Journal of Global Catholicism — Lived Experience in Catholic Education — Vol 6 Iss 2 by College of the Holy Cross

Journal of

VOLUME 6 | ISSUE 2

GLOBAL CATHOLICISM SPRING 2022

LIVED EXPERIENCE IN CATHOLIC EDUCATION

Research and Reflections from Sub-Saharan Africa and North America Cover image by Thomas M. Landy

2 | Lived Experience in Catholic Education

THE JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM is an international,

interdisciplinary peer-reviewed journal. Its purpose is to foster the understanding of diverse forms of lived Catholicism with attention to their significance for theoretical approaches in anthropology, history, sociology, media studies, psychology, theology, and philosophy.

An open-access publication, the Journal of Global Catholicism is part of the

Catholics & Cultures initiative (www.catholicsandcultures.org), administered by the Rev. Michael C. McFarland, S.J. Center for Religion, Ethics and Culture at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts, USA.

Read our Peer Review Statement of Principles and Commitments.

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Mathew N. Schmalz, PhD, College of the Holy Cross MANAGING EDITOR

Marc Roscoe Loustau, ThD FOUNDER & DIRECTOR

Thomas M. Landy, PhD, College of the Holy Cross PUBLICATIONS MANAGER

Danielle Lamoureux-Kane, College of the Holy Cross EDITORIAL BOARD

Teresia Hinga, Santa Clara University

Eunice Kamaara, Moi University, Kenya

Magdalena Lubanska, University of Warsaw

Kerry P. C. San Chirico, Villanova University

Bernhard Udelhoven, Society of the Missionaries of Africa

JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Journal of

GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2

Lived Experience in Catholic Education

Research and Reflections from Sub-Saharan Africa and North America INTRODUCTION •

Marc Roscoe Loustau / Overview & Acknowledgments

•

Quentin Wodon / Lived Experience in Catholic Education: Research and Reflections from Sub-Saharan Africa and North America

4 8

ARTICLES •

Alexandre Bingo / Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

•

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon / Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

•

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng / Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

•

Quentin Wodon / Decline in Student Enrollment, Parental Willingness to Consider Catholic Schools, and Sources of Comparative Advantage in the United States

APPENDIX • Quentin Wodon / Responding to Pope Francis’ Call for a Global Compact on Education: Insights from Interviews for the Global Catholic Education Project

116

I N T E R V I E W S I N G LO B A L C AT H O L I C S T U D I E S •

William T. Cavanaugh / Center for World Catholicism & Intercultural Theology, DePaul University

150

•

Paul D. Murray / Center for Catholic Studies, Durham University

160

•

Kenneth Parker / Department of Catholic Studies, Duquesne University

178

VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

M A R C R O S C O E L O U S TA U

Overview & Acknowledgments

Marc Roscoe Loustau is Managing Editor of the Journal of Global Catholicism and a Catholics & Cultures contributor. As a scholar of religious studies in the context of personal, social, and economic change, his research has focused on Catholicism in Eastern Europe where, after decades of official state atheism, there has been a prominent resurgence of religion in public life. Loustau has taught courses at the College of the Holy Cross on contemporary global Catholicism. He holds a ThD from Harvard Divinity School.

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Marc Roscoe Loustau | 5

e are pleased to publish a Special Issue collection of articles by professionals and educational researchers specializing in Catholic primary and secondary education in Sub-Saharan Africa, with an

additional article on US Catholic educational institutions by the Special Issue’s

Guest Editor, World Bank economist Quentin Wodon. The contribution by Rev. Dr. Joseph Domfeh-Boateng focuses on the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana. Rev. Dr. Antoinette Nneka Opara’s article (co-written with Wodon) draws on a decade of teaching experience in Nigeria. Alexandre Bingo is a Burkinabe priest who

served as Diocesan Director of Catholic Education in Burkina Faso. While the

articles stand on their own for providing valuable and needed insight into the lived

experience of Catholic education outside of North America and Western Europe, they also respond to Pope Francis’ decision to renew the Catholic Church’s commitment to the Global Compact on Education in October 2020.

In the countries where contributors work—Nigeria, Ghana, and Burkina Faso— not only nation-states but societies’ many groups value Catholic schools for pro-

viding quality education, and Catholic schools are growing rapidly. With the lived experience of Catholic primary and secondary education as their focus, the contributors reflect on educators’ emerging pedagogical experiments and strategies in

light of the sometimes-tense religious diversity that characterizes everyday life in these regions.

In the spirit of the interdisciplinary Journal of Global Catholicism, the contributors bridge disciplinary gaps. They are educational professionals, but they also document lived experience in Catholic educational institutions. The articles embrace

experience-near accounts of an average day in a local Catholic school, and feature interviews conducted with educators in these institutions. The authors also present diverse survey methods and argue for their utility to both educators and research-

ers. We are grateful to Quentin Wodon, Lead Economist at the World Bank and a Distinguished Research Affiliate with the College of Business at Loyola University New Orleans, for his hard work to bring this Special Issue to fruition.

VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

Overview & Acknowledgments

This issue also marks the debut of an exciting new platform, Interviews in Global

Catholic Studies, which will feature conversations with university leaders devel-

oping new pedagogy and research in the field of Global Catholicism. The JGC’s Founding Editor Mathew N. Schmalz originated the feature and conducted the

first set of interviews with three innovators in the field: William Cavanaugh, Pro-

fessor of Catholic Studies and Director of the Center for World Catholicism & International Theology at DePaul University; Paul Murray, Professor of Systematic

Theology and Director of the Centre for Catholic Studies at Durham Universi-

ty; and Kenneth Parker, Ryan Endowed Chair for Newman Studies, Professor of Catholic Studies and Historical Theology, and Chair of the Department of Catholic Studies at Duquesne University.

Special thanks go to Thomas Landy, Director of the Catholics & Cultures program at College of the Holy Cross, and Danielle Kane, Associate Director for Commu-

nications at the Rev. Michael C. McFarland, S.J. Center for Religion, Ethics and

Culture. We are especially grateful to Pat Hinchliffe, Administrative Assistant at

the McFarland Center, who is retiring after many years of service to the College of the Holy Cross community.

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Marc Roscoe Loustau | 7

From the cover: Children attend catechism class and a block Rosary on a Wednesday evening at the Holy Spirit mission station in Enugu, Nigeria. Photo by Thomas M. Landy.

VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

QUENTIN WODON

Lived Experience in Catholic Education: Research and Reflections from Sub-Saharan Africa and North America

Quentin Wodon is a Lead Economist at the World Bank and a Distinguished Research Affiliate with the College of Business at Loyola University New Orleans. As part of his volunteer work, he created the Global Catholic Education project to provide resources for educators at https://www.globalcatholiceducation.org.

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Quentin Wodon | 9

here is amazing diversity in Catholic schools globally. Estimates from the

Church suggest that in 2020, 35 million children were enrolled in primary

Catholic schools globally, with another 19 million enrolled in secondary

schools.1 The experience of a student in a Catholic school in the United States may be very different from that of a student in India, or the Democratic Republic of

Congo. The context in which Catholic schools operate, whether in terms of access

to public funding or trends in enrollment, is also different depending on the coun-

try context. Global enrollment in Catholic schools more than doubled since the

1970s,2 with most of this growth observed in sub-Saharan Africa, and to a lower extent in South Asia. By contrast, enrollment in higher income countries and especially in the United States has been flat or declining.

This issue of the Journal of Global Catholicism is dedicated to lived experience

in Catholic schools. With articles reflecting on experiences from Burkina Faso, Ghana, and Nigeria, the emphasis is on sub-Saharan Africa as the region with the fastest growing enrollment in Catholic schools; but one of the articles focuses on

the United States, and an additional contribution is global in nature, based on 130 interviews with Catholic educators.

Much of the research and attention placed on education systems focuses today on improving student performance, with metrics to assess progress based on stan-

dardized assessments. This is needed as too many students are not learning nearly enough in school. According to learning poverty estimates from the World Bank

and collaborating United Nations agencies, a child is considered learning poor if s/ he cannot read and understand an age-appropriate text by age 10. In low- and middle-income countries in 2019, more than half of 10-year-old children were considered learning poor. In sub-Saharan Africa, the proportion was at almost nine in ten

children.3 The situation has deteriorated further since, as the COVID-19 pandemic

led to lengthy school closures in many countries and associated losses in learning. 1 2 3

Secretariat of State of the Vatican, Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2020 / Statistical Yearbook of the Church 2020 / Annuaire Statistique de l’Eglise 2020 (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2022). Quentin Wodon, Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism, Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021). World Bank, Ending Learning Poverty: What Will It Take? (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2019).

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Lived Experience in Catholic Education: Research and Reflections from Sub-Saharan Africa and North America

Improving the education provided in school, including in Catholic schools, is an absolute necessity and it deserves our focus.

At the same time, the role of schools and more generally the role of education is

much broader. Ensuring that students acquire foundational skills, enabling them to complete their secondary education, and providing opportunities to access higher

education and/or land jobs that provide decent pay and a fulfilling professional

career is very important. But in addition, schools are meant to educate the whole child, as Pope Francis argued in a video message in October 2020 for his initiative to call for a renewed commitment or Global Compact on Education.4

In that video message, the Pope called for seven commitments in education, one

of which is the commitment “to welcome.” The first article by Father Alexandre

Bingo is entitled “Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso.” Fr. Bingo used to be the diocesan director for Catholic education in Burkina Faso and is now the

principal of the Catholic high school Saint Luke of Banfora. How can a Catholic

school carry out its mission in a context of religious pluralism? In Burkina Faso, people of various faiths used to live peacefully together, and the country was often

hailed as a haven of tolerance. This remains to a large extent true, but as is the case

for the Sahel region more broadly, terrorism has led to major challenges. Estimates from the Ministry of National Education, Literacy, and the Promotion of National

Languages suggest that as of the end of December 2021, some 3,280 schools (13% of all schools in the country) had been closed due to raid by armed extremists. In January 2022, the military seized power, ousting President Kaboré.

Ensuring mutual respect and harmony among students from different faiths who

study in Catholic schools is probably even more important now than it was in the past. Fr. Bingo explains how in practice his school promotes respect for each other’s faith while being faithful to its mission. As one example, the school’s Balimaya

committee consists of students representing different religions and whose role 4

Francis, Message of his Holiness Pope Francis for the Launch of the Global Compact on Education (Rome: The Vatican, 2019). See also Francis, Video Message of His Holiness Pope Francis on the Occasion of the Meeting Organized by the Congregation for Catholic Education “Global Compact on Education: Together to Look Beyond” (Rome: Pontifical Lateran University, 2020). JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Quentin Wodon | 11

includes preparing events specific to various religions. At the beginning of Lent, Muslim students wish all Christians a good time of Lent, while the same is done

for the fast of Ramadan in a message shared by Christian students. In addition, during both Lent and the Ramadan fast, Christian and Muslim students set aside money and donated the proceeds to an orphanage in the local area. As Fr. Bingo explains it in concluding his article:

This education is not synonymous with renouncing one’s cultural or religious

identity. It is openness to the other, as he is, acceptance of the other as he believes. We cannot love each other without knowing each other; we cannot know each other without going to the other. In the African context, education

in accepting the other in what is most dear to him, his relationship to God, is more necessary than ever. In a multi-faith social context, it is essential to put at the heart of any educational project the concern to discover the other in his relationship to transcendence. … We learn to believe well in order to live better

together. It is faith in the service of social cohesion, a weapon against violent extremism in the world.

Violence in schools—whether physical, emotional, or sexual, remains pervasive in

most countries, including in sub-Saharan Africa. It can have highly detrimental impacts on students, leading some of the students to drop out of school and others to not learn enough. Violence in school is also associated with negative health

impacts, including for mental health.5 If students are at risk of violence in schools, the schools are not safe, and are clearly not welcoming. Another commitment for

the Global Compact on Education is to listen to the voices of children and young people. This is especially important to find solutions to issues such as violence in

school. The guide for action, or vademecum, for Pope Francis‘ Global Compact emphasizes the need to start by listening, noting that in Latin e-ducere means “to

bring out, to bring to light, to prepare the good soil, preparing it to welcome the seed of knowledge.”6 Educators are encouraged to empower students and young 5 6

For an investment case to end violence in schools, see Quentin Wodon, Chloë Fèvre, Chata Male, Ada Nayihouba, and Hoa Nguyen, Ending Violence in Schools: An Investment Case (Washington, DC: The World Bank and Global Partnership to End Violence against Children, 2021). Congregation for Catholic Education, Global Compact on Education – Vademecum (Rome: The Congregation for Catholic Education, 2021).

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Lived Experience in Catholic Education: Research and Reflections from Sub-Saharan Africa and North America

people, including through advisory and decision-making capacities in schools and other learning institutions.

The second article which I co-authored with Sister Antoinette Nneka Opara illus-

trates this commitment. Entitled “Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria,” the article

suggests that teachers and administrators aiming to understand patterns of violence in their school and how to reduce them can learn from simple surveys implemented among students with both open-ended and closed questions. The analysis is based on surveys implemented in two all-girl secondary Catholic schools in

Nigeria. The data indicate that violence is pervasive, although most forms of violence are relatively mild according to the students. Proposals for curbing violence are outlined based on suggestions from students as well as the experience of school administrators and findings from the literature. As the authors conclude:

The two schools that implemented the survey received key results … to enable teachers and administrators to improve the school culture and learning envi-

ronment. The schools’ disciplinary committee and management teams studied the responses and identified areas that could be improved for both school pro-

cedures and student relationships. The students’ Councils also discussed some aspects of the survey to create awareness on available procedures for resolving conflicts. The document proved to be worthwhile for creating awareness on

the issues that can lead to violence in the schools and how various available strategies could enable solutions, in particular to rebuild strained relationships among staff and students. While there is no magic bullet to end violence in schools, progress can be made.

The need for schools to welcome applies to students, but it also applies to teachers

and even to principals. In sub-Saharan Africa, and especially in countries where Catholic schools have a large footprint, a majority of the schools are funded by the

state and considered as part of the public school system. This is the case in Ghana, where the state also funds other types of religious schools such as Islamic schools. Funding by the state provides opportunities since it enables Catholic schools to provide their services mostly free of tuition and other out-of-pocket costs for

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Quentin Wodon | 13

parents, but it also implies some obligations and may lead to constraints. This is the case when teachers or principals are selected by the state and not the Church.

The third article by Father Joseph Domfeh is entitled “Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana.” While Catholic

schools strive to maintain a particular identity, this is not easy when they operate as public schools. The article focuses on the selection and faith/spiritual formation of

lay principals in Ghana’s Catholic public schools. With a focus on the Brong Ahafo

region of Ghana, four questions are explored: (1) How are lay principals selected,

trained, and appointed to head Catholic public schools? (2) In what ways, if any, do they learn about the vision and mission of Catholic education? (3) How do for-

mative spiritual programs help them exercise their duties as spiritual leaders?, and

(4) In what ways do they promote their schools’ Catholic identity? By and large, the analysis suggests that existing spiritual formation programs are insufficient. The author concludes with four main recommendations:

Based on the insights gained in the study, a few recommendations can be made. Recommendation 1: Reinvigorate a comprehensive protocol with accountability codes regarding the selection and appointment of lay principals of Catholic public schools. … Recommendation 2: Empower the Diocesan Education Council to become more effective. … Recommendation 3: Establish a diocesan

spiritual and educational leadership orientation and professional development center. … Recommendation 4: Expose future schoolteachers and administrators to fundamental theories and practices of educational administration.

While the first three articles are on lived experience in Catholic schools in sub-Sa-

haran Africa, the fourth article is about the United States where enrollment in Catholic schools has been declining for half a century. This decline has been attributed to multiple factors, including a lack of affordability of the schools due to

a lack of public funding (with rare exceptions, for example for voucher programs), a weakening of the perception of excellence associated that the schools used to ben-

efit from, and secularization. The sexual abuse crisis in the Church may also have contributed to the decline in enrollment. To stem this decline, Catholic schools

will need to find better ways to welcome, including welcoming more students who

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Lived Experience in Catholic Education: Research and Reflections from Sub-Saharan Africa and North America

may not be Catholic themselves or whose family may not be practicing. This may

require adjustments, but it also provides opportunities, and Catholic schools hap-

pen to have a few particular strengths that have remained relatively untapped so far. The last article is entitled “Decline in Student Enrollment, Parental Willingness to Consider Catholic Schools, and Sources of Comparative Advantage in the United

States.” The first part of the article reviews the literature on factors that contributed

to the long-term decline in enrollment. The second part of the article relies on market research data to argue that many parents who have not enrolled their (young-

est) child in a Catholic school might be willing to do so. In other words, there may

be opportunities for enrollment growth. The last part of the article mentions some of the adjustments that may be needed, while also noting three relatively untapped sources of comparative advantage that could improve students’ lived experience in

Catholic schools: engaging alumni, emphasizing socio-emotional learning (SEL), and establishing connections. For example, on SEL, the article argues that:

Catholic schools—and the Pope himself—have long decried an excessive emphasis placed by school systems on student performance as measured by stan-

dardized assessments. Beyond cognitive skills, research suggests that five core skills related to social and emotional learning (SEL) enable success at school

and in life: self-awareness, self-management, social-awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision making. Given their mission and values, many

Catholic schools already embrace SEL, but some schools could do better. … This is not a matter of adding an extra class on SEL per week to the curriculum, but rather to weave SEL through the whole curriculum, reinforce progress

when students demonstrate an acquisition of those skills, and provide support when this is not the case. … Acquisition of socio-emotional skills often leads

to gains in well-being, positive attitudes, and pro-social behavior, reductions

in risky behaviors such as violence and substance abuse, and improvements in academic performance. … With both students and teachers benefiting, this may transform the entire culture of a school.

Finally, an additional contribution in this issue is a discussion of the commitments suggested by Pope Francis for the Global Compact on Education based on 130

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Quentin Wodon | 15

interviews conducted with educators for the Global Catholic Education project. The aim is to explore lived experience in Catholic schools in a broader way. Stories and insights from the interviews are shared to illustrate how educators are already

putting the seven commitments of the Global Compact into practice. Hopefully, some of the stories and initiatives shared through these interviews will serve as a source of inspiration for your own work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Congregation for Catholic Education, Global Compact on Education – Vademecum. Rome: The Congregation for Catholic Education, 2021.

Francis. Message of his Holiness Pope Francis for the Launch of the Global Compact on Education. Rome: The Vatican, 2019.

Francis. Video Message of His Holiness Pope Francis on the Occasion of the Meeting Organized by the Congregation for Catholic Education “Global Compact on

Education: Together to Look Beyond.” Rome: Pontifical Lateran University, 2020. Secretariat of State of the Vatican. Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2020 / Statistical

Yearbook of the Church 2020 / Annuaire Statistique de l‘Eglise 2020. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2022.

Wodon, Quentin. Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Plural-

ism, Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

Wodon, Quentin, Chloë Fèvre, Chata Male, Ada Nayihouba, and Hoa Nguyen. Ending Violence in Schools: An Investment Case. Washington, DC: The World Bank and Global Partnership to End Violence against Children, 2021.

World Bank. Ending Learning Poverty: What Will It Take? Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2019

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ALEXANDRE BINGO

Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso1

Alexandre Bingo is a Burkinabe priest. He served for more than a decade as Diocesan Director of Catholic Education and Vicar at the Cathedral Parish, and since 2019 he has been the Principal of the Saint Luke Catholic High School as well as parish priest. He holds Master degrees in theology and educational sciences.

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Alexandre Bingo | 17

urkina Faso is one of the West African countries with the lowest school enrollment rates, as well as high levels of learning poverty.2 To help meet

these challenges, Catholic schools in the country aim to provide a quality

education and are perceived as such by parents.3 But they operate in a context of religious pluralism. The students who attend Catholic schools come from dif-

ferent religious denominations (Islam, Christianity, traditional African religions). How can Catholic schools transmit their values in a context of religious pluralism?

How can they educate in a school environment composed of Christians and non-Christians, while ensuring that their own Catholic identity is respected?4

1 2

Article translated and adapted for the author from an article drafted in French. Measures of learning poverty, defined as to whether 10-year-old children are able to read and understand a simple age-appropriate text, are available from World Bank, Ending Learning Poverty: What Will It Take? (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2019). In 2019, 85% of children in Burkina Faso were not proficient in reading (the estimate accounts for out-of-school children). On the motivation to send children to different types of schools including Catholic or Christian schools in Burkina Faso, see Regina Gemignani, Mary Sojo, and Quentin Wodon, “What Drives the Choice of Faith-inspired Schools by Households? Qualitative Evidence from Two African Countries,” Review of Faith & International Affairs 12, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 66-76, https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15570274.2014.918748, and Regina Gemignani and Quentin Wodon, “Gender Roles and Girls’ Education in Burkina Faso: A Tale of Heterogeneity between Rural Communities,” American Review of Political Economy 11, no. 2 (2017): 163-75, https://doi.org/10.38024/arpe.142. In Burkina Faso, Catholic schools are private schools in which student performance tends to be stronger than in other schools. In some other African countries where many Catholic schools are public schools, student performance may not necessarily be stronger. See for an analysis for Uganda Quentin Wodon and Clarence Tsimpo, “Not All Catholic Schools Are Private Schools: Does It Matter for Student Performance?” International Studies in Catholic Education 13, no. 2 (Fall 2021): 175-189, https://doi.org/10.1080/19422539.2021.2010457. On the mission of Catholic schools, see Congregation for Catholic Education, The Catholic School (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1977) and Congregation for Catholic Education, Educating to Fraternal Humanism: Building a “Civilization of Love” 50 Years after Populorum Progressio (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2017). On the footprint of Catholic education in Africa, including in Burkina Faso, see Secretariat of State of the Vatican, Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2020 / Statistical Yearbook of the Church 2020 / Annuaire Statistique de l’Eglise 2020 (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2022) and Quentin Wodon, Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism, Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021). On Catholic schools in Burkina Faso, see for example Maxime Compaoré, “La Refondation de l’enseignement Catholique au Burkina Faso,” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 169170 (January 2003): 87-98, https://doi.org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.191. On perspectives from the leadership of Catholic education in Africa, including Burkina Faso, see Quentin Wodon, ed., Catholic Education in Africa and the Middle East: Perspectives from National Leaders (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021).

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

There is an emerging literature on those questions. Essays collected by Seligman5

look at religious education and state policies in seven countries globally and in the European Union as a whole, exploring how religious education may provide

a framework of meaning without excluding any individuals or communities. Research on teacher perceptions of religious diversity in European countries show

how teachers’ personal experiences and broader socio‐cultural factors as well as national norms shape their responses to diversity.6 Teacher diversity and their re-

spect for different religions can be an asset for religious education, as suggested in a study of student perceptions in an American Jewish high school.7 The ben-

efit of having teachers from different religions is also noted in a case study on a Finnish school.8 While much of the literature in this field has been conduct-

ed in high income countries,9 there are also examples of studies for developing countries. For example, studies have explored religious education for peaceful coexistence in Indonesia,10 and the context of the introduction in South Africa of a

new curriculum for religion education, with proposals put forward sensitive to the

fact that the Constitution was forbidding discrimination on religious grounds.11

Adam B. Seligman, ed., Religious Education and the Challenge of Pluralism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014). 6 Judith Everington et al., “European Religious Education Teachers’ Perceptions of and Responses to Classroom Diversity and their Relationship to Personal and Professional Biographies,” British Journal of Religious Education 33, no. 2 (2011): 241-256, https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.201 1.546669. 7 Illana Finefter-Rosenbluh and Lotem Perry-Hazan, “Teacher Diversity and the Right to Adaptable Education in the Religiously Oriented School: What Can We Learn from Students’ Perceptions?”, Youth & Society 50, no. 5 (2018): 615–635, https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X15621224. 8 Anuleena Kimanen, “Truth Claims, Commitment and Openness in Finnish Islamic and Lutheran Religious Education Classrooms,” Issues in Educational Research 29, no. 1 (2019): 141-157, http:// www.iier.org.au/iier29/kimanen.pdf. 9 Another example for the United States and the United Kingdom is Juan Cristobal Garcia-Huidobro, “What Are Catholic Schools Teaching to Make a Difference? A Literature Review of Curriculum Studies in Catholic Schools in the U.S. and the U.K. since 1993,” Journal of Catholic Education 20, no. 2 (2017): 64-97, https://doi.org/10.15365/joce.2002032017. 10 Lyn Parker, “Religious Education for Peaceful Coexistence in Indonesia?” South East Asia Research, 22, no. 4 (2014): 487-504, https://www.jstor.org/stable/43818549. 11 David Chidester, “Religion Education in South Africa: Teaching and Learning about Religion, Religions, and Religious Diversity,” British Journal of Religious Education 25, no. 4 (2003): 261278, https://doi.org/10.1080/0141620030250402. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Alexandre Bingo | 19

At a theological level, conciliar and post-conciliar documents provide some guidance.12 These themes include mission alignment for Catholic schools and a Chris-

tian anthropology, but also how Catholic schools must be in dialogue with the world, which has implications for how they approach the questions of evange-

lization and catechesis in religiously diverse contexts. What is clear is that the bishops have called for caution in catechetical education when the student body is

religiously diverse. This was discussed in the foundational document The Catholic School published 45 years ago by the Congregation for Catholic Education.13

The aim of this article is not to provide a conceptual contribution to these debates, but rather to show through a case study how a school in Burkina Faso approaches those questions. The private Catholic high school Saint Luke of Banfora offers in its educational project two major areas of emphasis to meet this challenge: (1)

Clearly affirming one’s Christian identity and (2) Promoting inter-religious dialogue. In this article, I will first describe this educational experience in its concrete

realization through educational, pastoral, and organizational activities, then show its effectiveness and relevance by analyzing the results it produces and finally meet

the challenges this project is confronted with. But first, it seems useful by way of

introduction to present the Lycée Saint Luc with particular emphasis on the motives for its creation and the specificities of its educational project.

PRESENTATION OF THE SCHOOL The private Catholic high school (lycée in French) Saint Luke of Nafona was created in September 2012 thanks to the will of the bishop and the diocesan director to

launch a new high-quality school in the city of Banfora. As I served previously as

diocesan director of Catholic education, I saw that in both the public and the private sectors, schools were facing many challenges, including a drop in the academic 12 David Hall, William Sultmann, and Geraldine Townend, “Constants in Context: An Exploration of Conciliar and Post-conciliar Documents on the Catholic School,” Journal of Religious Education 67, no. 1 (2019): 17-39, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40839-019-00074-6. 13 Congregation for Catholic Education, The Catholic School (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1977). VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

All photos courtesy of Alexandre Bingo.

level of students, a lack of discipline, and the disavowal of the school environment by students with as a result of the multiple strikes disrupting the normal course of

the year, the increase in the rate of absenteeism, and problems of peaceful cohabitation between different denominations in some of the Catholic establishments.

On this specific point I would like to recall an anecdote. In 2010, in a secondary Catholic school run by the clerics of Saint Viator, the brother director of Canadian

origin allowed students of different religions to speak to speak in turn for prayer before class. This openness was a source of great difficulties for the conduct of the prayer sessions because each made his prayer according to his faith and his con-

victions. The Catholic recited his formulas, the Protestant chanted his “hallelujahs” and the Muslim his Koranic verses. Unfortunately, students of traditional African

religion did not have an altar to sacrifice their chickens before class. This amalga-

mation had created some concerns of cohabitation when there was a demand from other denominations to have a place of worship within the grounds of the establishment, as Catholic Christians have the chapel. As diocesan director, I told the

director that clarifying the proper identity of the establishment while respecting the confessions of others could be a solution.

It is therefore at the heart of these challenges, of which the peaceful cohabitation

between religions is major, that we wanted to create a pilot establishment with an innovative educational project capable of answering the questions of the quality of education, acceptance of the religion of the other, conviviality in the school environment, and awakening of the talents of young people.

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The private Catholic high school of Banfora is a diocesan establishment under the administrative and pastoral management of the diocesan director appointed by the bishop. It is a general education establishment ranging from the 6th grade

to the final year with a scientific series and a literary series from the second year. There is a boarding school for girls and boys with a capacity of 40 places for each

category. The establishment was built entirely with funding from the Spanish or-

ganization Manos Unidas. The school welcomed 503 students at the start of the 2020-2021 school year, distributed as follows: 248 boys and 255 girls. In terms of

religious affiliations, the distribution is 249 Catholics, 83 Protestants, 139 Mus-

lims and 33 traditional religions. These students are supervised by 57 people (28

teachers, 12 workshop monitors, 12 administrative and support staff, 3 supervisors, and 2 boarding schoolteachers). Since the school started, it has introduced its first students to the BEPC in 2016 and its first BAC students in 2019. Each year we have obtained the best success rates in the Cascades region of the country.

Table 1: Success Rates for BEPC and Baccalaureate Examinations (%) Year BEPC Baccalaureate

2016 95.65 -

2017 95.83 -

Source: School archives.

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2018 100 -

2019 94.73 100

2020 100 100

2021 96.55 94.73

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

THE SCHOOL IN PICTURES

All photos courtesy of Alexandre Bingo.

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PRINCIPLES SPECIFIC TO THE SCHOOL The school’s educational project is inspired by that of Catholic education at the na-

tional level, which stipulates that Catholic education has the function of teaching, educating and training. Like other Catholic establishments, the Lycée Saint Luc

wants to: through teaching, enable young people to acquire intellectual knowledge; through education, give young people human, moral, and civic values, enlightened by the light of the Gospel; through formation, prepare young people to engage in

social life in the name of their faith and to assume their responsibility in the nation and in the Church. To achieve these general national objectives and meet the

challenges raised, the Lycée Saint Luc adopted a few principles in its operation and initiated innovations in its teaching programs. Motto of the school This motto is “the love of hard work and perseverance.” The educators of Saint

Luke are convinced that when you can get a learner to enjoy what he is learning, then he does it well and he is ready to make all the sacrifices over the long term to

learn. Get the learner to love what he does, and the consequence will be discipline and perseverance. A hymn was composed from the motto. Here are the words: Chorus: To love work, in discipline and perseverance, Saint Luke, protect us! Saint Luke bless us! (Bis)

To be successful, you must love what you do, and you do well what you love; To succeed, you have to persevere, only the effort is strong;

To succeed, you must love discipline and life will smile on you. This hymn is sung by all students on the descent and rise of the colors at the start and end of the week throughout the year.

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

Status of the teaching staff All the teachers in the high school are on fixed-term contracts. They are all tem-

porary contractors for a renewable school year after their work has been assessed. Learners contribute to this assessment through a survey in which each student

appreciates the educational action and human values of their teachers. Conscious of the essential role of the educator, Saint Luke’s educational project relies heavily

on the quality of the teaching staff, including both moral and intellectual qualities. Diversity of subjects taught In addition to the subjects included in the official program, specific courses such

as the African culture course, the music theory course and a Latin course are given

to students, particularly in the first cycle of studies. The course on African culture allows learners to appropriate their cultural values in a world of exchange and

change. As for the music theory course, it is an introduction to music to awaken potential talents. The Latin course is not only a reinforcement of the learning of French but above all an initiation to logic and critical thinking. Organization of the evaluations The regularity of the evaluations which aim to push the learners to continuous

work is an educational choice at Saint Luke. In the first cycle, an evaluation is required every 15 days in each subject. The term is sanctioned by a written “compo-

sition.” In the second cycle, in addition to composition, one homework per month is required in each subject.

Workshops commonly known as “talent groves” Workshops are places for developing the talents of learners where we call on other types of intelligence than logical-mathematical intelligence. They are places of cre-

ativity and expression of the natural potential of learners. Among the “talent groves,” there are the talent groves of basketball, football, choreography, music, theater, male and female hairstyling, drawing, Tae N’kondo and “apprentice entrepreneurs.” Every week, on Thursday evening from 3 to 6 p.m., classical lessons are suspended, and each student goes to “a breeding ground for talents” that he or she chooses freely.

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TALENT WORKSHOPS IN PICTURES

Talent Groves for Choreography (above) and Football (left). Photos courtesy of Alexandre Bingo.

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

Talent Groves for Hairdressing. Photos courtesy of Alexandre Bingo.

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Talent Groves for Acrobatics and Gymnastics (above) and Entrepreneurship (left). Photos courtesy of Alexandre Bingo.

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

Coaching Personal development coaching is provided to students for one hour per week. We develop there the theory of virtuous leadership of Alexander Harvard where self-knowledge, mastery of temperament and character, and the culture of virtue are taught.

Transmission of the flame of excellence This is a ritual organized at the beginning of the school year, more precisely on October 18, the feast of Saint Luke. Since the first class achieved exceptional re-

sults, we had the idea to organize a ritual to instill in the students the ambition for excellence. During a ceremony, the two class leaders from the winning promotions to BEPC and BAC hand out a large candle (looking like a paschal candle) to the

third and final year class leaders, the future laureates. In turn, those in charge, starting from the big candle, light the small candles that each candidate holds in their

hand. Two speeches are made: that of the representative of the winners and that

of the representative of the candidates for the current year. The first is a reminder of their performance and the sacrifices made, and the second commits on behalf

of others to keep the torch of excellence high. After this, all lift their candles with their right hand and hold the other hand to their breasts as the hymn of excellence

is performed. It is a moment of solemn commitment in the presence of all the other students in the school, parents, and teachers in the community meeting room. Success together The last activity that is specific to Saint Luke both in content and form is the

“success together” study camp. It is an extracurricular activity organized at the end of the school year on the premises of the school for the school’s candidates for the

BEPC and the BAC. The program offers students in the Third and Final (terminale

in French) classes, at the end of the lectures, a period of boarding for reviews and consolidation of prior learning. The study camp takes place three weeks before

the exam date. The camp program is punctuated by various activities, from the

reception until the last meeting with the principal the day before the exam in

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the evening at 8 p.m. Among the activities, there is the inaugural meeting during which the objectives of the camp and the internal regulations are reminded to the

participants. At the inaugural meeting, the film of the ceremony of the transmis-

sion of the flame of excellence also takes place. As mentioned earlier, this ceremony consists for each promotion in passing the torch of excellence to the following promotion. It is a moment of solemn commitment to perpetuate excellence in the

establishment. This ritual, which takes place at the start of the year, is filmed and screened at the start of the study camp. The inaugural meeting is accompanied by

a written commitment by each student to scrupulously respect the internal rules

of the camp. They are taught two songs inviting candidates for solidarity and communion.

