Thesis project

A LAKE AS WATER SANCTUARY The case study of Bangalore water infrastructure

Hila Anav University: Faculty: MSc Programme: Student Number: Primary Supervisor: Assistant Supervisor:

Politecnico di Milano Architettura Urbanistica Ingeneria delle Costruzioni Architettura - Progettazione Architettonica 840584 Professor Meriggi Maurizio Arch. Ferrante Luca

Abstract Water has always played, and continue to play, a central role in human societies.

Water is a source of life and prosperity. People around the globe, especially in the developing world, face water scarcity. As the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) stated in 2006, currently 700 million people in 43 countries live with water scarcity. This scarcity of water forced people around the world to use unsafe water for drinking and other domestic uses (WHO, 2003). The aim of this research is to analyze the causes and effects of water scarcity and to bring a new discussion and an innovative solutions. The research focused on the southern Indian city of Bangalore, which has been famous for its IT economy in recent years. In result of this thriving economy, Bangalore is facing two challenges: one is the lack of water supply to the extent demand and the second is the unprecedented and uncontrolled population growth.

The Indian water infrastructure, natural and artificial, has been known for its great pollution due to the lack of proper education. The project’s main focus is to educate the citizens in Bangalore how to save and harvest rainwater. Bangalore currently faces a water shortage of 500 million liters per day and, unless it dramatically changes its approach, acute water shortage by 2025. An effective water management scheme in Bangalore requires institutional restructuring to enable integrated management of water resources, strong legislation to protect groundwater, major infrastructural improvements, a shift in planning culture that more explicitly recognizes the link between the natural world and human settlements and stronger integration of science in planning.

It is clear that any one of these actions is not easily implementable in the near term due to cultural, institutional, financial, and political challenges. But as a result of major “water wars� and water crisis in the recent years, civil society has played a critical role in pushing the local water authority to make rainwater harvesting mandatory through the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage (BWSSB).

TABLE OF CONTENTS List of figures List of symbols and abbreviations

6 7

1. Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Water quality problems in India 1.3 Background - India 1.4 Water crisis in India 1.5 Study area

8 9 11 12 14 20

2. Conflicts Analysis 2.1 General 2.2 The conflict of water in Bangalore 2.2.1 Water supply: the beginning 2.2.2 After the tanks: reservoir 2.2.2 Water supply: the Cauvery River 2.3 The conflict of rapid urbanization 2.3.1 Poverty, Slums and access to water

24 25 27 28 32 33 44 49

3. Strategies of Supplying Water 3.1 General 3.2 Rainwater harvesting, aqueducts and dams 3.3 Water treatment strategy 3.4 Water quality index 3.5 The Wetland study

54 55 56 64 66 68

4. Morphology Analysis 4.1 Morphology of the Mandala 4.2 Morphology of the Hindu Temples and palaces 4.3 Morphology of Hindu’s architectural elements

72 73 74 78

5. The Case Study 5.1 General 5.2 Site analysis 5.3 Strategy of the project

82 84 85 92

6. The Design 6.1 General Masterplan

94 96

6.2 The corridor 6.3 The Wetland 7. References

98 106 123

List of Figures Figure 1.1 location map of the city of Bangalore Figure 1.2 The system of lakes constructed in the 15th century in Bangalore Figure 2.1 Map of Greater Bangalore Figure 2.2 Map of the water bodies network in Bangalore Figure 2.3 Water bodies status Figure 2.4 Maps of the water bodies and green environment in Bangalore

21 22 26 29 30 31

Figure 2.5 The Cauvery Basin Figure 2.6 The water distribution system along the Cauvery Basin Figure 2.7 The Green environment along the Cauvery Basin Figure 2.8 The road infrastructure along the Cauvery Basin Figure 2.9 The expansion of the city of Bangalore Figure 2.10 The city density Figure 2.11 Population distribution around the city Figure 2.12 Population growth graph Figure 2.13 Slum distribution around the city Figure 2.14 Slum population, types and names Figure 3.1 Rainwater harvesting Figure 3.2 Traditional water Harvesting in India Figure 3.3 Traditional Roman aqueduct Figure 3.4 Modern aqueduct Figure 3.5 Gravity dam Figure 3.6 Arch dam Figure 3.7 Embankment dam Figure 3.8 Buttress dam Figure 3.9 Water treatment Diagram Figure 3.10 Wetland water treatment process schemes Figure 4.1 The Mandala grid

36 38 40 42 44 46 47 47 49 51 56 57 59 59 62 62 63 63 65 71 73

Figure 4.2 Plan and elevation of the Hindu Temples Figure 4.3 The Mysore Palace Figure 4.4 Arches analysis Figure 4.5 Water maze analysis

75 77 78 79

6 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

List of symbols and abbreviations BBMP Bruhat Bangaluru Mahanagara Palika (Bangalore Municipal Corporation) BBWSS \ BWSSB Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board BDA Bangalore Development Authority BMA Bangalore management association CMC City Municipal Corporation GDP Gross domestic product IWT India Water Tool MLD Million Liters Daily TMC (one) Town Municipal Council TMC (two) Thousand Million Cubic UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN United Nations UNDP United Nations development program WHO World Health Organization

The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 7

Chapter 1 |

8 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Introduction

1.1 Introduction Water has always played, and continue to play, a central role in human societies. Water is a source of life and prosperity. It is an input to almost all production, in agriculture, industry, energy, transportation and most important the health of human beings. On the other hand, water is also a cause of suffering and devastation. It can be a force for destruction, floods as well as desertification, contamination and diseases.

Achieving basic water security, harnessing the productive potential of water and limiting its destructive impacts, has been a constant struggle since the origins of human societies. While industrial countries invested early and heavily in water infrastructures, institutions and strong management and maintenance, the developing world remain in an urgent challenge of managing their water legacy.

People around the globe, especially in the developing world, face water scarcity.

As the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) stated in 2006, currently 700 million people in 43 countries live with water scarcity. This scarcity of water forced people around the world to use unsafe water for drinking and other domestic uses (WHO, 2003).

The universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which was adopted in 1948, after the World War, immediately within its preamble called for the “recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world�. Since then, the United Nations (UN) has continued in the mission of that document and works to enforce universal and international human rights. All human beings have the right to life, the right to education, the right to food etc. These fundamental rights cannot be fully realized unless people have the right to water, the right to safe access to potable The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 9

drinking water. The UN declared and highlights the grounds on which water is claimed as a human right: The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce risk of water related diseases and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements*.

Denying people access to drinking water is also denying them the right to life*.

Water must be available and in certain quality levels to fulfill the human right. Improving water supply availability is crucial for public health, as it is the third highest risk factor for poor health with high mortality rates. According to the UNDP, almost two million children die each year because they do not get an access to potable water and basic sanitation.

Even though water scarcity is worldwide problem, urban poor and rural inhabitants are at forefront to be affected by the problem of poor access to potable water. Many people are collecting polluted water from unprotected ponds, unprotected springs, and rivers. All of these sources are subject to contamination as rainwater washes solid and liquid waste from surrounding areas into the sources.

