FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR THE ‘ONLINE WORLD’ COULD EAST PILGRIM ST PROVIDE A TEST BED?
DISSERTATION IN ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES HENRY JAMES CAHILL 150271350 TUTOR: COLIN HAYLOCK
ii
‘The English are hopeless at cities ... It’s as if we don’t want fully to commit to the idea of living together.’ David Hare, The Permanent Way, 2003
iii
WHAT FUTURE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES COULD BE IMPLEMENTED TO SUPPORT AND SUSTAIN THE CITY CENTRE FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’?
COULD THE EAST PILGRIM STREET AREA OF NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE ACT AS A TESTING DIAGRAM FOR POTENTIAL HOUSING DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN OTHER CITIES IN ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’?
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
COVER ART, AUTHOR’S OWN (PAGE i) SATELLITE IMAGE OF EAST PILGRIM STREET IN CONTEXT, GOOGLE EARTH (PAGE vi) FIGURE 1: MAP OF EAST PILGRIM STREET IN CITY CENTRE, GOOGLE EARTH (PAGE 2) FIGURE 2: GRAPHIC SHOWING CONCENTRATION & DISTRIBUTION OF JOBS IN NEWCASTLE, CENTRE FOR CITIES, LONDON (PAGE 3) FIGURE 3: GRAPH SHOWING HOUSING TENURES IN NEWCASTLE, AUTHOR’S OWN (PAGE 8) FIGURE 4: GRAPH SHOWING WHERE PEOPLE CHOOSE TO LIVE IN LONDON, CENTRE FOR CITIES, LONDON (PAGE 20)
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
v
CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
iv
INTRODUCTION
1
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
- BRIEF HISTORY OF CITY CENTRE LIVING
5
- CURRENT HOUSING PROVISION IN NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE
8
- HOW THE CURRENT SITUATION MAY CHANGE
10
- WHO SHOULD WE BE PROVIDING FOR IN THE FUTURE OF CITY CENTRE LIVING?
15
- IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE LIVING TRENDS IN CITY CENTRES
18
- WHAT KIND OF HOUSING DEVELOPMENT WOULD BEST SUSTAIN THE CITY CENTRE?
23
- RECOGNISED BENEFITS OF COHOUSING
26
- HOW CAN COMMUNITY LIVING PREVENT SOCIAL ISOLATION?
28
- COULD EAST PILGRIM STREET BECOME A TESTING MODEL FOR THE FUTURE?
33
CONCLUSION
39
BIBLIOGRAPHY
43
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
vi
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
1
INTRODUCTION
1 Guardian: https://www. theguardian.com/business/2017/nov/18/ asos-overtakes-m-and-s-marks-spenceruk-high-street-tesla-moment
Automation could be seen as a second industrial
The world in which we now find ourselves could
revolution and poses as much of a threat now
be described as ‘The Online World’, where the
as it did to the Victorian factory worker in the
evolution of requirements has led to many spaces
landscape of the working economy. Due to
on our cities’ streets becoming redundant for
the automation of labour and the delegation
the purposes they were originally built for. With
of intellectual and organisational labour now
changing times come changing needs, there are
prevalent in companies such as Amazon and
great possibilities for regeneration of these spaces
ASOS (which has recently overtaken Marks &
for live/work opportunities. There is, in most
Spencer’s market share1), an interesting statistic
major cities, an inefficient allocation of building
considering these companies have never had a
stock and, therefore, spaces which remain
physical presence on the high street.
unused or un-let.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
2
Newcastle is no exception to this - in particular
Owned by the Reuben Brothers , their current
the area of East Pilgrim Street (EPS), a forty-
masterplan calls for more high-end retail and
acre site between Saville Row (adjoining
boutique shops; the one million square feet were
Northumberland Street), the Central motorway
earmarked to incorporate a new department
and the Swan House roundabout (Figure 1).
store (such as Selfridges or Harvey Nichols)3. The
2
sole benefit from this solution would be financial gain rather than something that could benefit the cultural and sociological aspects of the city’s residents themselves. However, the council’s motivations are also financial, in a context of diminishing central government support for local councils that is being replaced by retained business rates and council tax. Therefore, council proposals still focus heavily on further retail development in city centres purely because they maximise the opportunity for short term financial return. Although, would this return be FIGURE 1 MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF EAST PILGRIM STREET
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
2 – the richest people in the UK according to the 2016 Sunday Times Rich List (with an estimated net worth of £13.1 billion) and the 60th wealthiest people in the world according to Forbes 2016. 3 Evening Chronicle, 9th March 2011 (Updated 26th February 2013)
3
4
http://www.centreforcities. org/city/newcastle/
achieved alongside the continuing income of the
city centre residences in the long run? (Figure 2
rest of the city centre? Or would a more viable
shows the concentration and distribution of jobs
solution be to provide a development that could
in Newcastle)4.
