The High School Journal of Law & Society Issue IV

A Message from the Board

The High School Journal of Law & Society beganasaresultofthelackofoutletsforhighschool students interested in the fields of law and social science to publish their work. Its primary purpose still holds: to promote youthengagementinsocialscienceendeavorsanddiscovery,and tohighlightexcellenceinwritingonsuchtopics.

Our fourth issue saw a number of remarkable transitions: a 70% increase in the number of journal submissions, the introduction of international authors, and an fervent excitement of diverse scholars in niche fields to collaborate with us. The Editorial Board continued to work withextremededicationtocultivatingtheirlike-mindedpeers’curiosity,brilliance,andpassion.

A notable shift in submission topics reflects society’s changing climate; our authors’ wide-reaching interests included minority rights (with a focus on gender), effective leadership, and international relations. We are excited to be publishing five unique papers that reflect what this generation of youth believes tobetoday’scriticalsocietalinquiries.Theseauthorshavenow had the opportunity to work with two of our Board members to polish their writing, and one or morescholars,withexpertiseinthepaper’sfield,tohonetheirargument.

As always, the hope is that academics who read this journal will be inspired by the creativity, commitment, and unique thought these authors have brought upon crucial issues in modern day society.

Sincerely,

KayaVadhan[founder]&theHSLSEditorialBoard

The Editorial Board

RaniaDadlani

Rania is a junior at McNair Academic High School. She is interested in learning how the legal systemrelatestorace,power,andclass,whichiswhysheoptedtojointheboard.

AlexandraDishnica

Alex is a freshman at the University of Pennsylvania and is passionate about public policy and political philosophy. She is especially interested in immigration policy and runs a podcast, DishingonImmigration,whichaimstoshareimmigrantstories.

MiaMcElhatton

Mia McElhatton is a freshman at the University of Pennsylvania. She has worked as the community organizer for the Women’s Community Revitalization Project, Central’s mock trial captain,awriterforherschoolpaper,andassistanteditorforacity-wideschooldistrictpaper

MayaEspinel

Maya is currently a freshman at Syracuse University She is interested in all aspects of political science, international relations, and law Her involvement with the journal has come from an excitementfortheopportunitytocreatestudent-accessiblespaces.

EnyaKamadolli

Enya is a freshman at Claremont McKenna College. She is interested in international relations, law, and business, and works on the journal due to a passion for social justice. In her free time, Enyaenjoysdebating,rockclimbing,andreading.

EthanLeung

Ethan is a senior at the Lawrenceville School in New Jersey. He grew up in Hong Kong and is interested in studying political science, law, and history. In particular, Ethan is passionate about environmentallawandcriminaljusticereform.

KayaVadhan

Kaya is a sophomore at Harvard University planning on studying psychology and government. Sheeventuallyseesherselfpursuingacareerasalawyerorincriminaljusticereform.

TiffanyWen

Tiffany is a senior at The Lawrenceville School in New Jersey. She is passionate aboutlawand history. In her free time, Tiffany enjoys reading, writing, and playing the flute. Sheisthrilledto beworkingonthejournalthisyear.

Issue IV Reviewers

LaurenceClaus,DPhilinLaw1

Laurence Claus is a Professor of Constitutional Law at the University of San Diego Law School Hespecializesin Comparative Constitutional Law, consultingfortheABARuleofLawAssociationonMiddleEasternandNorthern African constitutional reform. Further, served at the US Embassy in London for the DepartmentofJustice’sOffice ofForeignLitigation

JosephDiMento,JD,PhD2

Joseph DiMento is a Professor of Law in Criminology, Law, & Society at the University of California, Irvine His expertise lies in international and environmental law He has directed variousresearchprogramsatUCIsuchasthe NewkirkCenterforScienceandSociety.

AnthonyFowler,PhD3

Anthony Fowler is Professor at the University of Chicago’s Harris School of Public Policy. His research applies econometrics to political science with focuses including voter turnout, incumbent success, and policymaking in legislatures

RobinGoldstein,JD,PhD4

Robin Goldstein is an author and economics researcher He is currently theDirectoroftheUniversityofCalifornia Davis’s Cannabis Economics Group, studying cannabis markets, regulations, and legality Prior, he advised the CaliforniaBureauofCannabisControlasaneconomistforsixyears.

RussellGolman,PhD5

Russell Golman is an Associate Professor of Behavioral Economics and Decision Sciences at Carnegie Mellon University His interdisciplinary work combines economics, psychology,andmathematicstostudydecisionmaking andgametheory,andhasbeenpublishedineconomics,psychology,andcognitivesciencejournals

ImtiazGul6

Imtiaz Gul is a hexalingual, international scholar on security,terrorism,militancy,Afghanistan,andPakistan Since 2007, he has been the Executive Director of the Center forResearchandSecurityStudies,Pakistan’sprimarythink tank and advocacy center. His work has been shared extensively internationally through mediums such as conferences,televisedreporting,authoredbooks,andjournalism

GretaHsu,PhD7

Greta Hsu is a Professor at the University of California, Davis’s Graduate School of Management, specializing in organizational behavior and market categorization processes Her research includes studies on the dynamics of the cannabisande cigaretteindustries.

ReubenStern,PhD8

ReubenSternisanAssistantProfessorofPhilosophyatDukeUniversity Hisresearchspecializesindecisiontheory, epistemology,rationalchoice,andthephilosophyofaction,specificallyasappliedtolegalandmoralresponsibility.

https://wwwsandiegoedu/law/faculty/biographyphp?profile

https://wwwlawuciedu/faculty/full time/dimento/

https://harrisuchicagoedu/directory/anthony fowler

https://cannabiseconomicsucdavisedu/people/robin goldstein/

https://wwwcmuedu/dietrich/sds/people/faculty/russell golmanhtml

https://imtiazgulcom/biography/

https://gsmucdavisedu/profile/greta hsu

https://sites.google.com/view/reubenstern/home

The Whipple Award

ThankstotheWhippleWritingFellowship,oneofouroutstandingpapershasthechancetobe honoredwitha$100awardforexcellenceinwriting.TheWhippleWritingFellowship,which operatesoutofBrooklineHighSchool(founderKayaVadhan’salmamater),wascreatedto honorDavidWhipple(BHSClassof2012,YaleClassof2016)andhisloveofwriting nonfiction.Hewasanexceptionalwriterandstudentwhohadaparticularinterestinthestudyof Law.HegraduatedfromYaleUniversitywith abachelor’sdegreeinEthics,Politicsand Economics.TheFellowship’sgoalinofferingthisprizeistoencourageyoungwritersto rigorouslyresearchandwriteabouttopicsthatmattertothemandtheworld.Specialthanksto theGladstone-Whipplefamilyfortheirsupportofthisnascentjournalanditsgoalofcelebrating youngresearchersandwriters.

WehavechosentoawardthisprizetoTabanMalihiandherpaper Make Solutions, Not Sanctions: Ending the US’s Economic War on the Afghan People duetohercriticalinquiriesinto apressingissue,dedicationtotheHSLSrevisionprocess,anddemonstratedpassionfor change-making.

Table of Contents

I. EndingtheUS’sEconomicWarontheAfghanPeople…

II. HighStakes:America’sLoveandHateofCannabis…

III. TheImplicationsofRationalChoiceTheoryonJuryandCriminalBehavior…

IV. TheU.S.President:LeadershipStylesinAmericanPolitics…

V.AnAnalysisofAmbiguityinLaw…

MakeSolutions,NotSanctions:EndingtheUS’sEconomicWarontheAfghanPeople

By Taban Malihi

Newton South High School, Class of 2024 Newton, MA

Mentored by: Kelly Henderson, Teacher Edited by: Kaya Vadhan, Ethan Leung Reviewed by: Imtiaz Gul

Dedicated to Meena Keshwar Kamal (1956-1987)

Zarifa Ghafari (1992-)

ResourcesforFurtherReading

“O darling, you’re American in my eyes.

You are guilty, I apologise.”

This traditional Afghan landay laments how civilians pay the price for American failures.

INTRODUCTION

Thesummerof2021sawU.S.headlinesreportingoneverythingfromintensedroughts andwildfiresintheAmericanwesttoanongoingracialreckoningtotheCOVID-19pandemic. Yetoneinternationalcrisisdominatedthenightlynewsformereweeksbeforefadingintothe ever-churningnewscycle:theU.S.pulloutofAfghanistan.Widelydescribedasa "disaster"and "betrayal"(Nevett),manyquestionedthisclimactic endtoanearlytwenty-year-longintervention thatleftanestimated157,000peopledead(Whitlock).Indeed,althoughthePewResearch Centerreportedthat54%ofU.S.adultsinAugust 2021supportedthedecisiontowithdraw troopsfromAfghanistan,anear-equalamountofAmericans—42%—saidthewithdrawalwas poorlyexecuted,while69%saidtheU.S.’sAfghanistanmissionwaslargelyafailure(Van Green).AMarchpollfromI&I/TIPPevenconcluded that56%ofAmericans believethepullout fromAfghanistan,embroiledinchaosandconfusion,emboldenedVladimirPutin’sinvasionof Ukraine(Jones).Thoughthegovernmentalcollapsewasashocktomany,behindthescenesthe Americangovernmentplayedaconsiderablepartinthedownfallofoneofitsgreatest democraticprojects:withinAfghanistan’sU.S.-supported‘democracy’,theU.S.activelyenabled widespreadcorruptionthatdoomedthesystemfromthestart(Michel). Americanjournalist CraigWhitlockfoundthatfortypercentofDepartmentofDefensecontracts—tensofbillionsof dollars—endedupinthehandsofcriminalofficialsandorganizations(Whitlock).Even developmentassistance,amountingto$132billionsince2001,wasfoundbyCongress’Special InspectorGeneralforAfghanistanReconstruction(SIGAR)tobeeitherwastedorstolen(U.S. GovernmentPublishingOffice).

ThoughithasbeenalmostayearsincetheU.S.pulloutandTalibantakeover,theU.S.is stillinvolvedinperpetuatinganongoingcrisisinAfghanistan.Initsattemptstoapplyeconomic

pressuretotherepressiveTaliban,theU.S.anditspolicieshavecontributedtoAfghanistan’s wholescalesocietalcollapse,diretothepointthatinFebruary,theWhiteHouserecognizedthe situationasan“extraordinarythreattothenationalsecurityandforeignpolicyoftheUnited States”(Lang).Yetamidstageopoliticalstandstill whereneithersideiswillingtocometothe negotiatingtable,thepeopleofAfghanistansuffer,havingexperienceddecadesofforeign interventionandviolenceonlytonowbeleftatthemercyofalimitednumberofaid organizationsandotherwisecutofffromtheworld.TheU.S.,whichexpressedsuchadeepsense ofresponsibilitytosupportaterrorism-freeAfghanistanin2001,mustnowacceptthe consequencesofitsactionstooncemoretakeresponsibilityasaninternationalleaderandadopt adifferentapproachthanthestatusquo.Thus,thispaperarguesthattotrulyaidAfghans,current U.S.economicwarfaremustceaseandmakewayformorerationalapproachestobothpolicy makinganddiplomacyaswellasalternativeformsofharmmitigation,includingbolstering effortstoproviderefugetoAfghansinneed.

II. CONTEXTBEHINDU.S.-AFGHANRELATIONS

TheU.S.governmentfollowsthe‘pathofleastresistance’,constantlymaintaining appearancestosatethepublic.Therefore,althoughitisadvantageoustothegovernmentto maintainitscurrentquieteconomicwarfareandconsequentlyfaceverylittlepublicresistance, whenconsideringitshistoryoffailuresurroundinginterventionsinAfghanistan,itisits responsibilitytoabandonthisirresponsibleposture.Thegovernmentmustbeginthehardworkit hasfailedtodointhepasttwentyyears:approachthesituationwithagoal-orientedmindset whilerecognizingitslimits,versustheequivalentofthrowingahandfulofdartswhilst blindfoldedtoseewhichonesstick.Ifnot,thecontinuationofalong-standingperformative

doctrinecomesatthecostofboththisnation’sfoundationalvaluesaswellasthepotentialto creategenuinelybeneficialpoliciestobothaidAfghanistanandrepairtheU.S.’scredibilityasa leader.IftheU.S.wishestobeanarbiterofjusticeandpromoterofdemocracywithglobal influence,itmustfirststrivetofulfillitsownidealsoftransparency,recognizetheconsequences ofitsactions,andacceptitsresponsibilitytohelp—notcontinuetodestroy—Afghanistantoday.