A world water development report by United Nations had categorized India as one among the worst countries with poor quality of water, as well as its ability and commitment to improve the situation. The surface and groundwater resources are steadily declining because of increase in population, industrial growth, pollution by various human, agricultural and industrial wastes and unexpected climate change.

Among the most distinctive features of India are its rivers which covering the vast geographical area of 329 million hectares and have been an important reason for 10 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

the prosperity of India. Being with wide importance in cultural, economical, geographical as well as religious importance among its people, the rivers are considered as Gods and Goddesses, and are worshiped by the Hindus.

1.2 Water quality problems in India India with declining freshwater resources has an acute shortage of potable water of acceptable quality. The socio-economic growth of a region is severely constrained by non-availability of safe drinking water. The shortage has started affecting the lives of people as well as the environment around them. Some of the major issues that need urgent attention are: • As a result of excessive extraction of ground water to meet agriculture, industrial and domestic demands, drinking water is not available during the critical summer months in many parts of the country.

• About 10 per cent of the rural and urban populations do not have access to regular safe drinking water and many more are threatened. Most of them depend on unsafe water sources to meet their daily needs.

• Chemical contaminants namely fluoride, arsenic and selenium pose a very serious health hazard in the country. It is estimated that about 70 million people in 20 States are at risk due to excess fluoride and around 10 million people are at risk due to excess arsenic in ground water.

• Pollution of surface and groundwater from agrochemicals (Fertilizers and Pesticides) and from industry poses a major environmental health hazard, with potentially significant costs to the country.

The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 11

1.3 Background | INDIA

Population 1,266,883,598 growth rate: 1.19 %

Total area 3,287,263 sq km

land 2,973,193 sq km | water 314,070 sq km

Land use

Agricultural land 60.5 % | Forest 23.1 % | Other 16.4 %

Urban population 32.7 % of total population annual rate of change 2.38 % Drinking water source improved 94.1 % | unimproved 5.9 %

Sanitation facility access

improved 39.6 % | unimproved 60.4 %

Major infections diseases risks very high

food or waterborne diseases | water contact diseases

Population below poverty line 21.9 % unemployment rate 5 %

Environment issues

deforestation, soil erosion, overgrazing, desertification, air pollution, water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides, non-potable tap water, rapid population growth, scarcity of natural resources

Economy

India’s diverse economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, modern industries and multitude of services. India has capitalized on its large educated population to become a major exporters of information technologies and software workers.

Export $262.3 billion Import $381 billion GDP agriculture 16.5 % | industr

Source: Central Intelligence Agency. www.cia.gov 12 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

ry 29.8 % | services 45.4 %

Labor force agriculture 47 % | industry 22 % | services 31 % The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 13

1.4 Water Crisis | Main Issues

• Water Stress The map illustrates competition between companies, farms and people for surface water in rivers, lakes, streams, and shallow groundwater.

Red and dark-red areas are highly or extremely highly stressed, meaning that more than 40 percent of the annually available surface water is used every year. With 54 percent of India’s total area facing high to extremely high stress, almost 600 million people are at higher risk of surface-water supply disruptions.

Baseline Water Stress (withdrawals/available supply)

source: World Reasources Institute 14 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Low (<10%) Low to Medium (10-20%) Medium to High (20-40%) High (40-80%) Extremely High (>80%) Arid & Low Water use

54%

of India faces

High to Extremely High

water stress

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 15

â&#x20AC;˘ Groundwater Level Groundwater levels are declining across India. Of the 4,000 wells captured in the IWT 2.0 (India Water Tool) showing statistically significant trends, 54 percent dropped over the past seven years, with 16 percent declining by more than 1 meter per year.

Farmers in arid areas, or areas with irregular rainfall, depend heavily on groundwater for irrigation. The Indian government subsidizes the farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; electric pumps and places no limits on the volumes of groundwater they extract, creating a widespread pattern of excessive water use and strained electrical grids

Groundwater Level (meters below ground level)

source: World Reasources Institute 16 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

High (<1.5) Medium to High (1.5-5.9) Medium (5.9-10.3) Low to Medium (10.3-14.6) Low (>14.6) No Data

54%

of India’s Groundwater wells are

decreasing

The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 17

â&#x20AC;˘ Water Quality The IWT 2.0 (India Water Tool) measures water quality with an Indian-government standard called Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) limits. Surface and groundwater are both below par in many areas.

Among the IWTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 632 groundwater quality districts, only 59 are above BIS limits. Whenever a particular pollutant concentration exceeds BIS limits, drinking water is considered unsafe. The yellow and red areas below indicate places where chlorine, fluoride, iron, arsenic, nitrate, and/or electrical conductivity exceed national standards.

These districts are also extremely populous. 130,600,000 people live in districts where at least one pollutant exceeded national safety standards in 2011. And more than 20 million people lived in the eight districts where at least three pollutants exceeded safe limits. Bagalkot, Karnataka, is the most polluted, with five of six groundwater quality indicators at unsafe levels. Only arsenic falls below the government-recommended concentration level.

Groundwater Quality (BIS Standard breaches)

source: World Reasources Institute 18 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

No Breaches 1 Breach 2 Breaches 3+ Breaches No Data

More than

100

Million people live in areas of Poor

Water Quality

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 19

1.5 Study Area This thesis focuses on the city of

structed in the sixteenth century by the

Bangalore as an archetype of cities that

ruler and founder of Bangalore, Kempe

face water and institutional scarcities,

Gowda. The lakes were man made for

lack of proper approaches to water man-

purposes of drinking water, irrigation,

agement, rapid urbanization, and in-

fishing, and worship space. The sys-

creasing environmental pressures. Ban-

tem linked the tanks contained by the

galore is the capital city of the Indian

sub-catchment area and allowed for ad-

state of Karnataka, located in southern

ditional water to flow over to the next

India. It has a geographical area of 2196

tank in the chain (Agarwal 1997)(see fig-

sq km with an average elevation of 900 m

ure 1.2).

above sea level. The terrain, with its hills and valleys provide a natural drainage

Since the liberalization of India’s

pattern with small streams connected to

economy in 1991, Bangalore has been

major streams. Bangalore district is sur-

experiencing rapid economic growth.

rounding by Bangalore rural district on

Bangalore has substantially been affected

the northwest, northeast and southwest

by globalization and rapid urbanization

while on the southeast located the border

over the last decade and has positioned

with the state of Tamil Nadu (see figure

itself as a major exporter of software

1.1).

services to the world and Information Technology (IT). Hence the term “SiliThe city had been known as the

‘Garden City’ or the ‘City of Lakes’, “Kalyananagara”, or the “Land of Thousand Lakes” for its great system of tanks con20 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

con valley of India” is coined to describe Bangalore.

Karnataka State Bangalore rural

Bangalore Karela State

Tamil Nadu State

figure 1.1 | Location map of the city of Bangalore, Karnataka state, India.

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 21

figure 1.2 | The system f lakes constructed for the city of Bangalore, Karnataka state, India.