help to sustain the current city centre whilst also benefitting the health of the workforce in need of
Intu, the owners of Newcastle’s Eldon Square shopping complex, when in conversation with a planning inquiry into the future of Tyneside have said that plans to turn EPS into an £800 million shopping centre – and thus making Newcastle the largest retail centre in the North of England – could fatally harm the existing retail core; sending ‘shops across the city into “a downward spiral of decline”’. A spokesperson from Intu was quoted saying that as a result of further developments in Nottingham and Stoke, where Intu have additional shopping complexes, “voids start to appear in the high streets, traders
FIGURE 2 CONCENTRATION & DISTRIBUTION OF JOBS IN NEWCASTLE
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
4
not renewing ling term leases, landlords putting off investing in their units and things become less active”. Going on to say that further retail development in ‘East Pilgrim Street could lead to great uncertainty in the market.” 5 Although, these suggestions from Intu must be considered carefully as they are, of course, seeing the potential detriment that further retail provision may pose toward their own market share rather than simply the damages that local businesses may incur.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
5 Pearson, Adrian. Newcastle Chronicle, 11th June 2014
5
CHAPTER 1 BRIEF HISTORY OF CITY CENTRE LIVING 6
Census 2011
7
City People, city centre living in the UK (2005) What is driving city centre living in the UK? (Centre for Cities, London)
8
Couch, C (1999) ‘Housing Development in the City Centre’, Planning Practice and Research, 14:1, pp 69-86
In recent years, the growth of urbanisation
policymakers have taken great influence from
and internal migration towards British city
European cities, as well as London, whilst trying
centres has been rapid. Since the late 1980s,
to encourage city centre living in the UK’s
Manchester’s city centre population has risen
provincial cities.7
almost 18 fold.6 The idea of city centre living is not all that new; London has always had people
Restructure of Industry and population loss in
in its city core, along with major Scottish centres
many UK cities reduced city centres to just a few
such as Edinburgh and Glasgow. However,
hundred people, with expanses of disused space –
England’s conurbation populations have never
the city centre population of Manchester in 1991
compared with those we see on the continent
had reduced by 73 per cent in just 30 years.8
– such as Paris, Milan and Barcelona. British
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
6
The repopulation and reuse of city centres
Initially, many local authorities and regeneration
has been, and is, imperative to UK economic
organisations ‘pump-primed city centre sites’,
growth, and UK governments have strived
before taking a back seat and leaving the majority
to return people to the centres since the early
of work to the private sector. Preliminary
1990s. Policymakers have ‘repackaged cities as
development schemes included public/private
post-industrial centres, culture or leisure hubs,’
partnerships; often with the inclusion of ‘social
employing the factors of ‘flats, offices, shops,
landlords and niche developers’ compared to
nightlife and public spaces as elements of city
the historic trend of exploitation of high density
centre renewal.’
slums under the provision of a single landlord – these developments were mostly targeted at
The first city centre model for modernity
owner-occupiers and small investors. However,
included avant-garde groups such as ‘creatives,
the market is now steered by investors and
gay people and others leading alternative
mainstream property players (such as the Reuben
lifestyles’. However, at present, the character of
Brothers for East Pilgrim Street) and whilst
the city centre predominantly consists of a mix
Registered Social Landlords are still active in city
of ‘committed urbanists, and a majority of short
centres, they are no longer the ‘leading players’
term stayers’.
for the development of such schemes, due to the
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
7
9
FHP City Living / Metropolitan Housing Partnership / Nottingham University (2005): City Living Buyer Profile: Who Lives in the City? Nottingham: FHP City Living.
lucrative nature of the market. As a result, the majority of development in city centres is now focused around the buy-to-let market; with one and two bedroom flats and studio apartments making up the majority. ‘In many city centres investors control around 70 per cent of the market’, this statistic has increased by 30 per cent in just a few years.9 Whilst institutions, such as universities; individuals and property syndicates remain operative in the market, stakeholders suggest that numerous ‘big investment houses have moved out … in the past few years.’
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
8
CURRENT HOUSING PROVISION IN NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE SOCIAL RENTED
ENGLAND NEWCASTLE
The current availability of housing in the wider city of Newcastle is split between a number of different tenures; with a large percentage
PRIVATE RENTED
of Social Housing (29.7%) compared to the national average (17.7%). There is a significant
OWNER OCCUPIER
proportion of private rented accommodation at 19.1% compared to the national average of 16.8%. However, in comparison to the owner-
OTHER
occupied sector of England (63.4%), Newcastle is significantly below average at 49.5%.
FIGURE 3 GRAPH SHOWING HOUSING TENURES IN NEWCASTLE
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
9
10
Plummer House is currently undergoing conversion into student accommodation.
Figure 3 shows the tenure distribution in
of appropriate family housing provision in the
Newcastle’s wider context, however, in terms of
current city centre housing model. Furthermore,
what is currently provided in the city centre itself
the typology of first and second floor apartment
the situation is somewhat different. The vast
accommodation above public frontages, on
majority of current housing projects underway
streets such as Grey Street, is not a suitable
in the city centre are for student homes. Whilst
model of provision for the ageing population
students spend in the city centre and support
who may struggle with stairs.
local business, the fact remains that student tenants generate no council tax in order to help sustain the council. So why is it that so many of these developments are being built? The main reason for the swathes of student developments we see is the focus on commercial developments driven by the profit incentives in a market economy for private developers, there is even a student development project underway in East Pilgrim Street10. There is a distinct lack
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
10
HOW THE CURRENT SITUATION MAY CHANGE The provision of housing in the city centre is
diversification of housing provision could attract
very important; ideally providing well-built,
people to want to live in the city centre, whilst
reasonably price accommodation close to
retaining current residents and sustaining the
the areas in which the workforce is situated.
current urban model of the city’s core.
