Cubism: Fragmented and Abstracted by howcanwebearit

Seeds of Modernism: the making of the Bauhaus concept, developments in design history 1830 to 1950

James Volks & Susan Harrison

FRAGMENTED AND ABSTRACTED

CUBISM

Pablo Picasso in his Montmartre studio, 1908, and Young Georges Braque in his studio

Introduction Cubism is an early-20th-century avantgarde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris (Montmartre and Montparnasse) or near Paris (Puteaux) during the 1910s and throughout the 1920s. This book will explore the Cubist Movement and its complicated history. Beginning with the African masks brought to Europe by colonisers. Moving to the development of Cubism in Paris by Picasso, Braque and many other artists. Furthermore, a look into Delaunay’s Orphism, her background and the environment that influenced her work throughout her life.

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African Influence

The cubist art movement can be easily traced back to 1907 Paris, where Picasso painted Les Demoiselles d’Avignon and opened the door to a new age of artists and movements that created “almost infinite new possibilities for the treatment of visual reality in art” (Tate). Paul Cezanne’s paintings such as Bibemus Quarry, c.1895 are often marked as the initial influences for Cubism because of the way his loose painting style would imply shape and alter line. However African artefacts being transported to Europe by colonisers in the late 19th century may have more to do with Cubism’s distinctive features and approaches.

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Iwalwa Masque, Congo

In 1879 Belgian troops began entering modern day Congo, fast forward to 1906 and Matisse was showing the Nkisis statue he had bought to Stein and Picasso in Paris. These African sculptures had been created centuries prior to reaching Europe and held very rich symbolism and meaning in their respected communities. The skills and care taken to make these pieces is evident when we consider that we can still view them today. The masks acted as “mediators between the living world and the supernatural world of the dead and other entities” (historymuseum.ca).

British soldiers, Benin looted artefacts, 1897

The MendèsFrance Baule mask, Ivory Coast : Portrait of Mme Zborowska, Modigliani, 1918

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Art for art’s sake is not big in Africa. Or at least, it wasn’t when the 20th-century western artists started to wander for inspiration in the richness of the African Continent. Their art encompasses a wide variety of media and performances while addressing mostly the spiritual world. But the relationship between the physical and the spiritual turns very much tangible in their practices.

The art of Africa is mostly utilitarian and can be seen on everyday items, but it also plays an active role in rituals when commissioned by a shaman or a worshiper. The role of traditional African art is never merely decorative, but functional. Every item performs either a spiritual or civil function. Cubism was all about breaking the rules. It emerged as a radical and groundbreaking movement that challenged the ideas of verisimilitude and naturalism that had dominated Western art since the Renaissance. Instead, Cubism fractured the laws of perspective, opted for distorted and expressive features, and the use of splintered planes without an orderly recession to draw attention to the two-dimensionality of the canvas. Cubists intentionally deconstructed perspective planes to let the viewer reconstruct them in their minds and ultimately understand the content and perspective of the artist. The influence of African aesthetics can be easily identified into the geometric simplification and forms that appear in the wide oeuvre of several progressive artists. An example is Tête de femme, Braque’s mask-like portrait, the woman’s face is fragmented into flat planes that evoke the abstract features of African masks.

Given that Picasso only became truly familiar with Cezanne’s work in 1906 after the artist’s passing, the same year Matisse presented him with the Nkisis carved African statue it’s hard to determine the impact each object held. I would argue that without the African influence Picasso would have struggled to transform his art. We must consider that although Cezanne’s landscapes held loose geometric shapes and block colours, he didn’t carry this over to his portraits. Picasso loved painting and drawing people, and the masks gave him a new perspective on conveying and warping human emotion. Picasso’s studio was filled with a collection of Afrcan art, which can be seen in many photographs taken of him throughout his life. He incorporated what he saw in these artefacts into his paintings and sculptures and stuck with the Cubist style until his death in 1973. It is a wonder to see how art from such a long time ago resurfaced and got a second life. The conditions of this predicament were not ethical and still in the 21st century European galleries refuse to return these artefacts to their appropriate countries. We must appreciate their contributions yet keep in mind the situation at hand.

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Ritual Mask, Ammassalik, Inuit culture

Art at this time acted on the needs of the community and its members. This implies the masks were often in use and most likely contained to quite a small group of people in comparison to the large audience they reached in the 20th century.

