A LAKE AS WATER SANCTUARY The case study of Bangalore water infrastructure
Hila Anav University: Faculty: MSc Programme: Student Number: Primary Supervisor: Assistant Supervisor:
Politecnico di Milano Architettura Urbanistica Ingeneria delle Costruzioni Architettura - Progettazione Architettonica 840584 Professor Meriggi Maurizio Arch. Ferrante Luca
Abstract Water has always played, and continue to play, a central role in human societies. Water is a source of life and prosperity. People around the globe, especially in the developing world, face water scarcity. As the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) stated in 2006, currently 700 million people in 43 countries live with water scarcity. This scarcity of water forced people around the world to use unsafe water for drinking and other domestic uses (WHO, 2003). The aim of this research is to analyze the causes and effects of water scarcity and to bring a new discussion and an innovative solutions. The research focused on the southern Indian city of Bangalore, which has been famous for its IT economy in recent years. In result of this thriving economy, Bangalore is facing two challenges: one is the lack of water supply to the extent demand and the second is the unprecedented and uncontrolled population growth. The Indian water infrastructure, natural and artificial, has been known for its great pollution due to the lack of proper education. The project’s main focus is to educate the citizens in Bangalore how to save and harvest rainwater. Bangalore currently faces a water shortage of 500 million liters per day and, unless it dramatically changes its approach, acute water shortage by 2025. An effective water management scheme in Bangalore requires institutional restructuring to enable integrated management of water resources, strong legislation to protect groundwater, major infrastructural improvements, a shift in planning culture that more explicitly recognizes the link between the natural world and human settlements and stronger integration of science in planning. It is clear that any one of these actions is not easily implementable in the near term due to cultural, institutional, financial, and political challenges. But as a result of major “water wars� and water crisis in the recent years, civil society has played a critical role in pushing the local water authority to make rainwater harvesting mandatory through the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage (BWSSB).
TABLE OF CONTENTS List of figures List of symbols and abbreviations
6 7
1. Introduction 1.1 General 1.2 Water quality problems in India 1.3 Background - India 1.4 Water crisis in India 1.5 Study area
8 9 11 12 14 20
2. Conflicts Analysis 2.1 General 2.2 The conflict of water in Bangalore 2.2.1 Water supply: the beginning 2.2.2 After the tanks: reservoir 2.2.2 Water supply: the Cauvery River 2.3 The conflict of rapid urbanization 2.3.1 Poverty, Slums and access to water
24 25 27 28 32 33 44 49
3. Strategies of Supplying Water 3.1 General 3.2 Rainwater harvesting, aqueducts and dams 3.3 Water treatment strategy 3.4 Water quality index 3.5 The Wetland study
54 55 56 64 66 68
4. Morphology Analysis 4.1 Morphology of the Mandala 4.2 Morphology of the Hindu Temples and palaces 4.3 Morphology of Hindu’s architectural elements
72 73 74 78
5. The Case Study 5.1 General 5.2 Site analysis 5.3 Strategy of the project
82 84 85 92
6. The Design 6.1 General Masterplan
94 96
6.2 The corridor 6.3 The Wetland 7. References
98 106 123
List of Figures Figure 1.1 location map of the city of Bangalore Figure 1.2 The system of lakes constructed in the 15th century in Bangalore Figure 2.1 Map of Greater Bangalore Figure 2.2 Map of the water bodies network in Bangalore Figure 2.3 Water bodies status Figure 2.4 Maps of the water bodies and green environment in Bangalore
21 22 26 29 30 31
Figure 2.5 The Cauvery Basin Figure 2.6 The water distribution system along the Cauvery Basin Figure 2.7 The Green environment along the Cauvery Basin Figure 2.8 The road infrastructure along the Cauvery Basin Figure 2.9 The expansion of the city of Bangalore Figure 2.10 The city density Figure 2.11 Population distribution around the city Figure 2.12 Population growth graph Figure 2.13 Slum distribution around the city Figure 2.14 Slum population, types and names Figure 3.1 Rainwater harvesting Figure 3.2 Traditional water Harvesting in India Figure 3.3 Traditional Roman aqueduct Figure 3.4 Modern aqueduct Figure 3.5 Gravity dam Figure 3.6 Arch dam Figure 3.7 Embankment dam Figure 3.8 Buttress dam Figure 3.9 Water treatment Diagram Figure 3.10 Wetland water treatment process schemes Figure 4.1 The Mandala grid
36 38 40 42 44 46 47 47 49 51 56 57 59 59 62 62 63 63 65 71 73
Figure 4.2 Plan and elevation of the Hindu Temples Figure 4.3 The Mysore Palace Figure 4.4 Arches analysis Figure 4.5 Water maze analysis
75 77 78 79
6 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
List of symbols and abbreviations BBMP Bruhat Bangaluru Mahanagara Palika (Bangalore Municipal Corporation) BBWSS \ BWSSB Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board BDA Bangalore Development Authority BMA Bangalore management association CMC City Municipal Corporation GDP Gross domestic product IWT India Water Tool MLD Million Liters Daily TMC (one) Town Municipal Council TMC (two) Thousand Million Cubic UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN United Nations UNDP United Nations development program WHO World Health Organization
The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 7
Chapter 1 |
8 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Introduction
1.1 Introduction Water has always played, and continue to play, a central role in human societies. Water is a source of life and prosperity. It is an input to almost all production, in agriculture, industry, energy, transportation and most important the health of human beings. On the other hand, water is also a cause of suffering and devastation. It can be a force for destruction, floods as well as desertification, contamination and diseases. Achieving basic water security, harnessing the productive potential of water and limiting its destructive impacts, has been a constant struggle since the origins of human societies. While industrial countries invested early and heavily in water infrastructures, institutions and strong management and maintenance, the developing world remain in an urgent challenge of managing their water legacy. People around the globe, especially in the developing world, face water scarcity. As the United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) stated in 2006, currently 700 million people in 43 countries live with water scarcity. This scarcity of water forced people around the world to use unsafe water for drinking and other domestic uses (WHO, 2003). The universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which was adopted in 1948, after the World War, immediately within its preamble called for the “recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world�. Since then, the United Nations (UN) has continued in the mission of that document and works to enforce universal and international human rights. All human beings have the right to life, the right to education, the right to food etc. These fundamental rights cannot be fully realized unless people have the right to water, the right to safe access to potable The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 9
drinking water. The UN declared and highlights the grounds on which water is claimed as a human right: The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses. An adequate amount of safe water is necessary to prevent death from dehydration, to reduce risk of water related diseases and to provide for consumption, cooking, personal and domestic hygienic requirements*. Denying people access to drinking water is also denying them the right to life*. Water must be available and in certain quality levels to fulfill the human right. Improving water supply availability is crucial for public health, as it is the third highest risk factor for poor health with high mortality rates. According to the UNDP, almost two million children die each year because they do not get an access to potable water and basic sanitation. Even though water scarcity is worldwide problem, urban poor and rural inhabitants are at forefront to be affected by the problem of poor access to potable water. Many people are collecting polluted water from unprotected ponds, unprotected springs, and rivers. All of these sources are subject to contamination as rainwater washes solid and liquid waste from surrounding areas into the sources. A world water development report by United Nations had categorized India as one among the worst countries with poor quality of water, as well as its ability and commitment to improve the situation. The surface and groundwater resources are steadily declining because of increase in population, industrial growth, pollution by various human, agricultural and industrial wastes and unexpected climate change. Among the most distinctive features of India are its rivers which covering the vast geographical area of 329 million hectares and have been an important reason for 10 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
the prosperity of India. Being with wide importance in cultural, economical, geographical as well as religious importance among its people, the rivers are considered as Gods and Goddesses, and are worshiped by the Hindus.