Time for personal study, group study, meeting with teachers, sports (team sport)

and recreational activities (showing films and video clips on Saturday evenings) are

part of the program. The camp lasts three weeks. The day before the exam, the camp ends with a day of relaxation and a walk in nature, followed by a meal with the

teachers who give their final advice. Then follows the meeting of each parent with their child. During this one-on-one meeting, each parent encourages and provides

blessings and guidance to their child. This interview is followed by a community

meeting of all the students with all the parents. During this community meeting two parents (a father and a mother) are chosen for the community blessing of the students. Camp activities end with the candidates making contact with their ven-

ue and composition room and the last meeting at 8 p.m. with the principal who provides his final advice and blessings to the candidates. This camp seems to be a

“booster” of motivational dynamics for candidates in immediate preparation for their exams. This is evidenced by the exceptional academic results in the various

exams. A study on the impact of this camp on the motivational dynamics of candidates is underway.

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

EDUCATING IN THE ACCEPTANCE OF THE OTHER IN THEIR RELIGIOUS DIFFERENCE Asserting your identity while opening up to others Beyond tolerance, Saint Luke’s educational project aims for the acceptance of the other in his difference of faith. According to the Larousse dictionary, “to tolerate is

to endure with patience what one finds unpleasant and unfair”. On the other hand, “accepting” means willingly taking what is proposed, what is offered by giving con-

sent. The idea of tolerance implies resistance, while that of acceptance implies free

and voluntary adherence. At Saint Luke, this free and voluntary membership is

materialized by a contract (Appendix 1) signed by the parent of the pupil, the pupil, and the principal.

It all begins with the enrollment of the student at the Lycée Saint Luc. A registra-

tion form for the specific nature of the school’s educational project is given to each

parent of a student wishing to enter high school. Its content is explained and given to parents for approval and signature. The specificity of the educational project is

explained to the parent and the new pupil. It clearly mentions the pastoral activities which are an integral part of the establishment plan. These include the Catholic Christian prayer regularly said at the beginning and at the end of classes both in

the morning and in the evening, Masses said within the establishment, religious instruction, and the course on African culture, as well as specific matters such as

the existence of Catholic action movements such as the YCS and scouting, the

existence of the inter-religious dialogue committee, and workshops as places for the awakening of talents.

How do prayers take place in the school? We must remember the sacred prin-

ciple of participation for Catholic Christian students and that of assistance for

other denominations. It is not a question of everyone praying according to his or her faith in a general cacophony. The prayer is said by a Catholic. Catholic pupils recite the prayers while students from other denominations respect the climate

of prayer without reciting the prayers themselves or making the sign of the cross.

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Participation allows Catholic Christian students to clearly express their faith and

attendance for all educates in respect for the faith of others. In practice, from the

beginning of the year, in each class, four Catholic Christian students are chosen, trained and responsible for saying the daily prayers. The prayers take place every day at 7 a.m. (start of classes), at 12 p.m. (end of classes), at 3 p.m. (start of evening classes) and at 5 p.m. (end of classes). The person designated for prayer stands in front of the others, makes the sign of the cross, and says the prayer.

The prayer is usually an invocation of God’s blessing for an educational activity. It begins with the sign of the cross and ends with the recitation of a pater or an Ave

Maria for the beginning of the lessons. At the end of the lessons at noon and in the evening, it is the recitation of the Angelus. During these prayers, students of

other denominations, respecting the climate of prayers, fully attend the activity. As for respectful assistance, it is the expression of the freedom of those who do not share the same faith as those praying but respect it as an expression of the identity

of the institution that welcomes them. In the same way as in social life in Burkina Faso, when a follower of one religion takes part in a social event of another religion

(marriage, baptism, religious funeral), he respects the climate of prayer of the said religion. In the same way, at Saint Luc high school, students are educated in this

acceptance and respect for the faith of others. This acceptance is not a resignation but a consideration of the relationship of the other with transcendence.

For activities specific to the Catholic Christian religion (daily prayers, Masses) the “sacred” principle is participation for Catholic Christian students and assistance for

other students of other faiths. Participation enables Catholic Christian students to

clearly express their faith, and assistance educates in respect for the faith of others. Thus, from the beginning of the year, in each class, four Catholic Christian students are chosen, trained and responsible for saying the daily prayers. Prayers are

read by the person praying in front of all the students in the presence of the teacher.

At the end of classes at noon and in the evening, it is the recitation of the Angelus.

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

Promoting inter-religious dialogue Two activities fall within this perspective: the religious instruction course and the

inter-religious dialogue committee called “Balimaya.” The compulsory religious instruction course for all is provided throughout the student’s course of study. In

the first cycle of studies, it is mainly focused on knowledge of different religions, namely Christianity, Islam, and the traditional African religion commonly known as Animism. The objective is for students to discover the history, the values, the

religious practice of each religion. In the second cycle, a more critical look is cast

on religions with an emphasis on their contribution to peace and social cohesion. An opening is made to other world religions (Buddhism, Hinduism, etc.). This

course is taught by teachers with religious training, capable of a certain openness. Proselytizing for any religion is prohibited in this course since the course is meant

to introduce students to other religions and enable them to respect these religions. The other educational tool for promoting dialogue between religions is the “Bali-

maya” committee. It is made up of students representing different religions. Its role

is to represent all the students at the level of the various events specific to a religion. These are mainly the time of Lent, the Muslim fast, and the various Christian and Muslim holidays. For example, at the beginning of Lent, Muslims wish all Chris-

tians in the presence of Muslims a good time of Lent. The message is read by a

Muslim student. It is the same for the fast of Ramadan where it is a Christian who reads the message (see Appendix 2).

In addition, a common gesture of solidarity is made every year by Christian and

Muslim students at the end of Lent and for fasting during Ramadan. This year, both during Lent and the Ramadan fast, Christian and Muslim students set aside money and donated to an orphanage in the area.

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Visit of the “Balimaya” committee to a Muslim student in the 6th grade (above) and donation to an orphanage (left). Photos courtesy of Alexandre Bingo.

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

EDUCATION BY EXAMPLE: A MULTI-FAITH EDUCATIONAL TEAM The educational team is made up of teachers, administrative staff, workshop instructors, supervisors and boarding schoolteachers of different faiths. Table 2 pro-

vides an overview of the faith affiliations of team members. We have overall in the

staff the following proportions: 68.4% Catholic Christians, 29.3% Muslims and 3.5% traditional African religion. The denominational diversity of the management team is an instrument of education for inter-religious dialogue. In fact, teachers and other staff enter into the spirit of education in the acceptance of the other by

attending, on the same basis as students of other faiths, various prayers and celebrations. It is a testimonial from adults that impacts young people in learning.

Table 2: Religious Composition of the Educational Team Type of Staff

Teachers Workshop Leaders Administration Support Staff Supervisors Boarding School Staff Total Shares

Number 28 12 6 6 3 2 57 100%

Catholic 21 6 6 1 3 2 39 68.42%

Muslim 7 5 0 5 0 0 17 29.82%

Traditional 0 1 0 1 0 0 2 3.5%

Source: Administrative data.

EDUCATION FOR INTER-RELIGIOUS DIALOGUE THROUGH THE EVENTS OF SOCIAL LIFE School is not the only place where values are transmitted to students. Social life

through the events that take place there also contributes to the education of young people to accept others in their difference of faith. In terms of inter-religious

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dialogue, it should be noted that in Burkina Faso, many social events bring together

people of different religions in mutual respect. These are funerals, baptisms and

weddings or other traditional ceremonies. In general, in the same family, we find Muslims, Catholic or Protestant Christians, followers of traditional religions or

outright non-practitioners. When a family member is affected by an event (death, baptism, marriage, or another customary ceremony) all family members participate or attend depending on their denomination. Beyond religion, it is fraternity that

counts above all. Moreover, a proverb says in this sense that “brotherhood is older than religion.” In Africa, the elders have the right to receive respect and if the

brotherhood is older than religion, then it requires strict respect. This dialogue in life and in social life is a major asset that accompanies and reinforces the efforts

made in the school environment to accept the other in their difference in beliefs. What is experienced at the school level is a continuity of what is taught in the family context.

Consider as an example the burial of the father of a pupil. That year in December, a

Muslim 8th grader had lost his father and the students were informed. In support to the family, all students in the grade took part in the funeral ceremony. Gathered in the courtyard of the deceased, the neighborhood imam led the funeral ceremony according to the ritual of Islam. It consists of praying in the presence of the mortal

remains and making blessings for the repose of the soul of the deceased. During this funeral prayer, students who are not Muslims were in the assembly. They at-

tended the prayer. Without reciting the prayers in Arabic and bowing, they sat in a

spirit of communion and strict respect for the Muslim faith. Here as in the school, it is assistance with respect for the faith of the other that is encouraged. We pray

with others by our respectful presence. When Christians or followers of traditional religions attend a social or religious event for a Muslim, they pray not like him but with him by a silent and respectful presence. It should be noted that in the case of

the death of the father of the Muslim student, Christian students also asked for a requiem Mass for the father of their comrade. Their comrade and members of the bereaved family came to attend the Mass in the school’s chapel.

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

EFFECTIVENESS AND RELEVANCE OF AN EDUCATIONAL TOOL Here we want to evoke the immediate and visible results of what we have described above, as well as the challenges that still have to be faced. Consider first the impact

of the educational principle of participation and assistance. To allow an expression

of one’s Christian faith without imposing it on others who are invited to respect it, we apply the principle of participation for Christians and that of assistance for others. The observable result of this principle respectful of the freedom of the other within the school is the acceptance of the other in their difference in belief and denominational practice. More than tolerance, which is acceptance of the other

despite his difference, at Saint Luc high school, it is the acceptance of the other thanks to his difference. Conviviality, respect for the climate of prayer by others, the total absence of conflicts and violence with religious connotations, the existence

of friendships and comradeships of students of different denominations, a good peaceful coexistence between followers of different religions clearly show that interreligious dialogue takes place within the establishment.

Religious instruction is also part of the fight against ignorance and misunderstand-

ing of the faith of others. By studying not only from a historical perspective the religion of others but also by discovering its values, the veil of ignorance falls and

opens the way to the esteem of the other in his relationship with transcendence. By esteeming each other, the students of Saint Luke carry out common projects. This is the example of the gift that is made each year to people in need from the efforts of Lent and the fast of Ramadan. In addition, a nativity competition is organized

every year as Christmas approaches. Each class must build a nativity which will

be assessed by a jury. In a spirit of openness, Muslim students participate in the construction of these nativities not as believers but by offering their “architectural expertise.”

Consider next the difficulties and challenges. The educational project of the Lycée

Saint Luc in its dimension of interreligious dialogue is not without some resistance and even difficulties both at the level of the students and at the level of parents. At

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the level of the students, especially those who enter the school for the first time, we sometimes encounter mistrust and at times resistance to passive participation

in prayer. These resistances are due to prejudices about the Catholic religion with a fear of being converted. This resistance, in general, disappears when a climate of

trust and respect sets in. Most of the students finish their school curriculum while remaining in their religion with an open mind towards other faiths.

It should be noted, however, that there are parents who, in view of the Christian

specificity of the establishment, decide not to enroll their children here. By seeking to know more about the reasons for this refusal, some expressed their legitimate

fear of too much influence of the school’s educational project which could impact

their offspring. They fear that their children will relativize their religious beliefs

and end up being influenced by Christianity. Facts confirm this concern of parents. Indeed, it has occasionally happened that a student of another denomination upon discovering Christianity expressed the wish to convert.

What should be done when the student is not yet of legal age? Might the edu-

cational project by producing this effect be accused of proselytizing? Isn’t passive participation in spiritual activities a subtle and disguised way of evangelizing? Isn’t conversion to evangelical values, which are above all human values, an important mission of the Catholic school? Should she renounce this mission in the name of

the principle of secularism? Is the application of the principle of secularism in our Catholic schools synonymous with renouncing our Christian identity and our mis-

sion of evangelization? In the name of a certain secularism, can the Catholic school renounce these cardinal values? Openness to others, knowledge of the faith of the

other are effective means to fight against radicalism and religious obscurantism. The Catholic school in its vocation to educate “all men and all” seems to offer the world this possibility of openness and dialogue between religions. In a national and

international context of a rise of religious extremism, it is more than ever necessary to promote education in interfaith dialogue in educational structures.

This education is not synonymous with renouncing one’s cultural or religious iden-

tity. It is openness to the other, as he is, acceptance of the other as he believes. We cannot love each other without knowing each other; we cannot know each VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

other without going to the other. In the African context, education in accepting

the other in what is most dear to him, his relationship to God, is more necessary than ever. In a multi-faith social context, it is essential to put at the heart of any

educational project the concern to discover the other in his relationship to transcendence. While not renouncing one’s religious identity or compressing it into a

private sphere, one expresses it and one learns to discover and respect that of others. We learn to believe well in order to live better together. It is faith in the service of social cohesion, a weapon against violent extremism in the world.

APPENDIX 1: ENROLLMENT CONTRACT TO THE PRIVATE CATHOLIC SCHOOL SAINT LUC DE NAFONA This contract is signed between the parent or guardian of the student wishing to

join the private Catholic school Saint Luke and the educational team of Saint Luke, represented by the principal. Objective of the contract Show parents or guardians who choose to enroll their child in the school the spec-

ificity of the establishment in terms of values, principles and educational objectives. Allow him to choose in soul and conscience and in full knowledge of the facts the

educational framework of the Saint Luc school with its requirements and constraints.

The nature and status of the establishment The private Catholic school Saint Luke de Nafona, as its name suggests, is a pri-

vate Catholic structure belonging to the diocese of Banfora. The founder is the diocese of Banfora and the legal sponsor Monsignor Lucas Kalfa SANOU, bishop

of Banfora. It is headed by a principal appointed by and approved by the bishop. It is an approved establishment that welcomes students with strict respect for its educational specificity.

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Main objective: “to promote the human person in his spiritual and intellectual, moral and civic dimensions, in a harmonious manner and enlightened by the Gospel”—“to educate all people and all.”

Means used: Providing the learner with a framework of academic excellence • • • •

Providing competent teachers.

Recruiting educators with values in line with the educational objectives of the school.

Creating a framework of friendliness and trust for the learner.

Motto of the school: “the love of work in discipline and perseverance.”

Spiritual activities in the school •

Being a Catholic establishment, spiritual activities are carried out with strict

•

A Christian Catholic prayer written by the high school chaplain will be read

respect for the faith and freedom of other believers.

during the first class of each day and at the last class. At the end of class at

noon, the Angelus will be said. Prayer is addressed to God the Creator, asking him to bless the students and to use their intelligence and memory to fully • • •

understand and remember what will be provided to them.

The prayer is said in turn by (4) Catholic Christian students chosen by the general overseer.

Students belonging to other faiths are not obliged to recite the prayers but are required to respect the prayer climate.

A course of religious instruction will be given to the pupils. This course teaches the history and fundamental principles of different religions (Christianity, Islam, traditional African religion, Buddhism, etc.). The major objective of

•

this course is education in accepting others in their faith. This is a compulsory course for everyone.

From education to inter-religious dialogue •

An inter-religious dialogue committee called “Balimaya” is set up each year. Composed of students belonging to religious denominations present in the

establishment, its role will be to represent the establishment in religious and VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

social events where a member of the establishment is concerned. This com-

mittee will spend the days of Christian or Muslim holidays to greet in some • •

families on behalf of all the students.

At the beginning of the fast of Ramadan or Christian Lent, a word is addressed by this committee to the various believers.

A search is made both during the fast of Ramadan and Christian Lent for an action of solidarity in favor of the most disadvantaged.

Specific courses and training specific to the establishment •

In addition to the classic courses, specific courses are given in the school: the

•

The course on Africa is an African culture course whose objective is to allow

• • •

course on Africa, the music theory course and the Latin course. learners to discover their own cultural values.

The Latin course, in addition to strengthening the level in French, develops critical thinking and logic in the learner.

The music theory class teaches the basics of music to awaken potential talents in this field.

A framework for awakening talents is offered to learners through workshops (sewing, male and female hairstyling, music, flute, football, basketball, vol-

leyball, acrobatics, choreography, Tae-kondo, apprentice entrepreneurs. Each

student freely chooses his workshop This training takes place every Thursday evening from 3 pm to 6 pm. It is compulsory for everyone. Signature Read and approved by the student’s parent or guardian The student The Director Banfora on ……………………………… ..2021…

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APPENDIX 2: STUDENTS’ MESSAGES FOR RAMADAN AND LENT Word from Muslim students to Catholic Christians on the occasion of Christian Lent Dear Christian and Catholic Christian students, since yesterday with the celebra-

tion of the ashes, you began Lent. Christian Lent is 40 days of penance, prayer, and sharing. It is also 40 days to convert, to submit to the will of God. Lent offers you the opportunity to improve the quality of your life with God and with your brothers and sisters. So we are counting on you during this time of Lent so that

the quality of life in the school can improve. We wish there was more love, sharing, forgiveness, discipline, and less delay and chatter in the school. Especially since

intellectual work improves with good grades. We Muslims promise to do our best during our fast.

Happy Lent to everyone! May Allah the Merciful bless us! Your Muslim brothers and sisters from Saint Luc school.

Words from Christian students to their Muslim brothers and sisters on the occasion of the beginning of the fast in Ramadan

Dear Muslim comrades, today begins the fast of Ramadan for you. It is an import-

ant time in living your faith: a time of invocation of the holy name of God and of his prophet, a time of sharing, fraternity and forgiveness. We wish you all a good

fasting time! May you be exemplary and disciplined students during this fasting month of Ramadan. May there be more generosity, sharing, and brotherhood at the

school level thanks to you! Let there be less chatter in the schoolyard. May Allah the Merciful fill you with His blessings! Good fasting time! Your Christian brothers and sisters from Saint Luc school

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Catholic Education and the Challenge of Religious Pluralism: The Private Catholic High School Saint Luc in Burkina Faso

BIBLIOGRAPHY Chidester, David.“Religion Education in South Africa:Teaching and Learning about Religion, Religions, and Religious Diversity.” British Journal of Religious Edu-

cation 25, no. 4 (2003): 261-278. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141620030250402. Compaoré, Maxime. “La Refondation de l’enseignement Catholique au Burkina

Faso.” Cahiers d’Études Africaines 169-170 ( January 2003): 87-98. https://doi. org/10.4000/etudesafricaines.191.

Congregation for Catholic Education. The Catholic School. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1977.

_____. Educating to Fraternal Humanism: Building a “Civilization of Love” 50 Years after Populorum Progressio. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2017.

Everington, Judith, Ina ter Avest, Cok Bakker, and Anna van der Want. “Europe-

an Religious Education Teachers’ Perceptions of and Responses to Classroom Diversity and their Relationship to Personal and Professional Biographies” British Journal of Religious Education 33, no. 2 (2011): 241-256. https://doi.org /10.1080/01416200.2011.546669

Finefter-Rosenbluh, Illana and Lotem Perry-Hazan. “Teacher Diversity and the

Right to Adaptable Education in the Religiously Oriented School: What Can We Learn from Students’ Perceptions?” Youth & Society 50, no. 5 (2018): 615– 635. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X15621224.

Garcia-Huidobro, Juan Cristobal. “What Are Catholic Schools Teaching to Make a Difference? A Literature Review of Curriculum Studies in Catholic Schools

in the U.S. and the U.K. since 1993.” Journal of Catholic Education 20, no. 2 (2017): 64-97. https://doi.org/10.15365/joce.2002032017.

Gemignani, Regina, Mary Sojo, and Quentin Wodon. “What Drives the Choice of

Faith-inspired Schools by Households? Qualitative Evidence from Two Afri-

can Countries.” Review of Faith & International Affairs 12, no. 2 (2014): 66-76. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2014.918748

Gemignani, Regina and Quentin Wodon. “Gender Roles and Girls’ Education JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Alexandre Bingo | 43

in Burkina Faso: A Tale of Heterogeneity between Rural Communities.”

American Review of Political Economy 11, no. 2 (2017): 163-75. https://doi. org/10.38024/arpe.142.

Hall, David, William Sultmann, and Geraldine Townend. “Constants in Context:

An Exploration of Conciliar and Post-conciliar Documents on the Catholic School.“ Journal of Religious Education 67, no. 1 (2019): 17-39. https://doi. org/10.1007/s40839-019-00074-6.

Kimanen, Anuleena. “Truth Claims, Commitment and Openness in Finnish

Islamic and Lutheran Religious Education Classrooms.” Issues in Educational Research 29, no. 1 (2019): 141-157. http://www.iier.org.au/iier29/kimanen.pdf.

Parker, Lyn. “Religious Education for Peaceful Coexistence in Indonesia?” South East Asia Research 22, no. 4 (2014): 487-504. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43818549.

Secretariat of State [of the Vatican]. Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2018 / Statis-

tical Yearbook of the Church 2018 / Annuaire Statistique de l’Eglise 2019. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2021.

Seligman, Adam B., ed. Religious Education and the Challenge of Pluralism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.

Wodon, Quentin. Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism,

Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

_____, ed. Catholic Education in Africa and the Middle East: Perspectives from National Leaders. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

Wodon, Quentin and Clarence Tsimpo. “Not All Catholic Schools Are Private

Schools: Does It Matter for Student Performance?” International Studies in

Catholic Education 13, no. 2 (Fall 2021): 175-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/19 422539.2021.2010457.

World Bank. Ending Learning Poverty: What Will It Take? Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2019.

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A N T O I N E T T E N N E K A O PA R A AND QUENTIN WODON

Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria Rev. Sr. Dr. Antoinette Nneka Opara, SHCJ is an educator and author with a creative professional mindset toward school improvement. She has 10 years of teaching experience and 14 years of secondary school leadership in Nigeria.

Dr. Quentin Wodon is a Lead Economist at the World Bank and a Distinguished Research Affiliate with the College of Business at Loyola University New Orleans. As part of his volunteer work, he created the Global Catholic Education project to provide resources for educators at https://www.globalcatholiceducation.org.

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Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 45

INTRODUCTION

s noted in a recent investment case at the World Bank to end violence in schools,1 violence is ubiquitous in schools throughout the world, directly

affecting teachers and students and indirectly having an impact on the

wider community itself. Violence in schools has multiple, lasting impacts on stu-

dents, including lower academic performance as well as poor physical, mental and

emotional health. It also undermines the ability of communities, local, regional and national governments to create schools where children and adolescents can devel-

op their abilities and skills while also embracing the values of cooperation, mutual respect, and peaceful problem solving.

A commonly accepted definition of violence comes from the World Health Organization’s 2002 World Report on Violence and Health2 which, following an

earlier consultation, defined violence as “the intentional use of physical force or

power, threatened or actual, against a person or group that results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or

deprivation.” Violence is the result of an abusive use of force or power against a person. The harm can be actual or threatened and it may take different forms. It

can lead to injury or death, but also to trauma or other mental health symptoms. As such, the consequences of violence may not always be highly visible, but they are nevertheless always damaging. Violence is often multidimensional, meaning

that individuals are often subjected to multiple forms of violence and in multiple locations, not only (for children) at school, but also at home and in communities.

The complexity of studying violence in a global and cross-cultural context should be

acknowledged. Violence in schools, in communities, or at home is often the “tip of an iceberg” that has deeper systemic roots.3 In the World Bank investment case to

end violence, pervasive patterns of gender inequality are mentioned as factors leading to the perpetuation and transmission of violence across generations. The fact that 1 2 3

Quentin Wodon et al., Ending Violence in Schools: An Investment Case (Washington, DC: The World Bank and Global Partnership to End Violence against Children, 2021). Etienne G. Krug et al., eds., World Report on Violence and Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002). For a critique, see Slavoj Zizek, Violence: Six Sideways Reflections (London: Profile Books, 2009).

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46 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

multiple factors can be associated with violence is also clear in the ecological model used by health organizations.4 The model is inspired by the public health literature and points to risk factors at the individual, family, community, and societal levels.

Violence can take many forms, including in schools. Physical violence often comes to mind first, but emotional violence is as widespread, including through bullying

which may include victimization and verbal abuse as well as intimidation or insults. Bullying may threaten relationships between students and with teachers and lead

to low academic aspirations, isolation, and lack of self-esteem. Sexual violence includes rape and other forms of sexual assault.

Child abuse may also happen in schools. It is a broader concept defined by the World Health Organization as “all forms of physical and/or emotional ill‐treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power.”5

Students should in principle be empowered to report cases of abuse or violence to

appropriate personnel in schools and demand that actions be taken. The availability of child safeguarding officers in schools and actions taken against offenders should in principle ensure that violence and broader patterns of child abuse are on the

decline, but as will be discussed later, school responses to episodes of violence are not always seen as adequate by students.

How do students experience violence in schools? The answer to that question is likely to be specific to each school, but case studies can help shed lights on patterns

of violence in specific contexts. The analysis in this article is based on a survey implemented in Nigeria in November 2021 among students in two schools for adolescent girls. The questionnaire included only 11 questions—some closed, oth-

ers open-ended. It was administered through the web in a way that guarantees the anonymity of respondents. Both schools are all-girl Catholic secondary schools catering to students ages 10-16. 4 5

See for example https://www.who.int/groups/violence-prevention-alliance/approach. See https://apps.who.int/violence-info/child-maltreatment/. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 47

The first school is in an exclusive part of a highly populated city with Christians, Muslims and people of other beliefs residing together. This is a multi-ethnic city

serving as a commercial hub and constantly expanding geographical boundaries. The school has over 600 students and about 180 staff. It has adequate educational

facilities that it continues to update and improve. The second school is by contrast

in a lower income rural town, not strategic by any means, with few basic amenities. The community is bi-ethnic with trading and farming as primary economic ac-

tivities. Christians and Muslims live in separate parts of the community and both groups experience regular tension about land issues. The school has approximately 200 students and about 40 staff. It is still developing its basic infrastructure.

While the two schools are different from each other, both schools consider them-

selves as high-achieving quality schools. Some 80% of the teachers have been teaching in the schools for more than five years and depending on their age, the

students have been in the schools from one to five years. Neither of the schools is in a geographic area where ethnic groups have been pushing for secession (in the southeastern part of the country).

The data indicate that violence is pervasive in the two schools, especially in the form

of bullying followed by physical violence. About two thirds of violent episodes are considered as relatively mild according to the students, but in one in five cases, violence is considered as severe. Student who are victims of violence state that reconcil-

iation has taken place in just above half of the cases, with reconciliation a possibility in another quarter of cases. Students also make some suggestions to school administrators for curbing violence, including taking the issue of violence more seriously.

The article is structured as follows. The next section provides general background

on the prevalence of violence in schools globally and some of the recommendations that emerge from the literature on the types of interventions that can help reduce

violence. The following three sections document the results obtained from the survey implemented in the two Nigerian schools. A brief conclusion follows.

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48 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

BACKGROUND: ENDING VIOLENCE IN SCHOOLS Multiple reports and studies have been published to estimate the prevalence of various forms of violence,6 including in and around schools. In the most recent report on the prevalence of violence in schools globally, UNESCO finds that a

third of students are bullied by their peers at school at least once in the last month and a similar proportion are affected by physical violence. Among the subset of

countries with trends over time, half of the countries had a decline in violence, one fifth had an increase, and there was no change over time in prevalence in the other

countries. This suggests that without more forceful interventions, programs, and policies, progress is likely to be limited.

As mentioned in the introduction, different surveys have been used to measure the

prevalence of violence at the national level. For low- and middle-income countries, the main survey instrument is the GSHS.7 Across countries that participated in

the GSHS, more than a third of students were attacked in school at least once (37.8%) or while 27.6% got involved in fights—which is different from being at-

tacked—at least once. In addition, just under a third were bullied at least once over the last 30 days (29.5%). Boys are more likely to be involved in incidents of vio-

lence than girls, especially physical violence (being attacked or fighting). They are

also more likely to be injured, but for bullying differences are smaller. While this is not measured in that survey, girls (and women) may be especially at risk of sexual violence and harassment.8 For men, global data are lacking, but sexual violence 6

7 8

For UNICEF, see among others UNICEF, Hidden in Plain Sight: A Statistical Analysis of Violence against Children (New York: UNICEF, 2014) and UNICEF, A Familiar Face: Violence in the Lives of Children and Adolescents (New York: UNICEF, 2017). See also Office of the SRSG on Violence against Children, Tackling VIAS: A Global Perspective — Bridging the Gap between Standards and Practice (New York: Office of the SRSG on Violence against Children, 2016), Know Violence in Childhood, Ending Violence in Childhood: Global Report 2017 (New Delhi, India: Know Violence in Childhood, 2017), and Susan Hillis et al., “Global Prevalence of Past-year Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review and Minimum Estimates,” Pediatrics 137, no. 3 (March 2016): e20154079, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4079. For a country case study, see UNICEF, The Economic Burden of Violence against Children: Analysis of Selected Health and Education Outcomes — Nigeria Case Study (New York: UNICEF, 2019). The estimates are from Wodon, Ending Violence in Schools.. Nasrin Borumandnia et al., “The Prevalence Rate of Sexual Violence Worldwide: A Trend Analysis,” BMC Public Health 20 (2020): Article 1835, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09926-5. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 49

such as rapes may be less common. There are differences between countries and regions in the prevalence of violence. Across regions, sub-Saharan Africa has the highest prevalence for several types

of violence measured by the GSHS survey. South Asia and the Middle East and North Africa also tend to have high prevalence rates. By contrast, Europe and Central Asia have the lowest prevalence. There are also differences in the preva-

lence of violence in school according to their level of development of countries. While most countries regardless of economic development have unacceptably high

prevalence rates, low income and lower-middle income countries tend to have higher prevalence rates than upper-middle and high-income countries included in

the GSHS data (noting that very few high-income countries are included in those particular datasets).

The policy brief for the World Bank investment case on ending violence in schools

emphasizes the need to look at the whole cycle of a child’s life and adapt inter-

ventions to every phase and situation to reduce the risk of violence. Too often, much is left to chance that the child will grow up and overcome challenges. As to

interventions implemented in schools, whole school approaches to ending violence have proven successful. In Uganda, the Good School Toolkit led to a substantial re-

duction in violence, especially for violence by teachers to enforce discipline among students.9 Supporting teachers to manage their classrooms can reduce bullying and

other forms of violence.10 Other successful interventions include socio-emotion-

al learning, which can promote positive attitudes and pro-social behavior.11 Some

programs may generate benefits much larger than their cost.12 In secondary schools, 9

Karen M. Devries et al., “The Good School Toolkit for reducing physical violence from school staff to primary school students: a cluster-randomised controlled trial in Uganda,” Lancet Global Health, no. 385 (July 2015): e378–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00060-1. 10 Sara Valdebenito et al., “What Can We Do to Reduce Disciplinary School Exclusion? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis,” Journal of Experimental Criminology 15 (September 2019): 253–287, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-018-09351-0. 11 Joseph A. Durlak, Roger P. Weissberg, and Molly Pachan, “A Meta-Analysis of After-School Programs That Seek to Promote Personal and Social Skills in Children and Adolescents,” American Journal of Community Psychology 45, no. 3-4 (March 2010): 294-309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-0109300-6. 12 Clive A. Belfield et al., “The Economic Value of Social and Emotional Learning,” Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis 6, no. 3 (December 2015): 508-544, https://doi.org/10.1017/bca.2015.55. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

50 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

cognitive behavioral training can reduce aggression and dating violence. Anti-bullying programs also tend to reduce violence with high benefit to cost ratios.13 More

generally, guidance on how to prevent violence in schools, and more generally vio-

lence against children, has been provided by international organizations under the leadership of the World Health Organization.14

PATTERNS OF VIOLENCE IN TWO CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA Typical surveys of violence in schools are conducted at the national level for a sample of schools in a country. This is useful to obtain national estimates of the prevalence of violence and some of its effects, and to set national strategies, but for

a particular school, such data may not be as useful as data collected specifically for the school. National surveys also tend to be expensive to implement. They have a

wide range of questions, and those questions cannot be changed to be adapted to

a particular school context since comparability across schools must be maintained. By contrast, when a school implements its own survey, it can adapt the survey to

its specific needs, and it may be able to implement the survey at very low cost. It is therefore interesting to consider case studies of schools having implement such surveys, as is done in this article for two Nigerian schools.