Therefore, we must encourage the supply of suitable residential development in the Newcastle
Situating high quality dwellings in the correct
conurbation. Moreover, there is the opportunity
locations will contribute towards labour
to accommodate for a wider demographic than
mobility and therefore accelerate local economic
the current city centre provision. There is not
growth into the future. Locating these housing
a homogeneous bracket of people living and
developments in the city centre will enhance the
working in Newcastle’s city centre. Therefore, a
city’s prospects to draw and preserve university
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
11
11
Newcastle Housing Statement 2017-20, Newcastle City Council
graduates and professionals, whilst cultivating
However, regardless of how enticing a housing
the local skilled workforce hereafter. Hence,
development may be, families would not
some key components of future housing
be encouraged to repopulate the urban core
development offers are their location, local
without the opportunity for resident access
infrastructure and links to local and national
to ‘demonstrably good schools’. Furthermore,
transport networks11.
disapproval has been noted that current development in the city centre targets only
According to existing research, there is a
the young and wealthy; therefore, this should
suggestion that good design is proven to
be addressed and, as a model, should not be
have considerable economic advantage in
duplicated subsequently.
development and regeneration. A resulting expansion in the sustainability of local facilities
Perhaps the future of city centre developments
can be achieved through a mixing of uses (whilst
lies in redeveloping sites such as EPS into
providing opportunity for higher densities) so
‘inner “urban” suburbs’. Lessons can be taken
long as the considerations of user requirement
from the positive characteristics of areas such
and preference is taken into account.
as Heaton and Summerhill; with focus on the provision of housing for a variety of residents,
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
12
without making tenure the forefront of the
for the city centre; principally regarding the
proposal. Rather, ensuring that local facilities
opportunity to reduce the necessity to travel and,
are well considered to encourage residents to the
therefore, the exhaustion of energy resources.
development; specifically encouraging families to
There is a relationship apparent between urban
reside in the city centre as part of a diverse model
density, accessibility and transportation; this
over a range of demographics. 12
relationship is manifested in several examples of forward thinking policy such as the Transit
Recognising the ‘housing aspirations of local
Orientated Development14 of North America
people’,’… the perceptions of an area as a place
and the RICS Transport Development Areas
to live; and ‘…urban design, energy use and
based on the Dutch ABC15 concept.
transport implications’13 are important factors to consider when informing ‘strategic interventions
Specific links between residential urban densities
in the housing market’.
and transportation energy usage16 have been identified in academic research according
Policy emphasis toward the regeneration of
to building energy use17 and community
brownfield sites is verified by the fact that the
infrastructure provision18 at the strategic scale19.
‘compact city’ promises to be a sustainable model
Alongside this, the links between urban densities
12 NE1 want to live here? (Executive Summary) 13 STZ Pieda (2004) Housing Market Assessment Manual (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London). 14 Kunster, J.H. (1996) Home from Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday World for the Twenty-first Century (Simon and Schuster, New York) and Gordon, P and Richardson, H.W. “Are compact cities a desirable planning goal?’. Journal of American Planning Association 63(1) pp 95-106. 15 Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and the Environment (1994) Report on the progress of the Dutch ABC policy (Dutch Government, The Hague). 16 Newman, PWG and Kenworthy, JR (1989) ‘Gasoline consumption and cities: a comparison of US cities with a global survey’. American Planning Association Journal 55 pp 2437. 17 Owens, Susan (1986) Energy, Planning and Urban Form (Pion, London). 18 Barton, Hugh., Davies, Geoff and Guise, Richard (1995) Sustainable Settlements: A guide for planners, designers and developers (University of the West of England and the Local Government Management Board, Luton). 19 Breheny, Michael (1996) ‘Densities in the sustainable city’. Conference paper presented to the second meeting of The Sustainable Cities Network, University of Newcastle-uponTyne, February 7.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
13
20 Llewelyn-Davies (1996) The Re-use of Brownfield Land for Housing (The Joseph Rowntree Foundation, London). 21 Urban Initiatives and Chesterton (1995) Hertfordshire Dwelling Provision through Planned Regeneration (Hertfordshire County Council, Hertford). 22 NE1 want to live here? (2004) The brownfield challenge (Newcastle City Council, Newcastle).
and economic factors such as marketability, land
underused areas of cities in the modern world
ownership and institutional procedures and
in which we live. Although the inclusion of
limitations have been selected20 and partially
several demographics could help to boost the
quantified21 in practice orientated research. The
community whilst also giving more income to
coalescence of these aspects informs a convincing
the city centre by expanding market viability.
argument for a change from the archetype of the suburban settlement towards ‘a rejuvenation of
A space such as East Pilgrim Street informs
collective urban living’22 benefiting the diverse
a viable test bed for one such development
income demographic.
of community led housing and social spaces within the very centre of the urban domain of
I am proposing the idea of providing a new
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Furthermore, regions
typology of housing directly into the centre of
such as EPS provide the opportunity for urban
the city. The emphasis is focused on a mixed-
and cultural oases in the city centre; spaces
use co-housing scheme that provides social
with ‘relative tranquillity’ from one another
inclusivity for a range of demographics. This
as well as the busy urban lifestyle. Moreover, a
scheme proposal could be one of many possible
development as described above would provide
solutions for the redevelopment of these
the opportunity to deliver solutions to a wide
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
14
range of housing markets in what is currently a strange and somewhat ineffective city centre housing model.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
15
CHAPTER 2 WHO SHOULD WE BE PROVIDING FOR IN THE FUTURE OF CITY CENTRE LIVING In a sense, we are lucky that we have not yet
Can we, therefore, provide for a wider
wasted the opportunity of East Pilgrim Street,
demographic in one small sector of the city
by expanding the retail core at the potential
than is currently provided for in the city centre
decrement of the existing inhabited urban core.
as a whole? By bringing people together from
When an opportunity such as the redevelopment
different stages of life and social backgrounds
of EPS arises, it is important to consider many
into a mixed-use cohousing style scheme, aside
different social and lifestyle groups. People at
from the benefit a city centre location can
many different life stages can all benefit from
provide, being part of a mixed demographic
a city centre dwelling opportunity, albeit for
community can have benefits of its own.