1.2 Water quality problems in India India with declining freshwater resources has an acute shortage of potable water of acceptable quality. The socio-economic growth of a region is severely constrained by non-availability of safe drinking water. The shortage has started affecting the lives of people as well as the environment around them. Some of the major issues that need urgent attention are: • As a result of excessive extraction of ground water to meet agriculture, industrial and domestic demands, drinking water is not available during the critical summer months in many parts of the country. • About 10 per cent of the rural and urban populations do not have access to regular safe drinking water and many more are threatened. Most of them depend on unsafe water sources to meet their daily needs. • Chemical contaminants namely fluoride, arsenic and selenium pose a very serious health hazard in the country. It is estimated that about 70 million people in 20 States are at risk due to excess fluoride and around 10 million people are at risk due to excess arsenic in ground water. • Pollution of surface and groundwater from agrochemicals (Fertilizers and Pesticides) and from industry poses a major environmental health hazard, with potentially significant costs to the country.
The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 11
1.3 Background | INDIA
Population 1,266,883,598 growth rate: 1.19 %
Total area 3,287,263 sq km
land 2,973,193 sq km | water 314,070 sq km
Land use
Agricultural land 60.5 % | Forest 23.1 % | Other 16.4 %
Urban population 32.7 % of total population annual rate of change 2.38 % Drinking water source improved 94.1 % | unimproved 5.9 %
Sanitation facility access
improved 39.6 % | unimproved 60.4 %
Major infections diseases risks very high
food or waterborne diseases | water contact diseases
Population below poverty line 21.9 % unemployment rate 5 %
Environment issues
deforestation, soil erosion, overgrazing, desertification, air pollution, water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides, non-potable tap water, rapid population growth, scarcity of natural resources
Economy
India’s diverse economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, modern industries and multitude of services. India has capitalized on its large educated population to become a major exporters of information technologies and software workers.
Export $262.3 billion Import $381 billion GDP agriculture 16.5 % | industr
Source: Central Intelligence Agency. www.cia.gov 12 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
ry 29.8 % | services 45.4 %
Labor force agriculture 47 % | industry 22 % | services 31 % The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 13
1.4 Water Crisis | Main Issues
• Water Stress The map illustrates competition between companies, farms and people for surface water in rivers, lakes, streams, and shallow groundwater. Red and dark-red areas are highly or extremely highly stressed, meaning that more than 40 percent of the annually available surface water is used every year. With 54 percent of India’s total area facing high to extremely high stress, almost 600 million people are at higher risk of surface-water supply disruptions.
Baseline Water Stress (withdrawals/available supply)
source: World Reasources Institute 14 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Low (<10%) Low to Medium (10-20%) Medium to High (20-40%) High (40-80%) Extremely High (>80%) Arid & Low Water use
54%
of India faces
High to Extremely High
water stress
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 15
â&#x20AC;˘ Groundwater Level Groundwater levels are declining across India. Of the 4,000 wells captured in the IWT 2.0 (India Water Tool) showing statistically significant trends, 54 percent dropped over the past seven years, with 16 percent declining by more than 1 meter per year. Farmers in arid areas, or areas with irregular rainfall, depend heavily on groundwater for irrigation. The Indian government subsidizes the farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; electric pumps and places no limits on the volumes of groundwater they extract, creating a widespread pattern of excessive water use and strained electrical grids
Groundwater Level (meters below ground level)
source: World Reasources Institute 16 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
High (<1.5) Medium to High (1.5-5.9) Medium (5.9-10.3) Low to Medium (10.3-14.6) Low (>14.6) No Data
54%
of India’s Groundwater wells are
decreasing
The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 17
â&#x20AC;˘ Water Quality The IWT 2.0 (India Water Tool) measures water quality with an Indian-government standard called Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) limits. Surface and groundwater are both below par in many areas. Among the IWTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 632 groundwater quality districts, only 59 are above BIS limits. Whenever a particular pollutant concentration exceeds BIS limits, drinking water is considered unsafe. The yellow and red areas below indicate places where chlorine, fluoride, iron, arsenic, nitrate, and/or electrical conductivity exceed national standards. These districts are also extremely populous. 130,600,000 people live in districts where at least one pollutant exceeded national safety standards in 2011. And more than 20 million people lived in the eight districts where at least three pollutants exceeded safe limits. Bagalkot, Karnataka, is the most polluted, with five of six groundwater quality indicators at unsafe levels. Only arsenic falls below the government-recommended concentration level. Groundwater Quality (BIS Standard breaches)
source: World Reasources Institute 18 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
No Breaches 1 Breach 2 Breaches 3+ Breaches No Data
More than
100
Million people live in areas of Poor
Water Quality
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 19
1.5 Study Area This thesis focuses on the city of
structed in the sixteenth century by the
Bangalore as an archetype of cities that
ruler and founder of Bangalore, Kempe
face water and institutional scarcities,
Gowda. The lakes were man made for
lack of proper approaches to water man-
purposes of drinking water, irrigation,
agement, rapid urbanization, and in-
fishing, and worship space. The sys-
creasing environmental pressures. Ban-
tem linked the tanks contained by the
galore is the capital city of the Indian
sub-catchment area and allowed for ad-
state of Karnataka, located in southern
ditional water to flow over to the next
India. It has a geographical area of 2196
tank in the chain (Agarwal 1997)(see fig-
sq km with an average elevation of 900 m
ure 1.2).
above sea level. The terrain, with its hills and valleys provide a natural drainage
Since the liberalization of India’s
pattern with small streams connected to
economy in 1991, Bangalore has been
major streams. Bangalore district is sur-
experiencing rapid economic growth.
rounding by Bangalore rural district on
Bangalore has substantially been affected
the northwest, northeast and southwest
by globalization and rapid urbanization
while on the southeast located the border
over the last decade and has positioned
with the state of Tamil Nadu (see figure
itself as a major exporter of software
1.1).
services to the world and Information Technology (IT). Hence the term “SiliThe city had been known as the
‘Garden City’ or the ‘City of Lakes’, “Kalyananagara”, or the “Land of Thousand Lakes” for its great system of tanks con20 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
con valley of India” is coined to describe Bangalore.
Karnataka State Bangalore rural
Bangalore Karela State
Tamil Nadu State
figure 1.1 | Location map of the city of Bangalore, Karnataka state, India. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 21
figure 1.2 | The system f lakes constructed for the city of Bangalore, Karnataka state, India.
Several national and multinational
urban infrastructure, unauthorized slum
companies have located their offices and
dwellers or by private parties, several
Research & Development (R&D) centers
were covered and converted to residen-
in strategic urban locations around the
tial layout or sewerage system as well as
city in order to take advantage of the IT
playgrounds and sports fields.
revolution and the availability of ample
The lack of water sources in the
engineering professionals. A burgeon-
city of Bangalore and in order to meet
ing middle class has emerged, includ-
constantly increasing demands for water
ing thousands of young IT professionals
supply, the Bangalore Water Supply and
working in the high-tech spaces of urban
Sewerage Board (BWSSB) was set up a
India (Mukherjee, 2012).
plan during the first half of the 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s.