Pablo Picasso in His Studio ,1965

Brass Plaque, Benin

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Royal Palace

“The Benin Bronzes, some of Africa’s greatest treasures, were looted in 1897 The most famous items are 900 brass plaques, dating mainly from the 16th and 17th centuries, once nailed to pillars in Benin’s royal palace. There are at least 3,000 items scattered worldwide, maybe thousands more. No one’s entirely sure.” Alex Marshall

Igbo Figures [Alosi]

Igboland, Nigeria

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Power Figure (Nkisi N’Kondi]

19th Century Kongo Peoples, Yombe group

African Art: The First Form of Cubism

Carolina Sanmiguel

Nkisi figurine, (n.d), DRC/ Alfred Barr Jr, Cover of ‘Cubism and Abstract Art’,1936

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Picasso and Braque may have pioneered one of the most radical avant-garde movements in Europe during the early 20th century: Cubism. But African carvers were first to abstract reality. After colonial expeditions, some of the most precious and sacred objects of Africa were brought to Europe. Countless original masks and sculptures were widely smuggled and sold among Western societies. The African sophisticated abstraction of the human figure inspired and encouraged many artists at the turn of the 20th century to rebelliously break from tradition. Contrasting from the Western tradition, African art was not concerned with the canonical ideals of beauty nor with the idea of rendering nature with fidelity to reality. Instead, they cared about representing what they ‘knew’ rather than what they ‘saw.’

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

Roberto Otero , Picasso in ‘La Californie’,1966

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When Matisse presented Picasso with the Nkisis carved African statue he sparked his great interest in African artefacts. Picasso’s infatuation with these artefacts changed his artwork forever. I would argue that without the African influence Picasso would have struggled to transform his art. Although Cezanne’s work is often attributed to early cubist ideas, his landscapes held loose geometric shapes and block colour yet he didn’t carry this over to his portraits. Picasso loved painting and drawing people, and the masks gave him a new perspective on conveying and warping human emotion.

Central Pende People, Mbangu mask,

With Les Demoiselles d’Avignon 1907 Picasso officially finished his Rose Period (1904-1906) and began his journey with cubism that would last until 1919. In the painting we see five naked women, prostitutes, as the avignon referred to Barcelona’s street of brothels. In the two figures on the right, we see a very clear resemblance to the African masks Picasso was so infatuated with. The curves and the proportions of the bottom right figures face resemble the Mbangu mask, as well as the obvious change in skin tone between face and body.

Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907

Cubism represented a rupture with the European pictorial tradition, and today it is still considered as a true manifesto of new art because it undoubtedly is. However, the creative process of Cubist artworks must also be contemplated from a perspective that seriously considers its African influence. Because after all, it was the influx of other cultures what largely inspired our 20th century geniuses to disarray and deconstruct western aesthetic canons of balance and imitation to propose a more complex vision based on the juxtaposition of viewpoints.

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Tête de femme, Braque, 1909; Dan Mask, Ivory Coast. unknown artist (center left); Bust of Woman with Hat, Picasso, 1939: Fang Mask, Equatorial Guinea, unknown artist);The Reader, Gris, 1926

A new sense of balance, perspective, and a surprising raw beauty that emerged full of geometric rigor and material force. The influence of African art in Western artworks is evident. Next time you visit a museum, remember the rich legacy and enormous influence that African art has had across the global art scene. If you happen to stand in awe in front of a Cubist artwork, remember that just in the way the invention of Cubism shocked the Western world, African art shocked its creators.

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The Cubist Movement 1907 Cubism revolutionised European art in the early 20th century, led by Picasso and Braque in Paris – the epicentre of the artworld at the time. With Les Demoiselles d’Avignon 1907 Picasso officially finished his Rose Period (1904-1906) and began his journey with cubism that would last until 1919. Europe had been waiting for an art revolution and the death of realism and linear perspective through movements like Cubism helped provide it. Picasso was raised to be an incredibly skilled artist and best understood the pressure and limitations of realism. Braque’s contributions are not to be overlooked however and his background in impressionism and fauvism helped provide a more playful modern approach.