different reasons.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
16
It is of course important to provide for students
in terms of its residents (and ‘a limited number
and young professionals, they are the future of
of well known developers’) and has failed to
the population and therefore some sense can
entice the opportunity for the exploration of
be seen in the provision of the ever-growing
wider demographic development from larger
number of student residences flying up around
developers.
the city centre. Historically, ‘the aspirations of young working people without children’23 to
In order to create a thriving community within
want to reside ‘in and around “lively” city centre
the city centre it is paramount to appeal to
locations’24 and, moreover, price have informed
a number of demographics. In the current
the marketability of property conversions. This
provision, there is a significant lack of availability
is why conversions of redundant properties
for family housing; in order to encourage
are still ‘predominantly flats or student
families to move back to the city centre it is
accommodation’25. The peripheral inner areas
important to provide the appropriate facilities
of cities, as well as the centres themselves,
rather than simply somewhere to live.
‘are still widely regarded as child un-friendly environments’. The region of the city centre
An ‘inner “urban” suburb’ solution could
has been inclined to become a ‘niche market’
provide for a much wider demographic than
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
23 Mulhearn, Deborah (1994) ‘Loft Living in Liverpool from a developer with a difference’ Architect’s Journal 18 August pp13-14 24 NE1 want to live here? (2004) Conversion of redundant institutional and commercial properties pp23 25 Heath, Tim and Oc, Tanner (2001) ‘Sustainability through converting buildings to residential use’. Urban Design Quarterly Winter 77 pp35-36
17
the existing urban model with emphasis on the flat or apartment typology. The idea of mixing a number of different life stage groups may at first seem as though it could present issues. Placing the ageing generation in close proximity to students for example could lead to problems of noise complaints; however, if these issues could be mitigated within a tight-knit model perhaps a thriving community could become apparent.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
18
IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE LIVING TRENDS IN CITY CENTRES The most prosperous city centre economies
It is plausible to assume that successful city
have seen an increased concentration of jobs
centres with continued growth of housing
within them, specifically ‘knowledge intensive
provision will see a continued population
jobs’. The UK is expected to further pursue this
increase. There has been a boom for flats and
sector of the job market in to the future, in the
apartments in large city centres in recent times; if
uncertain times that lie ahead we must consider
the provision of housing continues in alignment
the likelihood of the loss of more and more jobs
with demand, it is reasonable to suggest that the
to automation. However, it is probable that new
return of city centre living seen in these larger
roles will be created that, as of yet, we cannot
cities of late will continue.
foresee. As a result, we can presume that the demand to live in city centres will increase.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
19
26
22 per cent of central London residents and 21 per cent of central Brighton residents are aged over 35 with a degree, whereas in other city centres in England and Wales this demographic only makes up for 14 per cent of the population.
27
Planning (2015) Office-toresi permitted development extends to allow demolitions and new build homes. Planning, 13 October 2015. http://www. planningresource.co.uk/article/1368187/ office-to-resi-permitted-developmentextends-allow-demolitions-new-buildhomes
Although, should successful city centres not
demand for housing in the city centre. However,
increase their housing demand accordingly, it is
as a result, competition over land use for offices
safe to assume that it will become less affordable
and living will also gain momentum. According
to live in such places. This trend has already
to current policy for Permitted Development
been foreshadowed in the likes of London and
Rights (allowing the development of office
Brighton; where demand has massively outgrown
space for residential use without full planning
the supply. This has not solely affected the
permission27) there is an incentive for developers
expansion of their city centre populations but
to convert existing office space in situations
has also altered the demographic of the areas26;
where greater demand for housing occurs. This
the older demographic of these two city centre
creates a conflict of interest and could have a
locations indicate that ‘younger people have been
detrimental effect on ‘the future of office spaces
priced out’. Should this lack of expansion of the
in the cities where demand from knowledge-
housing market be repeated elsewhere, a similar
based businesses for employment space is likely
pattern could occur.
to increase, and could threaten the growth of city centre economies.’
The increased centralisation of jobs into the urban core in the future will also lead to a greater
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
20
This could lead to the economies of cities as a
effected. For example, in London, the provision
whole being sent into turmoil if appropriate
of public transport links has been a much more
business premises cannot be acquired. Alongside
validating reason when choosing somewhere to
this, with one of the key factors for the attraction
live than in other areas of Britain. (Figure 4).
to city centre living being proximity to the workplace, there is the potential of undermining the demand for housing in the urban centre as a whole. Expanding the focus of city centre working makes commuting via one’s personal mode of transport ever less suitable. For example, in London – where 30 per cent of the job market is based at the urban core28 - 90 per cent of the city centre workforce travel to work via public transport, on foot or by bicycle. As a result, the reason for where people choose to live has been
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
28 ONS (2013) Business Structure Database
21
FIGURE 4 GRAPH SHOWING WHERE PEOPLE CHOOSE TO LIVE IN LONDON
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
22
There is an infrastructural discrepancy, between
centre population growth. The ability to support
the North East and London; with London
a growing workforce in the city centres of
projected to receive 875 per cent of that in
such locations will have more of an effect on
the North East per capita in future transport
the future of city centre housing rather than
investment.29 Should other UK cities follow the
focusing on the city as a whole. At present,
trends recently seen in London, it is clear that
there is the attraction to live in the centre due
the provision of public transport will become a
to the availability of cheap housing. Although,
key detail for people to consider when looking
in quickly expanding city centres, the focus for
for a place to live. The expansion of public
population growth tend to be subject to access
transport networks has already been seen in other
to work, ‘as well as their recreational and cultural
cities in the UK, including the Metrolink tram
offer, the types of housing available, and the
network of Manchester30 as well as the extended
quality of the built environment’. The city centre
Nottingham Express Transit31.