The effect of the rapid and un-
The plan of construction the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Cauvery
controlled urbanization has taken some
Water Supply Schemeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Cauvery river is
heavy toll on the lakes in Bangalore. The
an interstate basin with origins in the
lakes have been largely encroached for
state of Karnataka, flows generally south
22 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
and east through Karnataka and the state
The thesis comprises eight chap-
of Tamil Nadu and emptying into the Bay
ters. Chapter 1 brings out the background
of Bengal. The sharing water of the Cauv-
of the study, the practical importance of
ery River has been the source of a serious
the problem and the need of its solution
conflict between the two states.
for use in real life applications. Chapter 2
As mentioned above, water touches
gives the detailed review of the published
every aspect of life, and in India where
literature with reference and finding of
this basic resource is limited, it may
the conflicts the city of Bangalore is fac-
reach to crisis levels and violent conflicts.
ing. Chapter 3 deals with the strategies of
Tensions have occurred as a result of
water supply for the research, including
regional
water
analysis corresponded to rainwater har-
disputes. These tensions are attributed
vesting, water treatment, and water qual-
to the lack of a clear legal framework for
ity. Chapter 4 describes the morphology
water permits and provisions for water
of the southern Indian architecture as a
sharing which are effectively binding.
backbone and an inspiration point for
and
trans-boundary
Keeping in mind the conflicts that
the design. Chapter 5 features the site
Bangalore is facing, the water scarcity
analysis of the case study located in the
and rapid urbanization, the main aim
city of Bangalore. Chapter 6 presents
of this thesis is to develop an approach
the final design of the project. Chapter
to water management and to create an
7 comprises summary of this study and
innovative act of which citizens in the
conclusions. Chapter 8 provides the bib-
city of Bangalore have become engaged
liography and references of the study.
with the water scarcity though sustainable communal rainwater harvesting and treatment infrastructures. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 23
Chapter 2 |
24 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Conflicts Analysis
2.1 General Bangalore is the capital of Karna-
groundwater. But, both tanks and parks
taka State, and dubbed the Silicon Valley
have been diminishing in number and
of India thanks to its software industry
size for a long time.
being a prime mover of today’s econo-
A High Court Report on Bangalore
my. The city is expanding rapidly, both
Lakes (2011) describes the situation as
in population and size, and counts over
follows: Tanks, being seasonal by nature,
twelve million inhabitants after its juris-
have been encroached upon by new infra-
diction tripled in size in 2007 (see figure
structure and residential layouts, includ-
2.1).
ing slum areas. Others vanish due to the The area is drought-prone because
spread of the water hyacinth or because
of its location in the rain shadow of the
the flow to them has been inhibited. Sur-
Western Ghats mountain range, which
face water bodies are hence disappearing
blocks the south-western monsoon. The
and the rejuvenation of groundwater is
city normally receives negligible quanti-
severely affected. Also, heavy rains cause
ties of rainfall during summer and winter,
flooding and damage due to the lack of
mostly within a range of 830–970 mm per
drainage routes and retention sites. These
year (Ramachandra & Kamakshi, 2005).
problems are aggravated by indiscrim-
The city used to be famous for being the
inate disposal of solid waste in drains.
‘Garden City’ as well as the ‘City of Lakes’
The small streams that flow through the
for having hundreds of water tanks. In an
undulating city terrain are used as drains
early integrated water management ini-
for untreated sewage and storm water,
tiative, lakes and man-made ponds were
and some tanks have become perennial
joined in chains to harvest rainwater for
due to inflow of wastewater from these
drinking and freshwater reservoirs, irri-
drains.
gation, and at the same time recharge the The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 25
figure 2.1 | Map of Greater Bangalore with the core city, municipalities and villages added in 2007 and including a 200 km2 green- belt peripheral area. www.bwssb.gov.in. Note: BMA 1⁄4 Bangalore Municipal Authority, BMP 1⁄4 Bangalore Municipal Corporation, CMC 1⁄4 City Municipal Corporation (seven), TMC 1⁄4 Town Municipal Council (one). 26 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
2.2 Water conflict in Bangalore
ed in a rapid increase in the pressure on
“Many of the wars this century
available water resources. Lowered wa-
were about oil, but those of the next cen-
ter tables, reduced natural flows, steadi-
tury will be over water” - Dr Ismail Ser-
ly more complex pollution and quality
ageldine. This prophecy first appeared in
problems, natural occurrence of arsenic
a 1995 interview in The New York Times.
and fluoride, etc., tremendously affect
Interstate water disputes in India, when-
people’s access to water for sustenance
ever new disputes emerge or old disputes
as well as the agricultural sector’s needs
recur, are widely seen, both nationally
and conditions in the ecosystems. Demo-
and internationally, as precursors of im-
graphic trends of increasing population
pending water wars. The recent intensifi-
density, migration and urbanization add
cation of interstate water disputes during
to the picture, changing the patterns of
the last decade (with many aggrieved
competition for freshwater.
states filing cases with the Supreme
The pressure on Bangalore’s water
Court of India) has only heightened this
resources is steadily increasing. Banga-
sense of immanent conflict. These dis-
lore’s water resources consist the tanks
putes are usually about violations of ex-
that were once connected into a life-sus-
isting agreements, or alleged injury to
taining network, the low-yield under-
their interests due to other state’s actions
ground aquifers and the transboundary
over transboundary rivers.
river which is subject to an ever-escalat-
The transboundary rivers create
ing conflict. Most of the decision-making
an intensifying competition for water.
regarding these resources takes place at
The urge to cater for basic human needs,
city level; Bangalore is thus in charge of
together with demands for general im-
the management and has the power to
provements in standards of living and
improve issues of access. However, some
continued economic growth, has result-
allocation decisions are made by the The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 27
State Government and at the level of the Centre. These and other actors function as various exogenous factors.
2.2.1 Water supply: the beginning Bangalore lies in the middle of southern India, far from a river. The
To estimate the importance of the
city has therefore no history as a centre
water resources and the changes that can
of commerce or trade. Nevertheless, it
be expected, this sub-chapter begins with
has existed as a settlement for well over
a description of the factors exogenous to
a thousand years. The warrior Kempe
the growing, transforming city. The focus
Gowda ruled over the vast agricultural
lies on the water and other natural con-
tracts and laid the foundation of Banga-
ditions of Bangalore and its immediate
lore in 1537. He built his mud fort in a
surroundings.
valley portion and the merchants and artisans that came after soon made the settlement renowned as the most important marketplace in the then Kingdom of Mysore (Nair 2005). In 1806, the English colonizers decided to establish their largest cantonment in Bangalore. The
cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s
undulating
terrain
caused water to assemble in tanks and lakes, and these assumed major significance over several centuries as sources of water for drinking, irrigation and other needs. Apart from its function as a drinking water supply, this man-made network of water bodies came to support mixed farming and gardening as well as 28 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
low scrub forest, favorable for hunting and gathering. An intricate system linked the tanks within the same sub-catchment area and allowed for surplus water to flow over to the next tank in the chain. Very little went to waste; the principles of storage and rainwater harvesting were already well developed, and the facilities carefully maintained (Agarwal & Narain, 1997) (see figure 2.2).