The focus of this article is on student experiences with violence in the two Catholic

schools in Nigeria described earlier. To assess patterns of violence in the schools, a web survey was implemented in November 2021 among students in such a way that student anonymity could be ensured. The online survey link was sent to the

schools by email to a management team member, who posted the link for students. 13 David P. Farrington and Maria M. Ttofi, “School-Based Programs to Reduce Bullying and Victimization,” Campbell Systematic Reviews 5, no. 1 (December 2009): i-148. https://doi.org/10.4073/ csr.2009.6. 14 See for example World Health Organization, INSPIRE: Seven Strategies for Ending Violence Against Children (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016), World Health Organization, INSPIRE Handbook: Action for Implementing the Seven Strategies for Ending Violence against Children (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2018), and World Health Organization, School-based Violence Prevention: A Practical Handbook (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2019). JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 51

The students could access the link through their school email addresses. Students

in the boarding house filled out the forms in the school computer room using their workstations during their evening free time, and the responses came directly to the

researcher. Students who come to school daily from home accessed the link using their personal computers at home after school hours, and responses were sent directly to the researcher. The anonymity of student responses was ensured.

A total of 151 responses were received, which represents a response rate of about

20%. Though the number of responses represents enough students to conduct a statistical analysis, the survey had a relatively low response rate. The survey is not necessarily representative of the views of all students as some students may have

been more inclined to respond than others. Given that only one in five students answered the survey, the key findings should be considered as tentative. Still, re-

sponses are nevertheless instructive not only in terms of how students perceive violence and whether they are personally affected by it, but also in terms of how

they perceive the responses of the schools to episodes of violence and whether they consider these responses as adequate. The survey had 11 questions, and the questionnaire is provided in an appendix.

The first question was: How would you define violence in school? Students acknowledged that violence may take many forms. Examples of answers included the following:

Violence in school is when issues between staff members or between staff and students or between students degenerate to verbal confrontation and fighting.

It is activities that can cause a disturbance and disorderliness in an educational

system; it could be verbal or physical.

Violence is an act that causes pain, destruction and suffering. It is an act of bullying, intimidation and repression. Violence in schools is not only physical combat or fight among the students

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52 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

but also among teachers. Also, violence is not only physical but also emotional and spiritual.

Violence in schools doesn’t really need to be physical it also be through word. Violence in schools refers to all forms of physical abuse such as fighting and sexual abuse, mental and emotional abuse such as insulting of students and discrimination. Violence can be when a student inflicts pain on another student.

In some cases, students emphasized extreme forms of violence: “Violence is extreme form of assault, rape or murder.” But in other cases, a much broader set of

behaviors were considered as forms of violence: “It is any activity that can create a disturbance in an educational setting.” The fact that threats are a form of violence

was recognized: “[It is] any deliberate action or inaction or threat to harm another.” Finally, while responses suggested that violence takes place mostly between students, students noted that teachers can be engaged in violence too: “I feel violence

in schools not only has to be the physical beatings but also emotional and mental; some students suffer a lot from the aggressive and mean words said to them by either a teacher or any member of staff in the school.” There were indications that

students progressively learned to recognize various forms of violence. As a student explained it:

As a junior, I never thought that the things I experienced was violence, but my school has tried to re-orientate the mindset of students to believe that

anything is violence. Now, I am forced to consider the fact that everything I have experienced in this school both as a junior and senior student was an act of violence.

The second question in the survey was: Do you agree that violence exists in Catholic

schools? Students could choose one of five responses: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, and strongly agree. Figure 1 provides the responses. Almost two thirds (63.7%) of respondents acknowledged the prevalence of violence in Catholic

schools, stating that they agreed or strongly agreed with the statement. About one in five students (18.8%) stated that they were neutral. Less than one in five students JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 53

(17.5%) stated that they disagreed or strongly disagreed that there was violence in

Catholic schools. While it could be the case that the prevalence of violence is lower in Catholic than other schools, students in Catholic schools are in no way immune from it.

Source: Authors’ estimation from the surveys.

The third question in the survey was: What types of violent actions are prevalent

in your school? Students were asked to name three types of violence, which many students did, but others responded in the form of a sentence or named fewer types

of violence. As shown in Figure 2, looking at the overall set of responses, the most common type of violence identified was emotional violence and especially bullying

(124 mentions out of a total of 247, or 50.2% of all responses). Physical violence and especially fights was the second most common type of violence (25.5% of

responses). Other forms of violence mentioned included the fear of kidnapping

or terrorism (4.9% of responses), self-injuries including suicide attempts (2.3%), corporal punishment by teachers (2.0%), and sexual violence (1.2%). Other types of violence, including destruction of school property or some students stealing from other students were also common. (All other types of violence accounted for

13.0% of the types of violence mentioned.) It is especially noteworthy that several

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54 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

students mentioned self-harm including suicidal behavior and self-mutilation as forms of violence.

A few students also included as forms of violence behaviors that are typically not considered violent, such as students not doing and submitting their assignments when due, staff and students coming to school, classes and other school functions

late, and students being absent from school without notifying the school. Some

respondents also named not listening or paying attention to someone in need of

help or forcing staff to do what may be beyond their power as forms of violence. This suggests an awareness that actions may affect others more than we imagine. It may also reflect the fact that thanks in part to efforts by schools, social expectations may be changing.

Source: Authors’ estimation from the surveys.

The surveys suggest that bullying is the most common form of violence identified by students. Some of the forms of violence identified by students suggest patterns associated with groups of students victimizing other groups. There does not seem

to be substantial gang violence in the two schools, but there are episodes in which

the schools are being vandalized and property is being damaged. There is also a fear

of shootings and other threats which may lead to the closure of schools. This type of collective violence has been described as the “instrumental use of violence by

people who identify themselves as members of a group…against another group or

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Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 55

set of individuals, in order to achieve political, economic or social objectives.”15 It can also lead to substantial emotional stress for students. There is also a widespread

pattern of seniors (students in higher grades) treating juniors (students in lower grades) badly, and often systematically so.

One of the two schools is located closer to areas with warring communities because

of territorial conflicts. Locally armed militia and groups, including Boko Haram, create violent situations for everyone, including schools.16 This leads among oth-

ers to fears of kidnapping for ransom (a common occurrence in Nigeria in recent years). Students are major casualties in such conflicts with schools being closed sometimes for extended periods of time. Ethnic groups pushing for secession may

promulgate laws that interfere with schooling. This is the case with the weekly “sit at home” order by the Biafra Separatist group in Nigeria.

Some schools are also threatened by terrorism especially in the north but also in other parts of the country. Terrorism is defined by United Nations as “any act intended to cause death or bodily harm to civilians or non‐combatants for the purpose of either intimidating a population or compelling a government or a gov-

ernment institution to do or not to do something.” It is fast becoming a major threat, with the federal and state governments having limited success in tackling the problem. In particular, schools are the target of terrorists whose ideologies are

against Western-type education. There have been multiple instances of terrorists

kidnapping students, leading to major trauma for the school community. The threat of terrorism emerges clearly from the survey.

Finally, student unrest is also mentioned as a form of violence by some students. Such unrest refers to incidents in secondary schools (not necessarily Catholic schools and not in the two schools surveyed) that may stem from increases in

school, teacher strikes, issues with examinations, or other problems. When schools 15 Anthony B. Zwi, Richard Garfield, and Alessandro Loretti, “Collective Violence,” in Etienne G. Krug et al., eds., World Report on Violence and Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002). 16 In 2018, UNICEF documented 742 attacks on schools globally. In West and Central Africa, attacks in June 2019 led to almost 10,000 school closures affecting 1.91 million children and 44,000 teachers. See UNICEF, Education under Threat in West and Central Africa, UNICEF Child Alert (UNICEF, New York, 2019). VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

56 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

are not meeting the basic needs of the community, this can lead to unrest and student protests. During episodes of unrest, buildings and other school properties may be damaged.

The fourth question in the survey was about whether students themselves expe-

rienced any form of violence. A follow-up question asked them to describe their

experience, and another asked whether their experience was mild (slight) or severe. The two questions on whether students experienced violence and its severity can be

combined to provide a categorization into three levels: no experience of violence, mild experience, or severe experience. In a few instances, students stated they had

not experienced violence but nevertheless mentioned episodes of violence. Examples include:

It was something I could handle; nevertheless it was still annoying and frustrating.

I was once pushed to the wall but no injury or bruise just slight pain. My experience was a terrible one. I was being bullied by some senior school

students, they all gathered against me, and it was horrifying but luckily for me some teachers came to my rescue. It was terrifying and upsetting. When I said I was not going to fetch water for a senior so their set mates started insulting me. It was really painful; I cried a lot that day. Seniors shouting at me. In those cases, while students responded they had not experienced violence, they typically rated their experience of violence as mild or severe, and those were the answers used for analysis.

Overall, as shown in Figure 3, two thirds of students (65.8%) stated they had experienced mild violence. One in eight students (13.0%) stated they had experienced JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 57

severe violence. Only one in five students (21.2%) stated they had not experienced any violence, although among those, some witnessed their friends being subjected to violence. Based on the descriptions of the episodes of violence, most appeared to be indeed mild. But some were not. Examples of descriptions include the following:

One day during prayers in the chapel I was called to explain the reading, but I wasn’t able to so the seniors asked me to fly my hands and lift one leg up after that [and] I was asked to wash cooler and plates for one week.

My experience was horrible, … I was bullied being asked to fetch water, wash plates, copy notes.

When I was being bullied, it was a very new and terrible experience for me mostly because I’m not that kind of girl that fights back or retaliates.

My roommates were holding each other’s necks and were hitting themselves against the wall.

The teacher was beating the student with a wire and then the student collected the wire and started beating the teacher back, and it resulted into a big fight.

My experience was a terrible one, … they all gathered against me, and it was horrifying but luckily for me some teachers came to my rescue and that was how the senior students were all punished.

My experience was horrible. I was on my way to class when a group of people

came to me and started to beat me, and I eventually fell on the floor and got hot, and perhaps being locked inside a toilet once.

A girl was asked by a senior to wash her plate and the girl ended up saying no. When the senior started getting angry she mistakenly slapped the student and

the student reacted badly by slapping the senior back, and they both started fighting.

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Source: Authors’ estimation from the surveys.

Students who had been affected by violence were also asked about how it felt to be

the object of school violence. They could choose one of five modalities: sad, angry, afraid, depressed, and bored. As shown in Figure 4, feelings of sadness and being depressed were the most likely responses (38.3% and 24.1% of respondents respectively), denoting the feeling of helplessness that emerges from many of the responses to open-ended questions. About a fifth (21.8%) of students felt angry, and one in

eight (12.0%) felt afraid. Fewer students felt bored. Sadness, anger, depression, fear, and boredom may all affect the emotional stability of students (and staff ) if these

feelings are not expressed. Depression may lead to suicide attempts by students. Fear and sadness may also lead to involvement in drugs and gang-related crimes in

schools and local communities. Sadness, depression, and fear can increase drop-out rates if help is not provided to the victims of violence. When students are affected

by violence, academic aspirations may also be weakened. Research suggests that

violence has both immediate and long-term adverse consequences for victims, but also for perpetrators. If the fear generated by violence is not contained and becomes widespread, it can have crippling psychological effects, again leading to a higher risk of student absenteeism or some students dropping out of school.

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Source: Authors’ estimation from the surveys.

An interesting question asked in the survey is whether the students who were af-

fected by violence forgave the person who committed the violence or reconciled. As shown in Figure 5, the statistics are somewhat encouraging. More than half of the students (56.9%) stated that they forgave perpetrators or reconciled, and one

fourth (24.9%) answered maybe. Still, for almost one fifth of the students (18.5%), there was no reconciliation of forgiving. Forgiveness and reconciliation are virtues

that are encouraged in Catholic schools. To a large extent, students seem to practice

these virtues. Yet in some cases violence may be more severe or may affect students profoundly, leading forgiving and reconciliation to be more difficult.

Source: Authors’ estimation from the surveys.

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60 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

SCHOOL RESPONSES TO VIOLENCE Three questions were asked in the survey about the school responses to episodes of violence. First, students were asked whether they were pleased with the way the episodes of violence were handled. They could respond: yes, no, or not sure. The survey asked students in which way their school handles violence. Finally, students

were asked to give two suggestions on how their school could reduce violence. Figure 6 provides the responses of students on whether they were satisfied with

their school’s response to violence. Unfortunately, only slightly more than one in

four students (28.9%) were satisfied, with 26.7% of students not being sure and 44.4% not being satisfied. This suggests that the schools may not yet have mechanisms in place to adequately respond.

Source: Authors’ estimation from the surveys.

When asked how their school handles violence, students mentioned that perpe-

trators could be punished or dismissed from the school (mechanism mentioned in

50.3% of responses as shown in Figure 7). Other mechanisms mentioned relate to various forms of counseling, whether through sessions with school counselors or

through seminars that perpetrators must attend (28.8% of responses). Schools were also seen as implementing additional security measure or changing rules (6.2% of responses). Finally, the role of investigations by the school leadership or committees was also mentioned (3.4% of responses). At the same time, there is a distinct JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 61

feeling from many responses that many students felt that not enough is being done by schools. This was mentioned explicitly in 11.3% of all responses in terms of how schools respond to violence. Examples of such statements include the following:

Most often, nothing is done to the person who [committed violence against] another. Sometimes, the victim is not carried along in the judgment.

They handle it by being partial; not understand the other person’s view so they pass judgment unfairly.

They are proactive but can be much better. My school sees violence like it is a normal thing; they care less about the things

that happen to their student and do not even try to put in any effort to make life comfortable for them.

They may not take it seriously and they might only listen to one party. They have no way of handling it, they are only focused on their own views and sometimes nothing is done.

Concerning bullying, the sisters speak to us about it and threaten to severely punish any offender, but I don’t really like the way they handle it because they

always focus on warning the senior students, meanwhile bullying can happen between set mates and other junior students.

Just by an authority telling you sorry and warning the senior to not do it again—offenders should be punished seriously.

Talking about it with no immediate actions; punishment should be there. Not very well. It is basically ignored in my school.

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62 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

Source: Authors’ estimation from the surveys.

What are some of the suggestions made by students to reduce violence in their schools? By and large, students expect more severe actions to be taken against

offenders. They feel that issues related to violence are not taken seriously enough

when reported. They also suggest that students should be more aware of the consequences of violence for those being victimized. The suggestions made by students on how to respond are not fundamentally different from their perceptions of how

the schools are already responding, but there is a request for schools to take the problem more seriously, be systematic in their responses, prevent violence through

better awareness of its consequences, and punish students more severely when violence occurs.

Based more broadly on the context in which many schools operate in Nigeria and the experience of the school leadership for the two schools in which the survey

was implemented, a few more specific recommendations can be suggested, at least tentatively. Seven such suggestions are made here.

First, there is a need to improve pastoral counseling services to handle child

safeguarding and mental health issues and inculcate spiritual values in students. Multiple challenges are impacting students’ self-concept, aspirations, goals, and

development. Pastoral counseling provides safe spaces for students to communi-

cate outside academics to a professional who listens without judgment and guides students on the road to development and better self-esteem. Mental health is less JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 63

taboo today than it used to be in Africa. Schools should be enabled to take a greater professional interest in staff and students’ mental health. Through training, the school community must learn to communicate and confront violence. Counselors

should mediate between the school and parents, including to prevent child abuse outside of schools. Regular engagement with students may enable them to deepen their values. Patience, friendliness, forgiveness, love, compassion can all help stu-

dents’ when in uncomfortable situations. Students suggested that “ensuring the

unity and peace existing among all students and even all staff of the school will curb violence.” Pastoral service can “encourage students to take responsibility in

maintaining safe schools [and] encourage students to speak out when being bullied.” Most importantly, it can help provide care and support to victims.

Second, there is a need to focus on prevention, which can take the form of semi-

nars or workshops on various aspects of school life throughout the year. Students point to the need to make perpetrators of violence aware of its consequences for

victims. As a student put it, “all new students should be enlightened on the dangers of violent actions and its implications for them and everyone else and encourage

educational conferences or programs against violence.” Workshops targeting be-

havior improvement and non-violent conflict resolution and peace building skills

can help change school culture. Students also need access to individual counseling, as already mentioned. Violence is often a learned response to stress, but it can be

unlearned. Workshops can create opportunities for more awareness. They can also

enable open conversations on topics that otherwise are not discussed. This can in particular encourage students to speak out when being bullied or maltreated.

Third, when needed, there may be a benefit from stronger disciplinary measures. Violence relates mostly to bullying and neglect, but it can be severe. Students believe that adequate punishment can serve as a deterrent for perpetrators, wheth-

er students or staff. Strengthening school laws may help. In terms of disciplinary measures, permanent exclusion from school or suspension for a period of time may

be considered. It is however often beneficial to adopt a restorative justice approach to conflict resolution. While punishment focuses on offenders, restorative justice involves prevention, intervention, and reintegration in such a way that victims are VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

64 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

also part of the process apart from offenders. Restorative justice resonates with Catholic social teachings on the dignity of the human person and the ability to

forgive. In addition, schools may also need to invest in helping students develop socio-emotional skills and community service can serve as a way not only to discipline students, but also to create empathy for the needs of others, possibly with better long-term results than a suspension or an expulsion.

Fourth, students require regular academic counseling to stay focused on why they are in school: to learn. Students who are not making adequate progress may resort

to bullying or other aggressive behavior to express their frustration. Through regular and individualized professional academic counseling, students can commu-

nicate their challenges and learn how to manage them. Counselors should meet

students at risk on a weekly basis to discuss their aspirations, progress, anxieties, and other challenges. Caring interactions will help students while also informing schools on students’ attitudes and dispositions, thus identifying areas that need attention. Often counselors are unavailable, in part because cost considerations limit

their numbers. But without the benefit of adequate academic counseling for students, violence may persist, and could become worse over time.

Fifth, there may be a need to diversify learning opportunities. Traditional learning spaces such as schools are fast giving way to other learning spaces. The COVID-19 pandemic may accelerate this trend through more online learning. Multiple forms of learning may increase student performance. They may also decongest schools

that are too crowded. When students may need to be suspended, online and other

forms of learning may enable them not to fall behind and re-join schools later. Quality supervision and assessment of learning must take place in non-traditional as well as traditional learning settings, but investing in non-traditional forms of learning may contribute to reducing violence when students come back to school.

Sixth, in some cases there may be a need to improve security around schools, espe-

cially in contexts where conflict and terrorism are widespread, as is the case in parts of Nigeria. Catholic schools traditionally employ few security personnel. This may need to change for some schools. Because the cost of security services is substantial

for schools to bear alone, the government may need to provide security support to JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 65

keep the children safe. This may be a necessary investment to avoid much larger

costs of students dropping out of school or even school closures. Adequate security may also reduce access in schools to alcohol, guns, knives, and other dangerous items which tend to be associated with higher levels of violence.

Finally, creating awareness of students’ conduct among parents during meetings and asking for their support in reducing violence and improving behaviors more generally may help. At the Nigeria school attended by one of the authors as a

child, during meetings with parents, bullying was addressed. It was agreed with the parents that perpetrators or victims who would not report incidents could be ex-

pelled from the school. Parents communicated this decision to their children, and students welcomed this development as it helped reduce bullying in the school.17

CONCLUSION Schools are more aware today of the need to reduce violence and create condi-

tions that are favorable to students’ mental health. This can be done by equipping

teachers and other staff with the skills they need to support students. But a first necessary step is to have a proper diagnostic of the prevalence of violence in schools and how to prevent it. This article suggests that simple surveys can go a long way in

providing teachers and administrators with the information they need to act. Spe-

cifically, a short student survey implemented online in two secondary schools for girls in Nigeria suggested that violence is pervasive, albeit in most cases relatively

mild. Proposals for curbing violence based in part on suggestions from students were outlined.

The two schools that implemented the survey received key results as a working document to enable teachers and administrators to improve the school culture and learning environment. The schools’ disciplinary committee and management teams

studied the responses and identified areas that could be improved for both school procedures and student relationships. The students’ councils also discussed some 17

Antoinette N. Opara, Violet Oranges in Twilight: A Memoir (Lagos: Narrative Landscape Press, 2019).

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66 | Student Experiences with Violence in Schools: Insights from a Survey in Two Catholic Schools for Girls in Nigeria

aspects of the survey to create awareness on available procedures for resolving con-

flicts. The document proved to be worthwhile for creating awareness on the issues that can lead to violence in the schools and how various available strategies could enable solutions, in particular to rebuild strained relationships among staff and

students. While there is no magic bullet to end violence in schools, progress can be made.

APPENDIX: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE 1. How would you define violence in schools? 2. Do you agree that violence exists in Catholic schools? F Strongly disagree F Disagree F Neutral F Agree

F Strongly agree 3. What types of violence actions are prevalent in your school? Name three types. 4. Have you experienced school violence? F Yes F No

F Maybe 5. Describe your experience. 6. Rate your experience of violence. F Slight

F Heavy

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Antoinette Nneka Opara and Quentin Wodon | 67

7. How does it feel to be the object of school violence? F Sad

F Angry

F Afraid

F Depressed F Bored

8. Were you pleased with the way it was handled? F Yes F No

F Not sure 9. What is the major way your school handles violence? 10. Did you forgive the person and was reconciled? F Yes F No

F Maybe 11. Give two suggestions how your school can reduce violence. Thank you very much for taking out time to respond to this survey. God bless you.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Belfield, Clive, A. Brooks Bowden, Alli Klapp, Henry Levin, Robert Shand, and Sabine Zander. “The Economic Value of Social and Emotional Learning,” Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis 6, no. 3 (December 2015): 508 - 544. https://doi.org/10.1017/bca.2015.55

Borumandnia, Nasrin, Naghmeh Khadembashi, Mohammad Tabatabaei, and Hamid Alavi Majd. “The Prevalence Rate of Sexual Violence Worldwide:

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A Trend Analysis,” BMC Public Health 20 (2020): Article 1835. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09926-5.

Devries, Karen M., Louise Knight, Jennifer C. Child, Angel Mirembe, Janet Nakuti, Rebecca Jones, Joanna Sturgess, Elizabeth Allen, Nambusi Kyegombe,

Jenny Parkes, Eddy Walakira, Diana Elbourne, Charlotte Watts, and Di-

pak Naker. “The Good School Toolkit for Reducing Physical Violence from

School Staff to Primary School Students: A Cluster-Randomised Controlled Trial in Uganda.” Lancet Global Health, no. 385 ( July 2015): e378–86. https:// doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(15)00060-1.

Durlak, Joseph A., Roger P. Weissberg, and Molly Pachan. “A Meta-Analysis of

After-School Programs That Seek to Promote Personal and Social Skills in Children and Adolescents.” American Journal of Community Psychology 45, no. 3-4 (March 2010): 294-309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6.

Farrington, David P. and Maria M. Ttofi. “School-Based Programs to Reduce Bullying and Victimization.” Campbell Systematic Reviews 5, no. 1 (December 2009): i-148. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2009.6.

Hillis, Susan, James Mercy, Adaugo Amobi, and Howard Kress. “Global

Prevalence of Past-year Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review and Minimum Estimates.” Pediatrics 137, no. 3 (March 2016): e20154079. https:// doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4079.

Know Violence in Childhood. Ending Violence in Childhood: Global Report 2017. New Delhi, India: Know Violence in Childhood, 2017.

Krug, Etienne G., Linda L. Dahlberg, James A. Mercy, Anthony B. Zwi, and

Rafael Lozano, eds. World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002.

Office of the SRSG on Violence against Children. Tackling VIAS: A Global Perspective - Bridging the Gap between Standards and Practice. New York: Office of the SRSG on Violence against Children, 2016.

Opara, Antoinette N. Violet Oranges in Twilight: A Memoir. Lagos: Narrative Landscape Press, 2019.

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UNICEF. Hidden in Plain Sight: A Statistical Analysis of Violence against Children. New York: UNICEF, 2014.

UNICEF. A Familiar Face: Violence in the Lives of Children and Adolescents. New York: UNICEF, 2017.

UNICEF. The Economic Burden of Violence against Children: Analysis of Selected Health and Education Outcomes - Nigeria Case Study. New York: UNICEF, 2019.

UNICEF. Education Under Threat in West and Central Africa, UNICEF Child Alert. New York: UNICEF. 2019.

Valdebenito, Sara, Manuel Eisner, David P. Farrington, Maria M. Ttofi, and Alex Sutherland. “What Can We Do to Reduce Disciplinary School Exclusion? A

Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Journal of Experimental Criminology 15 (September 2019): 253–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-018-09351-0.

World Health Organization. INSPIRE: Seven Strategies for Ending Violence Against Children. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2016.

World Health Organization. INSPIRE Handbook: Action for Implementing the Sev-

en Strategies for Ending Violence against Children. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2018.

World Health Organization. School-based Violence Prevention: A Practical Handbook. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2019.

Wodon, Quentin, Chloë Fèvre, Chata Male, Ada Nayihouba, and Hoa Nguyen. Ending Violence in Schools: An Investment Case. Washington, DC: World Bank and Global Partnership to End Violence against Children, 2021.

Zizek, Slavoj. Violence: Six Sideways Reflections. London: Profile Books, 2009. Zwi, Anthony B., Richard Garfield, and Alessandro Loretti. “Collective

Violence.” In Etienne G. Krug, Linda L. Dahlberg et al., eds. World Report on Violence and Health (Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002).

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J O S E P H D O M F E H - B O AT E N G

Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng is a priest of the Catholic Diocese of Sunyani, Ghana. He holds a PhD in educational administration and supervision from Fordham University and a licentiate in canon law from Saint Paul University, Ottawa, Canada. He currently serves as a parochial vicar at Saint Patrick’s Church, Bedford, New York.

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Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 71

INTRODUCTION

his study explores issues relating to the selection, appointment, and faith/

spiritual formation of Catholic public school lay principals in Ghana. The study is based on data collected a decade ago, but key findings remain

relevant today. The selection of leaders is “too important to be left to the serendip-

ity or chance” since “ineffective leaders; particularly at the top, can be extremely costly to an organization, and unfortunately, leaders fail all too often.”1 Hiring “an

unprepared person to lead a Catholic school … undermines the aims of Catholic education.”2 There have been long-standing concerns among the Ghana Catholic

Bishops about their limited ability to Catholic public schools given the role played by the Ghana Education Service in operating the schools (which are funded by the

state). Before delving into the nuts and bolts of the selection, appointment, and faith/spiritual formation of lay principals in Catholic public schools in Ghana, let’s first review a few concepts and terminologies.

Catholic education aims to develop the cognitive domain (that is, acquisition of

knowledge and intellectual faculty) and affective domain (that is, moral and char-

acter formation of students). Catholic education is a Christian education packaged, informed, and directed by the Catholic Church’s traditions and its anthropological

view of the human person. In its broad sense, Catholic education is an integral part of the Church’s investment in the formation and socialization of the human person from childhood to adulthood.3 It begins at home, continues in Catholic schools

and higher institutions of learning, and then matures through one’s involvement

with other people in the Church and society. However, in this paper, Catholic ed-

ucation is used in its more restricted sense to mean teaching and learning that take

place in Catholic educational institutions. For this article, Catholic education and Catholic school refers to the same thing. 1 2 3

Ann Howard, “Best Practices in Leader’s Selection,” in Practices of Leadership: Developing the Next Generation of Leaders, J. A. Conger and R. E. Riggio, eds. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2007), 38. Karen Ristau, ”Finding and Forming Teachers and Leaders,” in The Carnegie Conversation on Catholic Education, John Staud, ed. (South Bend, IN: Alliance for Catholic Education Press, 2008), 26. Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference, A Pastoral Letter on Education (Accra, Ghana: Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference, 2008).

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72 | Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

In Ghana, the Catholic Church established schools to contribute to its evangelization efforts. However, the Church today operates two types of schools: Catholic

public and private schools. This is because many schools were absorbed into the public school system in part due to ever-increasing operational costs.4 Catholic public schools operate for the most part like other public schools and they receive

a subsidy from the government. The Ghana Education Service has a supervisory

role in managing the schools. By contrast, Catholic private schools are staffed and managed by the Church with substantial autonomy, even if they are subject to regulations from the Ghana Education Service as all schools in the country are.

BRIEF HISTORY OF CATHOLIC EDUCATION IN GHANA Catholic and, more broadly, religious education in Ghana has a checkered history.5 The first Catholic school in Ghana was opened in Elmina in 1529 by Portuguese

chaplains at King John III of Portugal’s behest. The school was established to pro-

vide reading, writing, and religious teaching to the African children.6 The purpose

was in part to train children who would help propagate the Catholic faith while also advancing European trade in the Portuguese colony. The first school was short

lived. In 1572, four Augustinian Friars, also from Portugal, reopened the Elmina school, but it was closed again four years later. Later Capuchin priests opened two

Catholic schools, one in Elmina and the other in Axim. These schools flourished until Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese forts in 1642 and expelled Por-

tuguese officials and their chaplains from the Gold Coast, as it was then named. Catholic educational institutions closed.7

4 5 6 7

Paul Effah, “Ghana,” in African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook, D. Teferra, ed. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2003). Jill Olivier and Quentin Wodon, “Faith-inspired Education in Historical Perspective: A Historical Case Example,” Review of Faith & International Affairs 12, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 27-37, https://doi. org/10.1080/15570274.2014.918751. Charles K. Graham, The History of Education in Ghana: From the Earliest Times to the Declaration of Independence (New York: Taylor & Francis, 1971). Joseph Domfeh-Boateng, “An Inquiry into the Selection and Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana,” PhD diss. (New York: Fordham University, 2011). JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 73

In 1880, the Catholic faith was re-introduced when Fathers Auguste Moreau and

Eugene Murrat were assigned to the colony as the first SMA (Society of African

Missions) missionaries. They opened a Catholic school for boys in 1882. In 1883, with Our Lady of Apostle (OLA) religious sisters’ arrival, a Catholic school for girls was opened at Elmina. In 1890, the OLA Sisters opened a school for girls at Cape Coast.

Today, the government of the Republic of Ghana and religious bodies have a partnership in the management of faith-based schools. The 14th principle of the Gov-

ernor Gordon Guggisberg Education Act that governs this partnership states that the government and mission schools will collaborate with the schools to be subsidized for education purposes. The 1961 Education Act brought all educational

activities in Ghana, including Catholic schools, under the Ministry of Education’s auspices. Article 27 of the 1961 Education Act allowed the state to provide “grantaid” to mission schools while the religious bodies that founded these schools han-

dled their management and administration. Currently, the Ministry of Education, through the Ghana Education Service, manages a large number of Catholic public schools.

Overall, as of 2019-2020, the Catholic Church had 2,097 Catholic public elemen-

tary schools, 1,396 junior high schools, 82 Catholic public senior high schools, 29 technical/vocational schools, 13 Catholic public colleges of education, 13 nursing training colleges, and one private Catholic university college.8

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM In this study, the researcher explores issues relating to the selection, appointment,

and faith/spiritual formation of Catholic public-school lay principals in Ghana. 8

The data are from the Catholic schools’ office. On the footprint of Catholic education in the global south, see Quentin Wodon, Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism, Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021) and Quentin Wodon, “Rise of Catholic Schools in the Global South and Implications for University Research,” Journal of Catholic Education 24, no. 1 (Spring 2021): 270-284. http://dx.doi.org/10.15365/ joce.2401172021.

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74 | Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

The selection and appointment of school principals across Ghana, including Cath-

olic public schools, are “generally based on a long service or seniority”9 rather than an education degree. The Ghana Education Service has assumed the right of ap-

pointing leaders to head Catholic public schools and other mission schools in the country. But laypersons who are appointed by the Ghana Educational Service to head Catholic public schools may not be knowledgeable in Catholic literacy, nor

may they be able to advance the mission of Catholic education. These principals may not have any formal training in educational administration, which makes

them unprepared to deal with the demands of their job as school leaders. This study investigates the problem relating to the selection and the formation of laypeople

who head Catholic public schools in Ghana. In particular, the study examines how

school lay principals in Catholic public schools are selected, trained, and appointed.

The study concludes with recommendations as to how to mitigate these challenges.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study attempts to answer the following research questions. (1) How are the lay principals selected, trained, and appointed to head Catholic public schools in

the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana? (2) In what ways, if any, do new principals in

Catholic public schools in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana learn about the vision and mission of Catholic education? (3) How do formative spiritual programs help prepare the lay principals to exercise their duties as spiritual leaders in Catholic

public schools in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana? And (4) in what ways do lay principals in Catholic public schools in the Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana, promote their schools’ Catholic identity?

Anthony Afful-Broni, Theory and Practice of Educational Leadership in Ghana (Accra, Ghana: Type Company Limited, 2004), 4. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 75

DESIGN OF THE STUDY Scholars have expressed various views on how school leaders are selected, trained, and appointed in Ghana.10 This study provides a voice for the lay principals in Catholic public schools in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana to describe in their

own words how they were selected to head their schools. How did faith/spiritual formation programs prepare them to deliver the mandate of their job? How did

these formative programs help them work as spiritual leaders in Catholic educational institutions, and what kind of support did they get from the diocesan officials and their local pastors?

The researcher used qualitative methodology to elicit data from the participants

regarding the challenges they face in their work. The qualitative method was used because “reality is constructed by individuals interacting with their social world.”11

Furthermore, the nature of the study requires that the researcher goes to his participants’ settings to observe their actions, because “action can be best understood

when it is observed in the setting in which it occurs.”12 The approach used enabled the researcher to understand the challenges that Catholic education faces in Ghana, making research-based recommendations to policymakers, evaluators, spiritual and professional developers, and stakeholders of Catholic education in Ghana.