A. HistoricalRelations

1. EnteringAfghanistan

FormerPresidentGeorgeW.Bushsaidin2002:“Thehistoryofmilitaryconflictin Afghanistanhasbeenoneofinitialsuccessfollowedbylongyearsoffloundering andultimatefailure.Wearenotgoingtorepeatthatmistake”(Whitlock).Thesepromises,made duringthebeginningsoftheU.S.warinAfghanistan,wouldringhollownotsoonafterhis speech.YetitisworthunderstandingtherootsofmodernU.S.-Afghanrelations,totheendthat theyprovideessentialcontexttothecurrentstateofAfghanistanaswellasthenatureofU.S. foreignpolicyobjectives.

MajorU.S.involvementinAfghanistanstretchesbacktothe1950’s; duringtheCold War,boththeU.S.andSovietUnionsponsoredinfrastructureinvestments,andbythe1980’s, followinga1978Marxist-Leninistrevolution,theU.S.becameinvolvedwiththeresistance movementtocounterthespreadofcommunism(Stewart).Theseresistors,themujahedeen, variedintermsofpoliticalideologyandcapability,buttheU.S.specificallyfundedthemost reactionary,conservative,Islamistbranchofthemujahedeen,astheyhappenedtobethemost organizedofthegroups.Unfortunately,theU.S.washaphazardinitsmanagementandneglected tomonitorthesegroups,resultingintheireventualevolutionintoal-QaedaandtheTaliban (Stewart).Ineffect,withU.S.funding,guns(Alvi),andtraining(includinginfamousterror

tacticslikesuicidebombing),theU.S.soonfounditselfseekingtodefeatamonsterofitsown creation—itwonthebattleonlytolosethewar(Tharoor).ThishistoricalbackdropfortheU.S. invasionofAfghanistanexplainswhyexpertshavecalledtheinitialinvasionanexampleof imperialisticgovernmentdoctrinesputinmotion,withU.S.powerprojectionattheheartof interventionratherthantheAfghanpeople—atradeoffthatrisksrepeatingitselfinthepresent day(Peters).

2. GovernmentNarrativeManipulation

Thegovernmenthasobscuredandwarpedthenarrativesurroundingthewarin Afghanistantimeandtimeagain.Afterathree-year-longlegalbattlewiththeU.S.government, theWashingtonPostwasabletoobtainaccesstothe AfghanistanPapersundertheFreedomof Informationact.Over2,000pagesofthesepreviouslyunpublishedinterviewrecordsrevealed thatseniorU.S.officialsrecognizedtheywerelosingthewar,yetexternallymaintainedfalse claimsofsuccess(Whitlock).TheseclaimsincludecommentsfromArmyMaj.Gen.Jeffrey Schloesser,in2008:“Arewelosingthiswar?Absolutelynoway.Cantheenemywinit? Absolutelynoway.”Thesecatchyrhetoricarehyperbolicatbestandblatantliesatworst,meant toneatlypackagewarmongeringtotheAmericanpublicwithinapalatableus-versus-them mentality.ContrarytotheMajorGeneral’sconfidentpublicstatements,seniorofficersinthe AfghanistanPapersexposedextremetop-levelincompetencies,revealingthatthewarhadbeen plaguedsinceitsinceptionby“somanyprioritiesandaspirationsitwaslike[therewas]no strategyatall.”Nostrategywasevidentlyabadstrategy:asearlyasthefirstfewmonthsof conflict,yearsbeforeSchloesser’sspeech,officialscitedfearsofa“Vietnam-likequagmire”as theU.S.sufferedheavylosses.Thisprovedtrueasthewardraggedonforanothertwentyyears, yetArmycolonelandseniorcounterinsurgencyadviserBobCrowley,corroboratedbyanother

SeniorNationalSecurityCouncilofficial,revealedthattheU.S.governmentwaswillingtogoto anyendstocoverupthetruecostofthewar:“Everydatapointwasalteredtopresentthebest picturepossible.”Thisharshtruth,worsenedbythedoomedwarstrategy,directlycontradicts misleadingmessagesfromprominentofficials,includingformerPresidentBarackObama,in 2009:“Goingforward,wewillnotblindlystaythecourse.Instead,wewillsetclearmetricsto measureprogressandholdourselvesaccountable”(Whitlock).Thefalsehoodssurroundingthese metricsindicatethattherehasneverbeenanyrealattemptatholdingtheU.S.accountableforits failedwaranddeceptiveactions,andofficialsmustpubliclyacknowledgethetruthinthe aftermathofthepulloutforanymeaningfulaccountabilitytotakeplace.Moreover,giventhe warpedhistorybehindthislargelyone-sideddecisionmaking,itisimpossiblefortheU.S.to denyitsuniqueresponsibilitytodealwiththedisastrousresultsofitsmistakes.

3. MediaNarrativeManipulation

ThemediahasalwaysbeenkeytocontrollingpublicopinionaboutAfghanistan,sincea relativelyignorantconstituencyenabledtheperpetuationofshadowypoliticalandoperational decisions.GeneralDouglasLute,whoadministeredU.S.affairswithAfghanistanunderboth BushandObama,remarked:“IftheAmericanpeopleknewthemagnitudeofthisdysfunction…” (Whitlock)Indeed,thisponderancehighlightstheimportanceofpublicperceptiontoa governmentthatfindssucheaseinwithholdingthetruth;iftheconstituentsdon’thearabout something,iteffectivelydidn’thappenwhenitcomestoshapinggovernmentpolicy.Theproof isintheviewership:duringthewar,TVnewscoverage onmajornetworksCBS,NBC,andABC wasnegligible,totalingfiveminutesinallof2020.Meanwhile,thegovernment’sneedto memorializethepulloutastherighteousendofatwo-decade-longwarensuredthatinjust August2021,coveragejumpedto345minutes,yetslumpedbackto21minutesbetween

SeptemberandJanuary2022intheworseningaftermath(Marcetic).Suchfast-changing headlinesconditionAmericanstofeelan‘appropriateamountofremorse’andmoveon,all whileAfghanistan’scurrentcrisisgoesunderreported,resultinginanuninformedAmerican publicthatcannotholdthegovernmentaccountable.Evenafterthedisastrouspulloutexposed themission’sdysfunction(VanGreen),Americanpubliccriticismwastoolittle,toolate:if constituentshadbeenexposedtothetruthallalong,theylikelywouldhaveexercisedtheir democraticrightstovoteagainst,protest,andchangetheU.S.’sforeignpolicyapproachduring thewar,savingcountlessAmericanandAfghanlives.

Aseconddynamicbehindunderreportingisdeeplyrootedintheunderlyingracismof Americanimperialism.ColumbiaUniversityResearchFellowRichardHananiawritesthat economicwarfareis“impracticalandmorallydestructive butpoliticallyconvenient”,because conflictcausingthedeathsofAmericansoldiersdrawsconsiderablymoreattentionfromthe AmericanpublicthanfamineandeconomicdisasterthatsolelyaffectsAfghans(Hanania). Similarly,tomaximizeengagement,mediaoutletsprioritizereportingonwarfarethataffectsthe majorityofAmericans,whichoftenmeansthatoncetheintervenordisengages,alackof coveragefeedsintolimitedpubliceducationanddiscourse.Meanwhile,itisessentialto recognizethatdiasporiccommunitieswithintheU.S.arenotexemptfromtheeffectsof economicwarfare,butneitherpoliticiansnormediaadequatelyfactorthemintotheirdecision making,sincethesecommunitiestendtoconstituteasmallpercentageofthepopulationorface obstaclestoenfranchisementorviewershipsuchaslanguagebarriers.Simultaneously,the post-9/11phenomenonofmassdesensitizationtoconflictintheSWANAregionhasencouraged xenophobic,racist,andIslamophobicrhetoricfrompoliticiansandreporterswhichfurther cementspublicapathytowardstheplightofAfghanistanandawillfulignoranceofhuman

suffering.Callingrefugeesofcolor“uncivilized”justifiesboththeirplightandthelackof attentionitreceives,enablingmassdissociationandalackofcollectiveresponsibility(Ko), whichshouldbeamajorconcernforanydemocraticcountrythatreliesontheengagementofthe populacetodeterminethefutureofpolicy

B. ModernDayRelations

Inthewinterof2021-22,twenty-fourmillionAfghans werefacinglife-threateningfood insecurity(Ferguson).Inflation,aliquiditycrisis,andahealthcaresystemcollapsenowravagea populationthathadalreadybeenstrugglingwithwidespreadpovertybeforethewithdrawal. The NewYorkTimesreportsthattherootcauseofthiseconomiccrisisisU.S.sanctionsonthe Taliban,withtheinternationalcommunityfollowing inAmericanfootstepstocutoff Afghanistanfromtheinternationalfinancialandbankingsystem(NewYorkTimes).Inaddition tosanctions,$10billiondollarsworthofAfghan assetshavebeenfrozeninforeignvaultsalong with$440millioninIMFreserves,largelyduetoconcernsaboutTalibanaccesstothesefunds. Similarly,theflowofforeignaidhasvanishedintothinair,takingwithitthree-quartersof Afghanistan’spublicspendingand43percentofGDP(Marcetic). Exacerbatinganalreadydire situation,inFebruary2022,PresidentJoeBidensignedanexecutiveorderdictatingthatofthe $7billioninAfghanassets Americaseized,$3.5billionwillgotoaidforAfghans,whilethe otherhalfwillbedistributedtothefamiliesof9/11victims(Ahlman)(Hussain).However,senior officialswithintheBidenadministrationadmitthatduetoextendeddelays,thisaidwillbe largelyineffectiveandoverallinsufficient(Lang).Moreover,thedecisionhasbeencriticizedby Afghanactivists,organizationslikeUnfreezeAfghanistan,and9/11victimfamiliesalike,witha consensusthatlayingclaimstothemoneyoftheAfghanpeopleisunlawfulandunethicalinthe faceoftheongoinghumanitariancrisis(Hussain).

PeterSwopeoftheBrownPoliticalReviewconcludesthatthisisthenewfaceof Americanimperialism,withU.S.economicandstrategicinterestsattheforefrontofitsactions asopposedtorealisticcrisismanagement.Indeed,theycontinuethatdespitenoAfghanbeing responsibleforthe9/11attacks,Afghanstodayarebeingheldresponsibleforwhattranspired over20yearsago,whileSaudiArabia—fromwhich15ofthe19hijackershailed—hasgenerally enjoyedstrongrelationswiththeU.S.,evenwithcontinuedconcernsovergovernmentrepression andhumanrightsviolations.Assuch,SwopearguesthattheU.S.’scurrentmethodofcollective punishmentispredicatedonandperpetuatespost-9/11Islamophobic,orientalist,andracist narrativesoftheSWANAregionasamonolith(Swope);theseprejudicedviewsfeedintoawide rangeofongoingsocial,economic,andmilitaryviolenceagainstregionalanddiasporicSWANA peoples.

ThecurrentstateofAfghanistanhangsinthebalance,asthe NGOSavetheChildren reportsinMaythatalmost50percentofthepopulationneedsurgentsupporttosurvive,with nearly10millionchildrengoinghungry,despitecontinuinghumanitarianaid(AlJazeera). Moreover,UNofficialsreportthatorganizationaleffortshavebeenunabletoaverttheeconomic collapsefrom"approachingapointofirreversibility…Whatwehavedonehasbeenonlytobuya littletime"(Landay).IfAfghanistanistoeverhaveastablefoundationuponwhichtobuildan economy,asolutiontothecurrentcrisismustbedeterminedimmediately.

III. SOLUTION-MAKING

Itisessentialtoacknowledgethattherearenoperfectsolutionstocomplexciviland internationalcriseslikethoseinAfghanistan.However,consideringthelegacyof poorly-informed,under-nuanced,secretivedecisionmakingthattrailstheU.S.government’s

historywithAfghanistan,thefirststeptowardsproductivesolution-makingisacknowledging andlearningfrompastandcurrentmistakes.TheimperativelieswiththeU.S.,bothasaglobal leaderandmajorcontributortothecurrentstateofthenation,toabandonitsongoingineffective strategiesinordertoplayapartinthesolution-makingprocess.