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Picasso, Head of a Woman, 1932

Gris, Guitar and Fruit Bowl, 1913

It is no surprise that this movement came from Picasso given his upbringing. His father José Ruiz Blasco, was an art instructor. Picasso began to draw under his father’s guidance and studied in various art schools between 1892 and 1897. Picasso was raised to be an incredibly skilled artist and best understood the pressure and limitations of realism.

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“The fact that for a long time Cubism has not been understood and that even today there are people who cannot see anything in it means nothing.”

María Blanchard, Still Life with Red Lamp, 1916-1918

Cubism is broken into two stages, Analytical and Synthetic. The main difference being the contrast between the two. Analytical (19081912) worked with muted colours and was very detailed. Synthetic (1912-1914) was composed with bright colours,simplicity and began to introduce textures through collage. At the beginning, Picasso’s work was criticised and it would be foolish to assume that a movement so contrary to common art at the time would be appreciated by all artists. It was described as unorganised, crude and just downright ugly. Although not everyone was appreciative of this ‘crude’ medium- it’s nature allowed for a freedom in the art world that hadn’t been seen for a very long time. no one can diminish the sheer impact of such paintings and the developments they experienced over time

Alice Bailly, Tea , 1914

Picasso, Head of a woman, 1909

Critics called the work a ‘field of broken glass’. Braque and Picasso worked together throughout the initial years of Cubism, which now makes their art from that time hard to differentiate. Later joined Juan Gris who we can consider the third member of this party. Gris’ art brought Synthetic cubism with its bold colours and refined shape. Other notable Cubist artists include Kazimir Malevich, Maria Blanchard and Olga Rozanova. Cubism rapidly spread throughout Europe, America and the rest of the world, and created many new movements.

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Although not everyone was appreciative of this ‘crude’ medium- it’s nature allowed for a freedom in the art world that hadn’t been seen for a very long time. Picasso’s Three Musicians may seem like a step back when compared to his early realistic studies and sculptures to the untrained eye. Yet no one can diminish the sheer impact of such paintings and the developments they experienced over time.

Gris, Man from Touraine, 1918

”In the panel on which I am working, which I call Guernica, I clearly express my abhorrence of the military caste which has sunk Spain into an ocean of pain and death.”

“It isn’t up to the painter to define the symbols, the public who look at the picture must interpret the symbols as they understand them.”

Pablo Picasso

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Guernica (1937)

Georges Braque

The Musician, 1918

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Jacob Lawrence

Harriet Tubman Series Panel #4, 1940

Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) James Voorhies

Picasso, Gertrude Stein 1905–6

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The artistic genius of Pablo Picasso (1881– 1973) has impacted the development of modern and contemporary art with unparalleled magnitude. His prolific output includes over 20,000 paintings, prints, drawings, sculptures, ceramics, theater sets and costumes that convey myriad intellectual, political, social, and amorous messages. His creative styles transcend realism and abstraction, Cubism, Neoclassicism, Surrealism, and Expressionism. Born in Málaga, Spain, in 1881, Picasso studied art briefly in Madrid in 1897, then in Barcelona in 1899, where he became closely associated with a group of modernist poets, writers, and artists who gathered at the café Els Quatre Gats (The Four Cats), including the Catalan Carlos Casagemas. Living intermittently in Paris and Spain until 1904, his work during these years suggests feelings of desolation and darkness inspired in part by the suicide of his friend Casagemas. Picasso’s paintings from late 1901 to about the middle of 1904, referred to as his Blue Period, depict themes of poverty, loneliness, and despair.

Picasso moved to Paris in 1904 and settled in the artist quarter BateauLavoir, where he lived among bohemian poets and writers such as Guillaume Apollinaire and Max Jacob. In At the Lapin Agile from 1905, Picasso directed his attention toward more pleasant themes such as carnival performers, harlequins, and clowns. In this painting, he used his own image for the harlequin figure and abandoned the daunting blues in favor of vivid hues, red for example, to celebrate the lives of circus performers (categorically labeled his Rose Period). The influence of African and Oceanic art is explicit in his masterpiece Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, a painting that signals the nascent stages of Cubism. Here the figure arrangement recalls Cézanne’s compositions of bathers, while stylistically it is influenced by primitivism, evident by the angular planes and well-defined contours that create an overall sculptural solidity in the figures. The basic principles of Analytic Cubism (1910–12), with its fragmentation of three-dimensional forms on a two-dimensional picture plane, are embodied in Still Life with a Bottle of Rum (1999.363.63), painted in 1911. The techniques of Analytic Cubism were developed by Picasso and the French artist Georges Braque.