The researcher used personal interviews, observation, document analysis, and field notes to garner data on the selection, training, and faith/spiritual formation of

principals in Catholic public schools in the Brong Ahafo Region. The researcher

collected the data a decade ago, but the challenges investigated remain the same today. The Ghana Education Service still selects and appoints leaders to Catholic 10 See among others Ivan Addae-Mensah, Education in Ghana: A Tool for Social Mobility or Social Stratification? (Accra, Ghana: Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2000); Kwame Akyeampong and David Stephens, “Exploring the Backgrounds and Shaping of Beginning Student Teachers in Ghana: Toward Greater Contextualisation of Teacher Education,” International Journal of Educational Development 22, no. 3 (2002): 261-274, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(01)00064-5; and World Bank, Recruitment, Retaining and Retraining Secondary School Teachers and Principals in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2007). 11 Sharan B. Merriam, Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 6. 12 Robert Bogdan and Sari Knop Biklen, Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theories and Methods (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2007), 7. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

76 | Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

public schools, and many principals are not given ongoing faith/spiritual formation and professional development programs.

RESEARCH SAMPLE AND QUESTIONNAIRE Although the researcher could not study the entire group of Catholic public school lay principals in the Brong Ahafo region, he selected a few key participants, using

purposeful sampling.13 The number of the participants depended “on the questions being asked, the data being collected, the analysis in progress, the resources you

have to support the study,” since what is needed in a research sample is “an adequate number of participants, sites, or activities to answer the questions posed at

the beginning of the study in the form of the purposing statement.”14 The researcher studied eight Catholic public school lay principals. The purposive selection of the participants was based on the following criteria on the chart below.

Table 1: Purposive Sample of the Study by the Criteria Used in their Selection Criteria Gender Catholics Non-Catholics Attended Catholic College Attended Non-Catholic College Newly Appointed: Under 3 years Veterans: Above 3 years Rural location Urban Location

Male 4 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2

Female 4 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2

Source: Author

13 Michael Q. Patton, Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods Integrating Theory and Practice, 4th edition (Saint Paul, MN: SAGE Publications, 2014). 14 Sharan B. Merriam, Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2009), 80. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 77

While gathering data, two additional participants, the Regional Manager of the Catholic schools in the region and the General Manager of Catholic schools in

Ghana, were added for their expertise. For confidentiality, pseudonymous names

were assigned to the eight schools visited: St. Peter’s, Pope John Paul II, St. Mary’s, St. Joseph’s, Martyrs of Uganda, St. Rose’s, Pope Pius XI, and St. Agnes’. The sam-

ple was small but provided valuable insights. Overall, there were equal numbers of Catholic and non-Catholic lay principals in the study. The strong presence of non-Catholic principals is an indication that the local bishops in the region have lost control as to who is to be appointed to head their schools.

Findings are garnered from participants’ responses to open-ended interview ques-

tions. The researcher developed thirty-two open-ended interview questions. Ten interview questions centered on the process of the selection and appointment of the lay principals to head Catholic public schools in the region, their academic

qualifications, their religious affiliations, and the role of the local bishops or their

delegates and the District Director of Education in the selection process. Eleven interview questions focused on the training and faith/spiritual formation of the

lay principals, their relationship with their local pastors, and how spiritual capital

informs and directs the life, work, and leadership practice of the lay principals. The

remaining eleven interview questions investigate how the lay principals cultivate, nurture, and promote their schools’ Catholic identity.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY On the appointment of the heads of Catholic public schools, five principals indicated that they were appointed by the District Director of Education in consulta-

tion with the Regional Manager of Catholic schools in the region. On his selection and appointment, the principal of Pope John Paul II maintained that:

...[T]he Regional Manager sometimes appoints principals to head Catholic public schools in our regions; my case was different. I was appointed by the

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Regional Manager in our district. I am not sure whether the District Director of education was consulted or not my appointment.15

Three participants, the principals of St. Joseph’s, Pope Pius XI, and St. Agnes, revealed that they were appointed to head their schools by the District Director of Education. They were not sure of any involvement of the Regional Manager of

Catholic schools. The researcher interviewed the Regional Manager of Catholic schools in the region and the General Manager of Catholic schools in Ghana to

verify the proper method of selecting and appointing teachers to head Catholic

public schools. The General Manager told the researcher that the policy for selec-

tion and appointment of Catholic school lay principals states that only practicing

Catholics should be appointed to head Catholic schools. However, he admitted that some Regional Managers and District Directors of Education do not follow

this policy. The Regional Manager told the researcher that he sometimes presents

non-Catholic candidates to the District Director of Education to be appointed to head Catholic public schools based on the recommendations from their local pas-

tors, parents, and teachers: “This is something I do not like to do, but sometimes the prevailing circumstances, such as lack of a qualified Catholic, force me to recommend non-Catholics to head our schools.”16

The protocol for selecting and appointing Catholic public school lay principals

urges the Regional Manager to recommend qualified candidates to the District

Director of Education. The protocol further states that all District Directors of

Education should consult the Regional Manager in appointing principals to head Catholic public schools. The study’s findings revealed that this “laid-down procedure” has not been followed, as noted above. Some District Directors of Educa-

tion transfer schoolteachers and principals from one school to the other without consulting the Regional Manager. But also of note is the fact that the Regional Manager of Catholic schools sometimes proposed non-Catholics to the District Directors to be appointed to head Catholic schools.

On how participants learned about the mission and vision of Catholic education, 15 Interview, April 20, 2010. 16 Interview, April 27, 2010. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 79

almost all told the researcher that the dioceses in the region do not have any systematic formative programs that prepare and introduce them to the Catholic ed-

ucation’s mission and philosophy. Three non-Catholic principals indicated that they learn from their colleagues who are Catholics. Five principals said their local

pastors are very supportive and learn a lot from them. On the same question, the General Manager maintained that his office does not deal directly with the lay

school leaders’ training and faith/spiritual formation. Ongoing training and forma-

tive programs are to be done at the regional level. Participants indicated a critical need for faith/spiritual formation and professional development programs to equip

and initiate them to the Catholic educational philosophy. For instance, St. Peter’s school’s principal expressed this need when she said,

I am not a Catholic. Even though I have the goodwill to cultivate, nurture and

promote the Catholic character of my school, as the Regional Manager once suggested, how can I do this when I don’t know anything about the Catholic

Church and its official teaching on education. Some of us are ready to learn, but no one is interested in giving us the tools we need for our work.17

The study further revealed that most principals drew on the experiences they gained

as students in Catholic schools, which were staffed by well-trained religious and lay personnel. For instance, the principal of Martyrs of Uganda, a non-Catholic principal, said his experiences of Catholic education were gained when he was in

a Catholic school and a Catholic college. However, as the principal maintained, one needs to know the basic tenets of Catholic theology to live it. At the regional

level, the Regional Manager is supposed to organize ongoing orientation courses

regularly to initiate Catholic public-school principals into the mission and goals of Catholic schools. However, the data collected indicated that most dioceses do not provide such formative programs.

In response to the question “whether their religious affiliation plays any significant

role in their selection and appointment,” some principals answered affirmatively. For instance, the principal of St. Agnes’ reported that “being a practicing Catholic 17

Interview, April 22, 2010.

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80 | Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

is critical in one’s selection and appointment to head a Catholic school in our region.” The principals of St. Mary’s, St. Joseph’s, St. Rose’s, and Pope Pius XI also

maintained that being Catholic was significant in their selection and appointment. On the other hand, other principals said religious affiliation didn’t play a part in

their appointment. For instance, the principal of Pope John Paul II argued that

religious affiliation doesn’t matter in the process of selection and appointment to lead Catholic public schools in the region.

On the issue of cultivating and promoting a Catholic identity in their school, al-

most all participants have the good intent to nurture their schools’ character. They try to make Christ present in their school communities by celebrating the Eucha-

rist and following the directives to make every Catholic educational institution “a

place to encounter the living God who in Jesus Christ reveals his transforming love and truth.”18 In addition, they make their schools sacramental places by participating “in the Church’s overall ministry of sanctification.”19

As part of promoting their schools’ Catholic identity, participants ensure that students receive instruction in Catholic doctrine and practice through regular celebrations of the sacraments. But the schools in urban centers do a better job at ex-

posing their students to Catholic faith practices than schools in rural areas. While

faith practices take a variety of forms, principals in the “city schools” reported that the local pastors celebrate the Eucharist with their school communities every other

week. In contrast, the rural schools have Eucharistic celebrations twice a semester. Acknowledging that participation in the Eucharist as a measure of contact with

Catholic ritual life takes shape against the backdrop of other sacramental and paraliturgical practices that might also facilitate such exposure, this evidence is suggestive

of a marked difference between urban and rural educational settings. One Catholic principal indicated that he must be Christ-like in all his dealing. Thus, he tried to

exhibit a public witness to the way of Christ as the Church teaches. But most of the 18 Benedict XVI, Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi of the Supreme Pontiff Benedict XVI to the Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, Men and Women Religious, and All the Lay Faithful on Christian Hope (Rome: The Vatican, 2007). 19 Ronald J. Nuzzi, “Catholic Identity,” in Ten Years of Research, 1990—2000, T. C. Hunt, E. A. Joseph and R. J. Nuzzi, eds. (Washington, D.C: National Catholic Educational Association, 2004), 19. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 81

principals pointed out that the dominant presence of non-Catholic students poses a

challenge in their efforts to promote the Catholic identity in their schools. Participants maintained a good working relationship with teachers, non-teaching staff, and parents. But data revealed a lack of local pastors’ interest with consequences for the

principals’ efforts to cultivate, nurture, and promote their schools’ Catholic character.

ENCOURAGING PRACTICES The following themes emerged through the data analyses: (1) Recruitment of Catholic public school lay principals; (2) spiritual orientation and professional development; (3) principals’ relationship with their local pastors; and (4) building of their schools’ Catholic identity; and (5) servant leadership. Recruitment of Catholic Public School Lay Principals Participants presented conflicting reports on how Catholic public school lay principals are selected and appointed to head schools. Some principals indicated that

the Regional Manager of Catholic schools appointed them. Others reported that they were appointed by the District Directors of Education of their districts. Upon

verification with the Regional Manager and General Manager, the study found

that the right of the local bishops to select and appoint heads for their schools is not always respected. Sometimes, principals are appointed with little or no input from the local bishops or their delegates. The Ghana Catholic Bishops Conference has noted its concern for these practices.

Spiritual Orientation and Professional Development The Second Vatican Council Documents articulated the relevance of ongoing faith/spiritual formation for leaders in Church-related institutions. The conciliar

fathers called on laypeople to participate in the mission of Christ. Giving suitable instructions to religious leaders—including lay leaders—enables them to reclaim and relive the charisma of the founders of their institutions.20

20 See Gerald A. Arbuckle, Out of Chaos: Refounding Religious Congregation (New York: Paulist Press, 1988) and Gerald A. Arbuckle, From Chaos to Mission: Refounding Religious Life Formation VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

82 | Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

Yet another significant theme is the lack of ongoing training and faith/spiritual

formation programs for school administrators. For example, the principal of St. Peter’s school pointed out that the Regional Manager spoke to her about the ex-

pectations of Catholic education on the day of her appointment. However, she was not given any literature or anything since. The two principals from the Catholic

Diocese of Goaso separately expressed similar concerns about the need for in-service training and formation in the Catholic faith and practices.

The principal of St. Agnes Junior High School in the Catholic of Sunyani expressed the need for ongoing faith/spiritual formation:

Our bishops are fighting the Ghana Education Service over who has the ulti-

mate authority or power to appoint principals to our Catholic public schools, but nothing is being done to equip us to work effectively. They often say that as Catholic public school leaders, we should promote the distinguishing marks

of Catholic education. But if you ask me what constitutes these distinguish-

ing elements, I don’t know. We should be learning the Catholic education’s philosophy.21

Principals’ Relationship with Local Pastors Principals’ relationships with their local pastor also emerged as a theme in analyzing the data. Some principals succeeded in creating vibrant working relationships

in their schools, eventually yielding a true school community, one of the hallmarks of a Catholic school.22 In narrating their relationships with local pastors and the support from the Church as an institution, all principals maintained that they had

excellent working relationships with their local pastors. This supported the views

in Canon Law that the local pastor is responsible for and plays a significant role in (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1996). 21 Interview, April 15, 2010. 22 See James S. Coleman and Thomas Hoffer, Public and Private High Schools: The Importance of Community (New York: Basic Books, 1987); Timothy J. Cook, Architects of Catholic Culture: Designing and Building Catholic Culture in Catholic Schools (Washington, D.C: National Catholic Educational Association, 2001), and Parker J. Palmer, “Leading from Within: Out of the Shadow into Light” in Spirit at Work: Discovering the Spirituality in Leadership, J. A. Conger, ed. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1994). JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 83

the pastoral care of the entire parish, including the parish schools.23 The principal of Pope Pius XI pointed out that his pastor was very instrumental in getting a new

roof for one of his classrooms. Likewise, the principal of St. Rose’s said her pastor helped her build a borehole (well) that provides potable water for the school community.

Non-Catholic principals also had good working relationships with the local pastors. For instance, the principal of Martyrs of Uganda pointed out that it was through

the recommendation of the local pastor that he was appointed to head his school. He always seeks the pastor’s counsel, especially in matters regarding the Church’s doctrines since he is not a Catholic.

Building Catholic Public School’s Catholic Identity Addressing Catholic educators at the Catholic University of America, Pope Bene-

dict XVI declared that “the Catholicity of a school does not consist in the number of Catholic students, but in the convictions of the educational community.”24 He

argued that these convictions are expressed through liturgical celebrations, sacra-

mental prayer, acts of charity, concern for justice, and respect for God’s creation. This assessment guided the researcher in analyzing the study’s data, given that

Catholic public school principals play a crucial role in cultivating, nurturing, and promoting their schools’ identity.

Principals of the schools visited indicated they had a duty and privilege to intro-

duce their students to the rudimentary elements of the Catholic Church. The study found that the students at the schools received instruction in Catholic doctrine

and practice. Additionally, local pastors celebrate the Eucharist regularly with the students. Through these celebrations, the principals led their school communities to the person of Christ.

The findings further showed the principals’ commitment to making their school 23 Harold A. Buetow, The Catholic School: Its Roots, Identity, and Future (New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1988). 24 Benedict XVI, Address, Conference Hall of the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. on Thursday, April 17, 2008. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

84 | Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

communities become “sacramental places,” where the school communities “partici-

pate in the Church’s overall ministry of sanctification.” However, not all principals placed such emphasis on distinctively Catholic sacramental formation. The principal of St. Mary argued that she cultivates the Catholic identity of her school by making the school a place where her students are seen as children of God, helping

each other respond to their divine calling. The principal of John Paul II indicated that he cultivates and sustains a Catholic school community through the caring

love he accords to his students. He argued that his students feel protected in his

school because “We love them. We display this love in how we deal with them and our commitment to helping them succeed. As a result, we have seen much

improvement in their academic performance and their social and religious lives.”25 The principal of Pope John Paul II maintained that his efforts to cultivate, nurture, and promote his school’s Catholic identity include his insistence that all teach-

ers and students, both Catholics and non-Catholics, respect Catholic beliefs and

practices. Throughout the study, by perusing official documents and conducting

personal participant observations, the researcher found the Catholic identity in these schools to be encouraging. Principals maintained that they have the extra responsibility of articulating Catholic beliefs and practices, thereby infusing them into their school’s curricula. At the same time, the evidence suggests that both the

methods and ends of student formation and liturgical participation may be up for debate in Ghanaian Catholic public schools. Servant Leadership The concept of servant leadership emerged as another important theme. Participants exhibited a high sense of service in their work as Catholic school leaders and administrators. They described their work as “a vocation” or “ministry.” They were

committed to their work as Catholic educators. They were the first to arrive at the

school premises and the last to leave. Their leadership styles reflect Jesus’, who did not come to be served, but to serve and to lay his life as a ransom for many.26 The 25 26

Interview, April 20, 2010. Matthew, 20: 28ff, The New American Bible. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 85

principals spent a significant part of their time serving members of their school community.

Caring is a critical aspect of the concept of servant leadership. The act of caring can transform institutions and individuals alike. Moreover, caring leaders inspire their followers to achieve impressive results, which would not be possible in situations

that lack this aspect of leadership27. Through an active working relationship with their school community, the principals often motivate faculty to enhance teaching

and learning. For instance, the principal of St. Mary claimed that she encourages and empowers her teaching staff by making sure important information is available

to them. She maintained that “once the teachers know what is going on and the direction we are heading, they give their maximum support. They feel empowered

because they see themselves as part of the decision-making body in the school” (May 10, 2010).

PROBLEMATIC AREAS The study also identified the following more problematic findings. Lack of Observance of Established Protocols The interviews and review of pertinent documents suggest that the Ghana Ed-

ucation Service and the Diocesan Education Unit in the Brong Ahafo Region

do not always follow the established procedures when selecting and appointing

Catholic public lay principals. In appointing principals for Catholic public schools, the District Directors of Education should consult with the Regional Managers of

Catholic schools. In addition, the officials of the Diocesan Education Unit should

be on the panel when screening possible candidates for principal in Catholic public schools. However, the study found that in most districts, the District Directors of 27 See Richard K. Greenleaf, Servant Leadership (New York: Paulist Press, 1977) and Richard K. Greenleaf, Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness, 25th Anniversary edition (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2001), as well as Theresa K. Punnachet, “Catholic Servant-Leadership: Going Beyond the Secular Paradigm,” International Studies in Catholic Education 1, no. 2 (2009): 117-134, https://doi.org/10.1080/19422530903137921. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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Education do not consult the Regional Manager of Catholic schools when assigning lay principals to Catholic public schools.

The study also discovered that the Regional Manager had in some circumstances

circumvented or ignored the protocol by presenting non-Catholic teachers to the District Directors of Education to be appointed to head Catholic schools in the region. The study further found that some District Directors of Education do not always invite the officials of the Diocesan Education Unit to sit on the panel which

makes the final decision as to who becomes a principal in a Catholic public school. Given failures on the part of key personnel in the governing systems of the Catholic public schools and the absence of consequences, Catholic public schools may suffer.

Inadequacy of Spiritual Orientation and Professional Development Resources The three Catholic Dioceses in the region don’t provide adequate faith/spiritu-

al formation, or professional development programs for lay principals. Answering

the question “how do you learn about the mission and philosophy of Catholic education?”, most participants pointed out that they depended on their local pas-

tors to gain insight into Catholic education. Others said they learned from their colleagues. Inadequate faith/spiritual formation makes it difficult for some school

leaders to articulate the Catholic education’s mission and vision to their school communities. Again, the lack of ongoing formal faith/spiritual formation and professional development programs means these leaders may not be equipped with

current spiritual and educational skills that reflect ongoing research findings to deal with modern-day challenges.

Enhance the Spiritual Capital of Catholic Public Lay Principals Another finding is the insufficient presence of spiritual capital among Catholic

school lay principals in the region. Developing the spiritual capital of Catholic public lay principals does not mean they escape from the material things of this

world. Instead, it has to do with the very roots of life. Authentic Christian leadership emerges from one’s relationship with God because “one’s relationship with

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Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 87

God infuses and transforms one’s ways of being a leader.”28 Thus, enhancing the principals’ relationship with God through regular faith/spiritual formation pro-

grams would increase their sense of security, empowerment, compassion, peace, and graciousness, enabling them to perform their duties as administrators in Catholic

public schools. The principal of St. Peter’s elucidated this assertion when she said, “I rely on God’s help to do my work. I need to listen to him daily for him to take me through difficult times. I am never overwhelmed even in the face of difficulty or setbacks because I trust he will guide me through.”29

The local churches in the region will benefit from these lay school leaders if they

harness and sustain the spiritual capital already present in these leaders. Though the school leaders seem to be on the right track, they still need to be guided on their spiritual journey to play the spiritual dimension of their leadership as they participate in the evangelizing mission of the Church.

CONCLUSION Based on the insights gained in the study, a few recommendations can be made. Recommendation 1: Reinvigorate a comprehensive protocol with accountability codes

regarding the selection and appointment of lay principals of Catholic public schools. The study recommends that the Catholic Bishops in Ghana should assume their

right to appoint principals for Catholic public schools. The bishops must be part of

the ultimate decision-making for appointing principals for Catholic public schools

in their dioceses. They must insist that the laid-down protocol is respected so that practicing Catholics knowledgeable in Catholic educational ethos are appointed to

lead the Catholic public schools in Ghana. Getting the right person for leadership in an organization is critical.30

28 Lorraine Pasadino, “The Charismatic Core of Lay Leaders,” PhD diss. (New York: Fordham University, 1993), 153. 29 Interview, May 10, 2010. 30 Jim Collins, Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap. . .and Others Don’t (New York: Harper Collins, 2001). VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

88 | Selection and Faith/Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana

The terms and conditions upon which the Church and state entered the partner-

ship to provide quality education should be adhered to through a sustained and

ongoing dialogue with officials of the Ghana Education Service. The study further recommends that efforts be made to reinforce system thinking and collaborative work in selecting and appointing Catholic public school lay principals in the re-

gion. Such efforts will create awareness among all those who play a vital role in the recruiting and appointment of Catholic public-school principals. In addition, the key players should be reminded that they are part of a system that aims to create human capital for the country’s development.

The research data revealed that the local pastors, the Regional Manager, and the District Directors of Education in the region exhibit a keen interest in providing

quality education by recruiting “highly qualified” teachers to head Catholic public schools when the principal position becomes vacant. However, some key individ-

uals who select and appoint Catholic public school leaders are not working as part of the system. Therefore, the study recommends that those who choose and appoint

Catholic public-school principals should be reminded that they are interconnected

and interrelated in providing a holistic education, which is vital to the Catholic Church and the state alike.

Recommendation 2: Empower the Diocesan Education Council to become more effective.

The study recommends that the bishops in the Brong Ahafo Region formulate a

diocesan education policy to guide the Diocesan Education Council. This council, which is comprised of committed and well-informed lay Catholics, religious, and clergy, can become an effective vehicle for promoting spiritual and educational ori-

entation and professional development for Catholic educators and administrators in the region.

Recommendation 3: Establish a diocesan spiritual and educational leadership orientation and professional development center.

Laypersons need ongoing training and formation in Catholic literacy. The spiritu-

al/faith formation of Catholic school lay principals is critical because they share in JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Joseph Domfeh-Boateng | 89

the great commission of making Jesus known and are, therefore, called to “share

with the faithful the faith of our Christian community.”31 The Catholic school is “a place of integral formation by means of a systematic and critical assimilation of

culture and faith” where leaders must be given the appropriate and relevant spiritu-

al/faith formation to enable them to make a Catholic school “a privileged place in which, through a living encounter with a cultural inheritance, integral formation of next generation of adult Catholics occurs.”32 Five key areas on which faith/spiritual formation of Catholic school lay leaders should focus can be suggested: “knowledge in theology and philosophy of Catholic schooling, knowledge of religious

instruction taught in Catholic schools, community building, service programs, and creating Catholic school environment.”33 Catholic school lay principals’ spiritual/

faith formation programs will strengthen their religious convictions and values. Consequently, formation should aim at providing the participants with an oppor-

tunity for spiritual growth and a better understanding of the Catholic faith, which forms the underpinnings of the philosophy of Catholic education.

Recommendation 4: Expose future schoolteachers and administrators to fundamental theories and practices of educational administration.

In collaboration with the Catholic University College of Ghana, the Catholic

Colleges of Education should expose future schoolteachers and administrators to the theories and practices of educational administration while they are under formation. Courses taught to future school leaders should include school leadership

and administration principles. Once these institutions give their students the basic foundations, the Diocesan Education Office in the Brong Ahafo Region can

build upon them. Thus, the Diocesan Education Office in the region should liaise with the Faculty of Education of the Catholic University College of Ghana in

organizing spiritual and education orientation and professional development 31 Thomas H. Groome, “What Makes a School Catholic?” in The Contemporary Catholic School: Context, Identity, and Diversity, T. H. McLaughlin, J. O’Keefe, and B. O’Keefe, eds. (Washington, DC: Palmer, 2000). 32 Congregation for Catholic Education, The Catholic School. Rome: Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977. 33 Patricia Kelleher, “The Faith Formation of Catholic High School Administrators: The Unique Role of the Laity,” PhD diss. (Dayton, OH: University of Dayton, 2000). VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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programs for the lay principals in Catholic public schools. In conclusion, the study examined the selection and appointment of Catholic public school leaders, their faith/spiritual formation, and their ongoing professional development in the Brong Ahafo Region, Ghana. The key findings and recommendations could serve as a springboard to creating a renewed awareness of the impor-

tance of appointing qualified lay people to lead the Catholic schools in the region. Additionally, the Catholic school leaders must give the appropriate faith/spiritual formation and regular professional development courses to help them succeed as Catholic educators.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Addae-Mensah, Ivan. Education in Ghana: A Tool for Social Mobility or Social Stratification? Accra, Ghana: Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2000.

Afful-Broni, Anthony. Theory and Practice of Educational Leadership in Ghana. Accra, Ghana: Type Company Limited, 2004.

Akyeampong, Kwame and David Stephens. “Exploring the Backgrounds and Shaping of Beginning Student Teachers in Ghana: Toward Greater Contextualisa-

tion of Teacher Education.” International Journal of Educational Development 22, no. 3 (2002): 261-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0738-0593(01)00064-5.

Arbuckle, Gerald A. Out of Chaos: Refounding Religious Congregation. New York: Paulist Press, 1988.

_____. From Chaos to Mission: Refounding Religious Life Formation. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1996.

Benedict XVI. Encyclical Letter Spe Salvi of the Supreme Pontiff Benedict XVI to the Bishops, Priests, and Deacons, Men and Women Religious, and All the Lay Faithful on Christian Hope. Rome: The Vatican, 2007.

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_____. Address. Conference Hall of the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., Thursday, April17, 2008.

Bogdan, Robert and Sari Knop Biklen. Qualitative Research for Education: An Introduction to Theories and Methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2007.

Buetow, Harold A. The Catholic School: Its Roots, Identity, and Future. New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1988.

Coleman, James S. and Thomas Hoffer. Public and Private High Schools: The Importance of Community. New York: Basic Books, 1987.

Collins, Jim. Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap. . . and Others Don’t. New York: Harper Collins, 2001.

Cook, Timothy J. Architects of Catholic Culture: Designing and Building Catholic Culture in Catholic Schools. Washington, D.C: National Catholic Educational Association, 2001.

Congregation for Catholic Education. The Catholic School. Rome: Congregation for Catholic Education, 1977.

Domfeh-Boateng, Joseph. “An Inquiry into the Selection and Spiritual Formation of Catholic Public School Lay Principals in Ghana.” PhD diss., New York: Fordham University, 2011.

Effah, Paul. “Ghana.” In African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook, edited by D. Teferra. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2003.

Graham, Charles K. The History of Education in Ghana: From the Earliest Times to the Declaration of Independence. New York: Taylor & Francis, 1971.

Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference. A Pastoral Letter on Education. Accra, Ghana: Ghana Catholic Bishops’ Conference, 2008.

Greenleaf, Robert K. Servant Leadership. New York: Paulist Press, 1977.

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_____. Servant Leadership: A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness (25th Anniversary edition). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 2001.

Groome, Thomas H. “What Makes a School Catholic?” In The Contemporary Catholic School: Context, Identity, and Diversity, edited by T. H. McLaughlin, J. O’Keefe, and B. O’Keefe. Washington, DC: Palmer, 2000.

Howard, Ann. “Best Practices in Leader’s Selection.” In Practices of Leadership: De-

veloping the Next Generation of Leaders, edited by J. A. Conger and R. E. Riggio, 11-40. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2007.

Kelleher, Patricia. “The Faith Formation of Catholic High School Administrators:

The Unique Role of the Laity.” PhD diss. Dayton, OH: University of Dayton, 2000.

Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998.

_____. Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Olivier, Jill, and Quentin Wodon. “Faith-inspired Education in Historical Perspective: A Historical Case Example.” Review of Faith & International Affairs 12, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 27-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2014.918751 .

Nuzzi, Ronald J. “Catholic identity.” In Ten Years of Research, 1990—2000, edited by T. C. Hunt, E. A. Joseph and R. J. Nuzzi. Washington, D.C: National Catholic Educational Association, 2004.

Palmer, Parker J. “Leading from Within: Out of the Shadow into Light.” In Spirit at Work: Discovering the Spirituality in Leadership, edited by J. A. Conger. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1994.

Pasadino, Lorraine. “The Charismatic Core of Lay Leaders.” PhD diss. New York: Fordham University, 1993.

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Patton, Michael Q. Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods Integrating Theory and Practice. 4th edition. Saint Paul, MN: SAGE Publications, 2014.

Punnachet, Theresa K. “Catholic Servant-Leadership: Going Beyond the Secular Paradigm.” International Studies in Catholic Education 1, no. 2 (2009), 117-134. https://doi.org/10.1080/19422530903137921.

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versation on Catholic Education, edited by J. Staud. South Bend, IN: Alliance for Catholic Education Press, 2008.

Wodon, Quentin. Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism, Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

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QUENTIN WODON

Decline in Student Enrollment, Parental Willingness to Consider Catholic Schools, and Sources of Comparative Advantage in the United States

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INTRODUCTION

nrollment in Catholic schools in the United States has been declining for more than half a century. In 1965, 5.2 million children were enrolled in

Catholic schools nationally. According to the National Catholic Education

Association,1 only 1.7 million students are currently enrolled. There was a small gain in 2021-2022 versus the previous year, but the previous year enrollment de-

creased by 6.4% because of the COVID-19 pandemic. This was one the largest declines in 50 years.

There is a risk that enrollment may decline further in the future. While there is dissatisfaction with public schools among some parents,2 broad societal trends are not favorable for enrollment growth in Catholic schools. Lower fertility rates, including a dip during the COVID-19 pandemic which may affect enrollment in a

few years, together with more restrictive immigration policies may lead to a reduction in the number of school-age children.3 This may affect enrollment trends in

most types of schools. In addition, the share of adults in the population identifying as Christians is declining. Even if most of this decline is observed among Protes-

tant denominations as opposed to Catholics,4 this may still affect Catholic schools. Finally, the pricing disadvantage faced by Catholic and other faith-based schools

versus public and charter schools—i.e., the fact that faith-based schools must cover

most of their operating costs through tuition—is likely to persist for some time, unless faith-based charter schools were to be allowed to operate.

The enrollment trends for Catholic schools in the United States are in sharp contrast with trends in the rest of the world. Globally, enrollment in Catholic schools 1 2

3 4

National Catholic Educational Association, Data Brief: 2021-2022 Catholic School Enrollment (Washington, DC: NCEA, 2022). See the articles in the national press by Shawn Hubler, “With Plunging Enrollment, a ‘Seismic Hit’ to Public Schools,” New York Times (May 17, 2022) and Scott Calvert and Ben Chapman, “Schools See Big Drop in Attendance as Students Stay Away, Citing COVID-19,” Wall Street Journal (January 12, 2022). For projections, see National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, 2019 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2021). Gregory A. Smith, “About Three in Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated” (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2021), https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/12/14/about-threein-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiously-unaffiliated.

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more than doubled from 1975 to 2020 thanks in large part to gains in sub-Saharan

Africa.5 In many high-income Western countries, enrollment has remained steady, and in countries where enrollment has declined, losses have been smaller than in the United States. The decline of K12 (kindergarten to high school) Catholic education in the United States is unique. Catholic schools in the country face struc-

tural disadvantages that are hard to overcome, but other religious schools also face these constraints and have fared better.

What could be done to stem the decline in K12 Catholic education while con-

tinuing to fulfill the mission of the schools? If the answer to this question were straightforward, it would already have been answered, and the decline would per-

haps have been stemmed. While there are no easy answers, the good news is that according to market research data collected by Foundations and Donors Interested

in Catholic Activities and the National Catholic Educational Association,6 many

more parents would be “very willing” to consider Catholic schools for their chil-

dren in comparison to the parents who have enrolled their children in the schools. But to convince some of those parents on the fence that Catholic schools could

be right for their children, Catholic schools need to make their case better. In this

article, three sources of comparative advantage for Catholic schools are suggested. These sources are by no means the only assets that Catholic schools have, but they seem to have been overlooked, hence it may be useful to mention them.

The article is structured as follows. To provide context, a review of some of the

factors that may have contributed to the decline in enrollment is first provided in the next section. Next, the analysis explores market research data to assess parental willingness to consider Catholic schools. The last section suggests three potential sources of comparative advantage for Catholic schools that have remained relative-

ly untapped and could perhaps help convince more parents to send their children to Catholic schools. A conclusion follows. 5 6

Quentin Wodon, Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism, Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021). FADICA and NCEA, The Catholic School Choice: Understanding the Perspectives of Parents and Opportunities for More Engagement (Washington, DC: FADICA and NCEA, 2018), https://publications.fadica.org/main/Publications/tabid/101/ProdID/70/Catholic_School_Choice_Understanding_the_Perspectives_of_Parents_and_Opportunities_for_More_Engagement.aspx. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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FACTORS LEADING TO THE DECLINE IN ENROLLMENT Much has been written about the collapse in enrollment in Catholic schools in

the United States, but for readers of this Journal, many of whom may not be based

in the country, a reminder of some of the factors that contributed to that collapse may be useful. Three main factors are reviewed: the lack of affordability of Catholic schools, a weakening of the perception of academic excellence of the schools, and secularization.