A. RoadblockstoSuccess

Therearecurrentlytwomainroadblockstoeffectivesolution-making.Firstly,theTaliban arenotinternationallyrecognizedaslegitimategovernmentalleadersofAfghanistan.This technicalityhashugeconsequencesfordiplomacyefforts:notonlydoesitenabletheU.S.to makeclaimstothe$7billionitholdsinAfghanassets,italsoisolatesvulnerable Afghans—oppressedbytheirleadersandignoredbytheworld.UNSpecialRepresentative DeborahLyonsexplainsthatinordertotrulyhelpAfghans,countriesmustworkwith Afghanistan’s“defactoauthorities”(Landay).Therefore,theU.S.mustputitsprideasideand seekopportunitiesfornegotiationwiththeTaliban,howeverunsavorytheprospectmayappear.

ThesecondmainroadblocklieswithintheU.S.politicalsystem,andlikelyexplainsnot onlyAmerica’scurrentstanceondealingwiththeTaliban,butalsodecadesofAmericanforeign policyfailuresaroundtheworld.First,letitbeestablishedthatinformedpolicymakingrequires high-quality,up-to-dateinformation;onemightexpecttheU.S.politiciansanddecisionmakers utilizesuchresourceswhenshapingforeignpolicy.Itmaycomeasasurprise,then,thatU.S.

Congresspeopleareeithergatekeptfrominvestigatingtouncoversaidinformationoroutright refusetoacknowledgetheconsequencesoftheirpoliciesinAfghanistan (Ahlman).InFebruary 2022,theleaderoftheCongressionalProgressiveCaucus,RepresentativePramilaJayapal, sponsoredanamendmenttotheAmericaCOMPETESActthatwouldenableCongressto formallystudytheeffectsofU.S.economicpoliciesinAfghanistan.ButeveryHouse

Republicanand44HouseDemocratsvotedtoblockit.WhileRepublicanoppositioncouldbe attributedtopoliticalpolarization,whencontacted,notasingleoppositionDemocratprovidedan explanationfortheirvote(Ahlman).ThisapathytowardsAfghanistanisparticularlyconcerning comingfromindividualswithpotentialaccesstoconfidentialgovernmentinformationthatcould informlife-savingpolicies.Furthermore,itrepresentsaleadershippreferencetoupholdastatic stanceonU.S.foreignpolicywithlittleopportunityforessentialreflectionoradaptation, limitingthegovernment’scapabilitytolearnfromitsmistakesandensuringitsforeignpolicy willforevervalueshort-termstabilityoverlong-termstability.Infact,ProfessorMichaelMcFaul oftheFreemanSpogliInstituteforInternationalStudiescitesthisprecisereasoningtoexplain whyseventypercentofallmajorU.S.foreigninterventionsfailtofosterdemocracy,fallingto autocracywithintenyears(Nichols).IftheU.S.wishestopromoteproductivesolution-making inAfghanistanandbeyond,itmustexititspolicycomfortzonetoseekthetruthinitsentirety.

B. AddressingtheStatusQuo

1. ErodingTalibanStability

CurrentU.S.policyissoineffectiveastobecounterproductive,damagingboththe nation’sinternationalstandinganditslargerfightagainstterrorism.InadevastatingblowtoU.S. credibility,thisJanuary,aseniorU.S.aiderevealedthattheUnitedNations,InternationalRescue Committee,andRedCross,inadditiontonumerousforeignpolicyexperts(Ioanes),have unanimouslywarnedBidenthatnoamountofaidcancompensateforthedestructionof Afghanistan’sfinancialsystematthehandsofsanctionsandseizures(Ahlman).Thesituation hasevencausedinternaldivisions:inDecember2021, 40HouseDemocratsurgedtheBiden administrationtoreleasethebillionsofseizedfunds,tonoavail(Kudo).Despitethesepleas,the U.S.fixatedonitscurrentstrategyofchokeholdingtheeconomyinanefforttounderminethe

Taliban,withoutconcernforthedeadlytolloneverydayAfghans(Swope). However,froman operationalstandpoint,thisstrategyisafailure:itcanonlypunishinnocentcivilians,sincethe Taliban,apathetictothepeople’sconcernsandinternationaldemands,stayrichoffdrug trafficking,whichaccountsforupto60%oftheirrevenues(Azami).Infact,themoreAfghans sufferatthehandsofU.S.measures,themoretheTalibancancapitalizeonwidespread resentmentandpovertytoboostrecruitment(Hudson)(Gossman).Indeed,historicalstudies revealthatU.S.-imposedeconomicoppressioncausedthe radicalizationattheheartofthe Taliban’sextremistfundamentalism(Gagnon).Inessence,thegovernmentstaunchlymaintaining itscurrentpolicystrategyinthefaceofboththeexpertsandthefactscanonlycauseharm,and forbothcredibilityandnationalsecuritypurposes,theU.S.musttakeintoconsiderationthe well-beingoftheAfghanpeople.

2. Women’sRights

TheU.S.’sreasoningforitsactionstargetingtheTalibanhaslongbeencenteredaround humanrightsviolations.Sincethe2001invasion,thesufferingofAfghanwomenhasbeen co-optedandcommodifiedtojustifyU.S.intervention.Thisphenomenon,knownas ‘purplewashing’,drawsupontheAmericanpublic’spreconceivednotionssurroundingwomen’s liberationtocreatemoralgroundsforthewarbeyondretaliationfor9/11(FreemanandMi). AlthoughliberalismandfeminismwasrelativelysaferunderU.S.-supporteddemocracy,the heroismshieldingtheU.S.cannoteraseitsownhumanrightsviolations, includingtheactive perpetrationandcondoningofviolentabuse(Ahmadiet.al)forwhichithasneverbeen convicted,inlargepartdueitsleveragingofsoftpowertoobstructinvestigationssince2003 (Speri).

Inthepastyear,countlesspoliticianslikeSpeakeroftheHouseNancyPelosihave broughtforthmessagessuchas:“TheU.S.[…]mustdoeverythingwecantoprotectwomenand girlsfrominhumanetreatmentbytheTaliban.” AccordingtoLeftVoice,theseplatitudes--eerily echoingmilitaristicpurplewashingnarratives--supportcurrentU.S.economicimperialism (FreemanandMi).Despitepoliticians’missionto‘supportwomen’srights’,theU.S.’scurrent methodofeconomicpressureisnotaproductivesolutiontotheTaliban’srepressiveness,as evidencedbyongoingTalibancrackdownsonfemaleautonomyandeducation,aswellas Afghanwomen’scompoundedsuffering.InternationalRescueCommitteePresidentandCEO DavidMilibandhighlightsthedisparitiesinprioritiesbetweenWesternliberalfeminismandthe actualneedsofAfghanwomenwithinhisorganization,whoask:“HowonearthdoestheWest thinktheyarehelpingourprospectswhenwecan’tfeedourfamilies?”(Ahlman).Zaigul,an internallydisplacedmotherofsevenattheNasajicampnearKabul,echoedthissentiment:“You canlivewithoutfreedom,butyoucan’tliveifyouhavenothingtoeat”(Ibrahim).Indeed,the economicandhumanitariancrisiscausedinlargepartbytheU.S.disproportionatelyimpacts Afghanwomenandgirls(Cone)—forinstance,thenumberofchildbridesisrisingasfamilies seekbride-prices,andsinceAugust,over120,000childrenhavebeen“bartered”bytheirfamilies forfinancialreasons(Tharoor).Assuch,notonlyiscurrentU.S.policyineffectiveat underminingtheTalibanorstrong-armingthemintorespectingwomen’srights,italsoultimately worsensthesituationforAfghanwomenandgirls.

C. SolutionsBeyondtheStatusQuo

1. Context

WhilethefirststeptowardsimprovingthecurrentsituationclearlyinvolvestheU.S. ceasingitseconomicwarfare,thisdoesnot--norshouldit--illustratethefullpictureofhowthe

AmericangovernmentcanhelpAfghans.Harmmitigationoftentakesmanyforms;however,this paper’sanalysisfocusesononeofthemostimmediate:aidingAfghansinescapingAfghanistan altogether Tounderstandwhythismatters,onemustfirstimagineahypotheticalsituation:all goesaccordingtothecorerecommendationsofthispaper—theU.S.endingitssanctionsand seizures,consequentlyeliminatingthelargestbarriertotheefficacyofaidorganizationsand allowingforeconomicactivitytoresume,aswellaseliminatingtheroadblockstopursuinga morediplomaticapproachwiththeTalibanandestablishingcongressionallearningprocesses. YettheTalibancannotbetrustedtoprotectAfghanistan’speople, havingmadeandbrokenfalse promisesinthepast(Hadid),andmanyAfghansunderstandably willstillwishtoleaveandseek stability Thus,eveninthis“perfect”hypotheticalscenario,thereisanurgentneedfor evacuation,immigration,andresettlementprocessesbothduringandafterimplementationofthe recommendations,andthispaper’sscopeofanalysissubsequentlyreflectsthisreality.

a) AfghansinAfghanistanandAbroad

AreportbythenonprofitAssociationofWartimeAlliesconcludedthatbyMarch2022, theU.S.hadevacuatedonlyabout3percentofAfghans whoworkedfortheAmerican governmentandappliedforthespecialimmigrantvisa(SIV)program.Leftbehindbytheinitial evacuationeffortimmediatelyfollowingthepullout(DeLuce),78,000Afghans nowfacethe Taliban’stravelbans,forcedeithertolanguishinacrisis-grippedcountryorattemptdangerous smugglingtoneighboringcountriesthatcanresultindeathordeportation(RadioAzadi).

NumerousbureaucraticbarriersmakeentrytotheU.S. stillmoredifficult,includingavisa applicationprocessthat,despitetheU.S.EmbassyinKabulbeingclosed,atonepointrequired medicalexamsandin-personinterviews(DeLuce). Meanwhile,Afghanswhohavemanagedto applyforentryhanginlimbo,sincetheagencythatprocesseshumanitarianparolerequests,the

U.S.CitizenshipandImmigrationServices(USCIS), isexperiencingbacklogssoseverethatof the66,000applicationsreceived,sofar8,000havebeenprocessedandonly123approved (Aminy)(WashingtonPost).Worse,anofficialfromtheBidenAdministrationannouncedin earlySeptemberthattheUSwilllargelyceasetoadmitAfghansonhumanitarianparoleafter October1,2022(Landay);consideringtheongoingcrisis,thisdeadlineshouldbeimmediately reconsidered.

b) AfghansintheU.S.

AfghanscurrentlyresidingintheU.S.facethechallengesofacomplexbureaucratic systemwhilefallingthroughthecracksofgovernmentalaid.TheU.S.,incontradictiontothe vastmajorityofsourcesandexperts,hasnotgrantedrefugeestatustoAfghansfleeingthe oppressiveTalibanandahumanitarian-economiccatastrophe.Thislackofrecognitionhas causedamultitudeofproblems,beginningwithresettlementprogramsthatrelyonprivate volunteersoftenoperatingwithlessadequatelogisticalandfinancialsupport comparedto government-ledinitiativesforrefugeeresettlement(WashingtonPost).Theothermainchallenge thispresentsisthatevacuatedAfghans,onceintheU.S.,areatthemercyofthegovernment whenitcomestotheirtemporaryorpermanentresidency Accordingtothe Departmentof HomelandSecurity,36,000AfghansintheU.S.have temporaryresidencyunderhumanitarian parole(Dunphey).AlthoughDHSextendedthedurationofthistemporaryresidencyto18 monthsinMarch,thisisa“shorttermband-aid”,accordingtoKrishO’MaraVignarajah, presidentandCEOatLutheranImmigrationandRefugeeService(LIRS).Vignarajahassertsthat thistemporaryresidencystakesthelivesandlivelihoodsofvulnerableAfghansonthewhimsof constantly-shiftingpoliticalagendas(Aguilera).Ifthetemporaryresidencytimerunsupwithout beingrenewed,andevacueeshaven’tfoundawaytostaypermanentlywithintheU.S.,theyrisk

losingworkauthorizationorbeingdeported.Theyriskthesamefateiftheyhaveappliedfor asylumthroughtheU.S.refugeeprogram(whichgrantspermanentresidency)buthavenotyet beenaccepted—alikelysituationduetoextremebacklogthatcanmakeituptoathree-year-long process(Dunphey).Thus,itisclearthattheU.S.governmentmusttakesystematicmeasuresto giveAfghanevacueesmorestability,beginningwithrecognizingtheirstatusasrefugeesaswell asexpandingandfast-trackingpathwaystopermanentresidency.