populations of small and medium sized cities are less likely to advance without the application
Taking the example of Swindon, which similar
of strategies for regeneration focusing on the
to other small and medium sized cities, has
geography of the economy. 32
experienced a more slow-moving rate of city
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
29 IPPR North analysis of HM Treasury and the Infrastructure and Projects Authority (2016) 30 Transport for Greater Manchester (2015). Future Metrolink. http://www.metrolink.co.uk/ futuremetrolink 31 Nottingham Express Transit (2015). Phase Two. http://www.thetram. net/phasetwo.aspx 32 Urban Demographics: Why People live where they do (2015). Centre for Cities, London.
23
CHAPTER 3 WHAT KIND OF HOUSING DEVELOPMENT WOULD BEST SUSTAIN THE CITY CENTRE? The proposal I am suggesting for East Pilgrim
provide council tax income. Furthermore, these
Street is specifically for a community led housing
developments seem to have a lack of community;
project. At the moment, the main developments
I am therefore interested in researching the
to provide city centre living are to provide
possibilities of community led housing schemes
student accommodation and whilst students are
as a future use of the city centre as there will
an important feature of successful cities and can
always be the need for housing even in a world
support the economy of the city region, they also
where many sectors are migrating online.
contribute towards certain issues, for example noise for neighbouring areas. Moreover, there
One example of a cohousing model that I have
is a lack of benefit to the council as they do not
looked into is in Copper Lane, London. This
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
24
scheme was designed by Henley Halebrown
agreed components. Their variation is derived in
Rorrison Architects (HHbR) and consists of 6
response to their differing location in relation to
homes; albeit a small development it manages to
their immediate and surrounding neighbours.”33
successfully replace a disused children’s nursery on a 1000m2 site behind residential streets. The
A further model I have studied is ‘New Ground
scheme incorporates a ‘cluster’ model, placing
Cohousing, London’. This is a scheme developed
the houses around a central courtyard above the
by Pollard Thomas Edwards in conjunction
communal facilities.
with Hanover Housing for the Older Women’s Cohousing group (OWCH). This development
This allows for perimeter communal gardens and
consists of 25 private apartments around shared
is based around the idea of developing a build
facilities; including a large garden and a laundry
type to manifest ‘communality’. Ken Rorrison
room. It is the first purpose built co-living
(HHbR) said of the scheme, “This project is
development for older people in the UK. The
not about creating ideal bespoke houses for
scheme involves a purposely wide age range
six individual clients, but making a collective
(currently spanning ages 50-87), which allows
whole that is bigger than the sum of its parts.
for the possibility of shared care. The scheme
Generally, the houses are all made from the same
is two thirds owner occupied and one third
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
33 Henley Halebrown Rorrison Architects, Copper Lane. (2009-14) accessed online at: http:// henleyhalebrown.com/works/copper-lane/
25
34
Pollard Thomas Edwards Architects, New Ground Cohousing. (2010-16) accessed online at: http:// pollardthomasedwards.co.uk/project/ owch/
social housing and provides a communal house containing a meeting room along with kitchens and dining areas.34
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
26
RECOGNISED BENEFITS OF COHOUSING There are a number of benefits that can be
achieved from the shared use of many household
seen from employing a cohousing model. For
appliances and functions according to residents
example, recent post-occupancy studies of such
of existing cohousing models.
community schemes have suggested that new social practices, technical processes and collective
The provision of shared facilities alongside
learning solutions can help towards reducing
individual dwellings can lead to a heightening of
energy usages and improving the performance
‘social and physical resilience’ for residents and
of housing. Moreover, the cost of living can be
the wider community. Leading on from this,
made more affordable; in terms of spending on
there are also benefits that are somewhat less
food, utilities, goods and services; as a result of
tangible. These benefits include ‘an enhanced
collaboration. These reductions if cost can be
sense of place, increased self-awareness,
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
27
35
Cohousing: Shared Futures (2016), ESRC Collaborative Housing and Community Resilience, School of Geography, Politics and Sociology, Newcastle University
compassionate caring and shared community knowledge.’ However, these advantages are usually ‘better captured through devices such as story-telling than through traditional metrics.’35
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
28
HOW CAN COMMUNITY LIVING PREVENT SOCIAL ISOLATION? Professor of Public Policy and Epidemiology
isolation.
at Harvard University, Lisa Berkman, suggests that the cohousing typology ‘harkens back to
At Saettedammen, which began 46 years ago and
the kinds of communities that used to naturally
is identified as the first cohousing community
dominate our societies.’ In a series of interviews
in the world, communal meals are one of the
from residents of two community housing
principle factors of the community. These
programmes, Saettedammen and Rocky Hill
provide an opportunity for interaction between
Cohousing located in Copenhagen, Denmark
the wide-ranging demographic of ‘singles,
and Northampton, Massachusetts respectively,
couples, retirees and families with children.’ The
Saskia de Melker discovers the benefits of a
hub of the development is the common house,
cohousing collaborative to help combat social
where monthly meetings are led by a small group
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
29
of families on a rota basis. Residents are tasked
are disconnected, have a mortality rate that’s
with cleaning the shared spaces as well as tending
three times as high. That is, they’re about three
to the gardens. Stig Brinck, an architect, lives
times more likely to die over maybe a decade, as
on the development with his wife, an artist, and
people who have many, many more ties.’
their two daughters who have been brought up within the community. Brinck says of the
Jytte Helle, a 70-year-old resident of
development, ‘You live in kind of a small, small
Saettedammen has lived within the community
village. You know everybody around you, and
development for 30 years. Helle claims that,
you share as much as possible. So you are very
for her in particular, it is important to live in
close neighbours, and you are kind of depending
‘a mixed group, not only with older people,
on each other, but you’re not obligated to any
because then we would just talk about our
strict rules.’
diseases and aches and pains. Older people can’t give the same energy as younger people can.’