Lack of Affordability One of the most important factors contributing to lower enrollment in Catholic schools is the issue of the lack of affordability of the schools given a lack of federal and state support. In most Western countries, the state funds Catholic schools, at

least partially. In the United States, despite the emergence of voucher programs, Catholic schools by and large do not benefit from public funding to any substantial extent. This lack of public funding combined with rising operating costs due to a

declining share of members of religious congregations in the staff of schools (less than 3% of staff today are religious) have led to increases in tuition.

Data from the National Catholic Educational Association suggest that the since

the early 2000s, the average annual tuition cost for students in Catholic schools

has been rising at a rate well above that of inflation. For example, in the 2017-2018 school year, tuition costs reached $4,841 at the elementary level and $11,239 at

the secondary level, versus respectively $1,787 and $4,100 in 2000-2001.7 While

children from disadvantaged families may receive tuition assistance from schools, the increase in tuition still threatens affordability for many.

The affordability issue has been exacerbated by the current pandemic. The pan-

demic has led to large losses in learning in all schools, but in addition, Catholic

On operating costs of Catholic schools and tuition, see National Catholic Educational Association, The Annual Financial Report: Catholic Elementary and Secondary Schools in the United States 2017-18 (Washington, DC: National Catholic Education Association, 2018).

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schools themselves have been affected.8 In the United States, more than 30 million individuals lost their jobs in just the first few weeks of the crisis. Despite substan-

tial gains since then, employment is still at lower levels at the time of publication of this article than when the pandemic started. Today, as new crises have emerged (e.g., a substantial increase in inflation that threatens standards of living and the

implications of the war in Ukraine), many parents may feel uncertainty as to their ability to afford tuition.

The pricing disadvantage faced by Catholic schools in comparison to public and

charter schools is large. Estimates suggest that public education spending in the

United States was at $14,455 per pupil annually in 2019 for K12 students—from kindergarten to the end of secondary school.9 Most of this funding is provided by

state and local governments. In comparison, funding provided at the federal level

is at only 7% of total public funding for the sector. Catholic schools, by contrast, must raise most of their revenues from private sources—through tuition mainly, as well as charitable donations.

Catholic schools have long tried to contain operating costs. Teachers in Catholic

schools tend to earn less on average than teachers in public schools. This is a testament to the teachers’ commitment to the schools, but they still must be paid living wages. Unfortunately, as enrollment has dropped, some schools may have become smaller, which may lead to higher tuition since teacher and overhead costs are then

spread among a smaller number of children in each school. There are some options to reduce overhead costs in the future, including by moving from the traditional

model of the stand-alone parish school to a model with groups of schools working

together and sharing back-office functions. Apart from reducing costs, this could have a range of other benefits, including for better teacher professional develop-

ment. But even if Catholic schools are often less expensive for parents than other private schools, tuition will remain an issue for many families. 8

For a review of the impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on Catholic schools and their students in the United States, see Quentin Wodon, “COVID-19 Crisis, Impacts on Catholic Schools, and Potential Responses, Part I: Developed Countries with Focus on the United States,” Journal of Catholic Education 23, no. 1 (Spring 2020): 13-50, http://dx.doi.org/10.15365/joce.2301022020. See https://educationdata.org/public-education-spending-statistics. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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One way to reduce tuition is to raise philanthropic donations, but Catholic schools compete for such donations with other causes—including with other organizations affiliated with the Church that provide social services. These needs often take precedent and are likely to increase given the current economic context.

What about public funding? More than half of states plus the District of Columbia

have adopted legislation to provide opportunities for children from disadvantaged

backgrounds to enroll in private schools, including Catholic schools. This had led to the schools being able to rely on a modicum of public funding. Yet funding for

these programs remains small, so that the share of Catholic school revenues coming from them is also small. Furthermore, the issue of whether the rise of charter

schools is a positive development remains very much debated, and the possibility

(which may depend on Supreme Court rulings) of faith-based schools to operate charter schools in the future is likely to be even more debated.

The affordability issue has however played out in different ways in different con-

texts for Catholic and other faith-based schools. While enrollment declined in Catholic schools in the 1990s and 2000s, it increased in many other types of religious schools and in private schools.10 It could be that private schools were at least

in part shielded from the affordability issue because parents choosing these schools tend to have higher levels of income (income inequality has risen and incomes in

the top part of the distribution have grown). But the difference in fortunes between

Catholic and other religious schools is more puzzling and would warrant more

research. One explanation could relate to the location of many Catholic schools. As many schools operated in cities, they were affected by the flight of the middle

class to the suburbs and by competition from emerging charter schools. This may have been the case especially in low-income urban areas where Catholic schools experienced large losses in enrollment. Today more children are enrolled in charter schools in the United States than in Catholic schools.

10 Richard J. Murnane and Sean F. Reardon, “Who Goes to Private School? Long-term Trends in Private School Enrollments by Family Income,” AERA Open 4, no. 1 (January 2018), https://doi. org/10.1177/2332858417751355. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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Weakened Perception of Excellence Another factor that may have led to a reduction in enrollment is a potential weakening of the perception of Catholic schools as academically excellent. Many Catholic schools continue to be excellent, and many schools market themselves in part

based on this excellence. Yet in relative terms, the question remains debated as to whether Catholic schools are on average today better academically than public or

other private schools. If this is not the case especially for the well-to-do who can

more easily afford the tuition required to enroll a child in a Catholic school, the ability of the schools to maintain or increase their enrollment based on a claim to academic excellence may be limited.

At the risk of simplifying the literature,11 one could argue that there may indeed

be a benefit of enrolling in Catholic schools for some students in terms of their educational attainment (i.e., completing high school and going to college), but the benefits are less clear for measures of student performance such as test scores. In

addition, the literature suggests that after controlling for student characteristics

and self-selection, (1) the academic benefits from attending Catholic schools may

not necessarily be large; and (2) the benefits may be observed mostly for low-in-

come or otherwise disadvantaged students. This is very encouraging for the mission of Catholic schools to serve those at the periphery, but not so great for efforts to stem the decline in enrollment given that those students’ families may not have the means to afford the schools.

To illustrate this (admittedly broad-brush) summary of findings from the litera-

ture, consider the data on student performance from the National Assessment of

Educational Performance. These data have suggested for many years that students in Catholic schools perform better on average than students in public schools. Yet

there are two caveats. First, differences in performance are not very large and they

tend decrease when controlling for the characteristics of the students enrolled (i.e., part of the differences in performance are due to differences in the characteristics 11 For a more detailed discussion, see Quentin Wodon, “Heterogeneity in Parental Priorities for What Children Should Learn in Schools and Potential Implications for the Future of Catholic Schools,” Journal of Catholic Education 23, no. 1 (Spring 2022), forthcoming. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Quentin Wodon | 101

of the students who enroll in Catholic versus public schools). Second, there are few

differences among students who perform well. The main differences are in terms of

a smaller share of students in Catholic schools who do not meet proficiency levels.

This is again great for the mission of Catholic schools to serve the less fortunate, but not for enrollment growth.

Some readers may be surprised to hear that on average, students in Catholic schools may not perform much better than students in public schools. Many Catholic

schools still retain a perception of academic excellence, but cracks may be appear-

ing. The market research data12 used in this article reached six conclusions, three of which relate to academic excellence: (1) most parents are well-informed, savvy con-

sumers looking for schools that will position their child for success in college and beyond; (2) while many parents view Catholic schools positively, they worry that a greater emphasis may be placed on religious instruction than academics, which could put their child at a disadvantage; (3) in particular, Catholic schools are seen

as not sufficiently emphasizing science and technology and as lacking diversity in their student body, both of which may again affect their children negatively. Secularization Secularization has also been mentioned as a factor leading to the decline in en-

rollment. As noted in the latest Pew Research Center study on this topic, in 2021 less than two thirds (63%) of the adult population identified as Christian, versus

78% in 200713. Most of the decline was concentrated among Protestants, but the

decline may still affect enrollment in Catholic schools. In proportion to base values in 2007, the drop in the share of the adult population praying daily decreased even

more, but the largest drop in proportion to base values was for the share of adults considering religion as very important in their life. That share dropped from 56% to 41%, a drop of more than one fourth of the base value in 14 years. Apart from

these broad trends towards secularization, the sex abuse scandal that has affected

the Catholic Church especially in the Northeastern part of the country may also have contributed to lower enrollment in Catholic schools.

12 FADICA and NCEA, The Catholic School Choice. 13 Smith, “About Three in Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated.” VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

102 | Decline in Student Enrollment, Parental Willingness to Consider Catholic Schools, and Sources of Comparative Advantage in the United States

There may be some untapped opportunities, however. The growing share of the

Latinx population has long been heralded as such an opportunity, and it may ex-

plain why the share of Catholics in the adult population has remained relatively steady in comparison to the losses observed for Protestant denominations. Still, for this opportunity to be materialized through higher enrollment, efforts by Catholic

schools will be required to reach out and provide cost effective option for enroll-

ment since many Latinx families do not have levels of income that make Catholic schools affordable for them.

A broader question is how the focus on faith formation in Catholic schools is per-

ceived in the population. For parents with their children enrolled in Catholic schools, there is support for current practices. But for the much larger group of parents who

may be interested in the schools and for the overall population, perceptions may be different. The other three conclusions of the market research study mentioned earli-

er14 suggest the following: (1) while many parents do want their children to develop strong morals and good values, they worry that Catholic school teachings may be too

rigid and prevent children from considering other points of view; (2) not surprisingly, parents are concerned about tuition costs in Catholic schools—the affordability

issue; and finally (3) marketing materials focusing on religious instruction would

probably not help to increase enrollment. This does not mean that Catholic schools should abandon their evangelical mission, but it suggests that they may need to

carefully think about how to implement this mission in today’s societal environment.

REASONS FOR HOPE: PARENTAL WILLINGNESS TO CONSIDER CATHOLIC SCHOOLS The previous section suggests that multiple factors may have contributed to the long-term decline in enrollment in Catholic schools in the United States. Yet one

reason for hope for the future is that many more parents are willing to consider Catholic schools in comparison to the share of parents with their (youngest) child enrolled in the schools.

14 FADICA and NCEA, The Catholic School Choice. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Quentin Wodon | 103

To show that this is the case, consider the market research data already mentioned collected in 2017 for NCEA by Mayhill Strategies with support from the Cath-

olic Education Philanthropy Working Group, FADICA, and the Philanthropy Roundtable. The report published on the data is available online.15 It combines quantitative survey-based analysis and focus groups. In what follows, the quanti-

tative data are used for secondary analysis to assess how Catholic schools fare in

comparison to other types of schools in terms of parental willingness to consider the schools for their (youngest) child. The brief secondary analysis for this article

was conducted by the author using the unit (respondent) level data from the survey that was made available to the author by NCEA.

A total of 1,403 adult respondents responded to the survey. Respondents participated in the survey online, but survey weights were adjusted to lead to a national-

ly representative sample since potential target groups for enrollment in Catholic schools were oversampled (chiefly, adults from Hispanic or Latino background; see the report for details) and online responses may lead to bias if some groups respond more than others. Details on how the survey was conducted are available in the market research report. A very useful feature of the survey is that many questions

on perceptions towards schools are asked for six different types of schools: (1)

public schools (owned, operated, and funded by states); (2) charter schools (owned and funded by states, but privately operated); (3) magnet schools (public schools

for highly talented students); (4) private secular schools; (5) Catholic schools; and (6) other religious schools.

As suggested in Figure 1, from the point of view of boosting or at least keeping enrollment steady, questions in the surveys can be used to assess perceptions of Catholic and other schools in a three-step logical framework based on questions

asked in the market research survey. First, adults are asked how favorable their

perceptions of Catholic and other schools are. If adults do not see a type of schools favorably, it is unlikely that they will consider this type of schools for their chil-

dren. Next parents are asked if they would be willing to consider Catholic or other

schools for their youngest child. Finally, we know in the survey if parents chose 15

FADICA and NCEA, The Catholic School Choice.

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Catholic of other schools for their youngest child or another child. Analysis of

these three sequential questions provides a useful framework for thinking about

how to market Catholic schools to parents, and how large the potential market may be.

Figure 1: Thought Process for the Decision to Enroll One’s Children in a Specific Type of School

Source: Author16

In terms of favorability, respondents could rate their perceptions of various types of schools as very favorable, favorable, unfavorable, and very unfavorable, or state that

they never heard about the schools or did not know enough to respond.17 It turns

out that in the population (the sample consists mostly of parents, but other adults are also included), traditional public schools have the highest shares of favorable

ratings, and correspondingly the lowest shares of unfavorable ratings. The other

five types of schools have similar favorable ratings, but Catholic and other religious schools have a comparatively higher share of very unfavorable and somewhat unfavorable ratings. Still, even for Catholic and other religious schools, the proportion of (very or somewhat) favorable ratings is larger than the proportion of (very or somewhat) unfavorable ratings.

16 The figure is adapted with minor changes from Wodon, “Declining Enrollment in Catholic Schools in the West and Insights from the United States,” Journal of Catholic Education 24, no. 1 (Spring 2021): 285-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.15365/joce.2401182021. 17 Analysis of favorability ratings is provided in Wodon, “Declining Enrollment in Catholic Schools.” JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Quentin Wodon | 105

Results are similar for the willingness of parents to consider various types of schools

for their youngest child. The question asked to parents is: “How willing, if at all, are you to consider sending your child to one of the following types of school for

grades K-12 in your area in the future?” This question is asked only to the sub-

set of respondents who have children, and specifically for their youngest child. Respondents may respond that they are very willing, somewhat willing, somewhat

unwilling, or very unwilling to send their youngest child to various types of schools, with again an additional modality if they never heard about the schools or did not know enough to comment.

Table 1 provides the shares of respondents by category and by type of schools. Public schools have higher proportions of respondents very willing (43.7%) or somewhat willing (34.9%) to enroll their children in the schools, and lower propor-

tions of respondents stating that they do not know enough to answer the question. Religious schools, whether Catholic or not, again score lowest. The response rates indicating a willingness to consider private, charter, and magnet schools are broadly

similar, although private schools have a lower share of respondents declaring not

knowing enough to respond. The shares of parents willing to consider Catholic

and other religious schools is lower than for the other types of schools. This is not surprising. As mentioned earlier, according to the Pew Research Center,18 the share

of Americans who state being Catholic has remained relatively stable over time

and was estimated at 21% in 2021, but the share of Protestants has been declining, falling to 40% in 2021 from 52% in 2007. The share of adults not affiliated with any religion increased from 16% to 29% over the same period.

At the same time, the share of parents “very willing” to consider Catholic schools, at 27.1%, is much higher than the current market share of Catholic schools, estimated based on administrative data at less than five percent nationally for primary

(elementary) schools and less than three percent at the secondary level (in the mar-

ket research survey, the share of students in Catholic schools is a bit higher at 6%). Being willing to consider Catholic schools and enrolling one’s child in one of the schools are of course not the same thing. The actual decision to enroll depends on 18 Smith, “About Three in Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated.” VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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many considerations, including the out-of-pocket cost of schooling as mentioned earlier. But the fact that more than a quarter of parents are very willing to consider Catholic schools for their children is encouraging.19

Table 1: Willingness to Consider Enrolling Children by Type of School (%)

Source: Author’s estimation with FADICA-NCEA 2017 survey.

While this Journal is not the place to provide a detailed econometric analysis of some of the characteristics associated with parental willingness to consider Catholic schools for their children, a few findings from such an analysis are worth not-

ing.20 First, in comparison to respondents not affiliated with any religion, Catholics are substantially more likely to be willing to consider Catholic schools. In addi-

tion, parents who state that their faith is important to them and those attending 19 In previous work, I used these data to look at whether Catholic schools were viewed favorably or not by parents and at the heterogeneity in parental priorities for what children should learn in schools. In this article, the focus is related more directly to the competitive position of Catholic schools in terms of parents’ willingness to consider the schools for their children. As for favorability ratings, statistical analysis suggests a correlation between faith affiliation and whether parents are willing to consider Catholic schools for their children. The proportion of parents willing to consider Catholic schools is higher among Catholics, but many non-Catholics are also potentially interested in Catholic schools. 20 Results are available from the author. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Quentin Wodon | 107

religious services regularly are also more likely to be willing to consider Catholic schools. Finally, respondents who attended Catholic schools as children are also more likely to be willing to consider Catholic schools for their children.21

None of those findings is surprising and they point to the importance for Catholic

schools of transmitting the faith to students who are from Catholic families. However, another lesson from the market research data is that parents willing to consid-

er Catholic schools do not have on average the same set of priorities for what their children should learn in school in comparison to parents with their children already enrolled in Catholic schools. Respondents in the survey were asked to choose

three priorities among a set of nine for what their children should learn in school. For parents with a child in a Catholic school, deepening the faith is important, but for parents very willing to consider Catholic schools but not having enrolled a child in one, deepening the faith is not a key priority.22 Parents very willing to

consider Catholic schools but not having enrolled their child in one place a higher

weight on readiness for college and the labor market than parents with their child in Catholic school. What are the potential implications of this result? Catholic

schools should not sacrifice their identity for the sake of attracting more students, but they need to think carefully about balancing priorities—such as emphasizing

values apart from faith. This could help attract more students, and a more diverse student body, which could be beneficial for the students apart from stemming the decline in enrollment.

THREE UNTAPPED SOURCES OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE Providing a comprehensive discussion of what Catholic schools could do to stem

the long-term decline in enrollment and attract a larger share of parents “very will-

ing” to consider them is beyond the scope of this article. There is no magic bullet, 21 On the other hand, and again as expected, if parents who attended a Catholic school had a poor experience in Catholic schools when they were children, an even larger marginal effect in the other direction is observed. 22 As discussed in Wodon, “Heterogeneity in Parental Priorities.” VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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but beyond the usual emphasis on academic excellence, faith formation, and values, perhaps a few additional suggestions can be made to tap into sources of compara-

tive advantage for Catholic schools that may have been neglected. In this section, three such sources of comparative advantage are explored. These three sources of comparative advantages are not meant to be exhaustive, but illustrative of some of the strengths that Catholic schools could tap into. Engaging Catholic Education Alumni23 While Catholic universities in the United States have a long tradition of engaging alumni, alumni support remains largely untapped for K12 schools. And yet, this

potential has never been greater than today simply because after five decades of

declining enrollment, the US is an outlier in terms of the ratio of Catholic school alumni to the number of students currently enrolled. Engaging just a fraction of these alumni could make a large difference.

Global and regional estimates of the number of alumni from Catholic primary

and secondary education can be computed based on past enrollment data. There are assumptions involved, hence estimates are only tentative. But for the ratio of

alumni to current students, the story is clear: North America, which in practice means the United States since enrollment is much smaller in Canada, has by far the largest ratio of alumni to current students in Catholic schools. Due to the decline

in enrollment observed for half a century, the ratio of alumni per student in North America is at more than twice the level observed globally.

Engaging these alumni already makes a difference. In the United States, philanthropic giving accounts for less than one percent of the cost of operating (pub-

lic) schools.24 In Catholic schools, philanthropy contributes more when subsidies and grants from parishes are included in the estimation. This is in part because

each year collections for Catholic schools are implemented in parishes, and many 23 This section is shortened and adapted from Quentin Wodon, “Catholic K12 Education Alumni: A Unique, Yet Mostly Untapped Resource,” Momentum (Late Fall 2021): 30-32. 24 Frederick M. Hess, The State of Education Philanthropy (Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 2019). https://www.aei.org/articles/the-state-of-education-philanthropy/. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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parishioners contribute during Catholic Schools Week. Still, the share of funding from philanthropy is very low.

Yet funding is only part of the story as alumni could contribute in many other

ways. For example, some alumni may be willing to serve in tutoring programs that often have positive effects on student performance. Even if the effects of tutoring programs are found to be stronger on average for tutoring by teacher and parapro-

fessional than by volunteers, alumni could really help, especially in the early grades when tutoring is most effective.

While tutoring is especially effective in the early grades, other modes of alumni engagement can be beneficial for high school students. This includes career fairs

where alumni share their experience and their passion. College fairs may also be useful for recent alumni to share insights about their college experience and how

to get into specific colleges. As mentioned earlier, preparing students for college

and the labor market are high priorities among parents willing to consider Catholic schools. Alumni can help and engaging them is not rocket science. Tools can be

used for reaching out and finding how they would like to be engaged. As just one

recent example, public schools in San Diego carried a formative study of efforts to increase alumni engagement that is a useful read25. Investing in Socio-emotional Skills26 Catholic schools—and the Pope himself—have long decried an excessive emphasis placed by school systems on student performance as measured by standardized as-

sessments. Beyond cognitive skills, research suggests that five core skills related to social and emotional learning (SEL) enable success at school and in life: self-aware-

ness, self-management, social-awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision

making.27 Given their mission and values, many Catholic schools already embrace SEL, but some schools could do better. There is no trade-off here as research shows 25 Susan Yonezawa et al., The Educational Value of Alumni for Public High Schools (San Diego: Yankelovich Center for Social Science Research, University of California San Diego, 2019). 26 This section is shortened and adapted from Molly McMahon and Quentin Wodon, “Investing in Socio-emotional Skills: Natural for Catholic Schools, But Still More Needed than Ever,” Momentum (Winter 2022): 42-44. 27 See the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL) at https://casel.org/. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

110 | Decline in Student Enrollment, Parental Willingness to Consider Catholic Schools, and Sources of Comparative Advantage in the United States

that socio-emotional skills can be learned28 and can also improve cognitive skills. Investing in SEL can be done through available resources29 or through school-

developed lessons. This is not a matter of adding an extra class on SEL per week to the curriculum, but rather to weave SEL through the whole curriculum, reinforce

progress when students demonstrate an acquisition of those skills, and provide

support when this is not the case. One particular framework used for SEL in the United States is the Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports.30 This pro-

social approach helps students to understand norms for their school and their community, with competencies to be acquired defined by grade.

The main rationale to teach SEL to students is not economic: it is to help students become well-rounded adults who can contribute to their family, community and

society. But as mentioned earlier, many parents pay attention when choosing a school to the ability of the school to prepare their children for college and the labor market. This was one of the conclusions of the market research mentioned

earlier. The good news is that SEL interventions may have high returns. A recent

study from the World Bank on ending violence in schools includes a brief review of SEL programs.31 Acquisition of socio-emotional skills often leads to gains in well-being, positive attitudes, and pro-social behavior, reductions in risky behaviors such as violence and substance abuse, and improvements in academic per-

formance, all of which can lead to success in adulthood in the labor market. In secondary schools, approaches such as cognitive behavioral training have proven effective for at risk adolescents. Interventions can also be implemented to prevent

dating violence and help adolescents to build and maintain healthy relationships. After-school programs that combine recreational activities and academic support

28 Linda Darling-Hammond and Channa Cook-Harvey, Educating the Whole Child: Improving School Climate to Support Student Success (Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute, 2018). 29 See for example https://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/pages/navigating-social-and-emotional-learning-from-the-inside-out.aspx. 30 See https://www.pbis.org/. 31 Quentin Wodon et al., Ending Violence in Schools: An Investment Case (Washington, DC: The World Bank and Global Partnership to End Violence against Children, 2021) JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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may reduce violence, as is the case for programs designed to reduce bullying.32A synthesis of cost-benefit analyses of SEL and related interventions suggests that many interventions generate larger benefits than their costs.

Anecdotal evidence also suggests benefits from SEL for staff.33 Teachers may prog-

ress in their own emotional awareness, empathy, perspective taking and meaningful conflict resolution. With both students and teachers benefiting, this may transform the entire culture of a school. This happened in some schools during the

COVID-19 pandemic as teachers started to reach out more to parents to find out what families needed rather than filling in a narrative about parents’ lack of involvement.

Establishing Global Connections Finally, a third source of comparative advantage for Catholic schools that often

remains untapped is the possibility of establishing global connections. Catholic

schools operate in most countries of the world, with 35 million students enrolled at the primary level, and 19 million at the secondary level according to the latest statistics from the Vatican.34 Because schools in different countries share a common ethos, there are a wide range of opportunities for students in the United States

to learn and exchange views with students in other countries—including simply by Zoom or other forms of digital connectivity. This can also be done by public schools, but perhaps less naturally.

As a recent example of initiative tapping into this potential for global connections, the International Office of Catholic Education recently launched a “Planet Frater-

nity” project to facilitate connections across schools. Students in a school in one country work together with students and a partner school from another country on 32 On the economic benefits of SEL programs in comparison to their costs, see Clive A. Belfield et al., “The Economic Value of Social and Emotional Learning,” Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis 6, no. 3 (December 2015): 508-544, https://doi.org/10.1017/bca.2015.55. 33 McMahon and Wodon, “Investing in Socio-emotional Skills.” 34 Secretariat of State of the Vatican, Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2020 / Statistical Yearbook of the Church 2020 / Annuaire Statistique de l’Eglise 2020 (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2022). See also Quentin Wodon, Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism, Learning Poverty, and the Right to Education (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021). VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

112 | Decline in Student Enrollment, Parental Willingness to Consider Catholic Schools, and Sources of Comparative Advantage in the United States

themes related to Pope Francis’ encyclicals (especially Laudato Si’ and Fratelli Tutti) and the United Nations’ 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). English is used

as a common language. The project builds on online resources created by professionals to build commitments towards fraternal humanism and safeguarding the

common home.35 During the school year, a different topic is explored each month to structure exchanges of views between students. These themes relate to the various SDGs (e.g., providing quality education for all; ending extreme poverty; en-

suring good health and wellbeing; protecting the planet; and reducing inequalities). The project started recently, but already 2,400 students from 15 countries are participating. This type of initiatives could easily be scaled up and could help students

in Catholic schools better understand the world and create bonds of fraternity with students in other countries, while also strengthening their own identity.

CONCLUSION Enrollment in Catholic schools in the United States has been declining for half a century. Broad societal trends, including a process of secularization, a lack of affordability of Catholic schools, and the risk of a weakening of the perception of their academic excellence are not encouraging for future enrollment. At the same

time, there is hope since recent market research suggests that many parents who have not enrolled their children in a Catholic school would be “very willing” to

consider doing so. Attracting those parents may require some adjustments and

flexibility, for example for tuition payments for families that suffered from income losses due to the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath. But Catholic schools also have comparative advantages that they should build upon.

It is often recognized that Catholic schools need to strive to be excellent academically speaking. It is also clear that they need to transmit the faith, especially for

students who are Catholic themselves. Finally, they need to promote strong values

among students. In addition, to improve the lived experience of students in school, 35 Lecomte, Hervé, “Point sur le Projet Planète Fraternité de l’OIEC,” Educatio Si Bulletin, No. 11 (Fall 2021): 17-18. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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this article has suggested that the schools could perhaps also tap into sources of

comparative advantages that have been somewhat neglected. Three such sources of comparative advantage have been suggested: (i) engaging the large number

of Catholic education alumni in comparison to the number of students enrolled;

(ii) strengthening the emphasis on socio-emotional learning across the curriculum; and (iii) building global connections. These are but three ideas, and many other suggestions could be made to tackle the challenges faced by Catholic schools in the

United States. But while there is no magic bullet to stem the decline in enrollment, a stronger emphasis on those three comparative advantages could perhaps help, at least a little bit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Belfield, Clive, A. Brooks Bowden, Alli Klapp, Henry Levin, Robert Shand, and Sabine Zander. “The Economic Value of Social and Emotional Learning.”

Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis 6, no. 3 (December 2015): 508 - 544. https:// doi.org/10.1017/bca.2015.55.

Calvert, Scott and Ben Chapman. “Schools See Big Drop in Attendance as Students Stay Away, Citing COVID-19.” Wall Street Journal ( January 12, 2022).

Darling-Hammond, Linda and Channa Cook-Harvey. Educating the Whole Child: Improving School Climate to Support Student Success. Palo Alto, CA: Learning

Policy Institute, 2018.

FADICA and NCEA. The Catholic School Choice: Understanding the Perspectives

of Parents and Opportunities for More Engagement. Washington, DC: FADICA and NCEA, 2018. https://publications.fadica.org/main/Publications/tabid/101/ProdID/70/Catholic_School_Choice_Understanding_the_Perspectives_of_Parents_and_Opportunities_for_More_Engagement.aspx

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Hess, Frederick M. “The State of Education Philanthropy.” Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, March 18, 2019. https://www.aei.org/articles/ the-state-of-education-philanthropy/.

Hubler, Shawn. “With Plunging Enrollment, a ‘Seismic Hit’ to Public Schools.” New York Times, May 17, 2022.

Lecomte, Hervé. “Point sur le Projet Planète Fraternité de l’OIEC. ” Educatio Si Bulletin, no. 11 (Fall 2021): 17-18.

McMahon, Molly and Quentin Wodon. “Investing in Socio-emotional Skills: Natural for Catholic Schools, But Still More Needed than Ever.” Momentum (Winter 2022): 42-44.

Murnane, Richard J., and Sean F. Reardon. “Who Goes to Private School? Longterm Trends in Private School Enrollments by Family Income.” AERA Open 4,

no. 1 ( January 2018). https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858417751355.

National Center for Education Statistics. Digest of Education Statistics, 2019. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, 2021.

National Catholic Educational Association. The Annual Financial Report: Catholic

Elementary and Secondary Schools in the United States 2017-18. Washington, DC: National Catholic Education Association, 2018.

_____. Data Brief: 2021-2022 Catholic School Enrollment. Washington, DC: NCEA, 2022.

Smith, Gregory A. “About Three in Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated.” Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2021.

Secretariat of State of the Vatican. Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2020 / Statistical

Yearbook of the Church 2020 / Annuaire Statistique de l’Eglise 2020. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2022.

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Wodon, Quentin. “Catholic Schools in the United States: Basic Diagnostic of Trends in Enrollment and Student Achievement.” International

Journal of Education Law and Policy 14 (2018): 37-52.

_____. “COVID-19 Crisis, Impacts on Catholic Schools, and Potential Responses, Part I: Developed Countries with Focus on the United States.” Journal

of Catholic Education 23, no. 1 (2020): 13-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.15365/ joce.2301022020.

_____. Global Catholic Education Report 2021: Education Pluralism, Learning

Poverty, and the Right to Education. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

_____. “Declining Enrollment in Catholic Schools in the West and Insights from the United States.” Journal of Catholic Education 24, no. 1 (2021): 285-299. http://dx.doi.org/10.15365/joce.2401182021. _____.

“Catholic

K12

Education

Alumni:

Unique,

Untapped Resource.” Momentum (Late Fall 2021): 30-32.

Yet

Mostly

_____. “Heterogeneity in Parental Priorities for What Children Should Learn in Schools and Potential Implications for the Future of Catholic Schools.” Journal of Catholic Education 23, no. 1 (2022): forthcoming.

Wodon, Quentin, Chloë Fèvre, Chata Malé, Ada Nayihouba, and Hoa Nguyen. Ending Violence in Schools: An Investment Case. Washington, DC: The World Bank and the Global Partnership to End Violence against Children, 2021.

Yonezawa, Susan, Magalí Murià, Damian Ruiz, Darian Beckstrand, and Ryan Jimenez. The Educational Value of Alumni for Public High Schools. San Diego:

Yankelovich Center for Social Science Research, University of California San Diego, 2019.

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QUENTIN WODON

Responding to Pope Francis’ Call for a Global Compact on Education: Insights from Interviews for the Global Catholic Education Project

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INTRODUCTION

he idea of a Global Compact on Education was first suggested by Pope Francis in September 2019. The Pope announced plans for a meeting to be

held in May 2020 to “rekindle our dedication for and with young people,

renewing our passion for a more open and inclusive education.”1 He believed in the

need “to unite our efforts in a broad educational alliance, to form mature individ-

uals capable of overcoming division and antagonism, and to restore the fabric of relationships for the sake of a more fraternal humanity.”2

The meeting was postponed to October 2020 and held virtually due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In his video message for that virtual event, Pope Francis

reminded us that “to educate is always an act of hope, one that calls for cooperation in turning a barren and paralyzing indifference into another way of thinking that recognizes our interdependence… We consider education to be one of the most

effective ways of making our world and history more human. Education is above all a matter of love and responsibility handed down from one generation to another.”3 A year later in October 2021, in a meeting held at the Vatican with other religious

leaders on World Teachers’ Day, the Pope further noted that “our religious traditions, which have always played a leading role in schooling, from teaching literacy

to higher education, reaffirm their mission of integrally educating each individual: head, hands, heart and soul. [...] The beauty and harmony of what it is to be fully human.”4

As part of the idea of a Global Compact on Education, the Pope has suggested a set of seven practical commitments for educators, communities, or even societies. These commitments were not related solely to education provided in formal settings: they referred broadly to “every educational program, both formal and 1 2 3 4

Francis, Message of his Holiness Pope Francis for the Launch of the Global Compact on Education (Rome: The Vatican, 2019). Francis, Message for the Launch... Francis, Video Message of His Holiness Pope Francis on the Occasion of the Meeting Organized by the Congregation for Catholic Education “Global Compact on Education: Together to Look Beyond” (Rome: Pontifical Lateran University, 2020). Francis, Message from Pope Francis for the Meeting with Representatives of Religions on the Theme “Religions and Education: Towards a Global Compact on Education (Rome: The Vatican, 2021).

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informal.” The seven commitments suggested by the Pope to renew our vision for education were: (1) to make human persons the center; (2) to listen to the voices

of children and young people; (3) to advance women; (4) to empower the family;

(5) to welcome; (6) to find new ways of understanding the economy and politics; and (7) to safeguard our common home. These commitments are a call for action at

the national, regional, and global levels, but they are also meant to guide the work of educators in their local communities. To inform this work, the Congregation

for Catholic Education published a Vademecum5 with a brief explanation of what

the each of the seven commitments entails, ideas for reflection, and suggestions for action.