2.PotentialSolutions

RegardlessofthemistakestheU.S.madeintheevacuationprocess,thecurrentlargest issueremainstheTaliban’sunwillingnesstoallowAfghanstofleethecountry;diplomatic negotiations,aspreviouslymentioned,aretheonlywayforthisdynamictoshift.Whetherthe Talibanbecomesopentomigrationornot,therearemanyAfghansthathavefledtoneighboring countrieswhowishtocometotheU.S.,andtherearenumerouswaystheU.S.governmentcan assistthem.Infact,thereisampleprecedentforthegovernmenttobothcreate sponsorship-resettlementprograms(whichithascurrentlydoneforUkrainianrefugees)and establishpathstocitizenshipforAfghanscurrentlyintheU.S.(whichithashistoricallydonefor Cuban,Vietnamese,andIraqirefugees)(WashingtonPost). However,aprerequisitetothis processremainsthatevacuatedandescapedAfghans,whoarewidelyrecognizedasrefugees, mustbeaffordedthelegalstatustomatchtheirdiresituation.Inaddition,opportunitiesfor internationalcooperationshouldbeutilized. AFebruary 2022reportbytheAtlanticCouncil EuropeCenterestablishedtheresponsibilityofcountriesthatparticipatedinthewarin Afghanistan—includingtheU.S.,Canada,U.K.,Germany,France,andothers—toassistinthe evacuationofAfghancivilians.Theyfurtherrecommendedaplanforeachcountryinthis multinationalrefugeecoalitiontoworktowardsagoalofannuallytakinginrefugeesequivalent

to0.05percentofitspopulation,aswellasadoptingaresettlementmodelsimilartoCanada’s currentprivatesponsorshipschemethatexpeditespermanentresidency(Stewart). ForAfghansalreadyintheU.S.,streamliningtheresidencyprocessisessential. Thankfully,activistsarepushingforCongresstopasstherecentlyintroduced Afghan AdjustmentAct,whichwouldgrantpermanentresidencytoAfghanscurrentlyonhumanitarian paroleiftheyhavebeenintheU.S.forayearormore.Theactwasoriginallyintroducedasa provisionofthe$40billionUkrainianaidpackageinMay2022,butdespitecallsforactionwas ultimatelynotincluded.Now,thisbipartisanbillfacesincreasinglystricttimelinesdueto upcomingmidtermelectionsandimmigrationpolicyexpirations(Dunphey),meaningCongress mustactimmediatelyifitwishestoprovidethisessentialsupporttoAfghansintheU.S.

IV. CONCLUSION

Afghanistanisinthemidstofahumanitarianandeconomiccrisiscausedandperpetuated inlargepartbyU.S.economicpolicies.PastU.S.interventionsinAfghanistanhavebeen harmfulinnumerousways,fromindirectlyradicalizingtheTalibantosupportingcorruptionina failingdemocracyprojecttoengenderingfalseandharmfulnarrativesathome.Assuch,theU.S. owesittoAfghanistanaswellastotheAmericanpeopletostopitslargelyineffective,highly damagingeconomicwarfareandinsteadinstitutionallyrecognizeitsmistakesandengagein productivesolution-makingwiththeTaliban,whilstalsorethinkingitsapproachtotherefugee crisisU.S.policieshavecaused.InthemidstofAfghanistan’schallenges,HardinLang,vice presidentofRefugeesInternational,identifiesthelargestbarriertoachievingthisgoalnotasa “shortageofcreativeideas”,buta“missing[...]politicalwilltomovequicklyandtheboldness totakedifficultdecisions.Thatpoliticalwillmustcomefromthetop” (Lang).Withoutthis

politicalwill,therewillbenopursuitfordiplomacytobringtheTalibantothenegotiatingtable aroundwomen’srightsandpossibilitiesforfurtherrefugeeevacuations.Withoutthispolitical will,Americanforeignpolicywillforevercementitselfinstagnancy,doomedtorepeatitsworst failures.Withoutthispoliticalwill,theAfghanpeoplewillcontinuetosuffernotonlyforthesins oftheTalibantoday,butalsothesinsofthe9/11hijackerstwodecadesago.Withoutthis politicalwill,U.S.credibilitywillcontinuetodeteriorateamidstarapidlychanging,multipolar geopoliticalarena.Withoutthispoliticalwill,themodern-daymanifestationsofAmerica’s imperiallegacywillcontinueintheformofeconomicstrangulation.Putsimply,asLal MohammadofKan-e-Ezzatvillageexplains:“Everyoneistraumatisedandtired.Wedidn’twant theRussians,northeAmericans,northeTaliban.Wejustwantpeace” (Glinski).

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HighStakes:America’sLoveandHateofCannabis

By Daniel Hernan

Brookline High School, Class of 2023 Brookline, MA

Mentored by: Jennifer Grubb, Teacher Edited by: Rania Dadlani, Kaya Vadhan Reviewed by: Greta Hsu, Robin Goldstein, Joseph DiMento

MarijuanaisthemostwidelyusedfederallyillegaldrugintheUnitedStates;48.2million people,orabout18%ofAmericans,useditatleastoncein2019.9 Despiteitspresentday illegalityattheFederallevel,earlyAmericanColonies,includingMassachusetts,Virginia,and Connecticutmandatedthatfarmersgrowhemp,aplantofthesamefamily,tosustaintheir boomingtextileindustry.10 Later,in1839,physicianWilliamO’Shaughnessyintroduceda cannabisplantwithmoreconcentratedlevelsoftetrahydrocannabinol(THC)totheUnited States.Thisstrainisresponsibleforproducingpsychoactiveeffectsonpeoplewhoconsumeit.11

Thelate1800ssawasignificantincreaseintheacceptanceofcannabisforvariousmedical treatmentssuchasstomachachesandinfections,withamajorityofpharmacistsprescribingitfor atleastonecourseoftreatment.12 Yet,bythe1910s,aggressivepoliciestargetedthesaleofall drugs.Mostnotably,theHarrisonNarcoticsActof1914madeitacrimetoconsumeopium, heroin,morphine,andcocaine,andcreatedthelegalframeworkforgraduallyoutlawingcannabis possessionthroughouttheUS.ThoughcannabisrestrictionswereimplementedbytheUS governmentthroughoutthe20thcentury,socialmovementsrootedinnativism,racism,and erroneousfearsofmoraldeteriorationwereultimatelyresponsibleforthepopularizationand implementationoftheserestrictivepolicies.

Thefive-leafedhempplantcommonlymistakenformoderndayweedoriginatedin CentralAsia.ColonizationintroducedtheplanttoEuropeandthentotheAmericas,withnearly allSpanishandEnglishcoloniescultivatinghempforitsfibers.Thesefiberswereutilizedfor rope,sails,andfabricsintheSouthwestSpanishMissions.TheNortheastalsohaddemandfor

for Behavioral Health

Onion, Sullivan, Mullen

Desjardins, “6,000Year

Onion, Sullivan, Mullen

hempaspopulationgrowthledtoagrowingtextileindustrywhichoftenreliedonthe easy-to-growandwidelyavailablehempplant.HempisastrainofcannabisthattheUS Governmentstatesmusthavelessthan0.3%THCconcentration.Abovethislevel,cannabisis classifiedasmarijuana.PeoplebegantoseekoutthesehigherlevelsofTHCinthe19thcentury asWesternmedicinebeganembracingcannabisasaremedyforillness.Theincreasedusageof cannabisinmedicinewasafactorinthepassageofthePureFoodandDrugAct,whichrequired manufacturerstospecifyingredientsandregulatedthepreviouslyuncheckedindustry.13 Then,in 1917,theUSTreasuryDepartmentexpressedconcernover“MexicansandsometimesNegroes andlowerclasswhites”smokingcannabisdespitethefactthat,bythestartofthe1920s,theUS hadbecomeanetexporterofcannabistoMexico.14 Nonetheless,cannabiswasviewedasa foreignproductanditbecameknownasmarijuanathroughouttheUSduetoitsaffiliationwith Spanishspeakingcountries.AninfluxofMexicanimmigrationduringtheMexicanRevolution of1910-1917furtherreinforcedAmericans’negativeattitudestowardcannabis.15 Thesefactors createdfertilegroundsforanti-Mexicansentimenttoblossom,andin1929,whentheGreat Depressionbegan,Americansseemedtohavealreadychosenascapegoatforthecollapsing economy

Aseconomicconditionsrapidlydeteriorated,abroadnativistmovementlobbied politicianstopersecuteforeignersunderthepresumptionthattheyweretakingjobsfrom“real Americans”:thisnewlyestablishedrationaleprovidedpoliticalsupportforthesweeping illegalityofcannabisacrosstheUS.Thestockmarketcrash,thecollapseofmajorindustries,and skyrocketingunemploymentcreatedalargedegreeofuncertaintyandinsecurityamong

Americans.The1930swasaperiodoftremendoussocialupheaval.Thewidespreadsufferingof Americansdroveoutimmigrationactivistsandusheredinaneweraofnativism.SinceMexicans wereheldresponsibleforweakeningtheeconomy,andthey,alongwithIndians,wereprofoundly associatedwithweed,Americansbecameembitteredwiththesubstanceaswell.Mexicansin particular,eventhosewithAmericancitizenship,wereexpelledfromtheUSunderthe superstitionthattheywerecausingWhiteAmerica’sgrievances.16 Furthermore,thechangefrom thename“cannabis”totheSpanishword“marijuana”wasusedtoemphasizedifferencesin cultures.Thedebatesurroundingcannabiswasn’trootedinscienceandfacts.Itwasrootedin racism.

Thenontraditionalnatureofcannabisbecameassociatedwithageneraldistrustof minorities.17 ThroughviewsofWhiteracialsuperiority, underlinedbyderogatorysymbolizations ofcannabis,alinkwasconstructedbetweentheeconomicslumpandthepresenceofMexicans. Particularly,AmericansintheSouthandWestsoughttodistinguishthemselvesfrom“dirty” behaviorslikesmokingweed.Indeed,eventheCaliforniaStateBoardofPharmacywroteofa fearthattherecentwaveofimmigrationfromIndiahadincreasedcannabisconsumptionandthat this“veryundesirablelot”was“initiatingourWhitesintothishabit.”18 Thehypocrisyofthis uniquelyAmericanreactionisthatMexicohadimplementedafullbanoncannabisin1920,long beforetheUShad.19 EvidencefromtheperiodindicatesthatMexicansmugglersboughtcannabis atUSpharmaciestotransportbacktoMexicoforillegalsale.20 Americansinsistedthatcannabis

wasaforeignthreat,anduseditasrationaleforthedeportationofhundredsofthousandsof Mexican-AmericancitizensandotherwiselegalimmigrantsacrosstheSouthernBorder.21 Policiesrootedinliesspreadquicklyacrossaprejudicedpublic,resultingintheviolationof rightsformillionsofracialminorities.

ThroughoutUShistory,anti-cannabismovementshavealsofoundcontinuedsupport fromtheperceptionthatAmericawasmorallytaintedbywidespreaddruguse.Thosewhosaw alcoholanddruguseasevilsupportedtheprohibitionmovementoftheearly20thcentury.As thefirstcommissioneroftheUSTreasuryDepartment'sFederalBureauofNarcotics,Harry Anslingerstated,"Thereare100,000totalmarijuanasmokersintheU.S.,andmostareNegroes, Hispanics,Filipinosandentertainers.TheirSatanicmusic,jazzandswingresultfrommarijuana use.ThismarijuanainduceswhitewomentoseeksexualrelationswithNegroes,entertainersand anyothers."22 He,amongothers,blameddrugusefortheincreasedacceptanceofbiracial relationshipswhichwasconsideredsinfulatthetime.Additionally,directlyreferencingtheDevil whilegroupingmarijuanausewithnewstylesofmusicandotherformsofexpressionpointsto theintensemoralpushbackAmericanshad.Itperfectlyepitomizeshowtheresponsetosocial changebytraditionalistsoftencameattheexpenseofaccesstocannabis.Manybelievedthat cannabiswassimilarandrelatedtotheincreaseinthesexualizationofentertainment.For example,thepresenceofFlapperGirlsinjazzclubswasathreattoorthodoxAmericansinfavor ofwomenremainingunderthestrictcontrolofapatriarchandrevealinglittlewhenitcameto fashion.

