Toxic Threads
The health risks of unsustainable school uniforms
Contents 01
Context
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The number of chemicals in school uniform production
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The ‘critical windows’ of exposure in childhood and adolescence a Skin rashes and irritations b Respiratory problems c Hormonal and developmental problems d Cancers
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The health risks of chemicals in school uniforms
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Uniform safety in the UAE
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How did we get here?
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The murky global fashion industry
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How to take action?
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The final thread
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Context
This paper aims to raise awareness of the risks to children’s health caused by the chemicals used in the production of school uniforms. Tens of thousands of synthetic chemicals are applied to fabrics during the production process (v). Many are hormone-disrupting and cancer-causing. They have the potential to cause life-long health problems, through long-term exposure to small doses absorbed into the bloodstream through the surface of the skin and inhalation (xviii). The clothing industry has come under scrutiny as the human and environmental health implications of globalised manufacturing practices have been uncovered and understood. Criticism has focused on ‘Fast Fashion’; understanding the health risks for specific sub-groups such as children has often been overlooked. Many organisations and public interest groups are now calling for greater collective awareness and research into the effects of the ‘chemical cocktail’ present in school uniforms (v). The chemicals used in clothing production has the potential to cause damage over the course of a lifetime if exposure occurs in childhood (x). School uniforms are often treated with greater volumes of chemical per kilo of fabric than other garments To make matters worse, school uniforms are often treated with greater volumes of chemical per kilo of fabric, in order to provide value-added benefits from easy-care, to sweat-wicking and fire-resistance (v). It is nearly a century since the mass-growth of the synthetic chemicals industry. Over this time 100 million synthetic chemicals have been brought into existence (xviii). They have accumulated in our bodies and environments. We are only just beginning to understand the human and environmental damage caused by both intensive and long-term exposure to this chemical cocktail.
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However, the dots are being joined. Incidences of childhood diseases such as asthma, eczema and cancer are increasing at historic rates. Public bodies such as the European Union (EU) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) are trying to catch up and monitor the use of chemicals in industry, but initiatives such as the EU’s REACH have come late in the day. Very few of the chemicals used by global industry since the 1930s have ever been tested or regulated (xviii). The vast majority have been assumed safe for decades. Toxicologists - those responsible for chemical safety testing - have only recently understood the importance of testing long-term exposure to lower doses, rather than classifying safety based the hazardous effects of high doses (xviii). And crucially, the majority of toxicology tests that do take place are still not testing for differences between the effects on adults and children (x). Public regulators play a critical role in protecting our children’s health through policy-making, taxation and regulation. However, it is for all concerned, from manufacturers, to retailers, community groups, schools and parents, to take a precautionary role in mitigating and reducing the risk of children’s exposure to chemicals that could affect their future.
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02
The Number Of Chemicals In School Uniform Production
A typical school shirt may be bathed in tens-of-thousands of synthetic chemicals in the process of being converted from fibre to finished garment (xiv). If conventional cotton is being used pesticides and insecticides will be applied before the textile is soaked in bleaches, dyes, formaldehyde to make the final product ‘crease-free’, and teflon or PFOAs to make it ‘stain resistant’. In almost all of the processes the raw textile undergoes before being shipped, industrial chemicals are applied (ii). To facilitate this chemical bathing and rinsing, the shirt will be soaked in 200 litres of water along its journey, removing toxic pollutants from factories and displacing them into local waterways and ecosystems (ii). And all along this long, international supply chain, the item is passed through hundreds of labourer hands; packing, stitching, dyeing and spinning to earn, in the vast majority of cases, less than the absolute minimum wage (xix). A cheaply-made product pushes its true cost onto the environment, workers’ quality of life, and onto our school student’s health.
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Conventional VS Organic Cotton What’s The Difference?
Conventional cotton is grown to produce very high yields over short time-frames.
Organic cotton is grown in harmony with nature using minimal, natural inputs.
To grow high volumes of cotton quickly requires large volumes of inputs and energy, including pesticides, fertilisers and water. More pesticides are used on cotton annually than on any other crop, posing serious health hazards to growers and pickers’ skin and health. They run off into local water ways and ecosystems, damaging wildlife.
Pesticides are not used - as a result the cotton requires less water and fewer energy inputs.