While the idea of a Global Compact on Education is new, most of the commitments suggested by Pope Francis are likely to be familiar to readers. They are inspired by themes discussed in the Pope’s encyclicals (especially Laudato Si’6 and

Fratelli Tutti7); in several of his apostolic exhortations including Evangelii Gaud-

ium, Amoris Laetitia, Christus Vivit and Querida Amazonia; and more broadly in a long tradition of Catholic social thought.8

Educators, Catholic or not, have already put these or similar commitments in practice all over the world in one way or the other. Sharing stories about those experi-

ences can be helpful as challenges and opportunities faced by some can give ideas

to others. To illustrate what educators can do to implement the vision set by Pope Francis for the Global Compact on Education, this article shares examples of actions based on interviews conducted with education practitioners and leaders as

part of the Global Catholic Education (GCE) project. Most of the quotes included in the article come from these interviews, but occasionally other materials are

used as well. All interviews are available individually on the GCE project website.9 5 6 7 8 9

Congregation for Catholic Education, Global Compact on Education Vademecum (Rome: Congregation for Catholic Education, 2021). Francis, Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’ of the Holy Father Francis on Care for our Common Home (Rome: The Vatican, 2015). Francis, Encyclical Letter Fratelli Tutti of the Holy Father Francis on Fraternity and Social Friendship (Rome: The Vatican, 2020). For an analysis of Pope Francis’ conception of the role of education, see Luis Fernando Klein, How Does Francisco See Education? (Rome: CPAL and OIEC, 2021). “Interviews,” Global Catholic Education, https://www.globalcatholiceducation.org/interviews.. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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In addition, interviews are combined into thematic compilations when enough interviews on a topic are available to draw some broader insights.

Eight compilations of interviews have been completed or are nearing completion to-date.10 The first compilation completed in March 2021 focused on projects sup-

ported by the International Catholic Child Bureau for reaching children at risk. This included children in poverty, but also those facing the criminal justice system and children with disabilities.

The second compilation was completed for World Catholic Education Day in May 2021. It is broader in terms of the themes it considers, but of note is a subset of

interviews conducted with the Salesian Sisters of Saint John Bosco or FMA (Figlie

di Maria Ausiliatrice) sisters who manage a wide range of educational institutions especially for girls.

The third compilation was completed in June 2021 on Catholic education in Africa and the Middle East. It provides perspectives from national leaders and is espe-

cially relevant for efforts to welcome children from all faiths in countries where Catholics are a minority.

The fourth compilation was completed in July 2021 with Catholic economists working in North America. It provides insights into how teachers and researchers

live and practice their faith in their professional roles. (A separate collection is under way for other regions of the world.)

10 See Quentin Wodon, Ensuring a Bright Future for All Children: Interviews at the Frontline of Working with Children at Risk Globally (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021); Quentin Wodon, World Catholic Education Day 2021: Celebrating Educators and Working Together for the Global Compact on Education (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021); Quentin Wodon, Catholic Education in Africa and the Middle East: Perspectives from National Leaders (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021); Quentin Wodon, Values, Economics, and Catholic Social Thought: Interviews with Catholic Economists, Volume 1: North America (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021); Quentin Wodon, Research in Service of Catholic Education Practice: Interviews in Honor of Professor Gerald Grace (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022); Quentin Wodon, World Catholic Education Day 2022: Responding to the Call from Pope Francis - Seven Commitments for a Global Compact on Education (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022); Quentin Wodon, Science, Philosophy, and Theology in Dialogue: Interviews with Expanded Reason Award Recipients (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022); and Quentin Wodon, Digitalization in Education: Challenges and Opportunities (Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022).. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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The fifth compilation was completed in February 2022 on research in service of

Catholic education practice. It consists of interviews about the influential work

of Gerald Grace who recently retired from St. Mary’s University in Twickenham, London.

The sixth compilation was completed in April 2022. Through interviews with recipients of the Expanded Reason Awards, it explores a dialogue between philosophy, theology, and science.

The seventh compilation was completed in May 2022 for World Catholic Educa-

tion Day 2022. It includes a previous (draft) version of this article as well as seven interviews illustrating each of the seven commitments called for by Pope Francis under the Global Compact on Education.

The last compilation is forthcoming and focuses on some of the challenges and

opportunities emerging from digitalization in education. Other compilations are

being prepared, and completed interviews not yet included in a compilation are available online.11

The structure of this article follows the seven commitments outlined by Pope Francis for the Global Compact on Education, with one section devoted to each commitment. A brief conclusion follows.

1- TO MAKE HUMAN PERSONS THE CENTER In the Vademecum for the Global Compact, “to make human persons the center of every educational program, in order to foster their distinctiveness and their capacity for relationship with others against the spread of the throwaway culture,” the

Congregation for Catholic Education emphasizes the importance of an anthropological foundation for the vision of the person that informs education. The Congre-

gation also notes the importance of the Charter of Universal Human Rights12 and emphasizes the need to pay special attention to the most fragile. It further notes 11 Global Catholic Education, “Interviews.” 12 This refers to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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that integral formation should include attention to the spiritual dimension of the human person.

The mission of Catholic schools and universities is clearly articulated by the

researchers interviewed for the compilation in honor of Gerald Grace from St. Mary’s University. As Gerald Grace himself explains it, “Catholic schools are com-

mitted to forming young people in spiritual, moral and social ways, understanding the importance of working for the common good and for helping to build a better world. There are many research issues raised here.” However, he also notes that “In

many countries, the commitment to education for the poor is not being realized ef-

fectively because of school budget problems… More research [is needed] not only

into why this is happening but also, what new approaches … can begin to change this situation.”

Father Cristobal Madero, SJ, notes that “the work of Gerald Grace is fundamental for approaching the tension between Catholic schools benefiting from the rules of

the market and at the same time risking their identity because of that.” He adds

that “to be meaningful and helpful, Catholic schools in today’s society need to have

ministers, teachers, and leaders who conceive of the school and its role not only as a creator of social, economic, or cultural capital, but who also serve as mentors of spiritual capital.” John Lydon, Gerald Grace’s colleague at St. Mary’s University agrees: “the concept of ‘spiritual capital,’ defined… as ‘resources of faith derived

from a religious tradition,’ in my opinion, represents one of Professor Grace’s main contributions to research in Catholic education.”

In the curriculum of many Catholic schools, religious and moral education is one of the ways through which teachers explain to students the vision of the person

held by the Church. How this can be done in schools that welcome students from many faiths will be discussed later, but a particular finding that emerges from interviews conducted under the GCE project is worth mentioning. There is a need to

better train teachers and principals so that they are indeed able to share this vision of the person with students. This is not a theoretical exercise. As noted by Sister Josephine Garza, FMA, the principal of a school in Manila in the Philippines,

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There is a need to strengthen in the religious education program … conscience

and character formation and … commitment as active citizens… Many times, students have their heads filled with the doctrines of the faith, but their hearts and their hands remain underdeveloped… The faith they believe in is detached

from the life they actually live… Modeling service and community and parish involvement … becomes a strong lesson that teach the young about the school’s commitment … to promote justice and peace, care for creation.

The Congregation for Catholic Education calls for paying special attention to the most fragile. Centers for literacy (Centres pour l’alphabétisation) were created in Djibouti to serve children who were not in school and were too old to start prima-

ry school. The centers also welcome orphans, refugees, and children living in the street. As noted by Simone Pire, the Head of Catholic schools, a focused curriculum enables them over a period of three years to learn or improve their French

and, if they are not too old, take the state examination to pursue their education further. Some have gone all the way to the university. The most fragile also includes children with disabilities. A milestone was the opening of the School for All (école pour tous) to welcome some of these children. David lacked motor skills and used

to not talk, or would yell if upset. After one month in the school, he was able to use a pencil for the first time. He started to sing, learned the alphabet, and joined the classroom during mornings, while working on his motor skills in the afternoon. As his mother recounted,

He successfully integrated into the first-year class. He no longer has shifty

eyes, and he understands the instructions. He is no longer rowdy—the scream-

ing has really diminished… He points to objects. He manages … to follow rhythms. David knows how to dance!!! … I would like through this testimony

to pay a vibrant tribute to all the supervisory staff: the sisters, the mistresses. With very little means, they manage to satisfy our children. And the results are there. The fight goes on!”

Finding ways to welcome children with disabilities will take time, but pilot initia-

tives are showing the way. In Burkina Faso, Father Hubert Kiemde, the Secretary JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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General of Catholic Schools explains that for a decade, some schools have started to welcome students who are blind or deaf:

These are enormous challenges, but we are committed to also going to this

existential periphery and really opening our schools to children from all walks of life. People living with a disability are really left behind, and this should challenge us. We are happy to have given or give this school education to more than 300 children to date.

The emphasis placed by the Congregation for Catholic Education on the most fragile echoes the preferential option for the poor. Apart from the scourge of in-

come poverty, we also face a learning crisis. Even before the COVID-19 crisis, more than one in two children in low- and middle-income countries were learning poor according to the World Bank. 13 This means that they were not able to read

and understand a simple text by age 10. Making human persons the center requires

teachers to ensure that children learn in school. A great role model is Brother Peter Tabichi, a Franciscan science teacher in a public school in Kenya who won the Global Teacher Prize. Asked about how he taught in practice, he responded:

It is all about having confidence in the student. Every child has potential, a gift

or a talent. I try to engage students in various activities and mentor them. It is not a matter of telling them “do this” and then walking away. You need to work with them closely...

Public schools in Kenya have limited resources, but Brother Peter is creative: Unfortunately, in my school we have only one desktop computer and one pro-

jector. So, wherever I go, I usually carry my phone to take pictures to illustrate

what I am teaching by projecting those images with my laptop in school… Suppose I go to the hospital and I see an X-ray machine. I am able to take a

photo that I can then use when I teach the students about X-rays and physics. You also need to improvise.

13 World Bank, Ending Learning Poverty: What Will It Take? (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2019). VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

124 | Appendix: Responding to Pope Francis’ Call for a Global Compact on Education

In the sciences as in many other fields, there is often no better way to learn than

by doing, but this requires again imagination when resources are scare. As Brother Peter explains:

Materials are very expensive for practicums. So, I improvised picking up materials from surroundings. If I am talking about resistance, I can show a radio or

another electrical gadget and explain how it is working, or not working. So that students can appreciate how resistances work in practice. This avoids learning to become too abstract or conceptual… When I was teaching about friction, I

brought a match box… The matches will light with friction, but not without. When I applied paraffin or oil to the matchbox, it did not work anymore. Students can learn from these simple examples.

According to the scientific literature, one of the ways to improve student learning

in the early grades is to teach in the students’ native language. In some countries, Catholic educators influenced government policy. Gilberte Chung Kim Chung, the Executive Director of Catholic Education in Mauritius, notes that advocacy helped in the adoption of two important policies:

(1) The recognition of prevocational schools by the Government in 2005, after our intense advocacy and showing by doing, that children whom the system failed can learn and can achieve—today, these students are in the extended

stream of mainstream schools; (2) The recognition of our mother-tongue, Kreol Morisien, as a subject in the school curriculum by showcasing results of our action and research in the area during a period of seven years…. Both

examples above are linked because language is an issue. It is difficult for chil-

dren aged 5 years old to learn all their subjects from books written in English (because English is our official language) when their mother-tongue is Kreol Morisien and they hear a lot of French in the media.

Making human persons the center also means ensuring that schools are safe. Vi-

olence in schools remains widespread, including in Catholic schools. In particular, the Church needs to come to terms with sexual abuse by priests and other staff. Father Hans Zollner, SJ, a Professor at the Gregorian University and the President JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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of the Centre for Child Protection, argues that being effective in protecting chil-

dren from abuse requires not only knowledge, but also “a deeply felt mission to do everything possible to protect those who are most vulnerable”. While much more remains to be done, progress is being made as

[the] summit on the protection of minors held in the Vatican brought con-

crete changes: norms on accountability of bishops…, greater involvement of

the laity … A Vademecum was published, detailing procedural issues... I have seen a very strong push … to create safe spaces for children… Not only has the

Church started to confront the reality that abuse of minors has been happen-

ing, but members are also dealing with… cover-up… It is an ongoing process, a commitment… to bring about deep long-lasting change and healing… Prevention of abuse… [must] involve the entire ecclesial community – not just a few experts.

2- TO LISTEN TO THE VOICES OF CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE Regarding the commitment “to listen to the voices of children and young people in order to build together a future of justice, peace and a dignified life for every

person,” the Vademecum for the Global Compact emphasizes the need to start by listening, noting that in Latin e-ducere means “to bring out, to bring to light, to

prepare the good soil, preparing it to welcome the seed of knowledge.” Educators are encouraged to empower students and young people, including through advisory and decision-making capacities in schools and other learning institutions.

The International Office of Catholic Education (OIEC in French), one of the international organizations that supported the launch of the GCE Project, launched

several initiatives to give a voice to children and enable them to learn from each

other across nations. One of these projects is “I Can!”14 As Juan Antonio Ojeda Ortiz, FSC, explains,

14 See “I Can!” International Office of Catholic Education, http://oiecinternational.com/i-can/. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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The program helps children … identify … problems in their own context and build appropriate solutions as a team… in four … steps: 1. Feel: Enable chil-

dren to feel and identify a problem within their concrete realities; 2. Imagine:

Help children consider potential solutions and choose one that […is] viable, meaningful and with lasting potential; 3. Do: Act together with others and

create change projects that contribute to improving the local and global con-

texts; and 4. Share: Tell stories of change with others to inspire them and create

a worldwide chain of children and youth engaged in millions of small actions that change the world.

Thousands of children from over 40 countries attended a 2019 summit in Rome around the project inspired by Laudato Si’.

Another initiative launched by OIEC is the “Planet Fraternity Project.”15 The proj-

ect proposes to young people to work directly and hand-in-hand with a partner school from another country on themes related to Fratelli Tutti, Laudato Si’, the Global Compact on Education, and the United Nations’ sustainable development goals. Work is done in English, which helps participating students who are not

native speakers to improve their language skills. As explained by Hervé Lecomte, “Planet Fraternity allows students and educational teams in Catholic schools all

over the world to create bonds of fraternity. The project provides a range of on-

line resources created by education professionals to build commitment towards safeguarding our common home and building fraternal humanism.” Within a few months, close to 2,400 students were participating from 15 different countries.

Documentaries are another way to give a voice to children and youth and tell their stories. Véronique Brossier of the International Catholic Child Bureau manages Children in the World (Enfances dans le Monde), a movie festival organized each year for World Children’s Day. Choosing documentaries means:

Choosing to show reality, however difficult it may be, in order to raise aware-

ness and … make people want to act... The festival …is aimed at middle and 15 See “Planet Fraternity Project,” International Office of Catholic Education, http://oiecinternational. com/planet-oiec/. JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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high school students during the day and the general public in the evening. Round tables and meetings with directors, experts, [and] witnesses are also or-

ganized … [for] exchange and debate… Students ... award … the Youth Prize to one of the films.”

The team avoids documentaries with intrusive situations or staged settings. It aims

for diversity in themes and regions of the world represented and it provides educa-

tional information for each film. “This is much appreciated by teachers to prepare students…” The core idea is that “it is important to start from the reality of what

children experience, through their stories, their difficulties, their projects, anec-

dotes... It is these testimonies, these faces that are most likely to touch the public and make them want to get involved.”

The call by Pope Francis to listen to the voices of children and young people is not

abstract. It has a specific goal, which is “to build together a future of justice, peace

and a dignified life for every person.” Multiple initiatives give opportunities to chil-

dren and youth to do just that. In France, iniSia is a program for Catholic schools

to act in solidarity with schools abroad. More than 250 schools have applied for small grants, with 52 schools being awarded funding. A technical school from

Orléans helped build a vegetable garden in Madagascar that is self-powered with electricity and irrigation thanks to solar panels and hydroelectric dams. Today, the farm works independently and is run by a Malagasy association. A school in Tours

created a two-hour module once a week on development and solidarity issues. Par-

ticipants met with migrants, and a small group traveled to Togo. In Mulhouse, the project “Ecuador 2020: Trees for Living!” raises awareness about reforestation and

sustainable development issues. As Louis Marie Piron and Marie Lopez explained, Our approach is not to develop a top-down solidarity or we would decide what is good for our partners in southern countries. We first seek to build a real relationship with our partners to choose together what we are going to achieve. We

picture solidarity as two parts of the same frame, … one cannot move without moving the other.

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The Vademecum for the Global Compact also emphasizes the need to condemn all forms of disrespect and exploitation as one core component of listening to the voic-

es of children and young people. In South Africa, the “Building Peaceful Schools” program contributes to a climate of justice and peace in schools through an understanding of restorative justice. Anne Baker, Deputy Director of the Catholic In-

stitute for Education, suggests that the program helps “promotes communication, conflict management and restorative practices. Thus it aims to enable the Catholic ethos of deep respect, care and a safe environment to grow.”

3- TO ADVANCE THE WOMEN The third commitment for the Global Compact on Education is “to encourage

the full participation of girls and young women in education.” The Vademecum

notes that young girls and women are often marginalized by education and society. Suggestions for educators include encouraging girls’ education and ensuring equal participation for women in schools, including for leadership position, while also condemning all forms of discrimination and violence against women.

Women congregations have long played an essential role in efforts by the Church to promote girls’ education. The largest of those congregations is the Salesian Sisters of Saint John Bosco, more formally known as the Daughters of Mary Help of

Christians (Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice in Italian, as mentioned earlier, abbreviated

FMA). The congregation was founded in 1872 and will soon celebrate its 150th

anniversary. Today, more than 11,500 FMA sisters work in 97 countries on five continents. Thoughts from Sister Josephine Garza, FMA, the principal of a school in Manila, were shared earlier on the importance of religious and moral education

grounded in a practical commitment to social justice. But beyond a large number of traditional schools and universities, FMA sisters are also involved in other types of programs benefiting girls and women. Two examples are mentioned here.

Sister Joséphine Chulu, FMA, is the Director of the Laura Vicuña Center in the

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Laura del Carmen Vicuña Pino was a

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patron of abuse victims, having experienced abuse herself. The Center in the DRC was transferred to FMA sisters by the Provincial Government of Haut-Katanga in

2020 because of the expertise of the sisters in running this type of institution. The Center welcomes youth in situations of family breakdown, starting with children as young as 12. A major emphasis of the Center is to equip youth with the skills they need in the labor market. As Sister Joséphine explains,

Before, vocational schools tended only towards cutting and sewing, but for the moment, there are more or less innovative sectors here. We have the agrofood, conservation, hotel and catering, bakery and pastry, aesthetics, childcare

section. We have initiated textile and agricultural cooperatives for the development of young women to lift them out of poverty by making them responsible

and promoting in them the spirit of entrepreneurship, teamwork and cooperative learning.

In the Philippines, Sister Maria Victoria P. Sta. Ana, FMA, is Director of the Laura Vicuña Foundation (LVF) and in particular it holistic multi-staged center and community based program called the Journey of Hope. As Sister Maria explains,

As a hands-on 24/7 nurturing mother of 20 to 30 sexually-abused and exploit-

ed girls at a time, I have accompanied these deeply scarred girls in transition, from childhood to adolescence to young adults, and help them heal from their trauma with psycho-social spiritual interventions then guide them to blossom into women who can fully function in building their families and society.

Sister Maria also launched a Child Protection Clinic on Wheels to bring services against child abuse, exploitation, and trafficking in high-risk urban poor communities. The Clinic “currently aids nearly 2,000 children on average. We have also

expanded our reach to 16,000 children per year with our Social Workers and Youth leaders championing child protection advocacies in public schools and highly vulnerable communities, either face to face or virtual during this pandemic.”

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4- TO EMPOWER THE FAMILY The Vademecum for the Global Compact considers “the family as the first and essential place of education.” This is a principle that has long been held by the

Church, with Gravissimum Educationis clearly stating that parents are the primary and principal educators of their children. Suggestions for educators including

involving families in educational activities and ensuring their representation in advisory and decision-making bodies, while also encouraging training for parents.

One organization that has forcefully advocated for the role of the family in efforts to reduce extreme poverty is the International Movement ATD Fourth World. The

Movement was founded by Father Joseph Wresinski, but is inter-denominational. Cathy Low, a member of its volunteer corps, explains

Our main purpose is to stay close to very poor families… These families are

hard to reach … very dependent on institutions and suffer a lot about it…

[One] couple has four children and is on welfare. The parents are illiterate… Social services… put the children into foster care… Although I could under-

stand the concerns of the institutions, the voices of the parents were not really respected during the whole process and the parents were not considered as

partners in the upbringing of their children… One of the main sources of suffering expressed by people living in poverty is to be denied to right to act by themselves, to be disempowered.

Cathy ran for many years so-called street libraries which bring books and the love of reading to families in extreme poverty where they live. This is a great example of a family-focused program reaching the poor.

Supporting families in the education of their children must start at a young age. One of the organizations supported by the International Catholic Child Bureau

is AINA Trust, which operates in the state of Karnataka in India, serving disadvantaged children, many of whom are from single parents living in slums. The trust

runs more than 70 small early childcare centers for slum-dwellers and rag-picker families, with each center enrolling five children. As Mary Chelladurai explains,

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The [centers] provide childcare, welfare and development. We ensure that chil-

dren are handled with care and dignity. Their parents are taught to respect

their children and their rights, and to provide a child-friendly environment. AINA does not differentiate between children or families based on cultural or religious identities. Poverty defines target groups for interventions.

For older children, many schools rediscovered the role of the family in the education of children during the COVID-19 pandemic. David Brandán, Director of an FMA school in Argentina, puts it poetically,

In some educational spaces, daily life could be illustrated as a deep sea: im-

mense, moving, dynamic, vital. [With] the pandemic … the sea retreats, moves

away, and we can see what is deep, we could see if we had stones, or soft sand, corals or pollution. It was a great revelation… It was the family who … made a

new alliance with the school in a reciprocal attitude of community and fraternal work… The school was and continues to be part of the family life of each

student… Without this … relationship, pedagogical continuity could not have been sustained… Educators… [had to] walk as in Emmaus with the students and their families.

Sister Josephine from the Philippines was mentioned earlier. She runs for her

school a family ministry program to ensure that families are included in the work of the school. Annual family camps are also organized. Formation activities and

initiatives empower families to respond to the issues and realities affecting them. Families helped draft Laudato Si’ commitments that include planting mangroves

and providing training on urban farming and gardening. As Sister Josephine explained,

All these, I believe, promote the education and development of the girls and

boys we serve because, aside from learning these in our schools, parents are empowered to take on their role as the primary educators of their children and our main collaborators in our work of educations.

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Families with children with disabilities face particular challenges to educate their children. Perspektivy in Russia is another organization supported by the Inter-

national Catholic Child Bureau. It runs daycare centers in St. Petersburg, a crisis service center, and a guest house, while also helping schools welcome children with

disabilities. Through support to families, the goal is to enable individuals with severe disabilities to have a normal life and prevent social orphanhood. As Svetlana Mamonova from Perspektivy put it,

A child with severe developmental disabilities should be able to attend kin-

dergarten or school… After graduation from school, when a person begins her

adult life, s/he should be able to attend day care centers and workshops… S/he should also be able to have some form of employment. S/he should also have

the opportunity to live in a family or an accompanying residence. Any person,

regardless of their developmental problems, should have a normal childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.

5- TO WELCOME The fifth commitment called for by Pope Francis for the Global Compact is “to educate and be educated on the need for acceptance and in particular, openness to

the most vulnerable and marginalized.” Apart from the need to ensure quality ed-

ucation for vulnerable children, the Vademecum of the Congregation for Catholic Education also encourages intercultural and interreligious perspectives and cooperation programs aiming to build a more fraternal world.

Catholic schools operate in most countries of the world, including in countries

where only a small proportion of the population is Catholic. This is the case in

many countries in Africa and the Middle East. Several interviews with national secretaries or directors of Catholic education provide their perspective on serving mostly children who are not Catholic. In Lebanon Father Butros Azar explains:

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pluralism, a historical characteristic of Lebanon, and in human fraternity... A

citizenship education is forged in our schools, based on a common set of values, foremost among which are the social values of mutual aid and solidarity. In Mali, Koundya Joseph Guindo notes: Non-Catholic students represent approximately 80 percent of all students in Catholic schools. The time that non-Catholic students spend in Catholic

schools allows many of them to understand Christian values and to put them

into practice through their witness of life. Many non-Catholic former students who attended Catholic schools and who outnumber Christians in state decision-making bodies defend the cause of the Church in general and of Catholic

education in particular and advocate the spirit of secularism and tolerance. These facts constitute an immense wealth for Mali because they promote cohesion and peaceful living together.

In Morocco, the proportion of Muslim students in Catholic schools is even higher according to Father Marc Boucrot, since “nearly 98 percent of our students are Moroccan Muslims…”

At the level of their management, we have both heads of Catholic establishments and other Muslims. Our educational project was drawn up jointly between Catholic and Muslim directions. It is a project that is inspired by Gospel

values but on which Muslims can also find themselves, and it is an opportunity to be able to work together… on a common educational work.

In Burkina Faso, Father Hubert Kiemde estimates that two thirds of students are Catholic, with most other students being Muslims. He considers this as beneficial for the schools:

The presence of non-Catholic children in our schools is one of the characteristics and values recognized by all (Christians and non-Christians) since

the foundation of the first schools by the missionaries. It is for us the sign of our “Catholicity,” that is to say our openness to all, and our universal spirit of

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welcome... It is the proof of a culture of living together and an apprenticeship of fraternity beyond religious affiliations, for mutual knowledge and a culture of acceptance… (letting go of certain prejudices).

In Palestine, four in ten students in Catholic schools are Christian, but the proportion is at less than 10 percent in Gaza. In a similar vein to what others said, Father Jamal Khader argues:

The presence of Christians and Muslims makes it possible to discover common

values and to live from childhood in an atmosphere of equality and fraternity. When the catechist asked the Christian children to do the Lenten collection in favor of the poor, the Muslim children insisted on taking part…; all were

very happy to share with the poorest of the community. Coexistence is experi-

enced and practiced in daily life at school. When I once entered a class, I asked the students (17 years old): who is Christian and who is Muslim? And I added

right away: I don’t know, and I don’t want to know. You are all our children, our students. I later discovered that among these students was President Arafat’s great niece! It didn’t change anything.

A similar view is again expressed by Father Jawad Alamat for Tunisia: The students and staff of our schools are Muslim; we follow Tunisian state programs, including Islamic religious education; the Christian presence, provided

by the religious communities in charge of the school, is at the level of direction, management and support. Consequently, Catholic students are very rare; in any case, their presence testifies to the existence and value of diversity, even at the level of religion, and thereby contributes to open-mindedness.

In Benin, Father Didier Affobali mentions an interesting anecdote on support to schools by alumni who are not Catholic:

Our Catholic school structures welcome children from all religious denominations or not. And this constitutes a richness in the sense that living together does not constitute any handicap for the intellectual, moral and spiritual

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development of the learners. On the contrary, some students who have finished their schooling or their academic career and who are in the public service in the country or elsewhere, whether Catholic or not, sometimes form an association to help their schools of origin.

Finally, Father Alexandre Bingo in Burkina Faso has been experimenting with cre-

ative ways for Christian and Muslim students to support each other. One initiative is a religious education course that covers the main religions practiced in the country (Christianity, Islam, and traditional African religion) as well as other religions

around the world. Local faith representatives are invited to share their experience of faith in the service of living together. In addition, an inter-religious dialogue committee called “Balimaya” is set up with students from each grade to organize festivals and religious events. For example,

During Christian holidays, Balimaya goes to greet some families of Christian students. It is the same for Muslim holidays or traditional religion. The

committee is present both during happy events (holidays, baptisms, traditional

festive funerals) and unfortunate events (deaths, painful events). At the beginning of Christian Lent or Muslim fasting, a message is written by the com-

mittee and sent to Christians or Muslims to wish them a good time of Lent or Muslim fasting. The message is read in the presence of all the students when the colors rise. The atmosphere of conviviality and mutual respect despite the

differences of religion that reigns within the establishment is undoubtedly the observable fruit of this school of faith.

While these various examples illustrate how Catholic schools aim to welcome chil-

dren from all faiths, another focus is an emphasis on making schools affordable for the poor. In Mauritius, Gilberte Chung Kim Chung notes:

We embraced the free education system and clearly stated in our admission policy a preferential option for the poor in the year 2000… There are some

warning signals of a decline in interest for Catholic secondary schools by families, both Catholics and of other faiths, who are “results-oriented” and do not

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consciously made the choice of having our “five-star” schools which were in

very high demand become schools with mixed abilities, inclusive of those chil-

dren who had failed in the system. We chose social mobility for those who had lesser opportunities.

In the Philippines, Sister Josephine who was mentioned earlier notes that Catholic

education is often accessible only to those who can pay tuition. But programs have

been put in place to increase access for the poor. One initiative targets boys and girls 18 years and older who did not complete high school. They can enroll for free in the REACH Ed program (Rekindling A Child’s Hope Through Education). As Sister Josephine explains,

With the help of volunteer teachers…, staff, parents and senior high school students, boys and girls in R.E.A.C.H. Ed prepare for the equivalency and placement examination given by the Department of Education which, when

passed, will give them eligibility to pursue higher education or take on … employment or entrepreneurship with better educational qualifications. As for the school as a whole, it also aims to: ...involve the parents, students and teachers in activities that will increase the

school’s capacity to welcome and help the poor. In addition, formation is always geared towards sensitizing the families who make up the school as well as

our lay mission partners to their duty, as members of a catholic school commu-

nity, to share their resources and support programs that uplift the quality of life and nurture the dignity of those who are poor and marginalized.

Another category of children that Catholic schools have tried to reach is refugees.

In Lebanon, the Fratelli project serves more than 1,000 refugees from Syria, Iraq, and Palestine as well as vulnerable Lebanese children. This is done through centers operating in Rmeileh and Bourj Hammoud. As explained by Rana El Khoury,

We have premises consisting of a “model” socio-educational space which

includes sports fields, lessons for early childhood, young people and adults,

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outdoor games, gardens, work rooms, equipped and secure spaces, all this for the implementation of programs covering educational, sports and psychosocial

activities. Each time we end up with a positive transformation in the lives of children, young people and women. We realize how much these projects bring

strength, hope, to improve the living conditions of the most vulnerable people. In South Africa, Anne Baker, who was already mentioned, talked about an inter-

esting initiative in a local Marist school to serve refugee children who may not be able to enroll in the normal primary school programs:

[The innovation is] called “3 to 6.” It has enabled many children who cannot get into South African schools to still get a primary school education. A normal school opens its classrooms from 3 o’clock to 6 o’clock for these children.

Efforts to serve refugees are important not only because the number of refugees is

increasing in the world, but also because education plays a key role in their future. As noted by Father René Micallef, SJ, from the Gregorian University, providing

quality education to refugees is especially important because they often have no other resources on which to build a livelihood:

Refugees have little material capital (e.g. fertile agricultural land), and providing them with human capital and skills through education is the only viable

way of helping them stand on their two feet and not become dependent on aid for generations. Fr. René also notes: Education also prepares them to return to their country when the persecution or conflict is over with the skills needed to support themselves and to build

healthier institutions and a vibrant civil society, capable of unrooting the evils

that created the refugee situation in the first place, so to avoid new cycles of violence and oppression that may cause new cycles of flight.

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6- TO FIND NEW WAYS OF UNDERSTANDING THE ECONOMY AND POLITICS The sixth commitment relates to “finding new ways of understanding the economy, politics, growth, and progress that can truly stand at the service of the human per-

son and the entire human family, within the context of an integral ecology.” This is a broad agenda, but the Vademecum also calls for a social covenant for the common

good. As a start, schools should integrate values such as participation, democracy, justice, equality, fraternity, and peace in the curriculum.

Several interviews are relevant for this commitment and the role that education can play. This includes insights from the interviews with Catholic economists and

with the winners of the Expanded Research Awards. Consider first what some of

the Catholic economists who were interviewed shared. Education is essential for individuals and families to be able to avoid poverty or emerge from it. Maria Marta Ferreyra at the World Bank explains

Education is the only hope that most people in the world have for social mobility. The day laborer in rural Mexico, the street vendor in Colombia, and the

maid in Chile all have one thing in common—they desperately want some-

thing better for their children and firmly believe that education is the only way out of poverty.

Education and economics are also essential to understand and interpret how the

world works, or perhaps could work, beyond simple facts. Clara Jace, then at the Catholic University of America and now at Samford University, explains

The “facts” of economics don’t speak for themselves any more than the data

speaks for itself. We use our values to identify and adjudicate between costs and benefits. Toward this end, I ask students to write reflection papers each week where they work through their own analysis of the tradeoffs.

There is a role for Catholic economists to help inform the views of the Church and vice versa. As Joseph Kaboski from the University of Notre Dame puts it:

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We need to foster the dissemination of nonideological and legitimate economic knowledge within Church conversations of the economy. At the same

time, we need to help baptize the secular discipline of economics with Catholic values. Most economists, even practicing Catholics, don’t have an appreciation of Catholic social doctrine.

