nostalGic Man

nostalGic Man

PsycHoloGy

As the study of ancient civilisations has shown (that of ancient Mesopotamia), from the beginning of civilisation and the first erection of the city walls49, man has recognised the need to create representations of the primordial world he has left behind. The question consequently is, why has man sought to reconstruct the world that he has so brazenly stepped out of? The answer for this goes far beyond that of basic nostalgia. Deeply embedded into our evolution, is the primordial instinct of our ancestors, for example, the slightest glimpse of an object which resembles a snake, triggers an instant fear response50. Likewise, one can deduce that the presence of plants has an equal impact on our psyche, as it once provided healing, refuge and nourishment for our ancestors.

Studies show that children in playgrounds were fonder of engaging in physical activities near trees and shrubs; as such interaction with nature increased the capacity for imaginative play51. The natural environment, such as parks, can provide an interesting background and objects for children to engage in more immersive play52. Amidst older children, contact with the natural environment has been proven to boost problem solving skills and encourage group decision making53. It has also been shown that human interaction with green spaces can greatly decrease stress levels. High stress levels proliferates the risk of many life-threatening diseases, as well as, one’s perception of his or her physical health54. Over 100 studies have elucidated the fact that stress reduction is a significant benefit of spending time in green spaces55 .

Secondly, in a study of depressed patients, 71 percent of patients realised a decrease in their depression after going on outdoor walks within a natural

49 Dalley, Stephanie, ed. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the flood, Gilgamesh, and others. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000. 50 (Wolf, Green Cities: Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010, Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010) 51 Ibid. 52 (Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010, Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010) 53 Ibid. 54 (Wolf, Green Cities: Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010) 55(Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010, Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010)

environment; this was contrasted by the 45 percent decrease within the sample group who went for walks indoors (artificial environments)56. Urban green spaces encourage exercise and engagement in physical activities which resultantly release endorphins in the brain, which help to combat depression and weight gain57. Moreover, green spaces are normally publicly accessible; hence, they offer a free and affordable means in which to engage in exercise and other outdoor activities58 .

According to Wolf, specificity of plants and arrangement, play a crucial role in how one perceives and relates to natural spaces59. Due to the savannah hypothesis purported by Charles Darwin60, it is argued that people prefer open landscapes with scattered flora, much like the landscapes resembling that of the Africa, where most of our ontogenetic evolution occurred. Nevertheless, counter research has also shown that people who spent time in parks with a greater plant species diversity and richness scored higher on various measures of psychological well-being, than individuals exposed to parks of lower biodiversity61 .

56 Ibid. 57 (Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010, Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010) 58 Ibid. 59 (Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010, Wolf, Green Cities: Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010) 60 (Shreeve, Sunset on the Savannah 1996) 61(Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010)

HealinG

The psychological benefits of a human-nature connection are tremendous; also, those specific psychological benefits also manifest themselves in physical ways, such as health. Kaplan states, through a study of six hospitals, the quality of view from patients’ windows were critical factors in the recovery of patients in physical medicine and rehabilitation62. Patients’ views with higher nature content were purported by Kaplan to have a higher rate of recovery from ailments63 .

In a second study of inmates within a prison, inmates who had a view onto the surrounding farmlands sought healthcare less frequently those inmates who had views of other sceneries64. These cases, according to Kaplan, carefully show the importance of an association to nature and its ability to enhance the natural human condition. Evidently, there is a clear and innate demand for the connection with nature as a basic need for humanity.

62 (R. a. Kaplan 1989) 63 (R. a. Kaplan 1989) 64 (R. a. Kaplan 1989)

tHe city

Consequent to our biological ontogenetic development, man remains bounded by genetic memory to be most happy and most efficient within environments which even subtly recalls man’s evolutionary home. Nonetheless, millennia of the development of civilisation have drifted man away from their presence among the natural environment into a realm of pure fabrication. Whilst living in a city has its obvious advantages, it also has its disadvantages. Such disadvantages portray themselves in a myriad of psychological, physiological, sociological and environmental ways. These disadvantages affect how and if man may continue to develop as a race. Research in the United States of America shows that in 1900, the average rate of clinical depression was approximately 1 percent; by 2000, that rate had risen to approximately 19 percent; this is a remarkable 2000 percent increase in only 100 years.