The average conventional cotton t-shirt uses:
The average organic cotton t-shirt uses:
Up to 8000 chemicals will have been applied to it during its production Uses about 16% of global insecticides and 7% of pesticides 2700 litres of water
Zero toxic chemicals or GMOs 40% less energy and fewer Co2 emissions 30% of the water used for conventional cotton (80% of organic cotton is rain fed)
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03
The ‘Critical Windows’ Of Exposure In Childhood And Adolescence
The chemicals used in uniform manufacturing was developed in commercial laboratories. It is important to note that these synthetic chemicals do not occur in nature. Their size, however, means that they can be absorbed into the body and into the blood stream through contact with the surface of the skin and the processes of inhalation, ingestion and digestion, some can be also absorbed by the gut (i). These chemicals do not interact with the cells of our bodies in the same way as organic compounds. Instead, they can interfere with the normal and healthy functioning of cells all around the body. Studies have shown that children’s physiology and biology make them significantly more vulnerable to the risks of chemical exposure than adults (x). This is to do with their fast rate of growth and cell division, faster inhalation rates and a higher body-surface-area to weight ratio. The key stages in a child’s development are known as ‘critical windows of development’, characterised by dynamic processes taking place at cellular, molecular and organ levels (x). Due to changes taking place in the body, there is a greater likelihood of chemicals being absorbed into a child’s bloodstream and in turn, a greater likelihood that damage (genetic mutations at the cellular level, for instance) carry forward into later life. Synthetic compounds can have both immediate and long-term adverse health effects which can disrupt and damage an individual’s health and wellbeing over the course of a lifetime. These ‘critical windows’ of childhood and adolescence require further scientific exploration and understanding in the context of chemical exposure. In adolescence, for instance, key hormonal changes can be critically interfered with by synthetic chemicals in the bloodstream, particularly Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) (xviii). The WHO has recommended that new risk assessments are required. However, too few studies have been carried out; governments are often hesitant to take precautionary measures without conclusive evidence.
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Children’s behaviour and interactions with their clothes are different to adult’s and yet these behaviours have not been taken into account with existing risk assessments. School uniforms are worn day-in, day-out; children are physically active and are often more tactile with their possessions (imagine a typical student chewing on a pen or a sleeve), which can increase the rate of chemical absorption. When children exercise in chemical-laden clothing, their sweat can facilitate the release of chemicals from the fabric fibres into the open pores on their skin. Schools’ management of clothing and PE kit can also inadvertently increase exposure. Research has shown that waterproof garments stored in dark spaces over summer can emit greater quantities of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), linked to a range of health conditions including cancer, when they come out into the light (v).
“80% of the chemicals in common use, we know almost nothing about. Childhood asthma has tripled, childhood obesity, childhood cancer has risen by 40% in the last 16 years” Dr Philip Landrigan Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Centre
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04
Increasing Number Of Serious Health Problems Linked To Synthetic Chemicals In School Uniforms
Skin Rashes And Irritations One of the most common surface-level health problems caused by synthetic chemicals is allergic contact dermatitis (i). Mild or severe, it is a persistent inflammation or rash. In more severe cases, it can develop from a temporary atopic condition into the more persistent eczema. Atopic dermatitis conditions have tripled globally in the past 50 years.
Key Chemicals Responsible Epoxy resins (glueing agents), Formaldehyde, flame retardants, delustrants (e.g. Anatase Titanium Dioxide), UV light absorbers, Phenylenediamine (i, ii).
Typical Garment ‘Features’ Wrinkle-resistant, easy-care, shrinkage-free, easy-iron, flame resistant, black and brown coloured garments due to the dyes used for these colours (viii).
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Respiratory Problems Chemicals in uniform fabrics can be inhaled and lead to respiratory problems and headaches (iv,ii) . Asthma is the most common respiratory childhood disease and continues to grow in prevalence. It triggers potentially life-threatening attacks of breathlessness and wheezing. It is a highly stressful condition for children, who need to carry an inhaler with them at all times in the event of an asthma attack. Rhinitis is another condition that has been linked to chemicals in clothing, which results in an inflammation of the nasal tract, causing stuffiness and sneezind, and headaches.
Key Chemicals Responsible Disperse and Reactive dyes including Cremazole and Azo dyes (ii). Dyes are the largest sub-group of chemicals used in manufacturing.