Several Catholic economists interviewed found ways to support the work of the

Church, including by serving as representatives, which can lead to funny situations as Charles Clark from St. John’s University recalls:

[For an intervention of ] the Holy See Permanent Mission to the United Na-

tions, … I was nervous. I heard the Chair announce: “We will now hear from the representative of the Holy Spirit” (instead of Holy See, what the Vatican

is called at the United Nations). Not surprisingly the mistake drew a lot of laughter. When it died down, I thanked the chair for the promotion, and proceeded to read.

Many Catholic economists work on topics that matter for the less fortunate and

social justice. As Ademar Bechtold from Notre Dame of Maryland University put it:

I am passionate about education as a tool to grow economies and improve the standard of living around the world. Millions of good ideas that could solve

major problems and challenges facing the world today may be lost forever when children cannot go to school.

Or as Camila Morales from the University of Texas at Dallas shared: My research is largely motivated by my own lived experience. I moved to the US with my family when I was a teenager. I spoke little to no English and

attended school in one of the poorest counties in the Metro Atlanta area. So, I enjoy working on topics that can help divulge a better understanding of the experiences of immigrant children and young adults.

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Eric Scorsone from Michigan State University explains: My values impact the type of research I work on and how I teach. I am interested in doing work on issues that impact local communities and in particular

marginalized communities. I am very drawn to the teaching of Pope Francis and wish to emulate the kinds of issues he emphasizes… I reach out and work with local public officials in communities where economic and social distress is widespread.

In a slightly gruesome anecdote, Bernhard Gunter at American University suggests that this commitment to social justice often starts at a young age:

I have always been passionate about fairness and justice. When I was about six years old, I went to my aunt asking her for a kitchen knife and a cutting board. Obviously, she asked me for what. My explanation was that one of their two cats had caught a mouse. I needed the knife to cut the already dead mouse

in two to make sure that both cats got their fair share of the “jointly-owned” mouse!

Finally, in economics as in other social sciences, it is important to recall that research may not be value free. As Robert Whaples from Wake Forest University reminds us:

I believe that all scholars’ values affect their research. How could they not?

They guide every decision we make. Economics is all about weighing costs and

benefits in making decisions. Moral values are about what we consider to be costs and what we consider to be benefits.

Beyond economics, Catholic philosophy and theology should enter in dialogue

with science. This is the premise of the Expanded Reason Awards which “seek to humanize the sciences by returning to a deeper understanding of the purpose

of science, technology and professional work through a dialogue with philosophy

and/or theology; to understand the sciences as human efforts at the service of soci-

ety and the common good,” according to Max Bonilla from the Expanded Reason

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Institute at University Francisco de Vitoria.16 Interviews with recipients of the awards show how this dialogue is taking place in many areas. For Robert Enright from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, one such area is a better understanding of forgiveness:

I began to ask myself: What in the area of moral development might make

a major impact on the lives of adults and children, families, and communities? The idea of forgiveness kept coming up for me. Forgiveness occurs when people are treated unfairly by others. Might forgiveness be a way of people

working their way out of resentment and hatred to reclaim their psychological well-being?

A focus on ethics is natural for Catholic social thought, but ethical considerations

must be made palatable to the professions, including for engineers. This was the goal of Gonzalo Génova and Maria del Rosario González in courses that they created at Complutense University of Madrid:

Ethics is often presented as a brake, a barrier, a series of annoying limits and

prohibitions. But we are convinced that ethics is not the brake, but the real engine of technological progress… We share the view that the teaching of professional ethics has to be completely founded on ethical rationality, with our feet grounded in concrete practice and in the mental and vocational form of each profession. Otherwise, they will be overlapping schemes and not committed professional lives.

An ethical life is also a life of character, with James Arthur from the University of Birmingham sharing an interesting anecdote:

A recent story was when I met the Queen who awarded me the title Officer of the

British Empire—she asked me “How does one measure character?”—I responded, “Your Majesty, one does not measure character, one recognizes it.” She was amused! 16 “What Are the Expanded Reason Awards?” Expanded Reason Institute, https://expandedreason. org/the-awards/. VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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It was mentioned earlier that there is a need for a dialogue between Catholic economists and the Church. The same point is made John Slattery from the American Association for the Advancement of Science about the Science for Seminaries that he leads:

The idea for the project was simple: how can we help religious leaders bet-

ter understand modern science, and how can we do it in a way that affirms a healthy dialogue between and among scientific and religious communities?

Because there were so many examples of unhealthy science engagement with faith communities, a proper engagement … was imperative… The world will always need people who can articulate a clear sense of Catholic thought… No one knows what scholarly work will look like in 50 years, but we will always need interpreters of tradition, and we will always need scholars!

One of the practical issues for Catholic education related to economics and politics is whether there is a social covenant whereby countries support education pluralism

so that parents can choose the type of education their children receive. A major

constraint faced by Catholic schools in many countries is a lack of (or insufficient) state funding. Fr. Hubert from Burkina Faso notes that for Catholic schools,

The greatest risk is the loss of support in the funding of our schools. Families

cannot pay enough to cover the running costs of schools and establishments. We count on the contribution of the State. However, the State itself is under pressure to lower its subsidy to Catholic schools. With the frequent cash flow

tensions, the risk of a decline in state support exists. The State also assists desti-

tute students by assigning students to private… establishments to which it pays part of the school fees…These two forms of state support enabled many of our

establishments to have sufficient staff. [But] a drop in this support will cause more operational difficulties for establishments in poor areas.

When asked the same question, Fr. Didier’s response for Benin was even more concerned:

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In terms of opportunities, there are practically none, especially since there is no

substantial aid from the State. The lack of financial resources sometimes handicaps the proper functioning of Catholic education. Teachers who are unable to

support themselves financially because of their insufficient salaries go instead to public education. In addition, some schools are threatened with closure due to lack of staff and financial means to meet the living and working conditions of both learners and teachers.

As to the broader economic environment in which schools operate, there is awareness of the challenges that students may face in the labor market. A sobering assessment is provided again by Fr. Hubert in Burkina Faso:

Having taken up the challenge of excellent results in school examinations, we

must now take up the challenge of the employability of graduates…; we need to move towards more science, more technique and more professionalism in

our educational offerings. Current students in the scientific series go so far as to pass the baccalaureate without experience of handling in a scientific laboratory…The same is true for the digital domain. They do not have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the computer tool; therefore, they have

weaknesses in everything related to research or computer manipulation. We will have to find a way to improve science teaching and familiarize students more with computers. Finally, there is very little connection between real life

and what is taught in class. Students find themselves poorly equipped to face the world of work.

Interesting initiatives are being piloted to respond to those challenges. Fr. Alexandre in Burkina Faso launched an entrepreneurship education project in his school

with 25 students holding various positions to manage a business club center (B2C)

serving the needs of students in the school. Examples include procuring sports

uniforms with the name of students, the making of jewelry with the school’s motto, a mini-market at the end-of-term party, the organization of a high school event. In addition, local entrepreneurs are invited to come to the school to share their experience.

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As noted by Fr. Alexandre, It is a modest initiative that aims to kindle the flame of creativity and entrepre-

neurship among young people… who later can start their own business. It is a nascent experience whose effects can only be appreciated in the long term. But for sure, this initiative has already sparked creativity in the student members of

the workshop who have already made private enterprise as their professional choice in the future.

Preparing youth for the labor market through vocational training while also instill-

ing core values is also the focus of several projects run by La Salle brothers around the world. Brother Nestor Anaya Marín recounts several projects in his interview:

In Ivory Coast I visited a shelter for street children and youth… [who] learn to read, write and count... [while] becoming “masters” in carpentry, blacksmithing, or electronics. The most important thing is that they are instilled with

order, respect and organization, among other qualities, recovering their dig-

nity and discovering opportunities for growth and development…In Kenya, I visited three educational centers where formal (academic) education goes hand in hand with agricultural education. Therefore, the educational centers

are schools, farms and cultivation plots; all in one campus. Naturally, the stu-

dents are those responsible for taking care of the animals and the production of the fruits.

Brother Nestor also shared experiences at universities that encourage service to others while also helping students practice their newly acquired skills:

In the Philippines, … [students at] a La Salle University implemented a

graphic design program for the deaf… [so] many teachers and young people… learned signed language... In Mexico I have seen universities that ask their stu-

dents to develop social projects... Young engineers have built houses for people who have suffered floods, brigades of dentists who walk for many hours in the

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education, there is always room for creativity and to connect people based simply on what is purely human.

7- TO SAFEGUARD OUR COMMON HOME The last commitment suggested by Pope Francis is “to safeguard and cultivate our

common home, protecting it from the exploitation of its resources and adopting a more sober lifestyle marked by the use of renewable energy sources and respect

for the natural and human environment.” The reference is of course the encyclical

Laudato Si’ which highlights that the environmental crisis is also an inner crisis due

to broken relationships with the environment, as well as with others and society. Suggestions for educators focus on raising awareness to the need to care for the common home and providing opportunities for students to act.

In the Republic of Congo, Raoul Sika helped launched the Green School project

whose objective is to raise awareness and train students in environmental protection. The project has four aims: help students adopt a responsible attitude towards

the environment; make students messengers of the ideals of environmental protection; promote active participation by local communities in environmental protec-

tion and restoration activities; and train a generation of global citizens. In addition, as Raoul explains,

Catholic school actors would like that in the next 3-5 years, our schools be-

come “little windows open on Eden,” by the planting of trees (fruit trees), living hedges, flowers, grass and the creation of vegetable gardens wherever possible… This project is innovative because it provides a small answer to the question that …Pope Francis asks himself on a planetary scale in the encyclical

Laudato Si’, namely: “What kind of world do we want -leave us to those who come after us, to the children who grow up?”

In Palestine, several schools founded environmental clubs. Also relevant are Model

United Nations (UN) activities for youth ages 15-18. A few hundred students

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participate every year in a three-day congress where they functions like the UN with a General Assembly, a Security Council, and various committees to discuss and adopt resolutions. As Father Jamal Khader remarks, “the seriousness of the

discussions and the questions dealt with make this congress an admirable event, especially since it is prepared and organized by the students themselves. These are the leaders of tomorrow who begin to exercise their leadership now!”

In Senegal, a school farm is being planned in the diocese of Kaolack. It will welcome students from all schools, Catholic or not. As explained by Brother Charles Biagui,

We also want to cultivate in them the joy of producing at the local level in the

spirit of eating healthy by producing healthy foodstuffs. The breeding of hens, guinea fowl, goats and others will serve as a framework and educational and

didactic support for teachers, children and young people. The sale of the products will be used for the maintenance of the premises and the payment of the

employees... Awareness of respect for the environment and the promotion of healthy food must be widespread… Farm workers will be supported by teach-

ing assistants from other schools as part of the reflection to improve theoretical and practical teaching methods on ecology.

In Belgium, the federation of Catholic schools for the French-speaking part of the country created an interdisciplinary digital tool for an educational journey inspired

by Laudato Si’. The tool aims to combine the values of the Gospel and skills related to the philosophy and citizenship curriculum. As noted by Myriam Gesché,

This tool is freely available online. It allows interactions with Internet users

through comments on the blog. It promotes sharing ideas and critical reflec-

tions. It can participate in development of a collective educational culture and give ideas to other teachers to carry out such tools on other themes.

Education for Sustainability (EFS) has also been a priority for Catholic schools in Mauritius. The program started in 2011 in 18 Catholic secondary schools, and some 12,000 students have been engaged to date. As noted by Gilberte Chung JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

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Kim Chung, lessons have been learned from the experience: First, to reach the set objectives, school leadership must share the vision, drive

the EFS program or at least delegate the right person for its coordination… Second, teachers must play a key role… Students will follow when they are

well guided. Third, ecology is not about one-off activities … but the interrelatedness between the environment, society and economy, as well as values and beliefs, and our way of living… Fourth, education for sustainability must

be mainstreamed at the individual school curriculum level across disciplines... Finally, we have yet to strategize on the best way forward, but there is hope as we continue to search for the best way to educate for sustainability… on the journey of transformative learning.

CONCLUSION The objective of this article was to share a few insights from interviews conducted under the GCE project about efforts already made today in the seven areas

for which Pope Francis called for renewed commitments as part of the Global

Compact on Education. About 130 interviews have been conducted to date under the GCE project since it was launched at the end of November 2020. While the

interviews discuss a wide range of topics related to Catholic education and integral human development, the commitments called for by Pope Francis emerge strongly

from the stories that interviewees share. This is not surprising, and it is encouraging. Apart from educators in Catholic schools and universities, most educators

in other types of schools also share those commitments and do their best to edu-

cate children and youth towards fraternal humanism and sustainability. Hopefully, some of the stories shared in this article and the interviews they are collected from will serve as a source of inspiration for your own work. .

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Congregation for Catholic Education. Global Compact on Education Vademecum. Rome: Congregation for Catholic Education, 2021.

Expanded Reason Institute. “What Are the Expanded Reason Awards?” Last accessed June 15, 2022. https://expandedreason.org/the-awards/.

Francis. Encyclical Letter Laudato Si’ of the Holy Father Francis on Care for our Common Home. Rome: The Vatican, 2015.

_____. Message of his Holiness Pope Francis for the Launch of the Global Compact on Education. Rome: The Vatican, 2019.

_____. Video Message of His Holiness Pope Francis on the Occasion of the Meeting Organized by the Congregation for Catholic Education “Global Compact

on Education: Together to Look Beyond.” Rome: Pontifical Lateran University, 2020.

_____. Encyclical Letter Fratelli Tutti of the Holy Father Francis on Fraternity and Social Friendship. Rome: The Vatican, 2020.

_____. Message from Pope Francis for the Meeting with Representatives of

Religions on the Theme “Religions and Education: towards a Global Compact on Education.” Rome: The Vatican, 2021.

Global Catholic Education. “Interviews.” Last accessed June 15, 2022. https:// www.globalcatholiceducation.org/interviews.

International Office of Catholic Education. “I Can!” Last accessed June 15, 2022. http://oiecinternational.com/i-can/.

_____. “Planet Fraternity Project.” Last accessed June 15, 2022. http://oiecinternational.com/planet-oiec/.

Klein, Luis Fernando. How Does Francisco See Education? Rome: CPAL and OIEC, 2021.

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Wodon, Quentin. Ensuring a Bright Future for All Children: Interviews at the Frontline of Working with Children at Risk Globally. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

_____. World Catholic Education Day 2021: Celebrating Educators and Working Together for the Global Compact on Education. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

_____. Catholic Education in Africa and the Middle East: Perspectives from National Leaders. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

_____. Values, Economics, and Catholic Social Thought: Interviews with Catholic

Economists, Volume 1: North America. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2021.

_____. Research in Service of Catholic Education Practice: Interviews in Honor of Professor Gerald Grace. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022.

_____. World Catholic Education Day 2022: Responding to the Call from Pope Fran-

cis - Seven Commitments for a Global Compact on Education. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022.

_____. Science, Philosophy, and Theology in Dialogue: Interviews with Expanded Reason Award Recipients. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022.

_____. Digitalization in Education: Challenges and Opportunities. Washington, DC: Global Catholic Education, 2022.

World Bank. Ending Learning Poverty: What Will It Take? Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2019.

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Interviews in Global Catholic Studies: William T. Cavanaugh William T. Cavanaugh is Professor of Catholic Studies and Director of the Center for World Catholicism & Intercultural Theology, a research center housed in the Department of Catholic Studies at DePaul University and focusing on the Catholic Church in the global South—Africa, Asia, and Latin America. He is the author of six books, including Field Hospital: The Church’s Engagement with a Wounded World (Eerdmans, 2016) and The Myth of Religious Violence: Secular Ideology and the Roots of Modern Conflict (Oxford University Press, 2010), and the editor of three others. His books and articles have been published in 10 languages.

Mathew N. Schmalz is Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Global Catholicism and a Professor of Religious Studies at the College of the Holy Cross. He has published more than fifty articles and essays that engage global Catholicism (particularly in South Asia), Catholic theology and spirituality, Mormonism, and The Watchtower movement. He is co-editor of Engaging South Asian Religions: Boundaries, Appropriations, and Resistances (SUNY, 2012, with Peter Gottschalk) and author of Mercy Matters: Opening Yourself to the Life Changing Gift (OSV, 2016). He regularly contributes to media coverage of religion and religious issues. He has published opinion pieces in Newsweek, Salon, The Washington Post, Fortune, US News & World Report, Commonweal Magazine, and The National Catholic Reporter.

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Watch this interview on YouTube: https://youtu.be/1FGoDVtw6pY.

MS: Welcome everyone. My name’s Mathew Schmalz, and I’m Editor-in-Chief

of the Journal of Global Catholicism. And this is part of our continuing series of interviews with scholars in the field of Catholic Studies. And so it’s my

great pleasure to introduce William Cavanaugh of the Center for World Catholicism & Intercultural Theology and also Professor of Catholic Studies at DePaul University. So many thanks for being here. WC: Oh, my pleasure, Mat. MS: First, tell us something about your intellectual journey, how you got to DePaul.

WC: Oh, gosh. So I went to Notre Dame as an undergrad intending on majoring in chemical engineering, and I got hooked on theology. So one of my professors—I was going to go to law school after getting a theology degree after I

had changed—and one of my professors said, “Lawyers are a dime a dozen. Go get a degree in theology.” So I did. Between my master’s and PhD, I

spent a couple years in Chile on a volunteer program with the Order of Holy

Cross working on a cooperative building project in a poor area of Santiago, Chile under the military regime. So that’s kind of my experience with global

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Catholicism, was the couple years I spent in Chile. And then I got a PhD at Duke and began teaching.

MS: Okay, and also hasn’t your work in Chile produced a publication? WC: Yeah, that’s right. It was my dissertation, which was my first book. It’s called Torture and Eucharist. And it’s about the Church’s response to human rights abuses under the military regime. And I actually, when I came back from

Chile, I worked at the law school at Notre Dame for about six months with the archives of the Vicariate of Solidarity, which had cataloged all the human rights abuses under the military regime. So that experience kind of gave me my materials for the dissertation, which became the first book.

MS: And for those of you listening, it’s a book that comes highly recommended, certainly by me. So you ended up at DePaul, and so tell us just a little bit about DePaul.

WC: So DePaul calls itself a Catholic Vincentian Urban University. It was founded in 1898 by the Vincentian orders of the followers of St. Vincent de Paul

and Louise de Marillac. And from the beginning, it’s been kind of the poor kids’ school as opposed to the Jesuit school. MS: Got it. WC: But DePaul from the beginning has been kind of a working class school. We still, nearly 40% of our students, our undergraduates, are first-generation college goers. And DePaul’s always been very inviting. They were very

welcoming to Jewish students when the University of Chicago and North-

western had quotas for Jews and so on. So the kind of social justice aspect

has been there from the beginning. There aren’t very many Vincentians left, and so the Vincentian character is now carried on mostly by lay people. And

people around Notre Dame tend to talk about Vincentian much more than

they do about Catholic. The Catholic identity of the university has been, I think, diminished. And so that’s one of the reasons why the Catholic Studies

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Department was created in 2010 and why the Center was created just a little bit before that.

MS: Can you share a little more about that, particularly about the Center, but also

Catholic Studies and, you know, how it was started and also conceptualized?

WC: Sure, so the Catholic Studies program came about sometime in the 2000s. I’m not sure when. I got there in 2010. And it was an attempt by Catholic

faculty in various departments to kind of do something Catholic at DePaul. There wasn’t much Catholic. You can still today get through DePaul without much exposure to Catholicism at all. There’s a religion requirement, but you

can satisfy it by taking one course in Buddhism and another course in business ethics. So they started a Catholic Studies program, and then it became a

department in 2011 or 2010. And that’s when I came from the University of St. Thomas. The Center was started, I think, a couple years earlier than that

in 2008 maybe. And the idea was to capitalize on the broad kind of interna-

tional outreach that DePaul was trying to emphasize, and that fit with the character of DePaul as a Catholic University.

MS: So let’s talk a little more about the Center. How is it structured? What kind of work does it do, and so forth?

WC: We have three faculty and two staff. One of the staff is half-time. We host

visiting scholars each year from the Global South. We publish a book series, Studies in World Catholicism, which is largely volumes that come out of con-

ferences that we do. We have a podcast series called “Near and Far.” We have an annual international conference, “World Catholicism Week,” which starts this evening actually. MS: Oh, wow. WC: Youth and young people is the subject for today. But each World Catholicism Week gathers people from around the world from every continent to

talk about one particular subject. We have other events, lectures and round

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of recordings of our past lectures and conferences. And we have the African

Catholicism Project, which is an attempt to create a network of scholars in Africa working on African Catholicism. And we’ve actually got a conference in Nairobi in July where we’re going to launch our Handbook of African

Catholicism, this massive 800-page reference book, which is being published by Orbis Press. So we do all of that with the cooperation of a lot of people and a lot of good will.

MS: So given all of that, I mean, what would you say are the particular strengths of the Center as it’s developed over the last couple years?

WC: One of the things that we do well I think is we’re a resource for scholars

and pastoral agents around the world. So some of the things that I mentioned there. The providing opportunities for networking, for example. So

we’re going to gather scholars from around Africa in Nairobi in July, and a lot of African scholars just don’t have the kind of opportunities. They don’t

have travel budgets. They don’t have an annual AAR, American Academy of

Religion, like we do in the US. So this is an opportunity to network. We’ve set up mentoring relationships. So for the chapters of the handbook, a senior scholar worked with a junior scholar. We have fellowships. We’ve sponsored PhD students at DePaul in addition to the more senior scholars. We have

books and a podcast series and so on. So we think of ourselves as kind of a

research center that is a resource center for people in the Global South. I think that’s one of the things that we do well.

MS: And given those resources, what particular intellectual or theological issues

do you think your Center is best equipped to address or most interested in addressing?

WC: That’s hard to say. We don’t have a particular agenda. I think some centers

say, okay, we’re going to spend the next five years working on this set of questions. We want to serve both the academy and the Church, and we try to let our partners in the Global South set the agenda. So for example, we

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suggested that Hélder Câmara is not very well known in the US, and Dorothy Day is not very well known in Brazil. And so we had a conference on

Dorothy Day in Rio de Janeiro and we had a conference on Hélder Câmara

in Chicago, and I thought that was a good way to cooperate. But we try as much as we can to be aware of our position as, you know, having resources and we try to let the people in the Global South set the agenda. And so

we take different suggestions for different topics of interest, but our recent

World Catholicism Weeks have been on youth and young people—again, starting today; health care; nonviolence; women’s leadership; humanism;

Pentecostalism; ecology. Those are some of the things that we’ve worked on. And each one of them has a corresponding volume in our book series.

MS: So one of the things that anyone involved in working in the Catholic acad-

emy has to face is the politicization of Catholicism, particularly, you know, in this country, I would think most specifically. How do you navigate that in your own work?

WC: That’s one of the great things about working with the Church globally is

that you step out of the dynamics of American politics and the culture wars, you know, striving to gain influence over policy makers to get the Bishop’s

agenda into law. That really doesn’t mean much in places where there isn’t much of a functional government, you know, a lot of places in Africa and so

on where the Church in some ways substitutes for the government. It is the main provider of healthcare and education and so on. Occasionally we get a

speaker that says something which is disagreeable to an audience member, but I think in some ways we have the advantage of just stepping out of the

usual space of controversy. And we think part of our job anyway is to help the US Church have a broader view so our concerns here are not those of the Church as a whole.

MS: From your experience in Chile onward, what has your involvement in issues surrounding global Catholicism taught you?

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It’s wonderful to see the students rediscover Catholicism through the lens of elsewhere. It helps us break out of our small dynamics that we usually think of Catholicism. —William Cavanaugh WC: I think one of the things that I’ve learned is how quickly the stereotypes dissipate, you know? I mean, the more that I get to know people from around

the world, the more I tend to think of the global self less as just kind of one big whole. We kind of had this moment about 25 years ago where the

Church in the north discovered the Church in the south, you know? Philip Jenkins’ book on The Next Christendom, and suddenly everybody was talking about how the center of gravity of the Church worldwide had shifted from

the Global North to the Global South. And with that sudden realization, there were certain stereotypes that the Church in the south is conserva-

tive on sexual matters, but progressive on political matters. And in general, there’s a kind of vibrant Church in the south and a moribund Church in the north. But the more I study it and the more I meet people and travel, the

stereotypes, if they don’t break down entirely, they’re complexified. There’s a

greater diversity today, I think, in attitudes towards sexual ethics in the south than there were in recent decades. The Church in Europe is not dead. I think

that was premature. The Church in Africa is not without serious problems,

even though it’s held up as this great representation of growth and vitality. Which it certainly is, but it also has serious problems one of which I think is a coming sexual abuse crisis, which is going to match that of the Church in the north. And so, I teach a course on Intro to World Catholicism to my undergraduates. And it’s wonderful to see the students rediscover Catholicism

through the lens of elsewhere. It helps us break out of our small dynamics that we usually think of Catholicism. But one of the things that I have been

impressed by, just to make a very broad generalization, is the dynamism and

the diversity of Catholicism around the world. And one of the things I do

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in that class actually is—thanks to you and your work there, your and Tom Landy’s work at Holy Cross—the Catholics & Cultures website. Every class

period in that class begins with a student or two making a presentation of

just a minute or two from the Catholics & Cultures website. Something they

thought was fun and interesting. Pick a country, pick a thing and just talk about it for two minutes. And that, I think, just gives the students and me a sense of the kind of breadth and vitality of the Church around the world.

MS: Are there any particular theological issues for you as a theologian that

this encounter with global Catholicism has raised for you or that you find particularly interesting?

WC: Theological issues? I guess for me, the issue that I keep coming back to more

and more in the class that I teach on this is the centrality of Christ and the question of suffering. That one of the things that makes Christ concrete and not abstract to the students is this kind of connection with the sufferings of

Christ and this very strange idea of a God who identifies with those who suffer. And that, I think, in a lot of what we read, that kind of comes across

as being central to the experience of a lot of people, a lot of Catholics in the Global South. And so that, I think, has been, for me, one of the central theo-

logical issues that I face in teaching that course and in encountering people from around the world.

MS: One of the issues that I’ve faced is how you define what “Catholic” is. You know, what goes into the basket? And is Catholic a normative term when you use it academically? Or is it simply a descriptive term? So how do you

sort of wrestle with that or engage that in terms of what you include and what you don’t include, whether it be in a course or in the work of the Center as a whole?

WC: Yeah, that’s a really interesting question. I mean, I guess it’s both descriptive and normative, right? I mean, the Catholic Church is—I often tell my students—the first truly global organization, and continues to be today probably the only truly global grassroots organization. And so that, to me, is a VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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descriptive reality. But with that, of course, then comes certain questions of

normativity and what gets included as Catholic and what doesn’t. And of

course, we have a magisterium to help us sort through all of those questions. There are, of course, some limits to diversity, but the idea that... We read

Shusaku Endo’s novel, Silence. And in the preface, he talks about Catholicism as a symphony where it’s important to get notes being sounded by everyone

throughout the world, right? That there’s no culture that’s excluded from it. Everybody has something to add to the symphony that is Catholicism. And

I like that as an image. But one of the exercises that we do in the class is taking up certain questions of enculturation and trying to determine what’s a good enculturation and what’s a bad enculturation. Can you use rice cakes

and sake to perform the Eucharist in Japan? The ordination of women, is that a proper enculturation? All of these kinds of questions. And I try to make

them very aware that enculturation is not just a problem for other places. You

know, we tend to think that we don’t have culture, we’re just neutral and that other people have culture, but I give them examples of enculturation, of, you know, Jesus in American culture, including a great picture of Jesus teaching a little kid how to shoot a gun.

MS: Oh my God. Okay, well, some proprieties here. WC: Right, yeah. So I don’t know if that answers your question, but those are some of the things that I wrestle with.

MS: Wonderful. Well, thank you so much for being with us this afternoon. And

you know, the work you do at the Center is just really wonderful, and so thank you for sharing it with us.

WC: Oh, my pleasure, Mat, and if I could return the compliment, what you do there at Holy Cross is invaluable.

MS: Thank you.

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Interviews in Global Catholic Studies: Paul D. Murray Paul D. Murray is Professor of Systematic Theology in the Department of Theology and Religion at Durham University. Since 2008, he has served as Director of the Centre for Catholic Studies, the UK’s first permanent center devoted to pioneering research and teaching in Catholic theology in the public academy. He is the author of Reason, Truth and Theology in Pragmatist Perspective (Peeters, 2004), editor of Receptive Ecumenism and the Call to Catholic Learning: Exploring a Way for Contemporary Ecumenism (Oxford, 2008), and served as a co-editor of five other volumes. He is past president of the Catholic Theological Association of Great Britain.

Mathew N. Schmalz is Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Global Catholicism and a Professor of Religious Studies at the College of the Holy Cross. He has published more than fifty articles and essays that engage global Catholicism (particularly in South Asia), Catholic theology and spirituality, Mormonism, and The Watchtower movement. He is co-editor of Engaging South Asian Religions: Boundaries, Appropriations, and Resistances (SUNY, 2012, with Peter Gottschalk) and author of Mercy Matters: Opening Yourself to the Life Changing Gift (OSV, 2016). He regularly contributes to media coverage of religion and religious issues. He has published opinion pieces in Newsweek, Salon, The Washington Post, Fortune, USNews & World Report, Commonweal Magazine, and The National Catholic Reporter.

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Watch this interview on YouTube: https://youtu.be/eO9DePwcMF4.

MS: Welcome, everyone, and my name is Mathew Schmalz. I’m Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Global Catholicism, and this is part of our continuing series

of interviews with scholars in the field of global Catholicism and Catholic

studies, broadly understood. And so it’s my great pleasure to welcome Dr. Paul Murray, director of the Centre for Catholic Studies at Durham University. Welcome.

PM: Thank you, Mat, good morning. Good afternoon here, good morning there. MS: Yes, there is a time difference, and I appreciate your willingness to adapt to

these constraints of international discussion. So I perused your professional

website, which is certainly quite impressive, and you have quite an extensive scholarly background, and so I was wondering if you could share a little bit about your intellectual journey with us, and why you do what you do.

PM: Gosh, well, intellectual journey, in the British system, you’re probably aware

that we tend to specialize quite early in high school years, and one tends to be either, rather arts and humanities or the sciences. And I was actually on a

science and maths track, and very happy to be, so I was actually heading not towards theology, but towards a career in engineering. My life, I feel, has been either serendipitous or accidental departures on various points, and I kind VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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of fell into theology. I like to think I fell in, it was a falling into grace, rather

than into perdition, and I found myself second year into an undergraduate theology program, really finding it the most fascinating subject possible for

me, because it both feeds the heart in a way that literature had fed my heart and soul, but it also engages particularly the more philosophical doctrinal

dimensions of systematic theology. It engages the conceptual apparatus in a way that mathematics and physics and such had done in my upper high

school years, so I found myself really captivated by it. And I guess discovered—I think, maybe I am still discovering—discovered my vocation twofold. And in chronological sequence, rather than in matters of importance, I fell in love twofold over, one with the study of theology, and secondly, with

my wife. So then the issue was how to put those two together, and become

a lay theologian. And I’ve been privileged to have various opportunities to pursue that vocation. I’d done it in the context of adult theological educa-

tion for the Archdiocese of Liverpool for a couple of years, which was great work, and that kind of pastoral context, ecclesial pastoral context for theolo-

gy, even in its more abstract expressions is, I think, very important to me. For

a decade, I worked in what in the States you would refer to as a liberal arts college, and then in the year 2000, the northern bishops asked if Andrea and

I would move from, we were then in the center of the country, Birmingham, up to the northeast, where we had met, for me to be one of the systematics

profs at what was then the largest Catholic seminary providing for the UK community, Ushaw. And my intellectual journey started out very much in a

kind of theology and science interest. My teaching was in core subjects such

as Christology, trinity, eschatology, atonement, and I still consider them, in many respects, my theological heartland, but one of the other unexpected de-

partures or unanticipated departures was that when I was teaching at Ushaw, and we had a strong ecumenical program with the local Methodist college

and the Anglican training house, and at the heart of what was in key parts, a shared program, at the heart of that was a double module in theology and ministry in ecumenical perspective, and all my colleagues at university regarded it, apparently, as the most important module in the curriculum.

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MS: Oh, wonderful. PM: But interestingly, none of them wanted to teach it. MS: It goes that way sometimes, yes. PM: There were indeed some interesting challenges. It was an obligatory module, which tends, I find, to get students’ backs up. To make something compulso-

ry tends to take any of the delight away from it immediately for them, and there were just some intrinsic challenges to the module. But anyway, I was

given it as the new kid on the block to teach, and I sweated over it for the summer beforehand, fairly anxious about how would I be honest about the

challenges in the Catholic tradition, but in a way that the seminarians—and it was very much in the Pope John Paul II, and then Pope Benedict years—in

a way that the seminarians could hear, rather than simply want to reject, but

on the other hand, in a way that the Anglicans and Methodists would not perceive as just being a kind of an idealized gloss of a theoretical Catholicism

that exists in the mind, but not in reality. So about two or three weeks into the course of that module, I actually found it was really clicking some things

together for me. I’d never previously taught ecclesiology. I’d been, obviously, very interested in it as a committed Catholic layperson who’d worked in

Catholic context, and indeed, for the Church, so I had read a great deal of

ecclesiology and thought about it, but I’d never taught it, and it really opened

up. It was a another path opened up for me, and that has become a major part of my work for the past 20 years. I’ve had a manuscript, a long manuscript, which I’m editing down, which I’m calling Healing the Wounds of the

Church: And the Practice of Receptive Ecumenism. And then there’s a second volume related to it, which I hope to work on over the next few years called

Catholicism Transfigured: Conceiving Change in the Church. And once through that, I’m hoping if the Lord spurs me, and I have energy for it, that I might

return to some of the theological heartland work, and do some work on some essays on pneumatology and divine action, and really pick up some of those dormant theology and science interests.