Berkman implies that ‘cohousing can reduce
Leading on from this, 14-year-old Ella Poulsen
social isolation and the detrimental health effects
(who has lived in the scheme for her entire life)
associated with it.’ Qualifying this statement,
says, ‘It’s kind of like everyone’s a parent, and
Berkman says ‘People who are very isolated, who
everybody will take care of the kid if there’s
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
30
something wrong and the parents aren’t there. I
build a community.’
think it’s just very safe.’ Berkman states that cohousing provides the Rocky Hill Cohousing follows a similar financial
opportunity for people to age in their own
model to that of Saettedammen, with a variety
homes, saying that ‘with the ageing population
of communal amenities but was established only
and the increasing frailty that people will
12 years ago. An estimation by the Cohousing
experience as they age, at some point everyone
Association of America suggests there are around
needs a little help.’ Going on to say that as
150 community development schemes in the
a result of living in such a large country,
US. One resident of Rocky Hill, who has lived
‘Americans are especially vulnerable to social
there since its conception, is Carol Rinehart – a
isolation’ putting this statement down to factors
72-year-old who has recently retired from a
such as the value placed on independence and
position as a hospice coordinator. Her view on
mobility. Furthermore, Berkman says that it is
the importance of community is clear, saying,
not only the older generations who struggle with
‘You don’t get up some day in the morning and
social isolation, saying also that ‘young families
say, “You know, I think this is the day I’m going
can struggle to maintain social networks as they
to have a community.” You know, you have to
juggle work and family.’
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
31
Another resident at Rocky Hill, Gary Felder, is
their ageing members, ‘including ride sharing
a college professor living with his wife and two
and connecting residents with financial and
young children. He claims that his family’s ‘social
medical services.’ Rinehart makes the suggestion
life is built in, unlike other families who don’t
for a dedicated area of ‘the common house for
live in a cohousing arrangement.’ Moreover,
somebody who lives in and is a licensed practical
he states the importance of the cohousing
nurse’… who could provide care for, ‘several
community model for the development of his
different families who may be in that area of
children, saying ‘they have regular interactions
need.’
with elders’… and are, as a result, ‘very aware of the whole process of people getting older
However, at Saettedammen it is becoming
and retiring and having physical problems and
increasingly difficult for them to maintain their
dying.’
intergenerational dynamic. Over 50 per cent of the residents now exceed the age of 65 and the
Furthermore, the residents of Rocky Hill
‘community is encouraging younger families
have realised the existing growth of the ageing
to move in when homes become available.’
population (and that it is likely to continue)
Although, many of the community’s long-
and as a result are creating new guidelines for
standing residents, such as Jytte Helle, are keen
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
32
to remain amongst their ‘social support network’. Helle says, ‘We’ve been a part of creating this, and want to feel the benefits that come with getting old in a cohousing community like this.’ She qualifies her point by saying ‘I’m convinced that if I lived exclusively with elderly people, I would degenerate. So, the fact that I’m living with younger people is a gift on a daily basis.’36
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
36 Learn How Two Communities Prevent Social Isolation. (2017). PBS NewsHour.
33
COULD EAST PILGRIM STREET BECOME A MODEL FOR SCHEMES TO HELP SUSTAIN AND IMPROVE THE CITY CENTRE? Cultural activity already exists on the north-
One proposal I have studied is for the
eastern fringes of East Pilgrim Street, examples of
development of 4 units of urban housing within
this include the City Library and the Laing Art
the Science Central development. This proposal
Gallery. Furthermore, there is the provision of a
is part of the ‘Future Homes’ project currently
small public square known as ‘The Blue Carpet’
underway under the leadership of Rose Gilroy
by Thomas Heatherwick. These civic amenities
at Newcastle University. The project is working
could provide a mitigating factor between the
to challenge the existing housing offer, whilst
existing urban core of the city of Newcastle
trying ‘to show what is possible in the fusion
and the future community housing model I am
of demographic ageing, embracing digital
proposing to implement in East Pilgrim Street.
innovation and urban sustainability.’
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
34
Some parallels I have drawn between the
communities I have studied, I believe that East
‘Future Homes’ project and my own proposal
Pilgrim Street provides the perfect test bed for
are for the exploration of possible ‘new building
a model scheme that could help to sustain and
materials, energy systems and the integration of
improve the city centre as it stands.
these with renewables’. One of the ideas behind this is to ‘protect occupants from energy price
A further impediment to improved
fluctuation and from power insecurity.’ The
housebuilding highlighted by Gilroy is the
dwellings proposed in the project led by Gilroy
‘skill shortage in the industry’. As a result, the
are intended to create a model allowing residents
‘demonstrator homes’ within the ‘Future Homes’
at different life course stages to live together as
project are proposed to utilise new building
neighbours. Moreover, these houses are suggested
methods with the aim towards putting the
to be lifetime homes for the future age, with
area of ‘Newcastle/Gateshead on the map as a
the capability of reconfiguration to meet the
region with skilled tradespeople and a centre
changing needs of residents over time.