Typical Garment ‘Features’ Nylon, Polyester and Acetate fabrics. Disperse and Reactive dyes are the most commonly used dyes to colour garments made of synthetic materials. School uniforms are typically produced using synthetic (chemically-derived) fibres.
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Hormonal And Developmental Problems Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) tamper with the Endocrine System that regulates basic processes such as insulin production, reproduction, metabolism and other developmental processes. Obesity, Diabetes, ADHD, and reproductive issues (such as Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome, low testosterone and fertility) have all been linked to the same chemicals used in clothing manufacturing (viii). Many of these conditions stem from exposure in childhood and will manifest later in life.
Key Chemicals Responsible At least 980 separate endocrine disrupting chemicals have been identified to date, including the Phthalates group, Bisphenol A, and flame retardants such as PDBEs (xviii).
Typical Garment ‘Features’ Waterproof clothing, flame-resistance, fire-safe.
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Cancers A range of chemicals used in clothing manufacture have been identified as carcinogenic (cancer-causing). Long-term exposure to a group of dyes known as ‘Azo’ dyes - comprising 60-70% of all dyes used in clothing production globally, of which currently there ae 24 amines which are banned - as they have been found to be carcinogenic (iii). The chemical reason for this is due to Azo dyes’ sub-chemical structure, which hinges around rings of benzene and naphthalene (ii). Benzene has been declared a ‘major public health concern’ by the World Health Organisation, and numerous studies have linked naphthalene to cancer. Another group of carcinogens are perfluorocarbons (PFCs), which are used as waterproofing agents in kids’ outdoor-wear and are linked to kidney cancer and testicular (viii). Formaldehyde, an anti-wrinkling
Key Chemicals Responsible Phthalates, Azo dyes (e.g. 2-Napthalamine, Biphenylamine), Benzidine, flame retardants, PFCs, Formaldehyde.
Typical Garment ‘Features’ Waterproof clothing, stain resistance, mainly red, orange, yellow, black and brown clothing (due to certain dyes used).
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“These every day chemicals were declared safe, dozens of years ago, and now we understand that they can disrupt the endocrine system, the controlling system of our bodies. The numbers are so small‌you think of a part per thousand, per million, a part per trillion, but a natural hormone below a part per trillion can stimulate breast cancer cells to grow. We know that as one cell is replicating, that if you disrupt the hormones that control this, then you permanently alter the genes in those new cells - those cells and all of the cells that come from them, are defective. Only a#er puberty when the reproductive system starts forming, suddenly you start to see diseases of that organ.â€? Professor Frederik Vom Saal University of Missouri USA
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School Uniform Safety In The UAE How safe are your school uniforms?
Very little scienti!c research into UAE uniform safety has been conducted. However, a recent sample of school uniforms available for sale in the UAE were tested and some were found to contain cancer-causing Azo dyes (the dye compounds are known as o-Aminoazotoluene and 2-naphthylamine) at higher than acceptable levels. Although further testing would need to be done to establish if the problem is widespread. These hazardous dyes pose such a serious health risk that they have been banned by governments around the world and are treated with the utmost precaution. In 2014, the Australian government recalled about 121,000 items from Target stores after finding traces of azo dyes in just a minority number of products from a tested sample (xvii).
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How Did We Get Here?
Synthetic chemicals have become long-established agents for making school uniforms along with many other modern products. Since the 1930s and 40s, vast numbers of synthetic chemicals - a staggering 100 million - have been created by chemical companies (xviii). As many as 15,000 man-made chemicals are used by the textile and clothing sectors (v). These synthetics have been developed to increase the efficiency of each process of production, decreasing the time and cost required to take the raw fibre from field to shop. Between 1930 and 2000, the global production of man-made chemicals increased from 1 million to 400 million tonnes a year (xviii). The majority of these chemicals have never been regulated (xviii). Making clothes is one of societies’ oldest crafts, dating back thousands of years. However, the mega trends of industrialisation, consumerism and globalisation have fundamentally changed the industry from artisanal and intimate, to intensive and unsustainable. Achieving high-volume sales and low costs of production have been key drivers of the industry’s business operations. It has become a business model geared around providing the most competitive customer benefits, at the lowest cost. Chemicals were one of the key ways for manufacturers and retailers to stay competitive. Each of the unique processes a raw textile undergoes before becoming a packed, finished garment, involves the use of industrial chemicals. As many as seven unique chemical groups, including peroxides and acetic acids, have been identified in bleaching - just one of the many stages involved. Dyeing is the most chemically-intensive sub-process. Indeed, dyes contain the broadest spectrum of synthetic chemicals and some of the most harmful to children’s health (iii). In addition, all of the innovative benefits of modern school uniforms, cleverly marketed as ‘easy-care’, ‘easy-iron’, ‘stain resistance’ and ‘sweat-wicking’, have all been brought to life with synthetic chemicals(v). Along the production process, exposure to high concentrations of these chemicals is severely detrimental to garment workers’ health, causing skin and lung conditions, and in some cases, reduced life expectancy (xv).