Several national and multinational

urban infrastructure, unauthorized slum

companies have located their offices and

dwellers or by private parties, several

Research & Development (R&D) centers

were covered and converted to residen-

in strategic urban locations around the

tial layout or sewerage system as well as

city in order to take advantage of the IT

playgrounds and sports fields.

revolution and the availability of ample

The lack of water sources in the

engineering professionals. A burgeon-

city of Bangalore and in order to meet

ing middle class has emerged, includ-

constantly increasing demands for water

ing thousands of young IT professionals

supply, the Bangalore Water Supply and

working in the high-tech spaces of urban

Sewerage Board (BWSSB) was set up a

India (Mukherjee, 2012).

plan during the first half of the 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s.

The effect of the rapid and un-

The plan of construction the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Cauvery

controlled urbanization has taken some

Water Supply Schemeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Cauvery river is

heavy toll on the lakes in Bangalore. The

an interstate basin with origins in the

lakes have been largely encroached for

state of Karnataka, flows generally south

22 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

and east through Karnataka and the state

The thesis comprises eight chap-

of Tamil Nadu and emptying into the Bay

ters. Chapter 1 brings out the background

of Bengal. The sharing water of the Cauv-

of the study, the practical importance of

ery River has been the source of a serious

the problem and the need of its solution

conflict between the two states.

for use in real life applications. Chapter 2

As mentioned above, water touches

gives the detailed review of the published

every aspect of life, and in India where

literature with reference and finding of

this basic resource is limited, it may

the conflicts the city of Bangalore is fac-

reach to crisis levels and violent conflicts.

ing. Chapter 3 deals with the strategies of

Tensions have occurred as a result of

water supply for the research, including

regional

water

analysis corresponded to rainwater har-

disputes. These tensions are attributed

vesting, water treatment, and water qual-

to the lack of a clear legal framework for

ity. Chapter 4 describes the morphology

water permits and provisions for water

of the southern Indian architecture as a

sharing which are effectively binding.

backbone and an inspiration point for

and

trans-boundary

Keeping in mind the conflicts that

the design. Chapter 5 features the site

Bangalore is facing, the water scarcity

analysis of the case study located in the

and rapid urbanization, the main aim

city of Bangalore. Chapter 6 presents

of this thesis is to develop an approach

the final design of the project. Chapter

to water management and to create an

7 comprises summary of this study and

innovative act of which citizens in the

conclusions. Chapter 8 provides the bib-

city of Bangalore have become engaged

liography and references of the study.

with the water scarcity though sustainable communal rainwater harvesting and treatment infrastructures.

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 23

Chapter 2 |

24 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Conflicts Analysis

2.1 General Bangalore is the capital of Karna-

groundwater. But, both tanks and parks

taka State, and dubbed the Silicon Valley

have been diminishing in number and

of India thanks to its software industry

size for a long time.

being a prime mover of today’s econo-

A High Court Report on Bangalore

my. The city is expanding rapidly, both

Lakes (2011) describes the situation as

in population and size, and counts over

follows: Tanks, being seasonal by nature,

twelve million inhabitants after its juris-

have been encroached upon by new infra-

diction tripled in size in 2007 (see figure

structure and residential layouts, includ-

2.1).

ing slum areas. Others vanish due to the The area is drought-prone because

spread of the water hyacinth or because

of its location in the rain shadow of the

the flow to them has been inhibited. Sur-

Western Ghats mountain range, which

face water bodies are hence disappearing

blocks the south-western monsoon. The

and the rejuvenation of groundwater is

city normally receives negligible quanti-

severely affected. Also, heavy rains cause

ties of rainfall during summer and winter,

flooding and damage due to the lack of

mostly within a range of 830–970 mm per

drainage routes and retention sites. These

year (Ramachandra & Kamakshi, 2005).

problems are aggravated by indiscrim-

The city used to be famous for being the

inate disposal of solid waste in drains.

‘Garden City’ as well as the ‘City of Lakes’

The small streams that flow through the

for having hundreds of water tanks. In an

undulating city terrain are used as drains

early integrated water management ini-

for untreated sewage and storm water,

tiative, lakes and man-made ponds were

and some tanks have become perennial

joined in chains to harvest rainwater for

due to inflow of wastewater from these

drinking and freshwater reservoirs, irri-

drains.

gation, and at the same time recharge the The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 25

figure 2.1 | Map of Greater Bangalore with the core city, municipalities and villages added in 2007 and including a 200 km2 green- belt peripheral area. www.bwssb.gov.in. Note: BMA 1⁄4 Bangalore Municipal Authority, BMP 1⁄4 Bangalore Municipal Corporation, CMC 1⁄4 City Municipal Corporation (seven), TMC 1⁄4 Town Municipal Council (one).

26 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

2.2 Water conflict in Bangalore

ed in a rapid increase in the pressure on

“Many of the wars this century

available water resources. Lowered wa-

were about oil, but those of the next cen-

ter tables, reduced natural flows, steadi-

tury will be over water” - Dr Ismail Ser-

ly more complex pollution and quality

ageldine. This prophecy first appeared in

problems, natural occurrence of arsenic

a 1995 interview in The New York Times.

and fluoride, etc., tremendously affect

Interstate water disputes in India, when-

people’s access to water for sustenance

ever new disputes emerge or old disputes

as well as the agricultural sector’s needs

recur, are widely seen, both nationally

and conditions in the ecosystems. Demo-

and internationally, as precursors of im-

graphic trends of increasing population

pending water wars. The recent intensifi-

density, migration and urbanization add

cation of interstate water disputes during

to the picture, changing the patterns of

the last decade (with many aggrieved

competition for freshwater.

states filing cases with the Supreme

The pressure on Bangalore’s water

Court of India) has only heightened this

resources is steadily increasing. Banga-

sense of immanent conflict. These dis-

lore’s water resources consist the tanks

putes are usually about violations of ex-

that were once connected into a life-sus-

isting agreements, or alleged injury to

taining network, the low-yield under-

their interests due to other state’s actions

ground aquifers and the transboundary

over transboundary rivers.

river which is subject to an ever-escalat-

The transboundary rivers create

ing conflict. Most of the decision-making

an intensifying competition for water.

regarding these resources takes place at

The urge to cater for basic human needs,

city level; Bangalore is thus in charge of

together with demands for general im-

the management and has the power to

provements in standards of living and

improve issues of access. However, some

continued economic growth, has result-

allocation decisions are made by the The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 27

State Government and at the level of the Centre. These and other actors function as various exogenous factors.

2.2.1 Water supply: the beginning Bangalore lies in the middle of southern India, far from a river. The

To estimate the importance of the

city has therefore no history as a centre

water resources and the changes that can

of commerce or trade. Nevertheless, it

be expected, this sub-chapter begins with

has existed as a settlement for well over

a description of the factors exogenous to

a thousand years. The warrior Kempe

the growing, transforming city. The focus

Gowda ruled over the vast agricultural

lies on the water and other natural con-

tracts and laid the foundation of Banga-

ditions of Bangalore and its immediate

lore in 1537. He built his mud fort in a

surroundings.

valley portion and the merchants and artisans that came after soon made the settlement renowned as the most important marketplace in the then Kingdom of Mysore (Nair 2005). In 1806, the English colonizers decided to establish their largest cantonment in Bangalore.