Waxman, “Surprising Link”

Sraders, “History of Marijuana”

Theriseincannabisconsumptionwasalsogroupedwiththeriseincivilrightsreform,an issuemanyRepublicanandDemocraticconservativesvehementlyopposed.Anslinger's impressionofcannabiswasrivetedwithnativistandracistbigotry,yetitwaswidelysupported byAmericansbecauseofhisnotorietyasbeingthefigureheadoftheUSProhibitionmovement. By1931,29stateshadoutlawedcannabis.Thissocialreformmovementseepedintofederal policyaswellwiththepassageoftheMarijuanaTaxActof1937.23 Thenewlaw,apartfrom outlawingallnon-medicalusesofmarijuana,requiredalluserstoseekspecialapprovalfromthe Treasury,payatax,andthenobtainastamptoprovelegality.24 Thefirstpersontobeconvicted underthenewlawreceivedasentenceoffouryearsofhardlabor,whichwasadramaticincrease intheseverityofsentencesforthesaleofmarijuana.Duringthisperiod,thenameforcannabis furtherevolvedtoreflectthenewlyracistattitudesoftheanti-weedmovement.“Locoweed” becamethecommonplacenameforweed;whentranslatedtoEnglishfromSpanishitmeans “crazyweed,”clearlyaderogatoryterm.Thetermcreatedamisplacedviewthatpeoplewho consumedcannabiswerenotoftheirrightmindsandthereforemoraldeteriorates,anotionthat persistedintothe21stcentury.Journalistspopularizedthesetermsinthemediawhilealso exaggeratingthehazardsofaddictiontofavoranti-druglegislation.25 Furthermore,“rumors spreadthatMexicansweredistributingthis'killerweed'tounsuspectingAmerican schoolchildren.”26 Consequently,asenseofurgencyarosewhichestablishedanunlikely,and diversepoliticalcoalitionofprogressives,theelite,andtraditionalists.Thiscoalitionjoined

forcesto“cleanse”theUSofsinsandintentionallyignoredthedisproportionateeffectsofthese policiesonminorities,somegoingasfarastoblameminoritiesforthepersistentuseofcannabis. AftertheGreatDepression,aperiodofpassivityensuedfornearlyhalfacenturywhich cametoanendduringthe1970swhenanewanti-drugmovementtookhold.Stagflation—the riseinpricesaccompaniedbyarecession—becamethenormandthroughthe1960sintothe ‘70s,crimeratesrose,andsocialreformmovements,suchastheCivilRightsMovement, implementedstructuralchangestoUSsociety.ManyAmericans,mostlyonthepoliticalright, feltthreatenedbytheseissuesandsoughttoblamethemonafewkeyproblems.Drugswere principallyheldliablefortheseandotherchangeslikeincreasedunemploymentratesandtherise inanti-establishment,youthcounterculture.Theseproblemswerehighlightedatthefederallevel byfreshlyelectedPresidentRichardNixon.PresidentNixonpassedtheControlledSubstances Actin1970creatingarankingofdrugsfrommostpotentialforabuse(ScheduleI)toleast (ScheduleV).InJuneof1971,PresidentNixongaveafourandahalfminutespeechthatmarked awatershedmomentinthepopularizationofanti-drugmeasures.Notonlydidheannouncedrug abuseas“publicenemynumberone,”buthealsorequestedandlaterreceived155million dollars(1.1billiondollarsadjustedtoinflationlevelsof2022)to“fight”thisWaronDrugs.27 ThisshortpressbriefingalongwiththeFederalgovernment'sfreshlyenacteddrugreformlaw drovepublicsentimentevenfurtherinsupportofanti-drugpolicy. However,togarnersupportfortheWaronDrugs,Nixonandotherconservative politicianshadtoprovethattheseanti-drugmeasureswouldpreventsignificantsocietalchange intheUnitedStates.Accordingly,theWaronDrugstookahardlineapproachto“solving”drug abuse.Forreference,theAmericanMedicalAssociationdefineddrugabuseas“takingdrugs

withoutprofessionaladviceordirection.”28 Manycrimesrelatedtodrugusagebecamegrouped togetherwithmandatoryminimumprisonsentencesthatoverwhelminglyincarceratedlower class,urban,BlackandLatinoAmericans.29 Astudy publishedbytheACLUshowedBlack peopleareoverfourtimesaslikelytobearrestedformarijuanapossession.30 Allnuancetodrug policywaseliminatedfromUSlawsinexchangeforuniversal,extremepunishment.For example,cannabiswasclassifiedasaScheduleIdrug,whichoutlawedallusageofthesubstance formedicalpurposesandfurtherincreasedsentencingforcrimesofpossession,sale,and consumption.OthernoteworthyScheduleIdrugsincludedLSDandheroin.Forreference, cocainewasconsideredaScheduleIIdrug,apparentlyhavinglowerpotentialformisuseand greatermedicinalapplicationsthancannabis.31 Gradually,theresponsetotrulydetrimentaland addictivedrugabusebecamepoliceforceandprisontimeratherthantreatmentand rehabilitation.

Despitepoliticians’attitudethatalldrugswereequallydeadly,destructive,and debilitating,cannabiswas,inparticular,calledoutbyscientistsforbeingincorrectlycategorized. InresponsetoNixon’s“publicenemynumberone”speechfrom1971andhissupportofthe ControlledSubstancesActof1970,theNationalCommissiononMarijuanaandDrugAbuse presentedathoroughreportcalled“Marijuana:ASignalofMisunderstanding”toCongress.The commissionbecameknownasthe“ShaferCommission”becauseofitschairman:former PennsylvaniaGovernorandclosepoliticalallyofPresidentNixon,RaymondP.Shafer.The “ShaferCommission,”whichincludedmedicalexpertsappointedbyPresidentNixon,

Laguaite "Medicine

ACLU, “MarijuanaArrests”

Onion, Sullivan, Mullen “Marijuana

recommendedminorpenaltiesforchargesofcannabispossessionbecauseofitsrelativelylow addictionlevelsandnearzerooverdoserate.Additionally,itadvocatedforpartialprohibition becauseofitspotentialadoptionasaneffectivetreatmentagainstothermedicalconditions.32 It's vitaltopointoutthatevenscientistscloselytiedtoPresidentNixonsoundedthealarmwhenit cametotheexcessivelyharshpoliciesbeingimplemented.Cannabiswasessentiallydebunkedas athreattosocietybyresearchers,yetpopularopinionrelishedtheincreaseofpolicebudgetsand arrests.Infact,“PoliceofficersinTexasclaimedthatmarijuanaincitedviolentcrimes,arouseda 'lustforblood'andgaveitsusers'superhumanstrength.'”33 Americanswereenthralledbythe false,dangerousnarrativeofcannabis,andoverwhelminglysupportedrespondingtothis apparentthreatwithpoliceforce.Evenmorealarmingwasthepropagationbygovernment officialsofthedepictionofdrugusersasBlack,Hispanic,poor,andurban.Consequently,a disproportionatenumberofthoseconvictedforminordrugusagecrimeswereAmericansof color.

Insum,nativism,racism,andfearsofmoraldeteriorationfueledmisguidedpublic perceptionsofcannabisalongwithpopularanti-drugmovements,promptingthegovernmentto implementrestrictionsoncannabis.Americanshavebeen“terriblyandsystematicallymisledfor nearlyseventyyears”34 concerningcannabis’effects onhumanhealth.Thedebateonlegalization continuestoformasignificanttopicofconversationinpolitics.ACalifornianballotinitiativein 1996approvedProposition215,alsoknownastheCompassionateUseAct,whichlegalized medicalmarijuanause.Thisexemplifiedthenationalreversalofsupportforthe“WaronDrugs,” asPresidentNixonretainedsupportfromCaliforniansthroughbothofhiselectionbidsjust

twentyfiveyearsearlier.InFebruaryof2009,AttorneyGeneralEricHolderannouncedthat raidsonmedicalmarijuanaclinicswouldcease.35 By2015,twentythreestateshadatleast partiallylegalizedcannabis,withAlaska,Colorado,Oregon,andWashingtonlegalizing recreationaluse.36 Still,in2016,AttorneyGeneral JeffSessionsimplementedstricterpolicieson cannabisenforcementbasedonhispersonal“moral”standing.Thatyear,over600,000people werearrestedforcannabisoffenses,adisproportionateofwhichwerefromminoritygroups. However,thishasnotchangedtheupwardstrendinsupportforthelegalizationofmarijuanause whichreached68%in2021,upfrom12%in1969.37 Thisgrowing,widespreadbipartisan supportalmostguaranteesthatanyfutureballotmeasureswillultimatelyapprovemarijuana legalization.Thefactsareclear:Americanswanttolegalizeweed.Howsoonthishappens dependsentirelyonthepoliticalprocess’abilitytorespondtothepopulardemand.InJuly,2022, DemocraticSenateLeaderChuckSchumerintroducedabillthatwouldprovidethelegal frameworktoreversemarijuanaprohibitionatthefederallevel.Sadly,thelackofdataavailable onthelongtermeffectsofmarijuanauseleavesmygenerationasaguineapiggeneration.While marijuanacriminalizationledtodiscriminatorypolicy,ithadsimultaneouslyshieldedyoung peoplefromitsdangerousaffects.Additionally,thepotencyorconcentrationofTHCin marijuanahasincreasedsubstantiallyoverthepastdecadesbecauseofthedevelopmentofmore efficientTHCextractiontechnologies.Again,thisfeedsintothefearthatifthecountrymoved towardsfull,recreationallegalization,youngpeople(andtheirdevelopingbodies)wouldfacethe bruntoftheseeffects.Thelegalizationofcannabisremainsthemostdirectwaytouprootracist

policy,yetwemustensureourcountry’spublichealthremainsattheforefrontofthesepolicy changes.

WorksCited

Desjardins,Jeff.2019.“The6,000-YearHistoryofMedicalCannabis.”VisualCapitalist.March 9,2019. https://www.visualcapitalist.com/history-medical-cannabis-shown-one-giant-map/.

Haerens,Margaret,andLynnMZott.2013. Medical Marijuana.Detroit:GreenhavenPress.

History.comEditors.2018.“Marijuana.”HISTORY.A&ETelevisionNetworks.November2, 2018.https://www.history.com/topics/crime/history-of-marijuana.

Inc,Gallup.2021.“SupportforLegalMarijuanaHoldsatRecordHighof68%.”Gallup.com. November4,2021. https://news.gallup.com/poll/356939/support-legal-marijuana-holds-record-high.aspx

“MarijuanaArrestsbytheNumbers.”2001.AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.2001. https://www.aclu.org/gallery/marijuana-arrests-numbers.

Marshall,Eliot.1988. Legalization : A Debate.NewYork:ChelseaHouse.

Nixon,Richard.1971.“PublicEnemyNumberOne.”June17. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8TGLLQlD9M&t=12s

Quality,SAMHSA,CenterforBehavioralHealthStatisticsand.2020.“KeySubstanceUseand MentalHealthIndicatorsintheUnitedStates:Resultsfromthe2019NationalSurveyon DrugUseandHealth.”Www.samhsa.gov.2020. https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt29393/2019NSDUHFFRPDF WHTML/2019NSDUHFFR090120.htm

Sraders,Anne.2018.“HistoryofMarijuana:Origins,LegalityandWhat’sHappeningin2018.” TheStreet.TheStreet.September24,2018. https://www.thestreet.com/markets/history-of-marijuana-14718715.

Waxman,OliviaB.2019.“TheSurprisingLinkbetweenU.S.MarijuanaLawandtheHistoryof Immigration.”Time.Time.April19,2019.

https://time.com/5572691/420-marijuana-mexican-immigration/

TheImplicationsofRationalChoiceTheoryonJuryandCriminalBehavior

By Sara Tatke

Homestead High School, Class of 2023 Sunnyvale, CA

Mentored by: Kirk Hinton, Teacher Edited by: Alex Dishnica, Tiffany Wen Reviewed by: Russell Golman, Reuben Stern

INTRODUCTION

TheJury:aninstitutiondevelopedtomaximizetheequalityofatrialbygivingpowerto thehandsofordinarypeople.Whilemanyarguethatitisanecessity,manypositthatjuriesare inherentlyunjust,createdtodisregardminoritiesandfurtherthesuperioritycomplexesofmany withintheUnitedStates.Bothsidesoftheargumenthavetheirownstrengthsandweaknesses,as shownbytheresearchconductedbynumerouspsychologistsexploringthefactorsthatmay influenceajury’sdecision.Onepsychologicaltheory,theRationalChoiceTheory,postulatesthat peoplewillactrationallyincharacter,andwhenmakingdecisions,theywilldeterminethecosts andbenefitsofeachaction.Thistheorycanbeappliedinthecontextofjuriesinthatitsuggests thereareseveralfactorsthatinfluencehowjurieswillmakedecisionstheyperceiveasrational. Additionally,behavioralpsychologistshavealsodeterminedseveralambiguityattitudeswhich canpredictthesocialbehaviorsofindividuals.Specifically,thispaperwillexplore ambiguity-aversionandambiguity-seekingbehaviors.Boththesebehavioralattitudesprovidea frameworkbywhichpeoplemakedecisionswhichcanbefurtherappliedtostudyhowjuries makedecisionsandhowindividualsmaychoosetocommitcrimes.Ambiguity-aversionstates that“whenthereisuncertaintyabouttheprobabilitiesofvariousoutcomes,peoplemayassume thatbadoutcomesaremorelikelythantheyactuallyare”(Frank).Ambiguity-seekingbehavior statesjusttheopposite:peopletendtobemoreoptimisticaboutuncertainoutcomes.Inthisway, juriesareimpactedbytheirownambiguityattitudes,inherentstylesofdeliberation,andseveral externalfactorsthatultimatelydeterminehowtheyviewtheevidencepresentedtothem. Additionally,criminalswillactinaccordancewiththeirindividualambiguityattitudesaswell, andanalyzingtheseattitudescanprovidenewmodelsofdeterrencethatstatescanimplementin ordertoreducecrimerates.