for skills training.’ Implementing these skill sets into the model I am proposing for East Pilgrim
Taking inspiration from the ‘Future Homes’
Street would further cement the jobs market
project and the case studies of cohousing
in the city centre, whilst assisting the build
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
37 Gilroy, R. (2016) Future Homes, Newcastle University unpublished document
35
and implementation of required technological
future city centre living.
strategies into the development.37 In the ever-expanding sector of knowledge-based The successes drawn from existing cohousing
employment in the city centre, it is clear we must
models in the UK are clear, predominantly the
think of the best possible solution to sustaining
development of a community is key. However,
this market. Furthermore, we should strive to
the schemes I have looked at in the UK (Copper
make it easier for people to get to and from
Lane and New Ground Cohousing) do not
work. A city centre housing development scheme
explore the opportunities of mixing a wide
would tick all these boxes, and at the same time
demographic. Whereas, developments elsewhere
sustain the current urban retail core.
in the world (such as Saettedammen and Rocky Hill) highlight the benefits that can be drawn
Although the scheme I am proposing for East
from living within an expansive demographic.
Pilgrim Street may be sub-optimal to the Reuben
The triumph of these schemes alongside the
Brothers, who as market actors and producers
increasing city centre population, and therefore
are simply looking to maximise profits, there
demand for city centre housing, make the perfect
is evidence to support that city centre housing
case for East Pilgrim Street as a test bed for
provision could be the very best way to sustain
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
36
job markets into the future. The quality of the
informed as a result of having residents in urban
urban environment is improved by residential
centres.
development. There have been developments that have informed public spaces for people to
For the moment, the provision of such
enjoy spending their time and socialising, whilst
community schemes is rare. Furthermore, private
also succeeding in creating places to live.
sector housebuilders and housing associations are unlikely to create such developments in the
The character of the city centre can be improved
future without encouragement from some pilot
by having residents located within it, for example
schemes such as the ‘Future Homes’ project.
the safety of urban zones can be raised by ‘simply
Perhaps, this is why the development of East
having people in the city centre.’ This example
Pilgrim for collaborative housing could act as a
can be seen in cities such as Dundee, where the
test bed for the future. In the meantime, there
City manager was quoted as saying, ‘Without
would be benefits to the city centre of Newcastle,
city centre living, there would have been real
with minimal disruption to the existing model.
difficulty overcoming perceptions that the city centre was a dangerous place.’ Furthermore, a
There are further reasons other than the job
‘more diverse and attractive atmosphere’ can be
market that would encourage people to want
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
37
to live in Newcastle’s city centre. The city is
Furthermore, there is a through route to the
famous for its night life and this could be one
Theatre Royal on Grey Street. This again could
reason why students and young adults could
appeal to families and the ageing population and
be intrigued by the prospect of living in East
provide a cultural link whilst mitigating between
Pilgrim Street.
the community atmosphere I am proposing for the future of city centre living in Newcastle and
However, the city of Newcastle has far more to
the hectic city centre nightlife.
offer than just its nightlife. Directly to the west of East Pilgrim Street there are opportunities
Regulated zoning within the proposed scheme
to interact with culture and the arts. This could
could be easily implemented in order to mitigate
gain the interest of a far wider demographic
issues between differing demographics and
than perhaps the nightlife. For example, the
requirements from the city centre. For example,
Tyneside Cinema fronts onto Pilgrim Street and
the location of young people’s housing nearer
has a strong cultural and arts base. This would
to the nightlife to the west of East Pilgrim
be more likely to appeal to the family and ageing
Street could provide a buffering solution to
demographic than the busy nightlife.
problems that may otherwise occur from noise pollution toward living arrangements for the
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
38
ageing population and young families. The future is, however, tied to unforeseeable needs and provisions in line with complicated forms of efficiency. Therefore, any model that may seem a viable solution to the issues of today must consider the needs and wants of the uncertain future.
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
39
CONCLUSION
The National Community Land Trust Network
meaning they can provide for all future occupiers
consists of a number of Community Land Trusts.
of their developments.
These provide opportunities for communityled housing projects run by ordinary people in
The Mayor of London, Sadiq Kahn, has recently
order to develop and manage homes along with
announced plans for a Community Housing
other prospects such as enterprises, agriculture
Hub to support community-led housing in
and workspaces. One important aspect of the
London. The Hub is to provide community
Community Land Trust Network is the fact that
housing groups with advice and technical
they strive to create genuinely affordable homes
support regarding the access to funding and
matching the local affordability of housing
land. St. Clements is one such development, it
based around local earnings and social provision,
will be the first urban Community Land Trust
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
40
project in the UK . Providing 200 new homes
in order to ensure that policy initiatives aimed
in the Bow, East London; near to the financial
at ‘doubling custom – and self-build activity
district, Canary Wharf and the Olympic Park.
by 2020’ will, in fact, help to enhance funding
33
access for collaborative housing projects. In order to actually move forward with a model similar to what I am proposing there
In order for local government to provide the
are few issues that must be addressed. In terms
greatest assistance that they can towards the
of central government policy, it is important
possibility for cohousing schemes they should
that the political and cultural frameworks
do what they can to make more land available;
currently in place regarding the provision of
particularly in urban areas. Examples of this
housing for people be reassessed to ‘enable
can be seen in Germany, where state and
people to do it themselves’. Furthermore, the
local authority can provide privileged access
legal procedures enabling, safeguarding and
to public land for ‘baugruppen’ (cohousing
developing of the shared ownership of goods
communities and self-builders) at a set price.
ought to be improved. Cohousing initiatives
In some cases, municipalities will also provide
and the Community Housing movement should
‘sustainable infrastructure beforehand to create
see more involvement from the Government
serviced plots.’34 Furthermore, the formation
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
36 Previous Mayor of London, Boris Johnson 37 Cohousing: Shared Futures (2016), ESRC Collaborative Housing and Community Resilience, School of Geography, Politics and Sociology, Newcastle University.