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Picasso, At the Lapin Agile, 1905

Picasso, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, 1911

After World War I (1914–18), Picasso reverted to traditional styles, experimenting less with Cubism. In the early 1920s, he devised a unique variant of classicism using mythological images such as centaurs, minotaurs, nymphs, and fauns inspired by the classical world of Italy. Within this renewed expression, referred to as his Neoclassical Period, he created pictures dedicated to motherhood inspired by the birth of his son Paulo in 1921 (his first of four children]. Toward the end of the 1920s, Picasso drew on Surrealist imagery and techniques to make pictures of morphed and distorted figures. In Nude Standing by the Sea of 1929, Picasso’s figure recounts the classical pose of a standing nude with her arms upraised, but her body is swollen and monstrously rearranged. Picasso, Woman in White, 1923

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Picasso, Woman, Vallauris, 1949/ Faun with Stars, 1955

In Faun with Stars, 1955, Picasso returned to the mythological themes explored in early pictures. Incorporating life experience into his painting, he evoked his infatuation with a new love, Jacqueline Roque. Picasso symbolized himself as a faun, calmly and coolly gazing with mature confidence and wisdom at a nymph. Picasso produced an enormous number of works and reaped the financial benefits of his success, amassing a personal fortune and a superb collection of his own art, as well as work by other artists. He died in 1973, leaving an artistic legacy that continues to resonate today.

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Orphism 1912

Portrait of Sonia and Robert Delaunay, 1923. Sonia Delaunay, Lithograph, 1969

Sonia Delaunay was born in the Ukraine in 1885, growing up in Russia and studying at the Academy of Fine Arts in Karlsruhe, Germany. Delaunay moved to Paris in 1905 and her main inspirations were post-impressionism and fauvism. She married her husband Robert Delaunay in 1910 and together they formed Orphism – coined orphic cubism by French poet Guillaume Apollinaire in 1912, which combined the abstract forms of Cubism with the bright colours of Fauvism. Orphism came about only 5 years after the start of Cubism and shows one of the earliest responses to the movement, It also shows the branching of these geometric foundations into the fashion and textile world.

In 1911 Sonia stitched a patchwork blanket for her newborn son, the design consisting of red, yellow, green and black fabric. This blanket can be viewed as the artists first pass at orphism, described as “patches of subtle and beautiful colour [which] are brought together to create harmonious compositions. (Tate.org.uk). In retrospect, Delaunay’s baby blanket seems like a precursor to synthetic cubism. Delaunay moved away from Paris at the beginning of World War 1, and in 1917 she began to work as a costume designer for theater performances which formally introduced her into the fashion world. She initially took on this work simply as a means of earning money but ended up working in fashion for the rest of her life. When she moved back to Paris in 1921 permanently, she created her studio called Sonia and her garments took over Paris. She carried her past Orphist art and developed it through her clothing and patterns. The patterns she designed were used for garments, wallpapers and even painted on cars.

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Sonia Delaunay, appliquéd coat, 1925

Sonia Delaunay, Quilt Cover, 1911

Delaunay, Paris (fur coats and car], 1925

Rosie Lesso

Sonia Delaunay, Syncopated rhythm, 1967

In 1925 Sonia was hired to design fabric for the luxury Dutch store Metz & Co. and later made patterns for Liberty in London. In the 1930s, when the textile industry was booming under the influence of mass production she declared, “In this way, fashion will become democratic, and this … can only be welcome as it will raise general standards.” Chris Dercon, director at Tate observed, “Sonia Delaunay has been less recognised for her contribution to the history of modern art and abstraction than she deserves, marginalised by an account of the history of art that has prioritised male artists and, at times, positioned her work as decorative.” In recent retrospectives at Tate Modern and Paris’ Museum of Modern Art her divisive, yet hugely influential position on the border between art and design has been celebrated and she is finally receiving her rightful place in history as a trailblazing

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Her influence as a designer fed through into many of the most important styles of the Jazz Age and the roaring 20s, and was felt throughout the 1960s when fashion was liberated once again into bold, Op Art prints and mini dresses. Her seamless, simultaneous blend of mediums and the belief that art and life should merge into one can be compared to artists as diverse as Joseph Beuys, Gilbert & George and Marvin Gaye Chetwynd. Curator Cecile Godefroy rightfully states, “She was a …complete artist: dressed by herself, in front of fabric by herself, or a painting by herself!”