The

cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s

undulating

terrain

caused water to assemble in tanks and lakes, and these assumed major significance over several centuries as sources of water for drinking, irrigation and other needs. Apart from its function as a drinking water supply, this man-made network of water bodies came to support mixed farming and gardening as well as 28 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

low scrub forest, favorable for hunting and gathering. An intricate system linked the tanks within the same sub-catchment area and allowed for surplus water to flow over to the next tank in the chain.

Very little went to waste; the principles of storage and rainwater harvesting were already well developed, and the facilities carefully maintained (Agarwal & Narain, 1997) (see figure 2.2).

figure 2.2 | Map of the water bodies network in Bangalore. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 29

Maps reveal that many of these tanks were situated within the city itself.

They played a pertinent role in the early

Water Bodies Status

Unencroached lakes 2%

beginnings of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development, and remain important (Suresh Babu, 2006). The estimates of how many lakes Encroached lakes 98%

and tanks Bangalore once had range down from well over two hundred to over one hundred. It is equally difficult

Lakes without sewage 10%

to get a unified picture of how many remain in various conditions. According to the Lake Development Authority, 46 are classified as untraceable. Some are used as garbage dumps or have been reduced

Sewage fed lakes 90%

to cesspools, others are being shrunk little by little by the wild water hyacinth.

Most, however, have been encroached upon and no longer exist in their prior form. They have been replaced by the city bus terminus, sports stadiums, commercial buildings, residential layouts, and slum areas. Pressure on land is high in a city such as Bangalore, the authorities explain (see figures 2.3, 2.4). figure 2.3 | Water bodies status. source: The Times of India. website: www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com.

30 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Current state

BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Road Infrastructure Green Environment Water Body Built Environment

figure 2.4 | Maps of the water bodies network and green environment in Bangalore. The maps illustrate the changes along the years. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 31

2.2.2 After the tanks: reservoirs The tanks proved insufficient as

augurated in 1936 and temporarily eased the problems of access and supply.

demand grew. The solution came in the

Water supply remained a task

first half of the 1890s, with the first ‘pro-

for the municipality until the 1960s,

tected’ water supply scheme. The source

throughout Independence and the re-

was the Hessarghatta Lake on the Arka-

structuring of the Mysore Kingdom to

vathi River. Water hence began to be

form the State of Karnataka, with Banga-

pumped to Bangalore from an area sit-

lore as State capital.

uated some sixty km north-west of the city. The reservoir was designed to provide up to 250,000 people and it was anticipated that the infrastructure would be sufficient to meet the city’s needs for three decades. However, already in 1922 the population had reached the ceiling and the inadequacy begun to be felt. The situation was perceived as acute by 19251926, when the reservoir went almost dry following two successive years with bad monsoons. Efforts were made to restore the water supply to the city by making use of various tanks. Yet another reservoir was commissioned on the Arkavathi by building a dam at T.G. Halli, downstream of Hessarghatta Lake (Agarwal & Narain, 1997). This new scheme was in32 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

2.2.3 Water supply: The Cauvery River

MLD of water to Bangalore (Agarwal &

scheme

Narain, 1997).

To meet future needs through new

For the fourth extension was di-

sources of water supply, an Expert Com-

vided into two phases to supply another

mittee was constituted in 1958 to exam-

510 MLD by 2011. The first was commis-

ine potential sources. Among the options

sioned in September 2002. The second

were further development of the Arka-

was planned to start in 2005 but faced

vathi River downstream of the main res-

several years of delay before even leaving

ervoir, and the Cauvery River. The Wa-

the drawing-board. This last stage was

ter Board, Bangalore Water Supply and

planned chiefly to cover the outer areas

Sewerage Board (BWSSB), was set up

of Bangalore: water is to be piped up to

in 1964 with essentially technical staff.

the northern part of the city.

Their work was centered on water sup-

The raw water is conveyed through

ply schemes, and huge investments were

a channel via two reservoirs and a ten km

made to impound Cauvery River water

gravity main. After purification in differ-

and to pump it through 100 km long

ent treatment plants, the water is pumped

conveyor pipes to the city. The construc-

to smaller reservoirs in the city, and from

tion of the initial stage of the ‘Cauvery

there it is supplied to individual house-

Water Supply Scheme’ began in 1969 and

holds and establishments by gravity and

the supply of Cauvery water to Bangalore

pumping through a network of smaller

commenced five years later, with a capac-

pipes. Individual, connected premises are

ity of 135 million litres daily (MLD). As

required to install an underground sump

the demand continued to increase, work

as a storage receptacle, as well as electric

to supplement this first stage was carried

pumps with which to raise the water to

out. A third stage was completed in 1993,

another receptacle situated on the roof of

contributing to provide a total of 540

the top storey. As water is delivered only The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 33

for some couple of hours every second or

the river basin includes parts of the State

third day (The Water Board, 2006), each

of Kerala in the west and a part of the

household relies on these private con-

Union Territory of Pondicherry which

trivances to store water, and on gravity

occupies a coastal area in Tamil Nadu.

to transport water from the uppermost

As well as Bangalore, several towns and

point of the building, since power supply

villages depend almost entirely on the

is quite erratic.

Cauvery river for their water supply

The whole region has lately been

(see figures 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8). The Cau-

suffering from drought, with the result

very river has been the object of sharing

that its reservoirs receive less and less

agreements, negotiations and conflicts

water each year and have not been filled

for more than a century. Each time a

since 2002. The consequence is that the

poor monsoon leads to shortage of water,

regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tributaries are no longer feeds

the dispute between farmers especially in

the Cauvery river. The problem is partly

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu intensifies.

due to failing monsoon rains, and part-

Ramaswamy R. Iyer has written that the

ly that the catchment area has been en-

Cauvery â&#x20AC;&#x153;is a fabled river with strong

croached upon, meaning that the surface

historical, religious, and cultural associa-

soil has been hardened and replaced by

tions in both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

houses, roads, parking-lots, etc.

In both States, mention of Cauvery wa-

The Cauvery river is one of the lon-

ters evokes a strong emotional responseâ&#x20AC;?

gest inter-State rivers in India. Its 765-802

(Iyer, 2002a). The dispute is also regularly

km stretch, flowing in a south-easterly di-

a major issue in electoral politics.

rection, originates in the Western Ghats in Karnataka (by Coorg) and reaches the Bay of Bengal in the State of Tamil Nadu.