II. BIASESINJURYANDCRIMINALBEHAVIOR

A. RationalChoiceTheoryandItsBroadImplications

RationalChoiceTheory(RCT)canbeappliedtobothjuryandcriminalbehaviors:there arethreebroadtypesthatcanbeconsidered,eachdiscussingthesameideawithslightlydifferent structuralchanges.Inthejurycontext,RCTpostulatesthatjurieswillconsiderthecostsand benefitsofeachdecisiontheycanmake.Similarly,inacriminalcontext,RCTstatesthatpeople willchooseto“commitcrimesinarationalmanner”(Frank).

Thefirsttype,NarrowRCT,“holdsthathumanagents,whenmakingdecisionsabout theiractions,areselfishlyoriented,motivatedsolelybymonetaryormaterialcostsandbenefits, havepossessedofalltherelevantinformationinanon-biasedway,andchoosethebestcourseof actioninrelationtotheirgoals”(Rutar301).NarrowRCTistypicallythemostcriticizeddueto nottakingintoaccountthefactthatpeoplearealsoconcernedwithlesstangiblegoalsasidefrom simplytangible,self-interestedgoals.

OntheothersideofthespectrumisWideRCT,whichtakesabroaderapproachtohuman behaviorincomparisontoNarrowRCT WideRCTstatesthatactionscangobothways: self-interestedlyandother-regarding.Self-interestedbehaviorcancomeinmanyforms,suchas caringformonetaryormaterialgoods,socialstatus,orothersentiments.Peoplecanalsoactas ‘maximizers’who“searchforoptimalcourse[s]ofaction”oras‘satisficers’who“pickactions theythinkwillserveasnotperfectbutgoodenoughmeansforachievingtheirends”(Rutar301). Themainideahereisthatsubjectswillallhavedifferentbehavioraltendenciesandintentions, theonlyconstantbeingthattheywillallindependentlychoosehowtorationallypursuetheir respectivesituations.TheissuewithWideRCT,however,isthatitsgeneralitydoesn’toffer

muchguidanceintermsofjustifyinghumanbehaviorasanswerscanbelookedatfromboth perspectives.

Tomitigatethisissue,AmendingRCThasbeenproposed,whichcombinesaspectsofthe NarrowandWideRCTinordertoaccountfortheirrespectivefaults.AmendingRCTsuggests “to(i)assumeself-interest,atleastasanorientingstartingpoint,andtofurtherpositmore specifically(ii)thatpeopleaimtoachievetwomoreorlessuniversalself-interestedgoals: securingorincreasingtheirmaterialwellbeingandsecuringorincreasingsocialrecognition” (Rutar302).Asaresultoftheseassumptions,amendingRationalChoiceTheoryencompasses thelargestportionofthepopulation’sbehaviorthroughitsuseofself-interestasastartingpoint inadditiontoaccountingforsomerationalgoalspursuedwithoutself-interest.

Thus,thisformofRationalChoiceTheorycanbeappliedtothemajorityandgenerally canbeusedinregardtopredictingdecision-making. Itholdsthatthereareseveralfactorsthat ultimatelydeterminehowhumanschoosetomakedecisionsandthereforeimpliesthatjuriesand criminalscanbeexaminedmorecloselyinordertoallowforfairertrialsandwaystodeter crime.

B. JuryDecisionMakingandItsInfluencingFactors

Thehopeisthatbycloselyexaminingexternalfactorsthatmayaffecthowjurorsmake decisions,conclusionscanbedrawntomakewayforadvancementsinequityofthejudicial system.Jurydecision-makingisremarkableinthatitplacessuchalargeamountoftrustand powerinthehandsofordinarycitizens.However,withthispowercomesthequestionofwhether thejuryhasarrivedattherightverdict.Topsychologists,thisquestionhasrelevanceinregardto avarietyofconcepts,includingpersuasion,groupbehavior,andmemory.Psychologistsalsotake particularinterestinfactorsthatmayinfluencejuriessince,asstatedinRationalChoice Theory,

individualswilldeterminewhatdecisionstomakebasedonwhichchoicebenefitsthemselves themost.Takingthatintoaccount,themostimportantfactorsofjuryperformancecanbe assessedinthreedifferentcategories.

Thefirstcategoryiscomprehension,whichlooksattheextenttowhichjurieshave comprehendedtheinstructionsgiventothembythejudge.“Jurors’comprehension—especially ofjudges’instructions—isgenerallypoor.Performancevariesdependingonthesubjectmatter andtestingformat,butfiguresunder50%arenotuncommon.Suchfindingshaveledthe AmericanBarAssociationtoadvocaterewritinginstructions,aneffortthatmanyjurisdictions haveundertaken”(BornsteinandGreene).Thisshowsthatcomprehensioncanbeakeyfactorin affectingjurydecisions,aswhetherornottheycomprehendtheinformationgiventothemwill playaroleinhowtheyultimatelydecidetojudgetheevidencetheyseeathand.Thisalso suggeststhatnewimplementationscanbemadetobridgethisdivide,wherejurorinstructions canbesimplifiedasbestaspossibleinordertoavoidmisinterpretations.

Thesecondcategoryisrelianceonevidence,whichessentiallysuggeststhatjurorstend torememberinformationconsistentwiththeirverdictbias,similartouniversaldecision-making processes.Itisimportantinthiscategorytoconsiderquestionssuchas,“do[jurors]useevidence theyaresupposedtouseandignoreinformationtheyaresupposedtoignore(oftenreferredtoas ‘‘extralegal”evidence)?Dotheydiscriminateamongplaintiffsdifferingininjuryseverity, eyewitnesseswithgood(vs.poor)opportunitiestoobserveacrime?”(BornsteinandGreene).It hasbeenrevealedthat“findingsonthesequestionsaregenerallymorepositivethannegative,” indicatingthatimplicitbiaseswillautomaticallyhaveaneffectonjurordecision-making, consciousornot(BornsteinandGreene).Ifajurorhasalreadyinternallydeterminedwhichside theypersonallyfavor,theymaytendtoonlyrecallinformationwithinthetrialthatsupportsthis

bias,andbyignoringcontraryinformation,mayfailtoconductaholisticevaluationofthecase athand.

Thethirdandfinalcategoryiscomparisontoexpertdecision-makers,meaninghow jurorswilluseperceivedcredibilityortangiblecredentialstoimpacttheirfinalverdict.In specific,“jurorsattendtoperipheralcuesassociatedwiththeevidence,suchastheperceived credibilityofalaywitness,thecredentialsofanexpertwitness,ortheattractivenessofvarious legalactors”(BornsteinandGreene).Alongwiththesebiases,“otherheuristics,includingthe hindsightbias,counterfactualthinking(consideringalternativeoutcomes),availability(relying onhoweasyitistoretrieveinformationwhenmakingjudgments),andrepresentativeness(over attendingtosalientfeatures)havealsobeenimplicatedinjurordecision-makingoutcomes,”all ofwhichfallunderthebroadcategoryofcomparisontoexpertdecision-makersmayalsoimpact howjuriesmakedecisions.(Feigenson).Inaddition,theemotionsormoodsofjurorscanaffect howtheyreviewinformation.Researchhasshownthatjurorsmayunconsciouslyconstrue evidenceorprocessinformationthatisconsistentwiththeiremotions,whichcanultimately affecttheirverdictpreference.Thesecuesandbiasesshowthatthereareavarietyoffactorsin relationtocomparisonofdecision-makersthatcouldpotentiallycontributetoajury’sdecision, includingperceivedcredibility,hindsightbias,availabilityofinformation,andothers.Ultimately, thecategoryofcomparisontoexpertdecision-makersandbiasesthatfallunderithighlightsthe needtodeterminewhatthespecificcomparisonfactorsare.Thiscanbedonethroughconducting targetstudiestowardscredibilityorvariousotherfactorsofcomparison,thushelpingtoprevent unjusttrials.

PsychologyandRationalChoiceTheorybothshowhowjurieswillbeimpactedby variousexternalcomponentsthatcanultimatelyhindertheirabilitytolookatthingsfroma

holisticperspective.Broadly,theseexternalcomponentscanbedefinedunderjury comprehension,relianceonevidence,andcomparisontoexpertdecision-makers.Thesefactors stressamajorflawintheUSgovernmentasmanyofthesefactorsarecurrentlypresentinthe governmentalstructureand,therefore,placeemphasisonmakingchangesinordertoaccountfor therespectiveflaws.

C. AmbiguityAttitudesasTheyRelatetoJuriesandCriminals

Inadditiontoexternalfactorswithinthecourtroom,internalbehavioraltendencies, knownasambiguityattitudes,canalsoimpactone’sdecision-making.Theseambiguityattitudes canbeexploredinrelationtojuryandcriminalbehavior.Therearetwomajorbehavioral anomaliesthatcanbelookedatinthecriminalandjurybehaviorcontext.Bothprovide reasoningastohowjuriescometotheirfinaldecisionaswellaswhatdecision-makingprocesses peopleusewhencommittingacrime.

Thefirstbehavioralanomalyisambiguityaversionwhich“occurswhenaperson conductscost-benefitanalyseswithincompleteinformationabouttheprobabilitiesofvarious outcomes,likedetectionandpunishment.Ratherthanrelyingonunbiasedestimatesofthe probabilities,peoplewilloftenmakepessimisticpredictionsduetotheirdistasteforuncertainty” (Frank).Ambiguityaversiontellsusthatwhenthere isuncertaintyregardinganoutcome,people exhibitingthisbehaviortendtoassumemorenegativeoutcomesthanwhatrealitysuggests.

Thesecondambiguityattitudeis“ambiguity-seekingbehavior,[which]istheexact oppositeofambiguity-aversebehavior.Whenambiguity-seekingindividualsmakeacost-benefit analysisusingincompleteinformationregardingtheprobabilitiesoffutureevents,theyrelyon anoptimisticestimationratherthananunbiasedestimation,overweightingtheprobabilityofa positiveoutcomeduetotheirpreferencefortheunknown”(Frank).Individualswith

ambiguity-seekingbehaviorswillthushavemorepositiveoutlooksonambiguoussituations, which,likeambiguity-avertingbehavior,canbeanimpactingfactorinthejurycontext,forbetter orworse.

Intermsofgroupingindividualstoeitherambiguity-avertingorambiguity-seeking,most willnotexclusivelybepartofonesideandratherwillexhibiteachbehavioralcharacteristic dependingonthesituation.

“Whenfacingalowprobabilityofagain,peopletendtobeambiguityseeking,andwhen facingahighprobabilityofagain,theytendtobeambiguity-averse.Whilethe underlyingprobabilityatwhichindividualsswitchfromambiguity-averseto ambiguity-seekinglikelydependsontheunderlyingcircumstances,ViscusiandChesson estimatethatpeoplebecomeambiguity-seekingwhentheunderlyingprobabilityofaloss exceedsfiftypercent”(Frank).