Sonia Delaunay, Court Shoes 1925

Sonia Delaunay, Dame en Blue, 1924

Robert Delaunay

Sun, Tower, Airplane. 1913

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Endless Rhythm, 1934

Grande Helice Rouge

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e, 1970

He who knows how to appreciate colour relationships, the influence of one colour on another, their contrasts and dissonances, is promised an infinitely diverse imagery.

Sonia Delaunay

The art of Sonia Delaunay’s Textiles Colby Mugrabi Sonia Delaunay, Textile Designs, 1930s

Sonia Delaunay, Design B53, 1924

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Stemming from an early fascination with color, inspired by Fauvism, Sonia’s breakthrough work in textile design came shortly after meeting her husband in 1911, through a patchwork blanket the artist stitched for her newborn son, Charles, composed of a melody of pinks, creams, greens and maroon shapes contrasted by subtle hints of black. This spontaneous design constructed out of maternal desire, came to serve as an early embodiment of Sonia’s trademark artistic style, which melded Russian folk-art with elements of the Parisian avant-garde.

“Russian folk-art with elements of the Parisian avant-garde.” Delaunay continued experimenting with color and geometry through a technique she coined ‘simultanéisme,’ denoting the simultaneous designs that occur when placing bright hues and shapes next to one another, similar to that of color theory. As figurative elements quickly fell out of her work in a movement towards total abstraction, as did painting. Before long, her art was wearable.

After the outbreak of WWI, Delaunay relied heavily on her work in costume design as a means of generating income. In 1917, the artist was commissioned to create garments for the Ballet Russes’ adaptation of Cleopatra, which incorporated her simultaneous visual language, as well as glossy textures and rich gold detailing. The success of these designs was instrumental in Delaunay procuring a number of notable projects in the theater and film arena. By the 1920s, as Delaunay transitioned her primary mode of expression to needlework, she began making clothing for herself and her friends, applying her dynamic, spontaneous technique to their design and construction.

Sonia Delaunay, Costume for the ballet Cleopatra, 1918

Sonia Delaunay, Outfits, 1920s

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Sonia Delaunay, Coat for Gloria Swanson, 1924

Her garments rejoiced in movement and relished in contrasts, denoting a distinct lifestyle on part of the wearer, encapsulated by mystery and adventure. Her creations were for the modern women and focused on real-life requirements, offering driving caps for travel, bathing costumes for sports, and simple dresses as work attire, all of which included melodies of color, geometric shapes and a visual rhythm akin to the artist’s earliest paintings. Delaunay’s trademark style quickly took over Paris. By the 1920s she established a studio ‘Sonia,’ dedicated to creating textiles for private clients, as well as opening an atelier together with French couturier Jacques Heim. The artist’s earliest commissions were garments for the upper echelon of society, including a coat for Swanson.

Sonia Delaunay and Tristan Tzara Poem Dress, Oublions les oiseaux…, 1922

The artist’s newly established business and feverish focus on fabric and textile design unified an otherwise subdivided creative process. Delaunay understood the manner in which her prints would be utilized in the construction of a final garment, generating perfect visual harmony and an onslaught of female fans. This unique creative consciousness continued throughout the 1920s when Delaunay responded to the work of the Parisian avant-garde and began incorporating surrealist text on her garments in a collection of embroidered poem dresses.

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By the 1930s, Delaunay’s textiles evolved from including mostly geometric lines and shapes to relying heavily on wheels, arcs and flowers. Delaunay’s radical move from painting to designing fabrics and garments was an early exercise in the celebration of female liberation. Today, many of her designs are national treasures, living mostly in institutions, while her unique textiles and masterful ability to manipulate shapes and colors still permeate the world through the collections of contemporary designers.