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07
The Murky Global Fashion Industry
The lack of transparency in the industry is one of the major drivers of poor production practices. The clothing retail industry is typified by complex supply chains with very little transparency (vi). Today, the average clothing retailer shares only 20% of its production information with the public, and 60% do not publish a restricted substances list (vi). This is often a result of a genuine lack of knowledge of the end-to-end supply chain. We found that no uniform suppliers in the UAE publicly published information about producers, suppliers, or restricted substances. Retailers and manufacturers are as disconnected from each other’s methods and practices as the end-consumer is from the entire production process. Today, many of the world’s biggest clothing brands are trying to piece together an understanding of their vast network of producer and supplier operations (xx). With more regular product testing and increased awareness of the presence of harmful chemicals in clothing, the faster the industry is likely to react, respond and evolve.
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How To Take Action?
Until the use of harmful chemicals in clothing is taxed, regulated or fully banned by public bodies, there are some steps that schools, parents and children can take to reduce childhood exposure to chemicals in school uniforms.
Schools Audit Although some chemicals may not be banned or regulated in your country, schools have a duty of care to their students. Take the lead and test a sample of your school’s uniforms, particularly for azo dyes, which particularly can be found in products manufactured in countries where production is cheap, awareness about the problem of hazardous chemicals still needs to be increased and restrictions aren’t as tight as the EU for example, such as China.
Switch Suppliers Vote with your wallet. If your current supplier is not forthcoming about the factories, suppliers, materials and chemicals used in their supply chains, as well as how workers are paid and treated, then switch to a supplier that is. Award contracts to suppliers that use organic and recycled materials for their products and can prove it with certifications. If we want to see change then we must support the brands that prioritise the health of children and are leading the way when it comes to sustainability and transparency.
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Parents Simple Is Safest If parents are buying from high-street retailers, they can look for the uniforms with fewer ‘value-added’ benefits, such as ‘easy-care’, ‘wrinkle free’, ‘sweat-wicking’, and ‘fire resistant’ (v). Research has shown that the majority of parents will treat ‘value-added’ clothes in exactly the same way as standard clothing in any case; washing and ironing at the same frequency (v).
Wash And Soak If purchasing sustainable uniforms, free of toxic chemicals uniforms isn’t an option, there are some simple tips for reducing the chemical load of a garment. Soaking it for as long as possible (at least a day) before wearing enables excess chemicals and dyes to leach out of the fabric fibres and into the water(v). Some studies have shown that adding white vinegar to a wash cycle can help to remove formaldehyde (v).
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Children & Parents Speak To Your School The more parents ask their schools where they source their school uniforms - are they are free of toxic chemicals and sustainably-produced? the more schools are aware that this is an issue that matters to children and parents. It could encourage a school to consider switching to a safer, more sustainable official outfitter.
Community Action Connecting with others in the local community can be one of the best ways to bring about change, by sharing knowledge, tips and information either in person or on social media. Locally-run campaigns, however big or small, can be powerful ways to bring people together and raise issues with local schools and public institutions. NGOs and organisations such as Fashion Revolution have many free tools and campaign kits available on their websites.
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The Final Thread
We do not need these harmful chemicals to make our children’s clothes (xx). Whilst it is highly unlikely that we will return to an industry dominated by artisan makers using natural materials and techniques, there is a small yet burgeoning number of sustainable children’s’ wear companies based in the UAE, aiming to disrupt the industry and give parents, schools and children safer, healthier and more ethical alternatives.