Apart from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, 34 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 35

KARNATAKA STATE

Legend

State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka River Stream Reservoir Arable Areas Agriculture Areas Agriculture Areas under development Road Infrastructure Railway Infrastructure

Fugure 2.5 | The Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 36 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

KERALA STATE

BANGALORE

TAMIL NADU STATE

BAY OF BENGAL

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 37

KARNATAKA STATE

Legend

State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka River Stream Reservoir

KERALA STATE

Fugure 2.6 | Water Distribution system along the Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 38 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

BANGALORE

TAMIL NADU STATE

BAY OF BENGAL

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 39

KARNATAKA STATE

Legend

State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka Arable Areas Agriculture Areas Agriculture Areas under development

KERALA STATE

Fugure 2.7 | Green Environment along the Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 40 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

BANGALORE

TAMIL NADU STATE

BAY OF BENGAL

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 41

KARNATAKA STATE

State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka Road Infrastructure Railway Infrastructure

KERALA STATE

Fugure 2.8 | Road infrastructure along the Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 42 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

BANGALORE

TAMIL NADU STATE

BAY OF BENGAL

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 43

2.3 Rapid Urbanization in Bangalore As outlined above, the city of Bangalore now comprises a core area â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the former Corporation (BMP) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and eight municipalities and 110 villages that surround it. The administrative decision to join all these units and bodies into one jurisdiction was taken as a result of the urbanization

and

peri-urbanization

which the larger area had undergone during some fifteen years. Although urban growth in India has been slow compared with that in many developing and newly-industrialized countries, it is generally expected to speed up, especially in certain agglomerations. The urban dwellers accounted for almost 28 percent

Current state

of the total population in 2001, expected to increase to just over 33 percent by 2026. By another projection, India will have almost half of its population in urban areas in 2030 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; meaning that every eighth person in the urban world (12.39 percent) will be living in India (see figure 2.9).

44 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Road Infrastructure Previous Development Development according to the year

figure 2.9 | Maps of Greater Bangalore illustrate the expansion of the city. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 45

When Bangalore expanded in early 2007, a need for an ‘even working field’ throughout the city was perceived. It was not the first time administrative decisions had been implemented to enlarge the city. In 1995, the former municipalities were created out of villages, and new ward areas were delimited.

In terms of population, Bangalore’s growth has been quite extraordinary.

In 1961 the city was the sixth largest in India, with 1.2 million inhabitants. It is now the fourth largest. Between 1971 and 1981, Bangalore’s growth rate was 76 percent – the fastest in Asia. Between 1991 and 2001, the urban part of Bangalore District witnessed the country’s fastest growth after New Delhi, with almost 38 percent. This is in comparison to an average of 17 percent growth in the entire Karnataka, and 21.34 percent in India as

City Density BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Person / KM 1,776 - 8,618 8,618 - 17,880 17,880 - 28,385 28,385 - 41,729 41,729 - 120,532

a whole during the decade (see figures 2.10, 2.11, 2.12).

figure 2.10 | The map illustrates the city density. source: BBMP. 46 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Population BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Person Quintile 21,171 - 33,144 33,144 - 37,258 37,258 - 42,656 42,656 - 51,240 51,240 - 95,368

figure 2.11 | The map illustrates the population distribution around the city. source: BBMP.

figure 2.12 | The graph illustrates the population growth. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 47

Bangalore has been described in

fice buildings and shopping malls, and

many ways over the centuries: as the

infrastructure such as numerous roads,

garden city, pensionersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; paradise, pub

a new airport, a metro system, new wa-

capital, Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Silicon Valley, and so

ter pipes, etc., that in turn draw migrants

on. Each name bears its history and its

both skilled and unskilled workers from

non-disputed grain of truth but most of

the villages surrounding the city and

all, they serve as representations of what

from most of the neighboring States.

geographical space can mean to its inhabitants and to people looking at a place from outside. Besides, the names depict the changes Bangalore has undergone over time â&#x20AC;&#x201C; some of which have come with rapid growth and have led to important transformations of the city.

Bangalore has three plain pull factors. Pensioners used to settle in Bangalore because of the peaceful and green environment, and young and well-educated people have more recently been beckoned by jobs in the IT and call centre businesses (known by companies in Europe and the U.S.A. as Business Process Outsourcing). There has been a construction boom since the 1970s, but the rapid economic growth has nevertheless resulted in an upsurge of residential, of48 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

2.3.1 Poverty, slums and access to water Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s slum areas are scattered over the former Corporation and municipalities with three core zones in the inner part of the city (see figure 2.13), being the major commercial and formal as well as informal employment centres.

BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary 1 - 820 820 - 1,400 1,400 - 2,700 2,700 - 8,600 8,600 - 20,000

figure 2.13 | The map illustrates the slum distribution around the city. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 49

For an expanding metropolis, Ban-

Typology of Slums

galore has relatively small slum areas, and they are often held to be comparatively few in number. Most slums in Bangalore contain fewer than a couple of thousand households.306 ‘Illegal’ encroachments consisting of one or just a few shelters, primarily put up by construction coolies, are common. They can remain for years, expand, and be accepted (or rather ignored) by their adjacent neighbors, but without ever reaching the stage of formal recognition as a ‘slum’. Eventually, if the cluster of shelters is on private land, the owner may initiate court proceedings to evacuate the families and have their dwellings demolished (see figure 2.14).

50 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Population of Slums

figure 2.14 | The graphs illustrate the slumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population, types and names. source: Karnataka Slum Development Board. website: http://ksdb.kar.nic.in The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 51

It is important for planning and

income possibilities, purchasing power,

improvement works to know how many

and costs for basic needs. The minimum

the urban poor are in a city such as Ban-

wage for domestic work as fixed by the

galore. For several reasons, though, it is

Government of Karnataka is Rs.1,600

difficult to count a slum population; even

per month and the normal daily income

more so to estimate how many people

is about Rs.53. However, many women

are pavement-dwellers or live in tem-

do housekeeping on a day-to-day basis

porary, isolated or scattered habitations

wherever they can find work and are thus

(Schenk & Dewit, 2001). The official sta-

not permanently employed. This typical-

tistics put the proportion of poor in the

ly reduces the monthly income to some

State of Karnataka at 32.6 percent of the

Rs.1,000-1,500 only.

urban population and 20.8 percent of

The majority of the men, but also

the rural (the all-India averages are 25.7

some women, are doing manual work,

and 28.3 percent, respectively) (Planning

often being day-wage laborers. This nor-

Commission 2007a.).According to the

mally means a very insecure job market,

2001 census, about 30 percent of Banga-

often within the construction business,

lore’s population was regarded as urban

and on a short-term basis. A small por-

poor, and the number of ‘slum enumer-

tion of the urban poor does some kind

ation blocks’ was 733, housing 345,200

of artisan work – as painters, carpenters,

inhabitants. Official websites of various

etc. Yet others sell vegetables and fruits,

responsible authorities give notoriously

buckets and pots, and other domestic

different figures and the unofficial num-

items from mobile wagons. A group of

bers are possibly even more inconsistent,

men that is comparatively better off is the

another source states that 2.2 million

auto rikshaw drivers and private chauf-

people live in slums in Bangalore.

feurs.