In another study, it revealed that depression and other psychological ailments are a side effect of urban life65. The study of 3291 adults in North California showed a higher level of depression within people living in urban areas. Essentially, depression puts the body under significant stress which resultantly raises probability of heart disease, obesity and a weakened immune system66 . Also, the lack of healthy human interaction within the city may also lead to the

65 (Barber 2011) 66 (Baber 2011)

feeling of loneliness, which is a key contributor to depression67. The shifting from sustenance farming and caring for livestock has also contritely reduced the opportunities we have to act on our pervasive need of interacting with animals and plants68 .

MeMory

The awareness of the fact that memory is stored within man’s genetic code is a fairly new one. It surmises the theory that memories from ancestors are passed down for generations, which affects personality, mood, as well as proclivities such as affinities and phobias. Genetic memory is resultantly the reason for humanities inherent compulsion to associate him with natural things. It is assumed that civilisation is approximately 5000-6000 years old69; however, in the chronology of man, and evolution, this is only small instance. Nevertheless, it begs one to ask the question, with enough time, will society be able to rewrite the millennia of memory which our ancestors have passed down?

Currently our society is developing along a line which seeks to distance itself greater and greater from nature. Consequently we see prevalence of technological nature in its replacement, some such forms are videos of natural things, natural scented candles among others.

Successively this brings us to the concept of urban memory. Urban memory is the history of amnesia within the people within the built environment, in terms of their response to natural stimuli; it is consequently an evolutionary defence mechanism to secure human survival70. Scientifically, this survival mechanism is called environmental generational amnesia71. This theory expresses the concern that by adapting gradually to the loss of nature within our environment and the inclusion of technological nature, for example, videos and pictures, we will consequently lower the baseline across generations for our kinship with nature, that is, we will yearn less for the real or natural things72. Kellert and Kahn allegorically explain the concept of environmental generational amnesia as follows:

67 (Baber 2011) 68 (Baber 2011) 69 (Maisels 2001) 70 (Crimson 2005) 71 (J. R. Peter H. Kahn 2009 ) 72 (J. R. Peter H. Kahn 2009 )

“Imagine that your favourite food item is the only source of an essential nutrient and that without it everyone suffers from low-grade asthma and increased stress. Now imagine a generation of people who grew up in a world where this food item does not exist. In such a world, it would seem likely that people would not feel deprived by the absence of this tasty food (it was never in their minds to begin with) and that they would accept low-grade asthma and increased stress as the normal human condition.”73

Accordingly, research has purported that environmental generational amnesia can be insidious, as it decreases ones awareness of the world around him74. In a study of children living in Houston, one of the most air polluted areas in the United States, it revealed that children were well aware of the concept of air pollution, but were completely unaware that their city was indeed polluted, as they had no other point of reference75. Contritely, this is a slippery slope, with each successive generation of degradation; people will continue to take their degraded environmental state as well as their reduced interaction with the natural environment as a normal, leading to a decline in awareness of the environmental problems76 .

73 (S. R. Peter H. Kahn 2002) 74 (J. R. Peter H. Kahn 2009 ) 75 (J. R. Peter H. Kahn 2009 ) 76 (J. R. Peter H. Kahn 2009 )

fatiGue

At first glance, one might not realise the direct correlation between fatigue and the urban environment, but on further inspection, it becomes rather clear. In order to understand the effect of the modern world on fatigue, it is crucial that one first understands the psychology of attention77. For the majority of human existence, information has been comparatively scarce. Nevertheless, this era has brought with it, a slew of information which regretfully leads to information overload, and inadvertently; it is attention that is now scarce78 .

According to Kaplan (1992), there are two types of attention, involuntary attention and direct attention. Involuntary attention is invoked by something that is genuinley interesting in the environment. Such kinds of attention is simple and effortless; one does not have to exhaust any mental capacity in which to accomplish this level of attention. On the opposite end of the spectrum, is direct attention, which requires effort. Direct attention forces the individual to focus specifically and engage in higher mental processes, for example,problem solving and planning79. Direct attention therefore places the psyche under stress, for example, when you tell a child to pay attention, he begins to focus explicitly on the stimulus. However, the problem with direct attention, is that, one’s ability to do so is limited80 .

77Kaplan, Stephen. “The restorative environment: Nature and human experience.” In Role of Horticulture in Human Well-being and Social Development: A National Symposium. Timber Press, Arlington, Virginia, pp. 134-142. 1992. 78 Ibid 79 Ibid 80 Kaplan, Stephen. “The restorative environment: Nature and human experience.” In Role of Horticulture in Human Well-being and Social Development: A National Symposium. Timber Press, Arlington, Virginia, pp. 134-142. 1992.

