reason the US government wished the buffalo slaughter to carry on?
43
Religious - Feasts, dances and ceremonies were all banned and
The Ghost Dance Movement
the power of the Medicine Men was weakened. There was now
In 1889, with the reservations in poor condition and the culture
no need to call for the help of Wakan Tanka. Christian mission-
and way of life of the Indians in serious problems the Sioux
aries moved in to teach the Indians about Christianity.
were influenced by an Indian holy man, Wovoka, who claimed he
Education - Indian children were taken from their families and
had had a vision that if all Sioux did the Ghost Dance, the buf-
sent to boarding schools to be prepared for the world of the
falo would return, a new world would come and the white man
white men. A claim from one man was to ‘Kill the Indian in him
would disappear.
and save the man’. Indian children could not speak their own lan-
There were hundreds of Sioux doing the Ghost Dance which
guage and were made to dress in white man’s clothes.
scared the government-appointed Indian Agents who called for
Gallery 5.2 Educating Indian Children
the US Army. Sitting Bull was killed whilst being arrested and this lead to even more tension. In December 1890 when the US Cavalry went to disarm the Sioux, a shot was fired, this caused chaos and the soldiers of the US Army were prepared with repeating rifles. By the time the shooting stopped there were 25 soldiers dead and 146 Sioux, including women and children (seven babies were killed). This massacre marked the end of the Plain Wars, and for the Sioux, another ending had also been marked....
Two photographs of the same boy on arrival at Regina Indian Residential School and after a period of six months in 1874
44