The issue of access to water is the 52 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Water is a heavy burden on the to-

tal monthly budget, the average porches

individual connections – was a service

of water is 25 litres per month in com-

that the State provided to the citizens.

parison to a household connected to the

The operation and maintenance of the

Bangalore Water Board can consume

same has since been an important task

8,000 litres of treated freshwater in a

for the public utilities, not least to protect

month.

citizens’ health and to provide for an im-

Water supply conditions differ

proved standard of living. This depends,

greatly between any two slum areas, in

though, on water being pumped from a

terms of whether there is access via one

river some 100 km away. With a lowered

or several wells or taps (public stand-

limit on the extraction allowed, at the

posts) within or close to the slum, how

same time as water use is rapidly grow-

much water these give; and whether the

ing, the challenges are piling up.

water is potable. The range of quality of

It is clear that the region faces an

water and the quantity of water supply

increasingly difficult situation, with less

are wide.

water being available both per capita and

Bangalore was self-sufficient in

in absolute terms.

terms of water supply only till around the second half of the nineteenth century, when increased growth and demand forced the authorities to begin bringing in water from tanks. At that time the city was still very small compared to today, but it became dependent on the supporting hinterland nevertheless. Building an infrastructure network – including reservoirs, pipes, water towers, pumps and The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 53

Chapter 3 |

Strategies of Supplying Water

54 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

3.1 General The complex water-related problems and issues in the world today need a broader understanding and must be considered from different angles simultaneously. This, in turn, necessitates simultaneous integration of knowledge, values and methods from several disciplines. For this study, I chose to go to the traditional frameworks in order to better understanding the routes of providing water to inhabitants. First, the water harvesting methods and strategies from past usage to present days. Secondly, the Roman Aqueduct which provided water from the reservoir to the city through water bridge. Finally, the dams which were constructed in order to control wild water.

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 55

3.2 Rainwater Harvesting, Aqueducts and Dams Rainwater Harvesting

â&#x20AC;˘ Roof top rainwater harvesting: The

Rainwater harvesting is the collec-

roof top becomes the catchments

tion and storage of rainwater for reuse

from where the rainwater is col-

on-site, rather than allowing it to run off.

lected. The water run into pipes

These stored waters are used for various

reaching prepared basins of filters.

purposes such as domestic use, garden-

The filters are used for treat the

ing, irrigation etc.

water to effectively remove con-

Water has been harvested in India

taminants, turbidity, colour and

since antiquity. They harvested monsoon

microorganisms. Then the water

runoff by capturing water from swollen

is stored in tanks for future use,

streams and stored it in various forms

or charge and increase the level of

of surface water bodies such as artificial

the ground water through a soak

lakes, wells and tanks, ponds, temple

pit which lead the water into a well

tanks etc.

(see figure 3.1).

The techniques:

The filter tank figure 3.1 | The scheme illustrates the rainwater harvesting in the private sector. source: www. cgwb.gov.in 56 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

• Surface runoff harvesting: The method is to collect the rainwater, harvest and store it into reservoirs such as ponds, lakes and wells.

The traditional structures are the Temple Tanks and the Ooaris. The Temple Tank is a traditional step wells, called “Vavadi” or “Baoris” or “Bavadis”. Those structures were built to capture water for all people to draw from there. The Ooaris has been designed to harvest and store

figure 3.2 | Above, Traditional Hindu Temple Tank. Bottom, The Ooaris water bed

rainwater to meet the drinking needs of a community. The Ooaris was created as ponds by excavating the soil (see figure 3.2).

The advantages of Rainwater Harvesting: • Ideal solution for all water requirements • Increase the ground level and improve its quality • Reduce flooding • Reduce soil erosion • Reduce water charges

The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 57

The Aqueduct, a water bridge

• The ancient aqueduct, The roman

Bridges for conveying water, called

empire. Bridges were a distinctive

aqueducts or water bridges are con-

feature of Roman aqueducts which

structed to convey watercourses across

were built in all parts of the Roman

gaps such as valleys or ravines. The term

Empire, from Germany to Africa,

aqueduct may also be used to refer to the

and especially in the city of Rome,

entire watercourse, as well as the bridge.

where they supplied water to pub-

Large navigable aqueducts are used as

lic baths and for drinking. Roman

transport links for boats or ships. Aque-

aqueducts set a standard of engi-

ducts must span a crossing at the same

neering that was not surpassed for

level as the watercourses on each end.

more than a thousand years (see

The word is derived from the Latin aqua

figure 3.3).

(“water”) and ducere (“to lead”). A modern version of an aqueduct is a pipeline bridge. They may take the form of underground tunnels, networks of surface channels and canals, covered clay pipes or monumental bridges.

The water bridges:

58 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

â&#x20AC;˘ The modern aqueduct, Navigable aqueducts, also called water bridges. They are water-filled bridges to allow vessels on a waterway to cross ravines or valleys. During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, navigable aqueducts were constructed as part of the boom in canal-building. A notable revolving aqueduct has been made on the Bridgewater Canal. This allowed vessels to cross at high and low levels while conserving water (compared to building locks)(see

figure 3.3 | Traditional Roman Aqueduct structures

figure 3.4).

figure 3.4 | Modern Aqueduct structures The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 59

The Dam

• Gravity Dam, the force that holds

A dam is a barrier that stops or re-

the dam in place against the push

stricts the flow of water or underground

from the water is Earth’s gravity

streams. Reservoirs created by dams not

pulling down on the mass of the

only suppress floods but also provide wa-

dam. The water presses laterally

ter for activities such as irrigation, hu-

(downstream) on the dam, tending

man consumption, industrial use, aqua-

to overturn the dam by rotating

culture, and navigability. Hydro-power

about its toe (a point at the bot-

is often used in conjunction with dams

tom downstream side of the dam).

to generate electricity. A dam can also

The designer ensures that the dam

be used to collect water or for storage of

is heavy enough that the dam’s

water which can be evenly distributed

weight wins that contest. In engi-

between locations. Dams generally serve

neering terms, the resultant of the

the primary purpose of retaining water,

forces of gravity acting on the dam

while other structures such as floodgates

and water pressure on the dam acts

or levees (also known as dikes) are used

in a line that passes upstream of the

to manage or prevent water flow into

toe of the dam (see figure 3.5).

specific land regions.

Types and methods of dams:

• Arch Dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon

60 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

the stiffness of the dam in a verti-

stream side that is supported at in-

cal and horizontal direction. The

tervals on the downstream side by

normal component of the weight

a series of buttresses or supports.

of the arch ring may be taken by

The dam wall may be straight or

the arch action, while the normal

curved. Most buttress dams are

hydrostatic pressure will be distrib-

made of reinforced concrete and

uted as described above. The most

are heavy, pushing the dam into

desirable place for an arch dam is

the ground. Water pushes against

a narrow canyon with steep side

the dam, but the buttresses are in-

walls composed of sound rock. The

flexible and prevent the dam from

safety of an arch dam is dependent

falling over (see figure 3.8).

on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected (see figure 3.6). â&#x20AC;˘ Embankment Dam, are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete (see figure 3.7). â&#x20AC;˘ Buttress Dam or Hollow Dam, is a dam with a solid, water-tight upThe case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 61

figure 3.5 | Gravity Dam structure

figure 3.6 | Arch Dam structure

62 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

figure 3.7 | Embankment Dam structure

figure 3.8 | Buttress Dam structure

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 63

3.3 Water treatment strategy Water Sources Water is pumped from the Reservoir through deep tunnels to the Water Treatment Plant.

Rapid Mixing Once it arrives at the plant, the pH is adjusted and water is rapidly mixed with aluminum sulfate (alum), a coagulant that helps the impurities stick together to form bigger particles called floc.