Nature, intriniscally captures our attention, it is filled with interesting stimuli (colors, shadows, smells and tastes)81. Consequently, nature inadvertently captures attention modestly, thus allowing direct-attention a chance to remplemish; resultantly lowering our psychological stressors82. Unlike the natural environment, the city is filled with stimulants which capture the attention directly and dramatically; for example driving in traffic, inherently makes it less restorative and more stressful83. Consequently, it can be deduced that natural stimulants can be a cost effective way to engage one in Attention Restorative Therapy (ART)84 . According to ART, engaging in activities or environments with intrinsically interesting stimuli, such as watching the sunset, gives a cognitive recess and allows direct-attention functions to replenish85.Consequently, the theory asserts that after engaging or interacting with the natural environment, one would be able to better perform task that recquire direct attention86 .

environMental

Hitherto, urban environments despite its intentions to become more hospitable have slowly become climatically harsher87. Cementification and an excess of asphalted surfaces has led to a dramatic increase in the microclimate of urban areas; the heat island phenomenon88. Data shows that urban environments are typically 2-5 degrees warmer than surrounding rural areas89. Resultantly, people use more energy for cooling which greater increases the carbon footprint of the city. The increase in temperature also results in an eradication of flora and fauna which can no longer exist under those temperatures.

Due to the higher rates of fuel consumption and industrialisation within the city, air quality within the urban environment has become increasingly poor; PM10 levels are at an all-time high (PM10 is particle matter below 10 micrometres)90.As declared by the Europe Commission, PM10 emission causes ap-

81 Ibid 82 Berman, Marc G., John Jonides, and Stephen Kaplan. “The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature.” Psychological science 19, no. 12 (2008): 1207-1212. 83 Berman, Marc G., John Jonides, and Stephen Kaplan. “The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature.” Psychological science 19, no. 12 (2008): 1207-1212. 84 (Marc G. Berman 2008) 85 (Marc G. Berman 2008) 86 (Marc G. Berman 2008) 87 (Perini 2012) 88 (Perini 2012) 89 (Perini 2012) 90 (Perini 2012)

proximately 350.000 (three hundred and fifty thousand) deaths yearly in Europe alone91. The growing effects of PM10 and smaller particles on the mortality rate and comfort of the city population is consequent to an inadequate amount of vegetation and green spaces92. Apart from the positive effects of vegetation on human wellbeing, it also plays a crucial role in environmental comfort. Plants absorb and reduce the quantity of CO2 and other pollutants in the air93. Perini purports, due to the growing difficulty in finding open spaces within cities, the building themselves can become a place in which plants can be integrated, resultantly improving the quality of life, while reducing the effects of pollution and environmental damage94 .

Man in his natural habitat

BioPHilia

The human psyche is unequivocally linked to nature. Human beings possess an inexplicable proclivity to engage with natural things, and by so doing, it impacts on their health and well-being. This concept is referred to as, Biophilia95. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, Biophilia is the “idea that humans possess an innate tendency to seek connections with nature and other forms of life”96. It was coined by German-American psychoanalyst Eric Fromm; it incorporates the Greek word Bio “life” and philia “affinity”. The theory was later developed by Edward Wilson, who purported that that this affinity was subse-

91 (Perini 2012) 92 (Perini 2012) 93 (Keenan 2013) 94 (Perini 2012) 95 (Mohawk Group 2016) 96 (Rogers 2016)

quent to the evolutionary and ontogenetic development of the Homo sapiens97 .

Fundamentally, Wilson purports, individuals who had more availability to water and the natural resources were favoured for survival; hence their genes were passed on. Evidence for this he claims, can be seen in the ubiquitous fondness people around different parts of the world feel for the natural environment. The most pervasive evidence for biophilia is Biophobia, which means the fear of nature98. This concept denotes man’s innate ability to react to elements of nature that have been generally a source of danger within the natural environment. Contrarily, this is a reaction to things that were throughout evolution, a threat to human beings, for example, Spiders, poisonous plants and sounds that resemble predators or dangers99 .

BioPHilic desiGn

Biophilic design is the intentional endeavour of assimilating the essence of the natural environment into a transmuted architectural model. Studies in the theory Biophilia have created a paradigm shift which seeks to involve the natural elements into the built environment100. All through evolutionary history, human beings have developed their bodies and psyche in response to their evolutionary context(s); not the built environment in which we currently dwell101. Man’s evolutionary context was influenced heavily by light, sound, odour, wind, weather, water, vegetation, animals, and landscapes. Biophilic design should consequently delineate the physiognomies, the genius loci and the immateriality of the natural environment102. When biophilic design is applied efficaciously, it results in an innumerable amount of benefits such as increased cognition, higher effectivity, better heart rates, lower depression and overall physical fitness103 .