Essentially,one’sbehaviorinambiguoussituationsdependsontheprobabilityofgain.In situationswithalowerprobabilityofgain,individualstendtoexhibitambiguity-seeking behavior,whereasahigherprobabilityofgainindicatesmoreambiguity-aversebehavior.In relationtojuries,thestakeofatrialcanimpactthewayajurydecidesonanoutcome.In addition,theamountofgainorlossanindividualjurormayseeintheambiguoussituationcould ultimatelyplayaroleinhowtheyviewtheevidence.Withrespecttocriminals,whensomeone considerscommittingacrime,thehighertheprobabilityofgaininginanambiguoussituation, themoreindividualswillviewthesituationinanegativemanner.

D. StructuralChangesandImplementationstoGovernment

Ambiguityattitudesaffecthowindividualswillchoosetoact,anddependingonthe contextofthesituation,someonemayexhibitacertaintypeofambiguityattitude.Thisis

importantastheambiguityattitudesofjurorsandcriminalsalikemayvarydependingonthe situationathand.Knowingtheseattitudesandhowtheymaychangecanberevealedthrough analyzinganindividual'sambiguitytendenciesforpatterns.Ultimately,ambiguityattitudes provideaframeworktocrimedeterrence:thepatternspresentfromindividualbehaviorin ambiguoussituationscanbeusedtotakepreventativemeasurestowardscrimeratesby implementingchangesaccordingtotheseattitudes.Inaddition,ambiguitypatternscanalsobe usedtohoneinonfactorsthataffectjurydecision-making.Inthissense,ambiguityattitudes suggestthatstructuralchangescanbemadetothegovernmentinordertopreventcrimeby predictingtheactionsofcriminals.

Forthemajority,whopossessambiguity-aversionattitudes,statescanimplementpolicies thatincreasethelevelofambiguitypresentinthelegalsystem.

“Theintroductionofambiguityaversiondoesnotonlychange[people’s]decision process;italsochangesthepoliciesthatthestatecanimplementtodeter[them]. The statecanstillutilizethetraditionaldeterrencemethodsofincreasingtheprobabilityof detectionortheseverityofthepunishmenttodeter[people],butitcanalsodeter [someone]fromcommittingacrimebyincreasingtheamountofambiguitysurrounding detection.Forinstance,randomizingpolicepatrolsmightmakeitharderforcriminalsto predicttheprobabilityofdetectionanddeterthemfromcommittingcrimes”(Frank). Byimplementingthischangeinthegovernment,crimecanlargelybereducedsimplydueto behavioraltendencies.Specifically,iftheambiguityofasituationisincreased,forexample,the detectionofacrime,thehigherthestakesandpotentialgainwillbe,thusmakingitmorelikely foranindividualtopredictanegativeoutcome.Thiswouldthendeterindividualsfrom committingcrimesduetothesituation'sambivalence.Likewise,forjurors,ifthepotentialgain

ofacaseishigherforeitherthemselvesorthedefendantandthushashigherambiguity,thejuror mayfallbacktoambiguity-avertingbehavioraswell.

Ultimately,theeffectivenessofpoliciesimplementeddependsontheindividual ambiguityattitudesthatonepossesses.

“Specifically,[policieswilllookat]potentialcriminalsthatexhibitvariousambiguity preferencesaswellastheirvariousreactionstochangesinambiguity.Apolicythat increasestheambiguityofdetectionwillsucceedinreducingtotalcrimelevelsaslongas thedeterrenteffectithasonambiguity-averseindividualsoutweighsthecountereffectit hasonambiguity-seekingindividuals.Similarly,apolicythatdecreasestheambiguityof punishmentwillsucceedinreducingtotalcrimelevelsaslongasthedeterrenteffectit hasonambiguity-seekingpeopleoutweighsthecountereffectithasonambiguity-averse people”(Frank).

Thus,thereareimportantconsiderationstobemadebeforedecidingtoimplementapolicythat mayfavoracertainambiguityattitude,asitiscrucialthatanychangedoesn’thavea countereffectonthosepossessingtheoppositeattitude.

Ambiguityattitudestellusthatincreasingordecreasingambiguityinsituationswillplay alargeroleinhowanindividualchoosestoact.Thisbasicprinciplecanbeappliedinthecontext ofcriminals,inwhichaddingorreducingtheambiguityofpunishmentcanbeusedasa preventativeapproachtocrimes.Additionally,ambiguitytendenciescanalsobeafactorto considerwhenlookingatjurydecision-making.Basedonboththecontextofthetrialathand andthebehavioraltendenciesoftheindividual,thejurormayconductarationalcost-benefit analysisaccordingtothoseinternalpreferences.

E. ThreeInterlinkedProblemstoRationalChoiceTheory

RationalChoiceTheory,likemanypsychologicaltheories,isn’tabletoprovide justificationforalltypesofbehaviors.ThereareseveralissuesofRCTthatcanbeexplored—the threemajorissuesbeingcollectiveaction,socialnorms,andsocialstructure.

Thefirstquestionisthatofcollectiveaction.“Ifindividualscalculatepersonalprofitto bemadefromeachcourseofaction,whyshouldtheyeverchoosetodosomethingthatwill benefitothersmorethanthemselves?”(Green).Essentially,RCTlooksatweighingthecostsand benefitsofanactionbeforeexecutingtheaction.Withthisinmind,itdoesn’tmakesensefor someonetoactinawaydeemedasself-less,asinthosesituations,thecostislikelymorethan thepersonalbenefitthepersonwouldbereceiving.However,inreallife,thishasclearlybeen provenwrongsincepeoplewillactinaltruisticways.Therefore,thereisaquestiontobe consideredwithregardtowhatRationalChoiceTheorypostulates.Inordertorefutethis problemofcollectiveaction,theideaof‘selectiveincentives’canbeexplored.Selective incentivesare“privategoods”whichindividualsmayreceiveaftermakingactionstobenefita “collectivegood”(Green).“Selectiveincentivesaltertherewardsandcostsinsuchawayasto makesupportforcollectiveactionprofitable”(Green).Forexample,ifsomeoneisconsidering joininganonprofitorganizationdedicatedtotargetingenvironmentalissuesoutofselflessdesire, RationalChoiceTheorymayjustifythisbystatingthatthepotentialrewardsandselective incentivesappealingtotheindividual,suchasplantingmoretreestoincreaseairqualitymaybe thereasonwhytheychoosetodothis.Likewise,criminalsmaychoosetocommitacrimeunder theinfluenceofsomeoneelsebearingthissameintangibleexternalmotivations.

Thesecondquestionexaminessocialnorms.“Why[do]peopleseemtoacceptandto follownormsofbehaviorthatleadthemtoactinaltruisticwaysortofeelasenseofobligation

thatoverridestheirselfinterest”(Green).Inrelationtothepreviousquestion’sargumentofwhy someonewouldactinawaymorebeneficialtosomeoneelsethanthemselves,thisquestiononce againrefutesRCTbyconsideringself-lessbehaviorsinwhichthecostsoutweighthepotential benefits.Heretheideaofmoralandsocialobligationscanbeconsidered.Ifonehasanobligation toanorganizationorindividual,theymayactinawaydeemedaltruistic;inreality,thecostof notactinginthisselflessmannerwouldlikelybeworsethanthecosttoactinaselflessmanner duetocertainsocialnormsthatmustbefollowed.Additionally,“peoplearewillingtoincurcosts andimbalancesintheirexchangerelationswhentheyareformedintolongchainsofactions” (Green).Inotherwords,individualsmayanalyzepotentialbenefitsfromtheiractionsinthe futureandthereforecouldchoosetoactinaltruisticways,inturnaccountingforthequestionof socialnorms.

Thethirdandfinalquestionlooksatsocialstructure,specifically,“ofhowitispossible foranindividualistictheorytoexplainandtakeproperaccountoftheexistenceoflarger structures”(Green).Existingsocialstructuresandnormssimilarlyinfluencebehavior,therefore individualactionscannotbethesolefactorusedtojudgebehavioraltendencies.Externalfactors, suchasone’ssocialstructure,caninfluencetheiractionsthroughinternalbiasesthatRCTsimply doesnotaccountfor.Forrationalchoicetheorists,socialstructuresareviewedas“chainsof interconnectedindividualactions”thatformacohesivesocialnetworkfilledwithvarious constraintssuchassocialnormsandobligations.Essentially,sociallifeisseenas“unintended consequencesofindividualaction,”andtherefore,whenindividualsmakechoicesaccordingto RCT,theymaynotfullybeawareoftheconstraintsathand(Green).Thus,theyarestill performingarationalcost-benefitanalysisoftheiractionstothebestoftheirabilitiesgiventhe knowledgetheyhave.Inthatsense,actionsarestillconsistentwiththemainassertionsofRCT

Thesethreeinterlinkedfactors—collectiveaction,socialnorms,andsocial structure—highlightpossibleissuesforRCTasawhole;however,ultimately,RationalChoice Theory’smainassertionstillprovidesjustificationfortheproblemsathand.Individualswilluse self-interestasastartingpointfortheiractionsandwillconductacost-benefitanalysistomake decisions.Thispointcanbeappliedtothemajorityofsituationsinordertolookattheimpactof externalfactorsandinternalambiguityattitudesonthisrationalanalysis.

III. CONCLUSION

AfterexploringRationalChoiceTheoryandvarious ambiguityattitudes,itcanbe concludedthatthesepsychologicaltendenciesimpactbothjuriesandcriminals,influencingtheir ownbehavior.RationalChoiceTheorypostulatesthatindividualswillactinarationalmanner, andthewayinwhichtheydothiscanbeaffectedbyexternalfactors.Intermsofjuries,these externalfactorscanbebroadlycategorizedintocomprehensionofinstructions,relianceon evidence,andcomparisontoexpertdecision-makers.Thesefactorscanhindertheabilityof juriestoholisticallyconsidertheinformationinatrial,thuscausingbiasesinhowarational decisionismade.Inadditiontoexternalfactors,internalfactorssuchasone’sambiguityattitude inherentlyplayaroleindecision-making.Theseambiguityattitudestellusthatbothincreasing ordecreasingambiguityattitudesinsituationsplayalargeroleinhowanindividualchoosesto act.Thesetendenciescanbeharmfultojuriesastheycanswaytheiropinionineitherdirection. However,intermsofcriminalactivity,itcanmakeiteasierforthegovernmenttoreduce criminalbehaviorby,forinstance,increasingordecreasingtheambiguitysurroundingdetection. Ultimately,theseexternalandinternalfactorshighlighthoweasilyhumanbehaviorcanbe affected.Inthejurycontext,whiletrialsaremeanttobefairandequitableprocesses,ambiguity

attitudesandexternalfactorslikecomprehensionofinstructionsandrelianceonevidencecan enactbiases,whichharmtheprinciplesofthecourt.Forcriminalactivity,internalbehavioral tendenciescanimpactcriminalactions.Boththeseeffectsemphasizethepressingneedfora reductionofexternalfactorsthatmayinfluencejuriesaswellasforchangesingovernment structurethatmimiccriminalambiguityattitudes,thusreducingcrimerates.

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TheU.S.President:LeadershipStylesinAmericanPolitics

By Haley Kleinman

Orange County School of the Arts, Class of 2024 Santa Ana, CA

Mentored by: Rachel Katzin, JD Candidate Edited by: Tiffany Wen, Ethan Leung Reviewed by: Anthony Fowler

INTRODUCTION

TheUnitedStateshasrapidlydevelopedsinceindependence,adaptingtochanging conditionstoprotectitsdemocracy

Attheforefrontoftheeffortstostrengthenthenationarethe leadersthatguideitspeopleforwardthroughtimeandconflict:thepresidents.AsAmerica changes,presidentschoosethemosteffectiveleadershipstylefortheircircumstances.

ThispaperwillcomparativelyanalyzetheleadershipoffourofthemostpopularpastUS presidents,inordertodeterminetheircommonalitiesanddifferencesincreatingtheirnotable leadershipstyles.ThesepresidentsareGeorgeWashington,AbrahamLincoln,JohnF.Kennedy, andBarackObama.First,theirstyleswillbeassessedindividuallybyconsideringtheirthree mostprevalenttraitsthroughthelensesofpragmaticandcharismaticleadership.Theywillbe evaluatedbytheirchoicesandcontributionsinforeignpolicy,speeches,wartimedirection,and publiccommunications.Theneachpresident’stermwillbecomparedwithineachcategoryof leaders,andfinally,aconclusionwillbedrawnastowhichstyleismostsuccessfulandhow futurepoliticalleaderscanreflectonthetermsofthesepastpresidentstocraftthemostuseful styleforthemselves.