Flocculation After rapid mixing, the water flows into flocculation basins, where the flow of water is slowed and the floc has time to grow bigger.

Sedimentation Next, the water flows into sedimentation basins, where the heavy floc particles sink to the bottom and are removed.

Filtration Now the water travels through large filters made of sand, gravel, and anthracite.

Filtration removes any remaining microscopic particles and microorganisms.

Disinfection Finally, the water is disinfected to protect it against bacteria. The Water System uses chlorine dioxide and a combination of chlorine and ammonia called chloramines to disinfect the water. Fluoride is also added support good dental health.

Distribution The clean water is then pumped into pipes that deliver it to the water towers storage units.

64 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

figure 3.9 | Water treatment process diagram The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 65

3.4 Water quality index Water ,being a universal solvent, has been and is being utilized by man-

formation on environmental trends to policy makers and general public is with indices.

kind time and again. Of the total amount

Most of the present day rivers in

of global water, only 2.4% is distributed

India are severely polluted due to the

on the main land, of which only a small

irresponsible attitude and mismanage-

portion can be utilized as fresh water. The

ment by the people or stakeholders. Due

available fresh water to man is hardly 0.3-

to economic development, population

0.5% of the total water available on the

growth and associated changes of con-

earth and therefore, its judicious use is

sumption patterns, overuse and pollu-

imperative (Ganesh and Kale 1995). Wa-

tion of surface water bodies has been

ter is an essential requirement of human

increasing, especially in peri-urban and

and industrial developments and it is one

urban areas. Reporting water quality

the most delicate part of the environment

monitoring results in a clear, meaningful

(Das and Acharya 2003). In the last few

way has always presented scientists with

decades, there has been a tremendous

a challenge. There is a strong need to de-

increase in the demand for freshwater

velop tools to effectively address the core

due to rapid growth of population and

environmental problems. Water resource

the accelerated pace of industrialization

professionals generally communicate wa-

(Ramakrishnaiah et al 2009). Human

ter quality status and trends in terms of

health is threatened by most of the agri-

the evaluation of individual water quality

cultural development activities particu-

variables. While this language is readily

larly in relation to excessive application

understood within the water resources

of fertilizers and unsanitary conditions

community, it does not readily translate

(Okeke and Igboanua 2003). One of the

to communities having profound influ-

most effective ways to communicate in-

ence on water resources policy, viz, the

66 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

general public and the policy makers.

water quality program (Singh and Ghosh

Political decision-makers, non-techni-

1999).

cal water mangers, and the general public usually have neither the time nor the training to study and understand a traditional, technical review of water quality data.

WQIs are able to facilitate quantification, simplification and communication of complex environmental data.

Formulating the WQI was attempted by numerous researchers. The earliest attempt was made by Horton (1965) from selected sewage treatment based on his own judgment and experience. Delphi method developed by “Rand” corporation was an opinion- research technique, Brown et al (1970) used this method to develop a WQI for National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) of USA. Water quality indeed is contributing for water quality of any water system. It is one of the effective, helpful parameters and provides informative data, which is important to citizens, Government and Public Health authorities. Policies for improvement of The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 67

3.5 The Wetland study

to determine the plants and animals that

Wetlands are areas where water

inhabit each wetland. The complex, dy-

covers the soil, or is present either at or

namic relationships among the organ-

near the surface of the soil all year or for

isms inhabiting the wetland environment

varying periods of time during the year,

are referred to as food webs.

including during the growing season.

Although wetlands are often wet,

Water saturation (hydrology) largely de-

a wetland might not be wet year-round.

termines how the soil develops and the

In fact, some of the most important wet-

types of plant and animal communities

lands are only seasonally wet. Wetlands

living in and on the soil. Wetlands may

are the link between the land and the wa-

support both aquatic and terrestrial spe-

ter. They are transition zones where the

cies. The prolonged presence of water

flow of water, the cycling of nutrients and

creates conditions that favor the growth

the energy of the sun meet to produce a

of specially adapted plants (hydrophytes)

unique ecosystem characterized by hy-

and promote the development of charac-

drology, soils and vegetationâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;making

teristic wetland (hydric) soils.

these areas very important features of a

Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world, comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. An immense variety of species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish and mammals can be part of a wetland ecosystem. Physical and chemical features such as climate, landscape shape (topology), geology and the movement and abundance of water help 68 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

watershed.

Types of wetland: • Freshwater marshes are charac-

ciers. Ground water input is also important.

terized by periodic or permanent

• Playas are small basins that collect

shallow water, little or no peat

rainfall and runoff from the sur-

deposition, and mineral soils. They

rounding land. These low-lying ar-

typically derive most of their wa-

eas are found in the Southern High

ter from surface waters, including

Plains of the United States.

floodwater and runoff, but do receive ground water inputs.

• Vernal pools have either bedrock or a hard clay layer in the soil that

• Wet meadows commonly occur

helps keep water in the pool. They

in poorly drained areas such as

are covered by shallow water for

shallow lake basins, low-lying de-

variable periods from winter to

pressions, and the land between

spring, but may be completely dry

shallow marshes and upland areas.

for most of the summer and fall.

Precipitation serves as their primary water supply, so they are often dry in the summer.

• Wet prairies are similar to wet meadows but remain saturated longer. Wet prairies may receive water from intermittent streams as well as ground water and precipitation.

• Prairie potholes develop when snowmelt and rain fill the pockmarks left on the landscape by glaThe case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 69

Wetland water treatment (see figure

built on uplands and outside floodplains

3.10)

or flood-ways in order to avoid damage Natural wetlands perform many

to natural wetlands and other aquatic

functions that are beneficial to both hu-

resources. Wetlands are frequently con-

mans and wildlife. One of their most im-

structed by excavating, backfilling, grad-

portant functions is water filtration. As

ing, diking and installing water control

water flows through a wetland, it slows

structures to establish desired hydraulic

down and many of the suspended solids

flow patterns. If the site has highly per-

become trapped by vegetation and settle

meable soils, an impervious, compacted

out. Other pollutants are transformed to

clay liner is usually installed and the orig-

less soluble forms taken up by plants or

inal soil placed over the liner. Wetland

become inactive. Wetland plants also fos-

vegetation is then planted or allowed to

ter the necessary conditions for microor-

establish naturally.

ganisms to live there. Through a series of complex processes, these microrganisms also transform and remove pollutants from the water.

Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, are deposited into wetlands from storm-water runoff, from areas where fertilizers or manure have been applied and from leaking septic fields.

These excess nutrients are often absorbed by wetland soils and taken up by plants and microorganisms.

Constructed wetlands are generally 70 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

figure 3.10 | Wetland water treatment process schemes. source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, office of water. September 2001. www.epa.gov.

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 71

Chapter 4 |

Morphology Analysis

72 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

4.1 The Mandala A mandala is a spiritual and ritual symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism, representing the universe. In common use,

making of houses, palaces, temples and even cities.

Types of Mandala’s grid:

“mandala” has become a generic term for any diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a microcosm of the universe.