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The core Catholic gift at the ecumenical table is that written into our DNA when we are being true to ourselves is an instinct for hanging together and for unity—not uniformity, but unity—with rich, complex diversity. Paul Murray MS: Okay, well, thank you for sharing that. Before we get into specifics about

Catholic studies at Durham and so forth, I just wanted to pick up on this

notion that you were talking about, about the Church being wounded, and the Church’s wounds. And so where would you say the Church is particularly wounded now at this point in time?

PM: So I think a state of imperfection is a constant in human life and church. MS: Very true. PM: And I think there are lots of kind of specifics we could look to, for example, things exposed by the clerical sexual abuse crisis, which a project we’re running is looking at the way in which that’s not just a matter of high levels of

individual miscreants, but is also exposing some weaknesses in our Catholic

ecclesial culture, which touches on all of us. So there are things like that, but actually, you know, if I was asked to say, what is the one most significant

wound in the Church Catholic, I would say the straightforward challenge we

find in being Catholic and living according to the whole thinking, according to the whole. And I regard it as the core Catholic gift. The core Catholic gift

at the ecumenical table is that written into our DNA when we are being true to ourselves is an instinct for hanging together and for unity—not uniformi-

ty, but unity—with rich, complex diversity. And in various ways, I think that call to be Catholic, to be whole church, to be one body, I think has been in-

creasingly under strain, sometimes in the name of being Catholic. You know, we should not pervert the notion of Catholicism into a form of sectarianism.

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MS: Wow, that’s very powerful, and it certainly resonates very strongly with my experience as an American Catholic, and also it does resonate very strongly globally, I think. So tell us a little bit about Durham, and the initiation or birth of Catholic studies.

PM: Gosh, it’s because we’re always in the middle of things, it’s always difficult to know at what point to start a story, isn’t it? You know, I don’t know whether

your readers, and listeners, and colleagues will know much about the place of

Durham. It’s up in the northeast corner of England. About an hour’s drive from the, an hour and 20 drive from the Scottish border. Hadrian’s Wall is

a lot closer to us, just 15 miles up the road. And in one sense, you might say historically, it was a forgotten back corner of the Roman Empire, but interestingly, it’s a place that has been rich in Catholic Christian culture and

heritage for 1,400 years plus. The Irish monks who settled off the west coast of Ireland in Iona were invited to establish a similar island monastery by King Oswald off the coast of Northumberland, at Lindisfarne, the Holy Isle of Lindisfarne, famous for Saint Aidan, Saint Cuthbert, and it’s from there

that the re-evangelization of most of England took place. And one of the most famous saints associated with that tradition is of course, the polymath and chronicler, the Venerable Bede. MS: Right. PM: And the joint monastery that Benedict Biscop established at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow, it boasted one of the finest libraries in the Christian world, in

the late seventh, early eighth century, and that was the context that formed Bede, and from that, ultimately we have, after the Viking years, Durham Cathedral established as a shrine to Saint Cuthbert, and later with the Normans, Bede’s remains were transposed there, and Durham became the primary center of Christian learning in medieval England, so much so that one

of the earliest colleges of Oxford University was founded out of Durham Cathedral. Trinity College was originally known as Durham College. And

then when we go into the recusant years, and the Catholic intellectual

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community goes into exile under the Elizabethan Settlement into Douai in

northern France, and it operated there for 200 years successfully—over 200 years. At the time of the French Revolution, the anti-Catholic culture of

England had—it hadn’t been overturned legally—but it had lessened in its

severity, and you might say that at that point, at the point of the revolution, it seems that English people decided that they could tolerate Catholics a little

more than they could tolerate the revolutionary French, and the Catholic community was allowed home, because it was being persecuted. And Ushaw College was established on the edge of Durham. So we’ve had this interestingly rich mix, a great department of theology, Anglican in origin, which had

grown like the mustard tree to become a place where all the ecumenical birds

of the Earth could take rest and refuge, and with a great Catholic heritage, Ushaw College. And in the noughties, after I’d been teaching at Ushaw for

a couple of years, and I was given a post, initially a short term post within the department of the university, I recognized that there’d been a very sig-

nificant migration of Catholic students and Catholic staff from the Catholic

institutions and into the common public space, the secular public university

that Durham represented, and at the common table. You know, historically in England, Catholics have tended to do what I refer to as a form of Catholic parallelism. MS: Okay. PM: They’ve kind of done their own thing alongside whatever is either the Anglican or the secular standard. And the Centre for Catholic Studies was recog-

nizing that the time was ripe and right for us to actually do Catholic theology, Catholic studies, explicitly at the common table in the pluralist space, where we could be explicitly Catholic engaged, actually in some respect, more so

than in some Catholic institutions, explicitly Catholic engaged, but very ec-

umenically related. And in a place where there’s no line of analysis that can’t

be pursued, no question that can’t be engaged, and where you have all the perspectives and resources of a pluralist mainstream academic institution.

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MS: If you could expand upon that a little bit, why, for example, have Catholic

studies, when you have theology and you have resources in theology. How would Catholic studies, then, in some ways differ, or complement, say, a regular theological curriculum and so forth?

PM: So playing with Anselm’s theology as “faith seeking understanding,” which

I think is still probably the finest three word definition of theology. Faith is always contextual, and ecclesiastically contextual. It’s shaped not simply as an

individual affair of reasoning, and loving, and living, but it’s shaped to greater

and lesser degrees for us by the ecclesial context and traditions that shape us. So I don’t kind of buy the idea that there is just theology in general, as

it were. I think theology is an ecclesial exercise, understood in its full sense. And therefore, in a world where the ecclesial body of Christ is pluriform, divided, then the pursuit of theology, I think, needs to be confessionally pluri-

form in a way that recognizes both the points of commonality, but also the points of difference and distinction, and recognizes those points of difference and distinction not as sites for necessary battle, but recognizes them as sites

for understanding and learning. Learning not simply about each other, but learning from each other, because some of these differences are not neces-

sarily incompatibilities and incoherences. They are differences. They’re not necessarily incompatibilities. Some of them are, and there is a great deal of

space open for us for rich cross trans-ecclesial learning, which can actually

help expand the logic within our own respective traditions, and tend to some of the difficulties and challenges we find within our own traditions, which again, the same old logic that we’ve been running within our tradition is not necessarily going to be able to respond to those problems. It’s a bit like a hamster on a wheel. It can be a sense of movement, but it’s a circularity, a closed circularity.

MS: Well, could you talk then a little bit more about what particular intellectual questions, or I guess we could also say ecclesial questions that Catholic studies can address and engage?

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PM: Oh, gosh. Well, I would say it goes right across not simply the theological

curriculum. It goes right across the curriculum of, and research interests of,

the university. Let’s remind ourselves with Aquinas that theology, yes, yes, etymologically, it’s reasoning about God, the study of God, thinking before

God, but it’s the thinking of God and of all things in relation to God. So as I like to seek to provoke our first years, or somewhere between provoke and

entertain our first years, looked at in one way, you might say that theology in religion is all about purity codes, and all about learning to live before the all pure God. There’s another sense in which theology is the most promiscuous

of any of the subjects in the university, because it can fruitfully and properly engage all the other subject areas. Economics. Our Catholic social teaching

tradition needs to engage our economic and political and social realities. That takes us into economics. It takes us into social science, an understanding

of all things as having their origin in, that being sustained by and being oriented to for their fulfillment in the life of God, that kind of gives us all

the natural sciences as dialogue partners, and the arts and humanities, the understanding, the understanding of human person, human sociology in re-

lation to our history and environment, again, that takes us right in there. So, and I think one of the gifts of the Catholic tradition, again, going back to

our core defining identity, according to the whole, according to the whole, that all things gathered together in Christ of Colossians, this gives us an

instinct. This should give us an instinct for, whilst we all need to develop our specialisms in one or one or more of these conversations, it should give us

an instinct that there are no conversations that we should not be fruitfully engaging.

MS: So talk a little more specifically then about how the curriculum that you’ve developed fosters these kinds of conversations.

PM: Okay. So the Centre for Catholic Studies at Durham, it might be configured a little differently than some centers in North America. I know this is not

universally the case, but in my understanding, it is frequently the case that

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centers for Catholic studies in the States are not necessarily in theology departments. They might be. MS: That’s right. That’s true. PM: I mean, some are, but many aren’t, and they might therefore tend to focus less on the directly theological and ecclesiological, and more on the, say the history and culture. MS: Yes, true. PM: We are very definitely located within, not alongside, within the Department

of Theology and Religion. Which, as I say, is now a pluralist department. We

were set up first and foremost as a research center, so we have an orientation. Our primary orientation is towards a postgraduate, rather than undergraduate in terms of what we have formally laid out. That said, practically all

the full academic members of the Centre for Catholic Studies are heavily engaged in undergraduate teaching, and a very considerable amount of the

Christian doctrine area, the systematic theology, the ethics, and indeed some of the study of religion program modules undergraduate level are de facto

taught by members of staff of the Centre for Catholic Studies. We could very

easily identify a coherent pathway in Catholic theology and Catholic studies

already through our undergraduate program. We’ve not yet formalized that. But I personally hope we do before too much longer. I think it would be good for people around the country who are looking for programs rich in Catholic theology to be able to easily see that. Where we do have a named pathway is in the master’s program. We’re just about to bring out a distance learning version of that. MS: Oh, wonderful. PM: And that stretches across modules that are more directly historical in orientation, whether it be early modern Catholicism, or whether it be pre-Reformation Catholic history in the northeast. But we also have many mod-

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a module on contemporary Catholic ecclesiology… so that’s where we have most formally laid out a curriculum at master’s level. We obviously supervise

doctorates across the full spectrum of areas of expertise that our department can handle. And then another way of looking at—a broader looser sense of

looking at—what we understand by Catholic studies is to look at our five key program areas. So our first major program area—and these are big tent areas

with multiple projects running under them—the first we call constructive

Catholic theology, and it provides a home for anything from comparative work, say, on von Balthasar and Rahner, to theology and science in Catholic

theological perspective through to ecclesiology ecumenics and ethics. One

of our most interesting research projects in that area at the moment is called Boundary Breaking, which is study of the ecclesial cultural implications of

the clerical sexual abuse crisis, and we’ve worked with some American partner institutions on related aspects of that. A second big tent area for us is

Catholic social thought and practice and political theology, and that’s headed up by Professor Anna Rowlands. In each of those two big areas that I’ve so far identified, we work in partnership, at multi-level partnership with the Catholic Church, as well as with other Catholic academic institutions. We

work in partnership with the local diocesan church. We work in partnership with the national church, national Catholic structures, and we are well-rep-

resented on international Catholic bodies, things like the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission, and Anna Rowlands works very heavily

with the Dicastery for Integral Human Development. A third big area for us

is history of Catholicism, and this has really taken off. I’m not an historian, and I could see that it was important for us to engage this area, because Ush-

aw College that I previously mentioned has a very significant historic library and archive, and it was a kind of a no-brainer that we should engage that in some way, and develop, open up something in history of Catholicism specifically. When we were doing so, as I’m aware, the only person in a full-time

academic post in a theology department in the UK at that time with a post in affective history of Catholicism areas was Eamon Duffy at Cambridge.

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MS: Very well-known scholar, yes. PM: Eamon was a great friend and guide to us as we developed this program, and it has really taken off, and many religious congregations have been working with us on this as they move towards completion in their own congregational existence, and they want to have the narrative, the story of their congregation

well told through archival engagement. So history of Catholicism was a huge area for us. The fourth area is Catholicism literature and the arts, so that is

more recognizable to some of the centers for Catholic studies in the States, and this was not at first anticipated for us, and it came because scholars in the university in the English department, in the music department, and in visual

arts and culture came when we established the center in 2007-2008 and said, “This is great that you’re doing this. We kind of already do a kind of Catholic studies.” You know, the former head of music, his specialism is 19th-century Catholic liturgical music. The former head of English, his specialism is

Irish literature and poetry, much of which engages closely with the world

of Catholicism. And the former director of the Centre for Visual Arts and

Culture, who is a force of nature, engages particularly Hispanic art, which is

necessarily very theological in its subject matter frequently. So we opened up a biennial program of conferences, and you may not have had this advert in the States. There used to be an advert when I was a younger man for a Dutch

beer Heineken, and its strap line used to be “Heineken reaches the parts that

other beers fail to reach.” Well, our Catholicism literature in the arts program is our Heineken, because it reaches the parts of the academy that the more

directly theological and ecclesiological aspects of our work don’t as easily reach, so we’re really pleased with that. We are doing that jointly with the University of Notre Dame, and you’ll see how fluent I’ve become in correct American pronunciation there. MS: Yes. PM: And we are hosting our third international conference in that area between the 12th and 14th of July in the London Global Gateway of Notre Dame of Trafalgar Square. We’re very excited by the Canadian Catholic sculptor— VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

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your namesake—Timothy Schmalz is flying over to both speak at the event, and to do live sculpting at the event, so it’s a great thing. And then a fifth big program area that is opening up for us that we’re very excited about is being called Lived Catholicism, so it takes the concept from the study of lived re-

ligion, and it applies it specifically to the world of Catholicism. And this is

a great fit for us in Durham, because we are a department of theology and

religion. In some institutions, the more ecclesially linked study of theology, and the more social scientifically based study of religion can end up in uneasy

relationship with each other, shall we say. One of the blessings at Durham

is that those two areas, those two broad approaches are seen both as each as necessary and as complementary, and as each bringing something to the

other, and in the world of Catholic theology. Now, I’m a systematician. I do

work with the conceptual framework and furniture, but it is really important that we don’t do that in an abstracted and idealized way, but that we actually

engage with the living, breathing reality of the ecclesial body of Christ with both its gifts and graces, and its difficulties, tensions, wounds, paralyses. So

lived Catholicism, if you like, helps us get the stethoscope onto the breathing

lungs of the Church, and the beating heart of the Church in all its diversity, and surprisingly at times, challenges and pressure points. So that’s the five big areas we work with. And if we were to, which we never will, because we work

in and alongside, rightly so, our colleagues in other disciplinary areas, but if

we were to design a curriculum from ground up, as it were, it would reflect

those five big areas, which we think really cover the range of what we consider to be essential to a whole Church, all integrated view of Catholic studies.

MS: Wow. So within the Centre’s work, how do you particularly engage global issues, particularly when it comes to lived religion where you quite correctly

say that there is this plural diversity and so forth? I mean, how do you talk about that?

PM: So one of the serendipitous things is that when we moved into lockdown, I

was actually on an extended research leave, and I say serendipitous, because

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multivalent engagement with the virtual world. And Professor Karen Kilby, who’s the Bede Chair of Catholic Theology, with great alacrity and vision, really transposed the life of the CCS onto platforms like Zoom, et cetera, and

Lived Catholicism is a creature of that transposition, because the two inter-

national conferences that we’ve had in that area were entirely Zoom-based conferences. And they therefore gave us precisely that kind of global reach and global community, and it was well over 100 scholars, and they were most

typically scholars who had been squirreled away, seeing themselves somewhat as lone workers, say, in a geography department in the Philippines, working

as a geographer, but working on something of specific Catholic context and of interest, or it might be someone in a politics department in one of the African countries, or somebody in a history department in Mexico, and these

people all found their community, as it were, in this shared multidisciplinary approach to what the living, breathing diverse realities of Catholicism are in

global perspective. And again, it’s beautiful for us that this is happening at

this point in the Catholic story, as under the current papacy, a sensitivity to the global diversity of Catholicism is, I think, larger in the Catholic imagina-

tion and sensibility, and a greater sense of the diverse voices of Catholicism

needing to be brought into enriched communion. We see that through the

greater use that’s being made of bishops’ conference documents from around the world, and we see it also, I think, in the rather—okay, it might feel somewhat chaotic because of the speed with which it’s being done, but really—the

opening of the Synodal Pathway, and the opening of conversation, Catholic conversation. I mean, Catholics who live according to the whole, if that’s

our core identity, then open conversation should be our habitus, but actually we’ve not been terribly good at open conversation. We’ve tended to really protect and police what conversations we allow ourselves to have, and we’ve

done that in the name of preserving our core calling to be one, fearing that to open a conversation will lead us into fracture. So we’ve done it under the

name of seeking to hold together all those who have been given, as it were, to the Church, but actually, it’s been done at great cost of seepage, seepage and

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be heard, where they can be listened to, and where they can be included in

the conversation. Which doesn’t mean that the conversation needs to be dic-

tated by minority, or distorted, but as in any family, we need the conversation at the shared table, and I do think that’s what lived Catholicism is helping us do. And I think it’s one of the things that, even as we now relearn how to

be gathered communion post lockdowns, we will take with us permanently

into the future as with so many institutions. And today’s conversation, Mat, which I thank you for, is another example of the way in which actually learning to become platform proficient is really opening up possibilities for global Catholic conversation that we weren’t agile in before.

MS: So as we were talking about earlier, at least in my view, and I think it’s true, it’s not just my view, Catholicism and its study in the United States is heavily

politicized, because the surrounding culture is fractured, wounded, to use your terms, which I find very evocative. Could you talk a little more about

how in the UK, Catholic studies is situated within larger discussions culturally, not just within the Church, but outside of the Church?

PM: Yeah. So until relatively recently, the UK, politically and ecclesially has not tended to be quite so polarized as one has the impression is the case in the

States. And Catholic friends in the States would say, “Well, the polarization in the Church is a kind of an ecclesial interiorization of a polarization, a

prior polarization in American politics and society.” You know, we’ve not

tended to have that quite so much in the UK, either politically or ecclesial. Saying we have not tended to, I think things are shifting. I think things are shifting post Brexit, and all sorts of other realities. And what I go by here

is, I’ve said it a number of times, the core Catholic calling to live according to the whole. So one of the commitments behind the Centre for Catho-

lic Studies is what we refer to as whole Church, a whole Church instinct, whole Church Catholicism. So there’s no such thing as an academic who

doesn’t have various agenda and lines of argument they’re wanting to push, but within the CCS, there is no one line that all the academics are pushing, as it were. There is diversity within the CCS academic staff. There’s diversity JOURNAL OF GLOBAL CATHOLICISM

Mathew N. Schmalz | 175

Perhaps what we are first and foremost called to be are agents of witness, and we hope at appropriate points, we might make some contribution to felicitous change in society and the Church.... Paul D. Murray within our student body, actually, quite considerable diversity. And yeah, I think it would be fair to say that there’s a predominant, strong commitment

to Vatican II Catholicism, and exploring what that still might mean, and seeking to contribute to that. But the kind of no platforming culture, well, as

long as somebody has the ability to engage with the right academic quality, and is open to serious, critical, and constructive conversation, then we will welcome people to speak, and give platform to people across a considerable range of perspective. It would come down to not the substantive position

somebody holds, but to the ethos, the conversational ethos and academic ethos that they would bring with them, and that’s what would be primary for us. So, in terms of how does that feed into the wider society, we do want to

be agents of change, probably it is for most of us, most of the time. Perhaps what we are first and foremost called to be are agents of witness, and we hope

at appropriate points, we might make some contribution to felicitous change in society and the Church, if things that might need to be tended to, which

can generally be seen better retrospectively. But what we are certainly called

to be is witnesses in our work, and we seek to offer the CCS as we hope a

model when it’s living to its best. We hope that it offers some kind of witness, both in the academy—there are all sorts of pressures in the academy. I mean, one of the default corruptions of the academy is the kind of competitiveness that runs through it. We are seeking to model community, a community of scholars whose work is enabled and enriched through that community, and a

mutually respectful exchange. And we are seeking to form the next genera-

tion of scholars in that. So if we do our work, then to link back to the image I gave you earlier of Lindisfarne, and the monastic culture there, and the

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monks who went forth from that rich context, went forth and re-evangelized

our country. Well, some of our alum who are now scattered around the world in various institutions, they are still in relationship with us, and they tell us

that even more important than the first-class academic formation that they

were able to receive in a place such as the theology department at Durham, even more important than that was the communitas—the experience of communitas—of the Centre for Catholic Studies. And in a way that has shaped their instincts for what they want to build and be in their relationships with colleagues and students in their career. And that I have to say is a cause of

immense joy when we hear that echo come back to us in that way, because

yes, as academics, we need to write the texts. We tend to find ourselves in trouble if we don’t write the texts. The most important texts that we write

and perform are those that are written in our lives and in the lives of others, and that is true to the Catholic Christian tradition. So I guess that’s how we are seeking, whether it’s Anna Rowlands working in hard political reali-

ties, whether it’s Karen Kilby working in contemporary Catholic systematics, whether it’s our historians looking at the realities of specific narratives with-

in Catholicism and their complexity—what we’re seeking to do is to offer something which can be taken as a model that can be like a virtuous virus, a virtuous virus that can help shape other things and inspire.

MS: Well, on that very positive and hopeful note, let us conclude, and let me

conclude by thanking you so much, Dr. Paul Murray—Paul, if I may—for sharing with us your very rich experience, and very compelling vision of what

Catholic studies can be, and how it can contribute to not only our discus-

sions in the Church, but to broader intellectual discussions that shape the academy. Thank you so much.

PM: Thank you, Mat. Thank you for this invitation, and may your work be blessed.

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M AT H E W N . S C H M A L Z

Interviews in Global Catholic Studies: Kenneth Parker Kenneth Parker is Ryan Endowed Chair for Newman Studies and Professor of Catholic Studies and Historical Theology at Duquesne University. He is the inaugural Chair of the Department of Catholic Studies, which formed in 2020. He has authored two books and co-edited three volumes, including The Rise of Historical Consciousness among the Christian Churches (University Press of America, 2012) with Erick Moser. In 2016, he served as Interim Executive Director for the National Institute for Newman Studies.

Mathew N. Schmalz is Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Global Catholicism and a Professor of Religious Studies at the College of the Holy Cross. He has published more than fifty articles and essays that engage global Catholicism (particularly in South Asia), Catholic theology and spirituality, Mormonism, and The Watchtower movement. He is co-editor of Engaging South Asian Religions: Boundaries, Appropriations, and Resistances (SUNY, 2012, with Peter Gottschalk) and author of Mercy Matters: Opening Yourself to the Life Changing Gift (OSV, 2016). He regularly contributes to media coverage of religion and religious issues. He has published opinion pieces in Newsweek, Salon, The Washington Post, Fortune, USNews & World Report, Commonweal Magazine, and The National Catholic Reporter.

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Watch this interview on YouTube: https://youtu.be/jOq6KeiPq58.

MS: Welcome everyone. My name is Mathew Schmalz, and I’m Editor-in-Chief

of the Journal of Global Catholicism, and this is part of our continuing series

of interviews with scholars in the field of Catholic studies, broadly under-

stood. And so it’s my great pleasure to welcome Dr. Kenneth Parker, the Ryan Endowed Chair for Newman Studies and Chair of the Department of Catholic Studies at Duquesne University. Welcome. KP: Thank you. MS: I perused your professional website, and you have quite an interesting professional and personal journey. So could you share some of that story with us?

KP: Sure, just briefly. I was born in 1954, the year of Brown v. Board of Educa-

tion in North Carolina. And my father was a Pilgrim Holiness pastor and my mother, a very devout person in that evangelical tradition. So I was raised

and nurtured in an evangelical home. Like a lot of college students, I found myself going through a period of spiritual quest during my undergraduate

years and found my way into a deep examination of the Catholic tradi-

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continued that work at Fuller Theological Seminary in historical theology

and came in contact with a monastic community in the Mojave Desert that

really transformed my thinking. And even though I went away and did a

PhD in reformation history at the University of Cambridge under Eoman Duffy, the interest in the desire to explore the possibility of a monastic voca-

tion didn’t go away. So I went to the monastery and was a monk for five years. They sent me to Fribourg where I met with Dominicans in the professorial priory there in Fribourg. MS: Oh, wow. KP: And then after a period of discernment I decided to return to academic life and found my way after a couple of years to St. Louis University, where I

taught in the PhD program in historical theology there at SLU. And in 2016 the National Institute for Newman Studies invited me to become the inter-

im director of that institute. And the following year, Duquesne University invited me to take up the Ryan Endowed Chair for Newman Studies. So that’s a very brief overview, but I became a Roman Catholic while I was at

Cambridge University. And I have been deeply involved in not only deepen-

ing my own experience of the Catholic tradition, but I also see it as a part of my own personal mission to engage in irenic engagement with other people of other Christian traditions and inter-religious dialogue.

MS: Well, that is a wonderfully, I would say empowering story about how your intellectual journey and your faith journey intersect. And so you ended up at Duquesne. Can you tell us a little bit about Duquesne?

KP: Sure, Duquesne University was founded in 1876 by the Holy Ghost Fathers. They now call themselves Spiritans. It’s a missionary order primarily that

was dominated in the 19th century by French and Irish and German fathers. They were invited to come here to Pittsburgh to work with and engage the immigrant community that was rapidly growing here in Pittsburgh. And they started a kind of an academy that grew into a college that became a university. And so Duquesne now is sort of the regional flagship university for

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Western Pennsylvania and has a variety of professional schools and graduate programs up to the PhD level.

MS: Is there still much Spiritan presence at Duquesne? KP: Well, their provincial house is right on campus. So, while their presence is not as extensive because of the reduction of their size, they remain very present on campus. Our campus minister, for example, director, is a Spiritan.

MS: So tell me about the beginnings of Catholic Studies at a Catholic University. KP: Right. Well, Duquesne’s Catholic Studies department began as a presiden-

tial initiative by President Ken Gormley. I was called into the provost office in the summer of 2019. Not something that every faculty member looks forward to.

MS: No, I understand. KP: And so I was rather surprised when I was presented with this request that I pursue a Catholic studies initiative and to my surprise, and to the delight

of our administrators, I sort of stumbled into a very generous donation that funded the department for three years. And so we began in earnest in 2019-

2020, planning the creation of this department, and attracted into our plan-

ning committee some very significant high profile faculty on campus. Our former dean, James Swindal, a philosopher, joined the team. Dr. Kathleen

Roberts, the director of our honors college, who’s a sociolinguistics expert, she joined in. Dr. Bill Wright from the Theology Department, our New

Testament scholar, requested a primary appointment in Catholic Studies. And I’m a historical theologian. So we came into this work already a very

interdisciplinary department. And that really is what sets Catholic Studies aside from other projects, like the discipline of theology or the discipline of philosophy.

MS: That’s fascinating. Can you talk a little more building on that, on how you conceptualize Catholic studies, especially vis-a-vis theology?

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KP: Well, first of all, I don’t say this defensively, but descriptively. Catholic studies

is not a shadow theology department or a shadow philosophy department. And from its beginnings, about 30 years ago, as a movement, Catholic stud-

ies has been characterized as a project that sees the disciplinary lines blurred based on a very simple principle that in the Catholic tradition we’re inter-

ested in everything. And so there’s nothing that we study, there’s no area of knowledge that is not in some way touched by the tradition. So we welcome

partners from many different disciplines and professional programs. In our

teaching we do a lot of cross listed courses that bear the mark of interest in

the Catholic tradition, whether that’s psychology, sociology, political science, communication rhetoric—the list could go on and on. We have a very gen-

erous and enthusiastic and diverse collection of folks who are interested in helping this project move forward and grow.

MS: Great. So could you share a little bit more specifically then about how the program is structured? So say I’m an undergraduate, and I’m interested in Catholic studies. What would my curriculum look like?

KP: Well, we’ve got a major and a minor. While the major is officially a standalone major, we promote it as a second major. And the minor is one that

incorporates and is very friendly to the use of courses in our core curricu-

lum that we call “Bridges” to building up and creating a minor. Our tagline, when asked about what’s distinctive about Catholic studies from other ma-

jors, we make the point that while your primary major is about the “what?” and the “how?” of your future, Catholic studies is about the “why?” and the

“for whom?” of your life. And I find that that’s a very attractive concept for students in this era, when we really are struggling with the very reality of the

possibility of truth in our culture, and students are eager to find some kind of framing of their system of values in their life.

MS: Wonderful. So you mentioned a number of distinguished faculty at Duquesne who are involved in the program. Can you talk a little more about what you see as a particular strength of Duquesne’s program?

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When asked about what’s distinctive about Catholic studies from other majors, we make the point that while your primary major is about the “what?” and the “how?” of your future, Catholic studies is about the “why?” and the “for whom?” of your life. And I find that that’s a very attractive concept for students in this era... students are eager to find some kind of framing of their system of values in their life. Kenneth Parker KP: Well, I was saying this just yesterday to a member of the board of directors. The great strength of our department is that with one exception we are a department of full professors. So we’re seasoned academics, veterans in the classroom. We have a deep commitment, not just to the curriculum, but to the

lives of our students. So we make ourselves available and feel comfortable not only in the classroom but also in conversation in our offices, in presentations

to student groups, in creating social opportunities that are connected with the department that are intended to build community. So, in those ways, the

department really does have a group of seasoned academics to help grow the program. The downside of that, of course, is that we’re made up of full profes-

sors. And so, in looking forward to the future, certainly one of the things that we’re looking to do is recruit and cultivate and form younger faculty who can be a part of our program and carry on what we’re seeking to start.

MS: So you mentioned before that Catholic studies in some ways addresses the “why?” of education. Can you talk a little more about the important ques-

tions that Catholic studies addresses or can address both in the classroom and through scholarship?

KP: Sure. Well, I think in our society and in our world today, one of the biggest questions is how do we form people who are deeply committed to the dig-

nity of every human person. And so one needn’t be a confessional Roman

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Catholic to be attracted to Catholic studies, because at its base, the principles of Catholic studies is about shaping and forming people who are eager to make a difference in the world. We’re really interested in creating lay leaders for the next generation of the Catholic Church. And so we see our role as

being one that’s primarily constructive. While we don’t shy away from con-

tentious issues in our teaching and in our classrooms, what we do want to emphasize is the constructive role that the tradition and the Catholic community can play in the lives of these young adults.

MS: Let’s talk more about those contentious issues. In my experience, Catholicism in the United States is very politically polarized, and that bleeds over

into discussions about Catholic studies and what Catholic studies is about and so forth. How do you negotiate or navigate some of those controversial

issues in terms of, first, the way in which Catholic studies is construed, and second, talking about issues in the classroom that might be controversial.

KP: Right. Well, I should first point out that I’m an early modern scholar. So studying the reformation has sort of prepared me for eras of contentious and

divisive issues. And it doesn’t surprise me. And of course we are living in not

just a religiously but politically polarized environment, and that’s something that we can either lament or we can lean into and recognize that if we’re truly

going to live a life guided by the gospels, we’ve got to find ways to love one

another even in the midst of our differences. I mean, if I were to characterize myself in early modern terms, I see myself as very Erasmian and an Irenicist

in my approach. I want to listen. I want to understand. And that’s what I cultivate in my classroom. And my colleagues are the same.

MS: That’s very well put and especially the irenic quality of what we should be

doing and so forth, I think it is very well taken. So obviously the Journal

of Global Catholicism is interested in global Catholicism. And so, to what

extent do you think that is an area of Catholic studies that’s important to engage and if so, how should we engage it?

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KP:

Sure. Well, although we’re a baby program, we’ve only been in existence for

really less than two years, we’ve for a range of reasons had an opportunity

to be actively engaged at the national level and at the international level, through a couple of projects. And I’ll explain. We discovered an opportunity

to collaborate with the trustees of the Pontifical Irish College a couple of years ago to search out the potential of a formative collegiate experience

in Rome, in collaboration with Pontifical Universities there, principally at the moment the Gregorian and the Angelicum. And the vision for this is

not simply to recreate another American study abroad program that’s insular that’s turned in with American faculty, teaching American students in a

kind of American bubble in Rome. But really enabling students to encounter

what the global Church is all about in the place that is the center of unity in the Catholic tradition. And so we have a number of US institutions that are engaged in this collaborative multi-institutional project. But we’ve also

got a growing enthusiasm with the bishops of Ireland to send Irish students, lay students, for periods of study in Rome. The undersecretary for education at the Vatican is discussing with us the possibility of Austrian and German students joining into an English language program at the Angelicum and at

the Gregorian—possibly other pontifical universities. But the point here is that we recognize that Catholic studies at its base is about forming young lay leaders. And so it’s a natural progression in Catholic studies for us to shift into those kinds of discussions. Once we leave the American bubble where Catholic studies is primarily located as a movement and talk about it in a global context. And we’re in conversations with institutions that are dealing

with people who are truly marginalized around the world, refugees, and the potential of bringing them into this experience as well to give them a space

where they often don’t find themselves in. Where it’s okay to talk about

their faith in an academic intellectual context, where it’s okay to think about what it means to be committed to the life of the Church, whether that’s in

some form of dedicated vocation or in a Catholic marriage where they have

children. I had one colleague in a conversation that we were having with the archbishops of Ireland last week, who made the observation, you want to VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2 | SPRING 2022

186 | Interviews in Global Catholic Studies: Kenneth Parker

send folks to this place because they’re going to be the parents of the next generation of priests and religious. So I feel very excited about what Catholic

studies can mean for the life of the Church, not just here in America, but globally.

MS: Okay. Well, on that note I think we’ll conclude the interview and thank you

so much, Ken, if I may. And this has been a wonderful opportunity for us and the Journal of Global Catholicism. So our thanks to you.

KP: My pleasure.

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