About Kapes Kapes makes and supplies the world’s most sustainable school uniforms. Working with ethically-certified factories, they use only GOTs approved eco-friendly dyes to create bespoke uniforms out of materials including organic cotton, RWS wool, recycled polyester (including ocean plastic) and regenerated nylon. They also collect and recycle old uniforms to create new ones, offering them at a discount to help make them more widely available. And for every single uniform they sell, they give away a free one to a child in need. Researched and written by Sophie Corcut, August 2020.
About The Author Sophie Corcut has worked as a consultant researcher for the retail industry for a number of years and has a Master of Science in Environmental Technology from Imperial College London. She is passionate about helping business transition towards sustainability.
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Reference List i.
Akarslana, F., and Demiralay, H. Effects of Textile Materials Harmful to Human Health, 2015
ii.
Ghaley et al Production, Characterization and Treatment of Textile Effluents: A Critical Review, 2014
iii.
El Sikaily et al Textile Dyes Xenobiotic and their Harmful effect, 2012
iv.
Pimentel at al Respiratory disease caused by synthetic fibres: a new occupational disease, 1975
v.
What’s in my school uniform? Fashion Revolution 2020 https://www.fashionrevolution.org/whats-in-my-school-uniform/
vi.
EU REACH Regulations, Understanding REACH, 2020 https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/reach/understanding-reach
vii.
Fashion Transparency Index 2020, Fashion Revolution UK 2020 https://issuu.com/fashionrevolution/docs/fr_fashiontransparencyindex2020? fr=sNmI5NzYxMDk0OA
viii. There are Hidden Chemicals in our clothing, Remake 2018 https://remake.world/stories/news/there-are-hidden-chemicals-in-our-clothing/ ix.
Principles for evaluating health risks in children associated with exposure to chemicals, WHO, 2006, Environmental Health Criteria 237 https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43604/924157237X_eng.pdf
x.
Toxic Chemicals in Children’s Clothes Explained, Deutsche Welle 2014 https://www.dw.com/en/toxic-chemicals-in-childrens-clothes-explained/a-17366181
xi.
7 toxic Chemicals hiding in your waterproof, stain-resistant and wrinkle-free clothes, Business Insider 2019 https://www.businessinsider.com/toxic-chemicals-in-clothes-cancer-2019-7#popularbrands-have-manufactured-t-shirts-and-underwear-with-phthalates-2
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xii.
Children exposed to toxic chemicals dying before 50, says WHO, Guardian 2017 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/21/plight-of-child-workers-facingcocktail-of-toxic-chemicals-exposed-by-report-bangladesh-tanneries
xiii. Cotton Industry, WWF, 2020 https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/cotton xiv. ACCC recalls children’s and women’s clothing over carcinogenic fabric dye, The Guardian, 2014 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/08/accc-recalls-childrens-andwomens-clothing-over-carcinogenic-fabric-dye xv.
A little story about the monsters in your closet, Greenpeace 2014 https://issuu.com/greenpeacechina/docs/a_little_story_about_the_monsters_i/2?ff&e =1191242/6335771
xvi. Chemicals in the Environment: Dehumanising Humanity, Imperial College 2017 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oq2K1IvRf8M xvii. Child Labour ‘rampant’ in Balgladesh factories, study reveals, The Guardian 2016 https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/dec/07/child-labourbangladesh-factories-rampant-overseas-development-institute-study xviii. It’s time for fashion to remove toxic chemicals from clothing, Vogue Business 2019 https://www.voguebusiness.com/technology/fashion-remove-toxicchemicals-from-clothing xix. Flame retardant chemicals found in more people, Consumer Reports 2017 https://www.consumerreports.org/toxic-chemicals-substances/flame-retardantchemicals-found-in-more-people/ xx.
The world counts, Clothing, 2020 https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/consumption/clothing/environmentalimpact-of-cotton-production
xxi. Flame retardants in consumer products are linked to health and cognitive problems, The Washington Post, 2013 https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/flame-retardants-inconsumer-products-are-linked-to-health-and-cognitive-problems/2013/04/15/f5c7b2 aa-8b34-11e2-9838-d62f083ba93f_story.html xxii. Niinimaki, K. et al, The Environmental Price of Fast Fashion, Nature Reviews 2020 https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-020-0039-9.pdf
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