In a study, it was proven that students who conducted classes in a classroom with wooden desks and/or ceilings performed better as there was a de-

97 (Mohawk Group 2016) 98 (Rogers 2016) 99 (Rogers 2016) 100 (Mohawk Group 2016) 101 (Mohawk Group 2016) 102 (Mohawk Group 2016) 103 (Mohawk Group 2016)

crease in heart rate, and hostility, higher levels of social interaction and an overall increase in productivity104. Therefore, biophilic design proves itself to be the next step in the evolution of the built environ, and by extension the city.

Biophilic design also has economic advantages, it has been shown to reduce absenteeism in the workplace and improve overall focus and productivity. Biophilia improves overall mood which equates a happier and healthier workforce; whom are more willing to engage. Biophilic design also implements ART (Attention restorative Therapy) approaches to help reduce the direct stressors placed on the occupants within the office, for example, the sound of photocopying machines, printers and other exasperating stimuli. By improving ones mood in the work environment, resultantly reduces the rates of presenteeism, which is the states of being at work, but not mentally present or simply being ineffective105 .

Biophilic design ultimately enriches the built environment with spirituality and life, thus providing an atmosphere where people can connect on transcendental level106. This imperceptible connection therefore, motivates responsibility and stewardship which will extend itself outside of the building and perhaps trigger a greater holistic appreciation for the natural environment. Biophilic design eclectically begins to reconcile man with his lost paradisiacal state.

104 (Mohawk Group 2016) 105 (Mohawk Group 2016) 106 (Mohawk Group 2016)

aPPlicaBility of BioPHilia

Biophilic Interventions can be costly; nevertheless, the long term effects of these interventions can be very fruitful for the success of the organisation. The costly start-up for a biophilic environment will be mitigated by its overall boost in productivity and lower turnover rates107. In an experiment conducted in Sacramento, researchers discovered that by simply orientating workstations toward windows, instead of having them facing away from it, increased overall productivity. Employees were able to make quick glances outside unto nearby tress and parks during work flow. This gave the staff the opportunity to replenish their cognitive processes, consequential to less mental fatigue and greater focus for longer periods of time. This intervention, although costing the company $1000 per person, due to its 6 percent increase in productivity, the company saw a return of $3000 per person108 .

infrastructure desiGn

Biophilia, as stated previously, is much more than the use of planters and natural looking wallpapers in the building, the greater the level of application of biophilic design, the greater is the restorative reward109. Consequently, to achieve this, one must have specific infrastructural adaptations in order to apply high levels of success within the building. The objective therefore is to incorporate biophilic design holistically into the buildings infrastructural design to increase the nature-human experience110 .

Flooring is an essential aspect of biophilic design due to its architectural size. According to an article published by Mohawk Group, an efficacious way of naturalising the floor element is by using dark tones, typically brown and black, as it gives the illusion of soil111. Given its contrast, it can modestly engage occupant’s interest throughout the day. Heraclitean motion is referred to as movement patterns which are associated with a calm and stable mind112. It is

107 (Mohawk Group 2016) 108 (Mohawk Group 2016) 109 (Mohawk Group 2016) 110 (Mohawk Group 2016) 111 (Mohawk Group 2016) 112 (Wolf, Green Cities: Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010)

an evolutionary consequence of particular weather patterns meaning danger or calm; hence, the movement of soft rhythmic shadows of trees, cumulus clouds, breeze, grass and light, tells our brain that “the weather is good today, relax”. Therefore, it can be of good merit to incorporate such features into the design to promote the feeling of safety and tranquillity, whilst improving productivity and focus within the building or work environment. Heraclitean mimicry can be done by using lighting or spatial design techniques which intrigue the forming of interesting shadows, or subtle rhythmic movement within the façade or edifice113 .

113 (Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010)

circadian liGHt

A properly lit environment can be Circadian Rhythm, which ultimately leads to an enhanced mood, improved neurological health, and improved alertness114. Circadian Rhythm is classified as any biological process which happens over the course of 24 hours115. According to Wolf, increasing the use of natural and daylighting and reducing the use of artificial lighting can help streamline this process, resulting in a myriad of health benefits116 .

114 (Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010) 115 (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica 2017) 116 (Wolf, Mental Health and Function - A Literature Review. In: Green Cities: Good Health 2010)