41
of intentional community groups should be
but rather the wider benefits that could come
better facilitated and assisted with the challenges
about as a result of improving the health of the
associated with building and designing
sociological and cultural aspects of the economy.
cohousing schemes. Lastly, local government should look more closely at the issues of quality
Help from developers, both social and
of life and inclusive decision making when
private, could be in the form of the provision
composing future planning policy.
of communal spaces in every new building development whilst encouraging the integration
It is important to question the failure to
of cohousing schemes into their funding
understand benefits beyond yield maximisation;
structures.
as, in the future, the market conditions may have altered. This could be as a result of artificial
If lenders can work together with these
intelligence being capable of understanding
organisations to enhance the financial
wider elements of the economy than currently
opportunities for community housing projects
possible. For example, the benefits resulting from
alongside sharing their knowledge regarding
the provision of more than just short term yield,
the conversations between the groups and the
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
42
lenders themselves perhaps the progression of these schemes can be hastened. Finally, the cohousing groups themselves need to consider the demographic scopes they include in their communities from the point of formation and throughout. Procurement decisions must be made inclusively alongside the embodiment of sustainable technologies throughout the design, construction and operation phases of future development schemes.35
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
38 Cohousing: Shared Futures (2016), ‘Key Asks’, ESRC Collaborative Housing and Community Resilience, School of Geography, Politics and Sociology, Newcastle University.
43
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Barton, Hugh., Davies, Geoff and Guise, Richard (1995) Sustainable Settlements: A guide for planners, designers and developers (University of the West of England and the Local Government Management Board, Luton). - Breheny, Michael (1996) ‘Densities in the sustainable city’. Conference paper presented to the second meeting of The Sustainable Cities Network, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, February 7. - Census 2011 - City People, city centre living in the UK (2005) What is driving city centre living in the UK? (Centre for Cities, London) - Cohousing: Shared Futures (2016), ESRC Collaborative Housing and Community Resilience, School of Geography, Politics and Sociology, Newcastle University - Couch, C (1999) ‘Housing Development in the City Centre’, Planning Practice and Research, 14:1, pp 69-86
- FHP City Living / Metropolitan Housing Partnership / Nottingham University (2005): City Living Buyer Profile: Who Lives in the City? Nottingham: FHP City Living. - Gilroy, R. (2016) Future Homes, Newcastle University unpublished document - Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/nov/18/ asos-overtakes-m-and-s-marks-spencer-uk-high-street-tesla-moment - Heath, Tim and Oc, Tanner (2001) ‘Sustainability through converting buildings to residential use’. Urban Design Quarterly Winter 77 pp35-36 - Henley Halebrown Rorrison Architects, Copper Lane. (2009-14) accessed online at: http://henleyhalebrown.com/works/copper-lane/ - IPPR North analysis of HM Treasury and the Infrastructure and Projects Authority (2016)
- Evening Chronicle, 9th March 2011 (Updated 26th February 2013)
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
44
-Kunster, J.H. (1996) Home from Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday World for the Twenty-first Century (Simon and Schuster, New York) and Gordon, P and Richardson, H.W. “Are compact cities a desirable planning goal?’. Journal of American Planning Association 63(1) pp 95-106. - Learn How Two Communities Prevent Social Isolation. (2017). PBS NewsHour. - Llewelyn-Davies (1996) The Re-use of Brownfield Land for Housing (The Joseph Rowntree Foundation, London). - Ministry of Housing, Physical Planning and the Environment (1994) Report on the progress of the Dutch ABC policy (Dutch Government, The Hague). - Mulhearn, Deborah (1994) ‘Loft Living in Liverpool from a developer with a difference’ Architect’s Journal 18 August pp13-14 - NE1 want to live here? (2004), Newcastle City Council, Newcastle. - Newcastle Housing Statement 2017-20, Newcastle City Council, Newcastle. - Newman, PWG and Kenworthy, JR (1989) ‘Gasoline consumption and cities: a comparison of US cities with a global survey’. American Planning Association Journal 55 pp 24-37.
- Owens, Susan (1986) Energy, Planning and Urban Form (Pion, London). - Pearson, Adrian. Newcastle Chronicle, 11th June 2014 - Planning (2015) Office-to-resi permitted development extends to allow demolitions and new build homes. Planning, 13 October 2015. http://www.planningresource.co.uk/article/1368187/ office-to-resi-permitted-development-extends-allow-demolitions-new-build-homes - Pollard Thomas Edwards Architects, New Ground Cohousing. (2010-16) accessed online at: http://pollardthomasedwards.co.uk/ project/owch/ - STZ Pieda (2004) Housing Market Assessment Manual (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, London). -Transport for Greater Manchester (2015). Future Metrolink. http://www.metrolink.co.uk/futuremetrolink - Urban Demographics: Why People live where they do (2015). Centre for Cities, London. - Urban Initiatives and Chesterton (1995) Hertfordshire Dwelling Provision through Planned Regeneration (Hertfordshire County Council, Hertford).
- Nottingham Express Transit (2015). Phase Two. http://www. thetram.net/phasetwo.aspx - ONS (2013) Business Structure Database
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
45
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’
46
FUTURE CITY CENTRE LIVING FOR ‘THE ONLINE WORLD’