figure 2.2 | Map of the water bodies network in Bangalore. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 29
Maps reveal that many of these tanks were situated within the city itself. They played a pertinent role in the early
Water Bodies Status
Unencroached lakes 2%
beginnings of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development, and remain important (Suresh Babu, 2006). The estimates of how many lakes Encroached lakes 98%
and tanks Bangalore once had range down from well over two hundred to over one hundred. It is equally difficult
Lakes without sewage 10%
to get a unified picture of how many remain in various conditions. According to the Lake Development Authority, 46 are classified as untraceable. Some are used as garbage dumps or have been reduced
Sewage fed lakes 90%
to cesspools, others are being shrunk little by little by the wild water hyacinth. Most, however, have been encroached upon and no longer exist in their prior form. They have been replaced by the city bus terminus, sports stadiums, commercial buildings, residential layouts, and slum areas. Pressure on land is high in a city such as Bangalore, the authorities explain (see figures 2.3, 2.4). figure 2.3 | Water bodies status. source: The Times of India. website: www.timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 30 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Current state
BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Road Infrastructure Green Environment Water Body Built Environment
figure 2.4 | Maps of the water bodies network and green environment in Bangalore. The maps illustrate the changes along the years. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 31
2.2.2 After the tanks: reservoirs The tanks proved insufficient as
augurated in 1936 and temporarily eased the problems of access and supply.
demand grew. The solution came in the
Water supply remained a task
first half of the 1890s, with the first ‘pro-
for the municipality until the 1960s,
tected’ water supply scheme. The source
throughout Independence and the re-
was the Hessarghatta Lake on the Arka-
structuring of the Mysore Kingdom to
vathi River. Water hence began to be
form the State of Karnataka, with Banga-
pumped to Bangalore from an area sit-
lore as State capital.
uated some sixty km north-west of the city. The reservoir was designed to provide up to 250,000 people and it was anticipated that the infrastructure would be sufficient to meet the city’s needs for three decades. However, already in 1922 the population had reached the ceiling and the inadequacy begun to be felt. The situation was perceived as acute by 19251926, when the reservoir went almost dry following two successive years with bad monsoons. Efforts were made to restore the water supply to the city by making use of various tanks. Yet another reservoir was commissioned on the Arkavathi by building a dam at T.G. Halli, downstream of Hessarghatta Lake (Agarwal & Narain, 1997). This new scheme was in32 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
2.2.3 Water supply: The Cauvery River
MLD of water to Bangalore (Agarwal &
scheme
Narain, 1997).
To meet future needs through new
For the fourth extension was di-
sources of water supply, an Expert Com-
vided into two phases to supply another
mittee was constituted in 1958 to exam-
510 MLD by 2011. The first was commis-
ine potential sources. Among the options
sioned in September 2002. The second
were further development of the Arka-
was planned to start in 2005 but faced
vathi River downstream of the main res-
several years of delay before even leaving
ervoir, and the Cauvery River. The Wa-
the drawing-board. This last stage was
ter Board, Bangalore Water Supply and
planned chiefly to cover the outer areas
Sewerage Board (BWSSB), was set up
of Bangalore: water is to be piped up to
in 1964 with essentially technical staff.
the northern part of the city.
Their work was centered on water sup-
The raw water is conveyed through
ply schemes, and huge investments were
a channel via two reservoirs and a ten km
made to impound Cauvery River water
gravity main. After purification in differ-
and to pump it through 100 km long
ent treatment plants, the water is pumped
conveyor pipes to the city. The construc-
to smaller reservoirs in the city, and from
tion of the initial stage of the ‘Cauvery
there it is supplied to individual house-
Water Supply Scheme’ began in 1969 and
holds and establishments by gravity and
the supply of Cauvery water to Bangalore
pumping through a network of smaller
commenced five years later, with a capac-
pipes. Individual, connected premises are
ity of 135 million litres daily (MLD). As
required to install an underground sump
the demand continued to increase, work
as a storage receptacle, as well as electric
to supplement this first stage was carried
pumps with which to raise the water to
out. A third stage was completed in 1993,
another receptacle situated on the roof of
contributing to provide a total of 540
the top storey. As water is delivered only The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 33
for some couple of hours every second or
the river basin includes parts of the State
third day (The Water Board, 2006), each
of Kerala in the west and a part of the
household relies on these private con-
Union Territory of Pondicherry which
trivances to store water, and on gravity
occupies a coastal area in Tamil Nadu.
to transport water from the uppermost
As well as Bangalore, several towns and
point of the building, since power supply
villages depend almost entirely on the
is quite erratic.
Cauvery river for their water supply
The whole region has lately been
(see figures 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8). The Cau-
suffering from drought, with the result
very river has been the object of sharing
that its reservoirs receive less and less
agreements, negotiations and conflicts
water each year and have not been filled
for more than a century. Each time a
since 2002. The consequence is that the
poor monsoon leads to shortage of water,
regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tributaries are no longer feeds
the dispute between farmers especially in
the Cauvery river. The problem is partly
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu intensifies.
due to failing monsoon rains, and part-
Ramaswamy R. Iyer has written that the
ly that the catchment area has been en-
Cauvery â&#x20AC;&#x153;is a fabled river with strong
croached upon, meaning that the surface
historical, religious, and cultural associa-
soil has been hardened and replaced by
tions in both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
houses, roads, parking-lots, etc.
In both States, mention of Cauvery wa-
The Cauvery river is one of the lon-
ters evokes a strong emotional responseâ&#x20AC;?
gest inter-State rivers in India. Its 765-802
(Iyer, 2002a). The dispute is also regularly
km stretch, flowing in a south-easterly di-
a major issue in electoral politics.
rection, originates in the Western Ghats in Karnataka (by Coorg) and reaches the Bay of Bengal in the State of Tamil Nadu. Apart from Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, 34 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 35
KARNATAKA STATE
Legend
State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka River Stream Reservoir Arable Areas Agriculture Areas Agriculture Areas under development Road Infrastructure Railway Infrastructure
Fugure 2.5 | The Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 36 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
KERALA STATE
BANGALORE
TAMIL NADU STATE
BAY OF BENGAL
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 37
KARNATAKA STATE
Legend
State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka River Stream Reservoir
KERALA STATE
Fugure 2.6 | Water Distribution system along the Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 38 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
BANGALORE
TAMIL NADU STATE
BAY OF BENGAL
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 39
KARNATAKA STATE
Legend
State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka Arable Areas Agriculture Areas Agriculture Areas under development
KERALA STATE
Fugure 2.7 | Green Environment along the Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 40 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
BANGALORE
TAMIL NADU STATE
BAY OF BENGAL
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 41
KARNATAKA STATE
State Boundary Basin Boundary State Capital of Karnataka Road Infrastructure Railway Infrastructure
KERALA STATE
Fugure 2.8 | Road infrastructure along the Cauvery Basin source: The State of Karnataka | The State of Tamil Nadu 42 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
BANGALORE
TAMIL NADU STATE
BAY OF BENGAL
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 43
2.3 Rapid Urbanization in Bangalore As outlined above, the city of Bangalore now comprises a core area â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the former Corporation (BMP) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and eight municipalities and 110 villages that surround it. The administrative decision to join all these units and bodies into one jurisdiction was taken as a result of the urbanization
and
peri-urbanization
which the larger area had undergone during some fifteen years. Although urban growth in India has been slow compared with that in many developing and newly-industrialized countries, it is generally expected to speed up, especially in certain agglomerations. The urban dwellers accounted for almost 28 percent
Current state
of the total population in 2001, expected to increase to just over 33 percent by 2026. By another projection, India will have almost half of its population in urban areas in 2030 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; meaning that every eighth person in the urban world (12.39 percent) will be living in India (see figure 2.9). 44 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Road Infrastructure Previous Development Development according to the year
figure 2.9 | Maps of Greater Bangalore illustrate the expansion of the city. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 45
When Bangalore expanded in early 2007, a need for an ‘even working field’ throughout the city was perceived. It was not the first time administrative decisions had been implemented to enlarge the city. In 1995, the former municipalities were created out of villages, and new ward areas were delimited. In terms of population, Bangalore’s growth has been quite extraordinary. In 1961 the city was the sixth largest in India, with 1.2 million inhabitants. It is now the fourth largest. Between 1971 and 1981, Bangalore’s growth rate was 76 percent – the fastest in Asia. Between 1991 and 2001, the urban part of Bangalore District witnessed the country’s fastest growth after New Delhi, with almost 38 percent. This is in comparison to an average of 17 percent growth in the entire Karnataka, and 21.34 percent in India as
City Density BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Person / KM 1,776 - 8,618 8,618 - 17,880 17,880 - 28,385 28,385 - 41,729 41,729 - 120,532
a whole during the decade (see figures 2.10, 2.11, 2.12).