The basic form of most mandalas is a square or circle with four gates containing a significant center point. Each gate in the general shape is identical to the next gate highlights the phrase the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

The central space of the Mandala is the most important part of the shape symbolize the ultimate unity of all archetypes as well as the multiplicity of the phenomenal world, and is therefore the empirical equivalent of the metaphysical concept of a unus mundus.

The Vastu- Purusha Mandala also forms a strong grid as the basis of Indian architecture. It has the potential for infinite applications and adaptations in the

figure 4.1 | The Mandala grid.

The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 73

4.2 Morphology of the Hindu Temples

the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple

and palaces

is meant to encourage reflection, facili-

A Hindu temple is a symme-

tate purification of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind, and trig-

try-driven structure, with many vari-

ger the process of inner realization with-

ations, on a square grid of the Vastu-

in the devotee.

Purusha Mandala, depicting perfect

The human body is the temple for

geometric shapes of circles and squares.

the indwelling Spirit of God (Antaryam-

The underlying principle in a Hindu

in). Various parts of the temple struc-

temple is built around the belief that all

ture correspond to various parts of the

things are one, everything is connected.

human body. The temple is the physical

The pilgrim is welcomed through mathe-

body (sthoola sarira) which houses the

matically structured spaces, a network of

presence of Divine. So the actual build-

art, pillars with carvings and statues that

ing of the temple itself is a symbol of the

display and celebrate the four important

presence of the Divine in the world (see

and necessary principles of human life -

figure 4.2).

the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge).

The center of the temple is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is 74 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

figure 4.2 | Plan and elevation of the Hindu Temple according to the Mandala grid.

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There are two great period of palace building in India, the first is repre-

the Hindu, Mughal, Rajput, and Gothic styles.

sented by the period of Mughal suprema-

For example, the Islamic influences

cy, from the middle parts of the sixteenth

are the deep pink marble domes project-

century to the middle parts of the eigh-

ing at the corners of the palace structure.

teenth century, and the second is repre-

The main Gothic influence is the central

sented by the period of the British Raj.

tower (45 meters) design as a tower of a

The Indian architecture progressed with

Gothic cathedral. The entrance archway

time and assimilated the many influenc-

is characterized as Hindu architecture as

es that came as a result of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s global

for the decorative arch and the multipli-

discourse with other regions of the world

cation of the number three. Three arches

throughout its past. The architectural

from each side framing the central arch.

methods practiced in India are a result of

The entrance leads to a wide central

examination and implementation of its

open-air courtyard which maintain the

established building traditions and out-

Vastu-Purusha Mandala.

side cultural interactions. But, the traditional Vastu Shastra and Vastu Purusha Mandala remain influential in Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architecture during its contemporary era.

The Mysore Palace is taken as an archetype for Indian architecture due to its hybrid style. The palace was built in the 14th century and again in the 19th century which highlight the mixture of various architecture elements called Indo-Saracenic Revival style, the blends of 76 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

figure 4.3 | The Mysore Palace. Main facade view.

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4.3 Morphology of Hinduâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architectural elements Hindu arches analysis The 12th - 14th century

The 14th century

The 17th century

The 16th - 17th century

The geometry of the triangular arch

Simplified the triangular arch

Design a new triangular arch

front and back A triangular arch between pillars

figure 4.4 | Arches analysis.

78 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

front

back

A double side triangular arch

Hindu temple (water) tank analysis

water community stairs temple green

The temple

The mandala

Plan

The stairs leading to the well are based on the Mandala grid plan

temple community green stairs stairs water

temple community green built environment ground water

Section

The stairs gradually leading to the well. The section illustrate the relations between the community, the holy space (the temple), the nature and the importance of water for life.

figure 4.5 | Water maze analysis.

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PART A

PART B

PART C

Scheme of urban strategy according to the water maze and the mandala grid 80 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

PART A

PART B

PART C

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

LAKE

TEMPLE

LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

BUILT ENVIRONMENT

TEMPLE

w

com st te gr

PART A

PART B

PART C

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Chapter 5 |

82 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The Case Study

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5.1 General

The site is located south east from the ancient city centre and north west from the famous Gandhi Bazaar which accommodate very vibrant commercial core. The site is mostly characterized by its temples and small worship places spread around it and the historical Kempambudhi Kere lake which was built as part of the lake chain in the 15th century by the ruler Kempe Gowda. As the City expanded, the lake became a sewerage tank as storm-water and sewerage pipes began flowing into the lake leading to extreme pollution and dried terrain.

The site

84 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The core Gandhi Bazaar

5.2 Site analysis Kempambudhi Kere, Nanjamba Agrahara, Chamrajpet, Arisinakunte, Karnataka 560019.

The core

The site

Gandhi Bazaar The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 85

LAND USE Residential Public | Semi-Public Industrial Commercial Parks | Green 86 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

INFRASTRUCTURE Primary System Secondary System Residential System

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FIGURE GROUND Built Environment

88 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION Bus line System Metro line System

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GREEN AND BLUE INFRASTRUCTURE Park Infrastructure Water Infrastructure

90 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE Religious institution Health care institution Educational institution Governmental institution The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 91

5.3 Strategy of the project

KEMPAMBUDHI K

STRATEGIC PLAN Strategic Spine Primary road infrastructure Parks | Green Religious institution Health Care institution Educational institution Governmental institution Pedestrian - water route Car - bicycle route Primary connection Secondary connection

92 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

KERE

GANDHI BAZAAR COMMERCIAL CENTER

STRATEGIC SPINE

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Chapter 6 |

94 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The Design

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6.1 General Masterplan

96 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

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6.2 The corridor

Top level plan 98 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 99

6.2 The corridor

Ground level plan 100 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 101

6.2 The corridor

Section A-A

Urban Section

Elevation

102 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

Section B-B

Section C-C

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104 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 105

6.3 The Wetland

D

E

D

E

F

F

106 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

SECTION D-D

SECTION E-E

SECTION F-F

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108 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 109

110 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 111

GROUND FLOOR PLAN

MODULAR SYSTEM 3X3

112 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

B’

A’ C’

C’

B’

A’

GROUND FLOOR PLAN

FIRST FLOOR PLAN The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 113

SECOND FLOOR PLAN

ROOF TOP FLOOR PLAN 114 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

NORTH ELEVATION

WEST ELEVATION The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 115

SECTION A’-A’ 116 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 117

SECTION B’-B’ 118 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 119

SECTION C’-C’ 120 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 121

AXONOMETRIC VIEW 122 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary

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New Delhi: OUP. Okeke, C.O. and Igboanua, A.H. (2003)“Characteristics and quality assessment of surface water and groundwater recourses of Akwa Town, Southeast, Nigeria”, J. Niger. Assoc. Hydrol. Geol., Vol. 14, pp. 71-77.

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Ramakrishnaiah, C.R., Sadashivalah, C. and Ranganna, G.(2009). “Assessment of water quality index for the groundwater in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka State”, Indian J. Chem., Vol. 6, pp. 523-530.

Schenk, H. & M. Dewit (2001). The Fringe Habitat of Bangalore. In H. Schenk (ed.). Liv- ing in Bangalore’s Slums: A Case Study of Bangalore. New Delhi: IDPAD Manohar.

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