Hermès, Fall/ Winter 2011

Sonia Delaunay, Projects for dresses, 1924

Valentino, Spring/ Summer 2016

Bibliography 1

African Treasures from Tervuren Museum: Masks. historymuseum.ca. 4 December 2008.

Cubism. Tate.org.uk. 2020. Web. 4 December 2020

Lesso, Rosie. Sonia Delaunay : Wearable Art. blog.fabrics-store.com. 31 January 2021.

Mugrabi, Colby. Sonia Delaunay’s Textiles. minniemouse.com. 27 September 2018.

Sanmiguel, Carolina. African Art: The First Form of Cubism. thecollector.com. 3 October 2020.

Singer, Olivia. Sonia Delaunay’s Fabric and Feminism. anothermag.com. 14 April 2015.

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Images 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Bailly Alice, Tea, 1914 Barr Jr Alfred, Cover of ‘Cubism and Abstract Art’,1936 Blanchard Maria, Still Life with Red Lamp, 1916-1918 Braque Georges, Tête de femme, 1909 Braque Georges, The Musician, 1918 Brass Plaque, Benin Royal Palace, Berlin, n.d British soldiers, Benin looted artefacts, 1897 Central Pende People, Mbangu mask, n.d Dan Mask, Ivory Coast, n.d Delaunay Robert, Endless Rhythm, 1934 Delaunay Robert, Sun, Tower, Airplane. 1913 Delaunay Sonia, Appliquéd Coat, 1925 Delaunay Sonia, Coat for Gloria Swanson, 1924 Delaunay Sonia, Costume for the ballet Cleopatra, 1918 Delaunay Sonia, Court Shoes 1925 Delaunay Sonia, Dame en Blue, 1924 Delaunay Sonia, Design B53, 1924 Delaunay Sonia, Grande Helice Rouge, 1970 Delaunay Sonia, Lithograph, 1969 Delaunay Sonia, Outfits, 1920s Delaunay Sonia, Paris (fur coats and car], 1925 Delaunay Sonia, Projects for dresses, 1924

24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

Delaunay Sonia, Quilt Cover, 1911 Delaunay Sonia, Syncopated Rhythm, 1967 Delaunay Sonia, Textile Designs, 1930s Delaunay Sonia and Tzara Tristan, Poem Dress, Oublions les oiseaux…, 1922 Fang Mask, Equatorial Guinea, n.d Gris Juan, Guitar and Fruit Bowl, 1913 Gris Juan, Man from Touraine, 1918 Gris Juan, The Reader, 1926 Hermès, Fall/Winter 2011 Igbo Figures [Alosi], Igboland, Nigeria, n.d Iwalwa Masque, Congo, n.d Lawrence Jacob, Harriet Tubman Series Panel #4, 1940 Modigliani Amedeo, Portrait of Mme Zborowskai, 1918 Nkisi figurine, Democratic Republic of Congo, n.d Otero Roberto, Picasso in ‘La Californie’,1966 Pablo Picasso in His Studio ,1965 Picasso in his Montmartre studio, 1908 Picasso Pablo, At the Lapin Agile, 1905 Picasso Pablo, Bust of Woman with Hat, 1939 Picasso Pablo, Faun with Stars, 1955 Picasso Pablo, Gertrude Stein 1905–6 Picasso Pablo, Guernica, 1937 Picasso Pablo, Head of a woman, 1909 Picasso Pablo, Head of a Woman, 1932

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50 Picasso Pablo, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907 51 Picasso Pablo, Still Life with a Bottle of Rum, 1911 52 Picasso Pablo, Woman in White, 1923 53 Picasso Pablo,Woman - Vallauris, 1949 54 Portrait of Sonia and Robert Delaunay, 1923 55 Power Figure (Nkisi N’Kondi], Kongo 56 Peoples, Yombe group, 19th century 57 Ritual Mask, Ammassalik, Inuit culture, n.d 58 The Mendès-France Baule mask, Ivory Coast, n.d 59 Valentino, Spring/Summer 2016

Bauhaus Archive Berlin Museum of Design

Published in 2021 Edited by James Volks & Susan Harrison Institute of Art, Design & Technology Kill Ave, Dun Laoghaire, Co. Dublin Ireland Phone: + 353 1 239 4000 Email: info@iadt.ie www.iadt.ie Copyright © 2021 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Text & cover design by Magdalena Mroczek