figure 2.10 | The map illustrates the city density. source: BBMP. 46 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Population BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary Person Quintile 21,171 - 33,144 33,144 - 37,258 37,258 - 42,656 42,656 - 51,240 51,240 - 95,368
figure 2.11 | The map illustrates the population distribution around the city. source: BBMP.
figure 2.12 | The graph illustrates the population growth. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 47
Bangalore has been described in
fice buildings and shopping malls, and
many ways over the centuries: as the
infrastructure such as numerous roads,
garden city, pensionersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; paradise, pub
a new airport, a metro system, new wa-
capital, Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Silicon Valley, and so
ter pipes, etc., that in turn draw migrants
on. Each name bears its history and its
both skilled and unskilled workers from
non-disputed grain of truth but most of
the villages surrounding the city and
all, they serve as representations of what
from most of the neighboring States.
geographical space can mean to its inhabitants and to people looking at a place from outside. Besides, the names depict the changes Bangalore has undergone over time â&#x20AC;&#x201C; some of which have come with rapid growth and have led to important transformations of the city. Bangalore has three plain pull factors. Pensioners used to settle in Bangalore because of the peaceful and green environment, and young and well-educated people have more recently been beckoned by jobs in the IT and call centre businesses (known by companies in Europe and the U.S.A. as Business Process Outsourcing). There has been a construction boom since the 1970s, but the rapid economic growth has nevertheless resulted in an upsurge of residential, of48 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
2.3.1 Poverty, slums and access to water Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s slum areas are scattered over the former Corporation and municipalities with three core zones in the inner part of the city (see figure 2.13), being the major commercial and formal as well as informal employment centres.
BDA Boundary BBMP Boundary 1 - 820 820 - 1,400 1,400 - 2,700 2,700 - 8,600 8,600 - 20,000
figure 2.13 | The map illustrates the slum distribution around the city. source: BBMP. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 49
For an expanding metropolis, Ban-
Typology of Slums
galore has relatively small slum areas, and they are often held to be comparatively few in number. Most slums in Bangalore contain fewer than a couple of thousand households.306 ‘Illegal’ encroachments consisting of one or just a few shelters, primarily put up by construction coolies, are common. They can remain for years, expand, and be accepted (or rather ignored) by their adjacent neighbors, but without ever reaching the stage of formal recognition as a ‘slum’. Eventually, if the cluster of shelters is on private land, the owner may initiate court proceedings to evacuate the families and have their dwellings demolished (see figure 2.14).
50 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Population of Slums
figure 2.14 | The graphs illustrate the slumâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population, types and names. source: Karnataka Slum Development Board. website: http://ksdb.kar.nic.in The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 51
It is important for planning and
income possibilities, purchasing power,
improvement works to know how many
and costs for basic needs. The minimum
the urban poor are in a city such as Ban-
wage for domestic work as fixed by the
galore. For several reasons, though, it is
Government of Karnataka is Rs.1,600
difficult to count a slum population; even
per month and the normal daily income
more so to estimate how many people
is about Rs.53. However, many women
are pavement-dwellers or live in tem-
do housekeeping on a day-to-day basis
porary, isolated or scattered habitations
wherever they can find work and are thus
(Schenk & Dewit, 2001). The official sta-
not permanently employed. This typical-
tistics put the proportion of poor in the
ly reduces the monthly income to some
State of Karnataka at 32.6 percent of the
Rs.1,000-1,500 only.
urban population and 20.8 percent of
The majority of the men, but also
the rural (the all-India averages are 25.7
some women, are doing manual work,
and 28.3 percent, respectively) (Planning
often being day-wage laborers. This nor-
Commission 2007a.).According to the
mally means a very insecure job market,
2001 census, about 30 percent of Banga-
often within the construction business,
lore’s population was regarded as urban
and on a short-term basis. A small por-
poor, and the number of ‘slum enumer-
tion of the urban poor does some kind
ation blocks’ was 733, housing 345,200
of artisan work – as painters, carpenters,
inhabitants. Official websites of various
etc. Yet others sell vegetables and fruits,
responsible authorities give notoriously
buckets and pots, and other domestic
different figures and the unofficial num-
items from mobile wagons. A group of
bers are possibly even more inconsistent,
men that is comparatively better off is the
another source states that 2.2 million
auto rikshaw drivers and private chauf-
people live in slums in Bangalore.
feurs.
The issue of access to water is the 52 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Water is a heavy burden on the to-
tal monthly budget, the average porches
individual connections – was a service
of water is 25 litres per month in com-
that the State provided to the citizens.
parison to a household connected to the
The operation and maintenance of the
Bangalore Water Board can consume
same has since been an important task
8,000 litres of treated freshwater in a
for the public utilities, not least to protect
month.
citizens’ health and to provide for an im-
Water supply conditions differ
proved standard of living. This depends,
greatly between any two slum areas, in
though, on water being pumped from a
terms of whether there is access via one
river some 100 km away. With a lowered
or several wells or taps (public stand-
limit on the extraction allowed, at the
posts) within or close to the slum, how
same time as water use is rapidly grow-
much water these give; and whether the
ing, the challenges are piling up.
water is potable. The range of quality of
It is clear that the region faces an
water and the quantity of water supply
increasingly difficult situation, with less
are wide.
water being available both per capita and
Bangalore was self-sufficient in
in absolute terms.
terms of water supply only till around the second half of the nineteenth century, when increased growth and demand forced the authorities to begin bringing in water from tanks. At that time the city was still very small compared to today, but it became dependent on the supporting hinterland nevertheless. Building an infrastructure network – including reservoirs, pipes, water towers, pumps and The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 53
Chapter 3 |
Strategies of Supplying Water
54 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
3.1 General The complex water-related problems and issues in the world today need a broader understanding and must be considered from different angles simultaneously. This, in turn, necessitates simultaneous integration of knowledge, values and methods from several disciplines. For this study, I chose to go to the traditional frameworks in order to better understanding the routes of providing water to inhabitants. First, the water harvesting methods and strategies from past usage to present days. Secondly, the Roman Aqueduct which provided water from the reservoir to the city through water bridge. Finally, the dams which were constructed in order to control wild water.
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 55
3.2 Rainwater Harvesting, Aqueducts and Dams Rainwater Harvesting
â&#x20AC;˘ Roof top rainwater harvesting: The
Rainwater harvesting is the collec-
roof top becomes the catchments
tion and storage of rainwater for reuse
from where the rainwater is col-
on-site, rather than allowing it to run off.
lected. The water run into pipes
These stored waters are used for various
reaching prepared basins of filters.
purposes such as domestic use, garden-
The filters are used for treat the
ing, irrigation etc.
water to effectively remove con-
Water has been harvested in India
taminants, turbidity, colour and
since antiquity. They harvested monsoon
microorganisms. Then the water
runoff by capturing water from swollen
is stored in tanks for future use,
streams and stored it in various forms
or charge and increase the level of
of surface water bodies such as artificial
the ground water through a soak
lakes, wells and tanks, ponds, temple
pit which lead the water into a well
tanks etc.
(see figure 3.1).
The techniques:
The filter tank figure 3.1 | The scheme illustrates the rainwater harvesting in the private sector. source: www. cgwb.gov.in 56 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
• Surface runoff harvesting: The method is to collect the rainwater, harvest and store it into reservoirs such as ponds, lakes and wells. The traditional structures are the Temple Tanks and the Ooaris. The Temple Tank is a traditional step wells, called “Vavadi” or “Baoris” or “Bavadis”. Those structures were built to capture water for all people to draw from there. The Ooaris has been designed to harvest and store
figure 3.2 | Above, Traditional Hindu Temple Tank. Bottom, The Ooaris water bed
rainwater to meet the drinking needs of a community. The Ooaris was created as ponds by excavating the soil (see figure 3.2).
The advantages of Rainwater Harvesting: • Ideal solution for all water requirements • Increase the ground level and improve its quality • Reduce flooding • Reduce soil erosion • Reduce water charges
The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 57
The Aqueduct, a water bridge
• The ancient aqueduct, The roman
Bridges for conveying water, called
empire. Bridges were a distinctive
aqueducts or water bridges are con-
feature of Roman aqueducts which
structed to convey watercourses across
were built in all parts of the Roman
gaps such as valleys or ravines. The term
Empire, from Germany to Africa,
aqueduct may also be used to refer to the
and especially in the city of Rome,
entire watercourse, as well as the bridge.
where they supplied water to pub-
Large navigable aqueducts are used as
lic baths and for drinking. Roman
transport links for boats or ships. Aque-
aqueducts set a standard of engi-
ducts must span a crossing at the same
neering that was not surpassed for
level as the watercourses on each end.
more than a thousand years (see
The word is derived from the Latin aqua
figure 3.3).
(“water”) and ducere (“to lead”). A modern version of an aqueduct is a pipeline bridge. They may take the form of underground tunnels, networks of surface channels and canals, covered clay pipes or monumental bridges. The water bridges:
58 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
â&#x20AC;˘ The modern aqueduct, Navigable aqueducts, also called water bridges. They are water-filled bridges to allow vessels on a waterway to cross ravines or valleys. During the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, navigable aqueducts were constructed as part of the boom in canal-building. A notable revolving aqueduct has been made on the Bridgewater Canal. This allowed vessels to cross at high and low levels while conserving water (compared to building locks)(see
figure 3.3 | Traditional Roman Aqueduct structures
figure 3.4).
figure 3.4 | Modern Aqueduct structures The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 59
The Dam
• Gravity Dam, the force that holds
A dam is a barrier that stops or re-
the dam in place against the push
stricts the flow of water or underground
from the water is Earth’s gravity
streams. Reservoirs created by dams not
pulling down on the mass of the
only suppress floods but also provide wa-
dam. The water presses laterally
ter for activities such as irrigation, hu-
(downstream) on the dam, tending
man consumption, industrial use, aqua-
to overturn the dam by rotating
culture, and navigability. Hydro-power
about its toe (a point at the bot-
is often used in conjunction with dams
tom downstream side of the dam).
to generate electricity. A dam can also
The designer ensures that the dam
be used to collect water or for storage of
is heavy enough that the dam’s
water which can be evenly distributed
weight wins that contest. In engi-
between locations. Dams generally serve
neering terms, the resultant of the
the primary purpose of retaining water,
forces of gravity acting on the dam
while other structures such as floodgates
and water pressure on the dam acts
or levees (also known as dikes) are used
in a line that passes upstream of the
to manage or prevent water flow into
toe of the dam (see figure 3.5).
specific land regions. Types and methods of dams:
• Arch Dam, stability is obtained by a combination of arch and gravity action. If the upstream face is vertical the entire weight of the dam must be carried to the foundation by gravity, while the distribution of the normal hydrostatic pressure between vertical cantilever and arch action will depend upon
60 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
the stiffness of the dam in a verti-
stream side that is supported at in-
cal and horizontal direction. The
tervals on the downstream side by
normal component of the weight
a series of buttresses or supports.
of the arch ring may be taken by
The dam wall may be straight or
the arch action, while the normal
curved. Most buttress dams are
hydrostatic pressure will be distrib-
made of reinforced concrete and
uted as described above. The most
are heavy, pushing the dam into
desirable place for an arch dam is
the ground. Water pushes against
a narrow canyon with steep side
the dam, but the buttresses are in-
walls composed of sound rock. The
flexible and prevent the dam from
safety of an arch dam is dependent
falling over (see figure 3.8).
on the strength of the side wall abutments, hence not only should the arch be well seated on the side walls but also the character of the rock should be carefully inspected (see figure 3.6). â&#x20AC;˘ Embankment Dam, are made from compacted earth, and have two main types, rock-fill and earth-fill dams. Embankment dams rely on their weight to hold back the force of water, like gravity dams made from concrete (see figure 3.7). â&#x20AC;˘ Buttress Dam or Hollow Dam, is a dam with a solid, water-tight upThe case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 61
figure 3.5 | Gravity Dam structure
figure 3.6 | Arch Dam structure
62 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
figure 3.7 | Embankment Dam structure
figure 3.8 | Buttress Dam structure
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 63
3.3 Water treatment strategy Water Sources Water is pumped from the Reservoir through deep tunnels to the Water Treatment Plant. Rapid Mixing Once it arrives at the plant, the pH is adjusted and water is rapidly mixed with aluminum sulfate (alum), a coagulant that helps the impurities stick together to form bigger particles called floc. Flocculation After rapid mixing, the water flows into flocculation basins, where the flow of water is slowed and the floc has time to grow bigger. Sedimentation Next, the water flows into sedimentation basins, where the heavy floc particles sink to the bottom and are removed. Filtration Now the water travels through large filters made of sand, gravel, and anthracite. Filtration removes any remaining microscopic particles and microorganisms. Disinfection Finally, the water is disinfected to protect it against bacteria. The Water System uses chlorine dioxide and a combination of chlorine and ammonia called chloramines to disinfect the water. Fluoride is also added support good dental health. Distribution The clean water is then pumped into pipes that deliver it to the water towers storage units. 64 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
figure 3.9 | Water treatment process diagram The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 65
3.4 Water quality index Water ,being a universal solvent, has been and is being utilized by man-
formation on environmental trends to policy makers and general public is with indices.
kind time and again. Of the total amount
Most of the present day rivers in
of global water, only 2.4% is distributed
India are severely polluted due to the
on the main land, of which only a small
irresponsible attitude and mismanage-
portion can be utilized as fresh water. The
ment by the people or stakeholders. Due
available fresh water to man is hardly 0.3-
to economic development, population
0.5% of the total water available on the
growth and associated changes of con-
earth and therefore, its judicious use is
sumption patterns, overuse and pollu-
imperative (Ganesh and Kale 1995). Wa-
tion of surface water bodies has been
ter is an essential requirement of human
increasing, especially in peri-urban and
and industrial developments and it is one
urban areas. Reporting water quality
the most delicate part of the environment
monitoring results in a clear, meaningful
(Das and Acharya 2003). In the last few
way has always presented scientists with
decades, there has been a tremendous
a challenge. There is a strong need to de-
increase in the demand for freshwater
velop tools to effectively address the core
due to rapid growth of population and
environmental problems. Water resource
the accelerated pace of industrialization
professionals generally communicate wa-
(Ramakrishnaiah et al 2009). Human
ter quality status and trends in terms of
health is threatened by most of the agri-
the evaluation of individual water quality
cultural development activities particu-
variables. While this language is readily
larly in relation to excessive application
understood within the water resources
of fertilizers and unsanitary conditions
community, it does not readily translate
(Okeke and Igboanua 2003). One of the
to communities having profound influ-
most effective ways to communicate in-
ence on water resources policy, viz, the
66 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
general public and the policy makers.
water quality program (Singh and Ghosh
Political decision-makers, non-techni-
1999).
cal water mangers, and the general public usually have neither the time nor the training to study and understand a traditional, technical review of water quality data. WQIs are able to facilitate quantification, simplification and communication of complex environmental data. Formulating the WQI was attempted by numerous researchers. The earliest attempt was made by Horton (1965) from selected sewage treatment based on his own judgment and experience. Delphi method developed by “Rand” corporation was an opinion- research technique, Brown et al (1970) used this method to develop a WQI for National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) of USA. Water quality indeed is contributing for water quality of any water system. It is one of the effective, helpful parameters and provides informative data, which is important to citizens, Government and Public Health authorities. Policies for improvement of The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 67
3.5 The Wetland study
to determine the plants and animals that
Wetlands are areas where water
inhabit each wetland. The complex, dy-
covers the soil, or is present either at or
namic relationships among the organ-
near the surface of the soil all year or for
isms inhabiting the wetland environment
varying periods of time during the year,
are referred to as food webs.
including during the growing season.
Although wetlands are often wet,
Water saturation (hydrology) largely de-
a wetland might not be wet year-round.
termines how the soil develops and the
In fact, some of the most important wet-
types of plant and animal communities
lands are only seasonally wet. Wetlands
living in and on the soil. Wetlands may
are the link between the land and the wa-
support both aquatic and terrestrial spe-
ter. They are transition zones where the
cies. The prolonged presence of water
flow of water, the cycling of nutrients and
creates conditions that favor the growth
the energy of the sun meet to produce a
of specially adapted plants (hydrophytes)
unique ecosystem characterized by hy-
and promote the development of charac-
drology, soils and vegetationâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;making
teristic wetland (hydric) soils.
these areas very important features of a
Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world, comparable to rain forests and coral reefs. An immense variety of species of microbes, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish and mammals can be part of a wetland ecosystem. Physical and chemical features such as climate, landscape shape (topology), geology and the movement and abundance of water help 68 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
watershed.
Types of wetland: • Freshwater marshes are charac-
ciers. Ground water input is also important.
terized by periodic or permanent
• Playas are small basins that collect
shallow water, little or no peat
rainfall and runoff from the sur-
deposition, and mineral soils. They
rounding land. These low-lying ar-
typically derive most of their wa-
eas are found in the Southern High
ter from surface waters, including
Plains of the United States.
floodwater and runoff, but do receive ground water inputs.
• Vernal pools have either bedrock or a hard clay layer in the soil that
• Wet meadows commonly occur
helps keep water in the pool. They
in poorly drained areas such as
are covered by shallow water for
shallow lake basins, low-lying de-
variable periods from winter to
pressions, and the land between
spring, but may be completely dry
shallow marshes and upland areas.
for most of the summer and fall.
Precipitation serves as their primary water supply, so they are often dry in the summer. • Wet prairies are similar to wet meadows but remain saturated longer. Wet prairies may receive water from intermittent streams as well as ground water and precipitation. • Prairie potholes develop when snowmelt and rain fill the pockmarks left on the landscape by glaThe case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 69
Wetland water treatment (see figure
built on uplands and outside floodplains
3.10)
or flood-ways in order to avoid damage Natural wetlands perform many
to natural wetlands and other aquatic
functions that are beneficial to both hu-
resources. Wetlands are frequently con-
mans and wildlife. One of their most im-
structed by excavating, backfilling, grad-
portant functions is water filtration. As
ing, diking and installing water control
water flows through a wetland, it slows
structures to establish desired hydraulic
down and many of the suspended solids
flow patterns. If the site has highly per-
become trapped by vegetation and settle
meable soils, an impervious, compacted
out. Other pollutants are transformed to
clay liner is usually installed and the orig-
less soluble forms taken up by plants or
inal soil placed over the liner. Wetland
become inactive. Wetland plants also fos-
vegetation is then planted or allowed to
ter the necessary conditions for microor-
establish naturally.
ganisms to live there. Through a series of complex processes, these microrganisms also transform and remove pollutants from the water. Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorous, are deposited into wetlands from storm-water runoff, from areas where fertilizers or manure have been applied and from leaking septic fields. These excess nutrients are often absorbed by wetland soils and taken up by plants and microorganisms. Constructed wetlands are generally 70 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
figure 3.10 | Wetland water treatment process schemes. source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, office of water. September 2001. www.epa.gov. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 71
Chapter 4 |
Morphology Analysis
72 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
4.1 The Mandala A mandala is a spiritual and ritual symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism, representing the universe. In common use,
making of houses, palaces, temples and even cities. Types of Mandala’s grid:
“mandala” has become a generic term for any diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a microcosm of the universe. The basic form of most mandalas is a square or circle with four gates containing a significant center point. Each gate in the general shape is identical to the next gate highlights the phrase the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The central space of the Mandala is the most important part of the shape symbolize the ultimate unity of all archetypes as well as the multiplicity of the phenomenal world, and is therefore the empirical equivalent of the metaphysical concept of a unus mundus. The Vastu- Purusha Mandala also forms a strong grid as the basis of Indian architecture. It has the potential for infinite applications and adaptations in the
figure 4.1 | The Mandala grid. The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 73
4.2 Morphology of the Hindu Temples
the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple
and palaces
is meant to encourage reflection, facili-
A Hindu temple is a symme-
tate purification of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind, and trig-
try-driven structure, with many vari-
ger the process of inner realization with-
ations, on a square grid of the Vastu-
in the devotee.
Purusha Mandala, depicting perfect
The human body is the temple for
geometric shapes of circles and squares.
the indwelling Spirit of God (Antaryam-
The underlying principle in a Hindu
in). Various parts of the temple struc-
temple is built around the belief that all
ture correspond to various parts of the
things are one, everything is connected.
human body. The temple is the physical
The pilgrim is welcomed through mathe-
body (sthoola sarira) which houses the
matically structured spaces, a network of
presence of Divine. So the actual build-
art, pillars with carvings and statues that
ing of the temple itself is a symbol of the
display and celebrate the four important
presence of the Divine in the world (see
and necessary principles of human life -
figure 4.2).
the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit of moksha (release, self-knowledge). The center of the temple is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present everywhere, connects everything, and is 74 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
figure 4.2 | Plan and elevation of the Hindu Temple according to the Mandala grid. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 75
There are two great period of palace building in India, the first is repre-
the Hindu, Mughal, Rajput, and Gothic styles.
sented by the period of Mughal suprema-
For example, the Islamic influences
cy, from the middle parts of the sixteenth
are the deep pink marble domes project-
century to the middle parts of the eigh-
ing at the corners of the palace structure.
teenth century, and the second is repre-
The main Gothic influence is the central
sented by the period of the British Raj.
tower (45 meters) design as a tower of a
The Indian architecture progressed with
Gothic cathedral. The entrance archway
time and assimilated the many influenc-
is characterized as Hindu architecture as
es that came as a result of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s global
for the decorative arch and the multipli-
discourse with other regions of the world
cation of the number three. Three arches
throughout its past. The architectural
from each side framing the central arch.
methods practiced in India are a result of
The entrance leads to a wide central
examination and implementation of its
open-air courtyard which maintain the
established building traditions and out-
Vastu-Purusha Mandala.
side cultural interactions. But, the traditional Vastu Shastra and Vastu Purusha Mandala remain influential in Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architecture during its contemporary era. The Mysore Palace is taken as an archetype for Indian architecture due to its hybrid style. The palace was built in the 14th century and again in the 19th century which highlight the mixture of various architecture elements called Indo-Saracenic Revival style, the blends of 76 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
figure 4.3 | The Mysore Palace. Main facade view. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 77
4.3 Morphology of Hinduâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s architectural elements Hindu arches analysis The 12th - 14th century
The 14th century
The 17th century
The 16th - 17th century
The geometry of the triangular arch
Simplified the triangular arch
Design a new triangular arch
front and back A triangular arch between pillars
figure 4.4 | Arches analysis. 78 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
front
back
A double side triangular arch
Hindu temple (water) tank analysis
water community stairs temple green
The temple
The mandala
Plan
The stairs leading to the well are based on the Mandala grid plan
temple community green stairs stairs water
temple community green built environment ground water
Section
The stairs gradually leading to the well. The section illustrate the relations between the community, the holy space (the temple), the nature and the importance of water for life.
figure 4.5 | Water maze analysis. The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 79
PART A
PART B
PART C
Scheme of urban strategy according to the water maze and the mandala grid 80 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
PART A
PART B
PART C
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
LAKE
TEMPLE
LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE LANDSCAPE
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
BUILT ENVIRONMENT
TEMPLE
w
com st te gr
PART A
PART B
PART C
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Chapter 5 |
82 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The Case Study
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 83
5.1 General
The site is located south east from the ancient city centre and north west from the famous Gandhi Bazaar which accommodate very vibrant commercial core. The site is mostly characterized by its temples and small worship places spread around it and the historical Kempambudhi Kere lake which was built as part of the lake chain in the 15th century by the ruler Kempe Gowda. As the City expanded, the lake became a sewerage tank as storm-water and sewerage pipes began flowing into the lake leading to extreme pollution and dried terrain.
The site
84 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The core Gandhi Bazaar
5.2 Site analysis Kempambudhi Kere, Nanjamba Agrahara, Chamrajpet, Arisinakunte, Karnataka 560019. The core
The site
Gandhi Bazaar The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 85
LAND USE Residential Public | Semi-Public Industrial Commercial Parks | Green 86 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
INFRASTRUCTURE Primary System Secondary System Residential System
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 87
FIGURE GROUND Built Environment
88 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION Bus line System Metro line System
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 89
GREEN AND BLUE INFRASTRUCTURE Park Infrastructure Water Infrastructure
90 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE Religious institution Health care institution Educational institution Governmental institution The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 91
5.3 Strategy of the project
KEMPAMBUDHI K
STRATEGIC PLAN Strategic Spine Primary road infrastructure Parks | Green Religious institution Health Care institution Educational institution Governmental institution Pedestrian - water route Car - bicycle route Primary connection Secondary connection
92 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
KERE
GANDHI BAZAAR COMMERCIAL CENTER
STRATEGIC SPINE
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 93
Chapter 6 |
94 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The Design
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 95
6.1 General Masterplan
96 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 97
6.2 The corridor
Top level plan 98 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 99
6.2 The corridor
Ground level plan 100 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 101
6.2 The corridor
Section A-A
Urban Section
Elevation
102 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Section B-B
Section C-C
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 103
104 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 105
6.3 The Wetland
D
E
D
E
F
F
106 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
SECTION D-D
SECTION E-E
SECTION F-F
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 107
108 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 109
110 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 111
GROUND FLOOR PLAN
MODULAR SYSTEM 3X3
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B’
A’ C’
C’
B’
A’
GROUND FLOOR PLAN
FIRST FLOOR PLAN The case study of Bangalore’s water infrastructure | 113
SECOND FLOOR PLAN
ROOF TOP FLOOR PLAN 114 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
NORTH ELEVATION
WEST ELEVATION The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 115
SECTION A’-A’ 116 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 117
SECTION B’-B’ 118 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 119
SECTION C’-C’ 120 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
The case study of Bangaloreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water infrastructure | 121
AXONOMETRIC VIEW 122 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
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Ganesh, R., Hegde and Kale, Y.S. (1995). “Quality of lentic waters of Dharwad District in North Karnataka”, Indian J. Environ. Hlth., Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 52-56. Human Development Report, Karnataka, India. http://www.planningcommission. nic.in Iyer, R.R. (2002a). The Cauvery Tangle – What’s the Way Out? Frontline, Vol. 19, Issue 19, Sept 14 – 27. Mukherjee S, Pal, O.P and Pandey, A.K. (1995), Bhu-Jal news, Vol.10, pp.1-6. Mukherjee, S. (2012). “Bangalore South also has Water Worries”. The Times of India, March, 13 Nair, J. (2005). The Promise of the Metropolis: Bangalore’s Twentieth Century. New Delhi: OUP. Okeke, C.O. and Igboanua, A.H. (2003)“Characteristics and quality assessment of surface water and groundwater recourses of Akwa Town, Southeast, Nigeria”, J. Niger. Assoc. Hydrol. Geol., Vol. 14, pp. 71-77. Ramachandra, T.V. & G. Kamakshi (2005). Bioresource Potential of Karnataka: Taluk- wise Inventory with Management Options. Technical Report No 109. Centre for Ecologi- cal Sciences, IISc, Bangalore. Ramakrishnaiah, C.R., Sadashivalah, C. and Ranganna, G.(2009). “Assessment of water quality index for the groundwater in Tumkur Taluk, Karnataka State”, Indian J. Chem., Vol. 6, pp. 523-530. Schenk, H. & M. Dewit (2001). The Fringe Habitat of Bangalore. In H. Schenk (ed.). Liv- ing in Bangalore’s Slums: A Case Study of Bangalore. New Delhi: IDPAD Manohar. Singh, A.P and Ghosh, S.K. (1999) “Water quality index for River Yamuna”, Poll. 124 | A Lake As Water Sanctuary
Res., Vol. 18, pp. 435-439. Suresh Babu, S.V. (2006). Thirsty and dirty. Down to Earth. February 15. http://w ww.downtoearth.org.in United States Environmental Protection Agency, office of water. www.epa.gov. WHO (2003) “The Right to Water”, World Health Organization, Geneva.
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