Althoughtherearefourprimarytypesofleadership—interpersonal,charismatic, deliberative,andcreative—thosestylesoverlap(Simonton125-127). Forexample,creativeand charismaticleadershipscoresimilarlyintheirlustforachievementandpersonalizedgoals(129). Additionally,deliberativeandinterpersonalstylesareboundtogetherbytheirobjectiveof unitinganationaroundacommongoal(130).Forthesakeofsimplicity,thispaperwillanalyze twooverarchingstyles:charismaticleadershipandpragmaticleadership,whichgroupthe creativeandcharismaticstylesundercharismaticleadershipandtheinterpersonaland deliberativestylesunderpragmaticleadership(130).

Thisdeepdiveintopresidentialleadershipwillcoverthesuccessesandfailuresofpast termsbyhighlightingtheefficacyofeachstyle,personalizedbythefourpresidents.Nationsrely ontheirleaderstomaketherightchoicesforthesakeofabetterfutureandbyunderstandingthe mosteffectivewaytouniteagroup,apresidentcandeterminehowtopositivelytransformtheir country.

II. PRAGMATICLEADERSHIP

PragmaticLeadersaresetapartbytheiruseofdiplomaticcommunication.Their strengthsspecificallylieinthe“knowledgeofpractical,day-to-dayproblemsthatpeopleand organizationsfaceandafocusonidentifyingcost-effectivesolutionsthataddressfunctional needs”(AndersonandSun80).Additionally,“pragmaticleaders[a]rethemostflexibleandable toworkwithotherleadertypeswhenit[comes]toproblemsolving”(80).Presidentswitha pragmaticleadershipstylehaveathoroughunderstandingoftheworldaroundthemand approachtheircircumstanceswithalevelhead,notimpulsivityorrashness(80).Inthissection, thepresidenciesoftwopragmaticleaderswillbeassessed:thepresidenciesofGeorge WashingtonandAbrahamLincoln.

A. GeorgeWashington

1. Morality

Whileextensiveeducationisapriorityformost positionsofpower,Washingtonmadeup forhislackoftraditionalschoolingwithhismoralsandclarityofthought(Impact).Hepossessed aninnatesenseofdirection,rootinghisdecisionsinhis“ambition,loveofdetail,patience, determination,”andresponsibility(Stazesky).Hisleadership,foundedinconsiderationand honesty,sethimapartandhelpedconvincethenationofhisabilitytoleadittoindependence.

HedemonstratedcivilleadershipvaluesasGeneraloftheContinentalArmy.Washington refusedtotakeadvantageofcivilians,instructinghissoldierstoprioritizethespaceandprivacy ofcitizenswhengatheringresourcesevenifitreducedtheamountcollected(Stazesky). Washingtonknewthatbyputtingdignityabovegreed,hecouldestablishmutualrespectbetween thedevelopinggovernmentandtheAmericanpeople.However,hewasknowntobedetermined, usingthestrategyof“guerrillawarfare,inwhichstealthyhit-and-runattacksfoiledBritish armiesusedtoclose-formationbattle-linewarfare”(History).Washingtonunderstoodwhento pushandwhentoholdback,maintaininghisvalueswhilemakingbravechoicesincombat. Throughthis,heemphasizedbothreasonandpracticalityinhisleadership. Washingtonalsoempoweredthenationwithhisspeeches.Inthe FirstStateoftheUnion onJanuary8,1790,hesaidthatthegovernmentwouldcontribute“byteachingthepeople themselvestoknowandtovaluetheirownrights;todiscernandprovideagainstinvasionsof them;todistinguishbetweenoppressionandthenecessaryexerciseoflawfulauthority” (Hillsdale).HefrequentlyreferencedtheConstitutionandallowedthelawtocoincidewithhis ownvalues,creatingapresidencyrootedinnationallyagreed-uponmorals,aswellassomeof hisown.

However,Washington’smoralitycouldsometimeshidethefactthat,whenitcameto technicalities,hefellshort.Althoughhewasapassionateleader,hismilitarychoiceswere sometimesunnecessarilyperilous,andwhenheledhistroopstoNewYorkin1776,heriskedthe livesofeverysoldierafterdefeat(Britannica).Thesemomentscontradictedhisusualcaution, andduetotheharmtohistroops,provedtobeaninadequatemilitarymethod.Despitehislosses, Washington’smisstepsdidnottainthisreputationlargelybecauseofhisdedicationtohis soldiers.

2. Humility

Washingtonneverdesiredawardsforhisactionsorwork,ashisgoalswerenotpersonal (Impact).Infact,“hehadtobepersuadedtoacceptthepresidency.Hisgoalwastoachievehis visionforthegoodofeveryone,evenifnooneeverrecognizedthathewasthedrivingforce behindthevision”(Impact).HislackofinterestinpowerwaswhatmadeWashingtonalluringto thepublic.Washingtonappearedselfless,makinghimtheseeminglybestcandidateforpresident, simplybecausehedidnotcravepower.Afterselectinghim,thepeopletrustedthathewouldnot abuseit.

HumilitycausedWashingtontorejectthepullofgreed.He“recognizedthestructural importanceofleavingofficewillingly.HeknewthatAmericansneededtolearnhowtoelect, transition,andinaugurateanewpresident”(Chervinsky).Whenhelpingtoestablishthesystem ofpresidentialoffice,heenvisionedanationwherepeoplehadasayintheirfuture.Inhis1796 FarewellAddress,Washingtonannounced,“insituationsinwhichnotunfrequentlywantof successhascountenancedthespiritofcriticism,theconstancyofyoursupportwastheessential propoftheefforts,andaguaranteeoftheplansbywhichtheywereaffected”(Hillsdale).Bynot acceptingcreditforhisaccomplishments,Washingtontrulyplacedthepowerinthehandsofthe Americanpeople,convincingthemoftheirpotentialwhilesimultaneouslybuildinghis reputationasaselflessleader—aFatherofthenation.

3. Unity

Apragmaticleaderisbothunifyingandvisionary.Aunifyingleaderisonethatknows howtobringpeopletogetherduringturbulenttimes.Avisionaryleaderissomeonethat“has cleargoalsandneverwaversfromthosegoals,eveniftheycannotbeachievedintheshortterm anddesignshisorganizationalculturetorealizehisvisionbymakingitasharedvisionofallthe

membersoftheorganization”(Impact).Washingtonhadonevision:tounitehiscountryafter winningthewaragainstBritain.

Evenasayoungsoldier,itwashisextraordinaryvisionthatearnedhiscolleagues’ support.Duringwar,whensoldierswithshort-termenlistmentswantedtoquit,Washington persuadedthemtostaybyconvincingthemofhisvisionandtobelieveinhim(Impact).Atthe BattleofMonmouth,“AmericantroopswereinretreatuntilWashingtontookcontroland stoppedtheretreat,leadingtotheretreatoftheBritishtroopstoNewYork.Theentiregroup, again,followedhisvisionbecausetheytrustedhim”(Impact).Notonlydidhepossess respectableattributes,buthealsosetupavisionforthenation,onethatinspiredpeopletofollow hislead.Itwasthisqualitythatmadehimthenecessarychoiceasfirstpresidentandahighly admiredleader

Tobeagreatpolitician,onemustutilizevariousprofessionalandpublicopinions.During thedraftingoftheConstitution,“Washingtonalwayslookedtotheideasofothers,empowering themtoshareandcontribute,whileneverwaveringfromhisvision”(Impact).Similarlyto KennedyandLincoln,Washingtontookintoaccountothers’thoughtsandmadeapointof listeningtothemwithoutcedinghisinitialgoal.38 Washingtonshowedstrategiccompassion throughhisprocessasapragmaticandvisionaryleader,asheknewjusthowtocreatean environmentconducivetohisvision(Stazesky).Thisallowedhimtoformafoundationpeople couldrelyonintimesofcrisis.

Washington’sabilitytounitegroupsbyutilizingpracticalityanddedicationcarried throughtohispresidency.DuringhisNewburghAddress,hetoldtheaudience,“Gentlemen,you willpermitmetoputonmyspectacles,forIhavenotonlygrowngray,butalmostblind,inthe serviceofmycountry”(Hillsdale).Washingtondemonstratedhowmuchhecaredforthe

country,howmuchhehadsacrificedinpursuitofdemocracy.Citizensandsoldiersrallyaround leaderswhosacrificeforthemanddedicatethemselvestothecountry,notjustthroughwordsbut throughactions,aswell.

B. AbrahamLincoln

1. Strategy

Lincolnhadararesenseofstrategyandmentalacuity (Forbes55).Asawartimeleader, theabilitytopickuponeventhemostminordetailswasessential.

Lincolnaccomplishedhisgoalsthroughnon-violentpersuasion.Hisobjectivewasto pushwithoutharassing(Eder).Anexampleofthisiswhenhebeganthefightfortheabolitionof slavery.LincolntriedtoenticecitizenstorejecttheConfederatestancebyofferingbetteraccess toeducationfortheirchildren(Eder).Whenthatfailed,Lincolnmovedontothenextstrategy:to showUnionstrengthbycontinuingconstructionofthe“people’shouse,”theCapitol,whilealso increasingthestrengthoftheUnionArmy(Eder).Hisuseofpeacefultacticswasastrategyto preventaggressiverebellion,andonethatmadehimmemorable.

Asamilitaryleader,Lincolndemonstrateddeliberationpriortotheconfrontationof others’mistakes.Heoncesaid,“[a]dropofhoneycatchesmorefliesthanagallonofgall”, meaningthatkindnessisthekeytosuccess,andthatcriticismonlypushespeopleaway (Abraham).Lincolnensuredthathisfeedbackwasconstructive,sothatthelistenerfeltmotivated ratherthandefensive.

Forexample,duringtheCivilWar,theUnionarmywasdefeatedleftandright,and LincolnhadtochangetheaggressivebehaviorofGeneralHooker.Lincolncouldhaveyelledat him,orfiredhim,butinstead,throughamorediplomaticapproach,offeredaninspiringmessage, characterizedbythepersonablecommunicationrepresentedinpragmaticleaders:

Lincoln wrote: “There are some things in regard to whichIamnotquitesatisfied with you…. You are ambitious, which, within reasonable bounds, does good rather than harm. But I think that during General Burnside’s command of the army you have taken counsel of your ambition and thwarted him asmuchasyou could, in which you did a great wrong to the country and to a most meritorious and honorable brother officer…. Beware of rashness, but with energy and sleeplessvigilancegoforwardandgiveusvictories….” (Carnegie219–220).Endingwithacalltoactiongivestheletterasenseofoptimism,asolution, insteadofanylingeringangersurroundingtheissue.

Lincolnemployedauniquesystemformilitaryguidance,ashechosegeneralswithmore politicalexperiencethanmilitary,trustingthemtousetheirknowledgeofpoliticstomake effectivedecisions(Edu).Despitethebacklashhereceivedforthatdecision,“theappointmentof politicalgeneralswithmediocremilitaryrecordssetatonefortheenhancementofthenational strategywiththehelpofmobilizingtheirelectoratetosupporttheeffortsoftheUnionduringthe CivilWar”(Edu).ThevisibleachievementsofLincoln’smethodsprovedhisworkhadmeaning andcouldreachpreviouslyunattainablesuccess.

Additionally,Lincolnimplementedaworkplacestrategythatnotmanyhadthecourageto do.Whilemostpoliticalleadersatthetimepreferredtheirenemiestobefaraway,Lincolnkept hisrivalsclose.Duringthebeginningofhisterm,“LincolnbroughtSalmonChaseintohis cabinet…knowingfullwellthatChasecravedthepresidencywitheveryfiberofhisbeingand knowingthatChasewasundermininghim”(Coutu).Bykeepinghisgreatestrivalclose,Lincoln couldnotonlylearnfromChase,butcouldalsocombinehisandChase’sskillsandstrategiesto leadevenmoreeffectively.

2. Decisiveness

Lincolnlearnedtobeprecisewithhisgoals,which contributedtohisskillasawartime president.Asanti-slaveryviewsincreased,Lincolnmadeachange:“insteadofpleasingthe

NorthernDemocratsandtheBorderStates…[he]issu[ed]theproclamationoffreedomforslaves inrebelliousstates”(Edu).Thestrengthofhisdecisionsconvincedthepublicofthelegitimacy ofhisgoals.

Whengivingaspeechtothemembersofthecabinet,Lincolntalkedaboutthenecessity ofactingdeliberately,how“decisiveandextrememeasuresmustbeadopted”(Edu). Furthermore,Lincolnsawthefreedomofslavesasanessentialstepinsavingthewarringnation (Edu).Hewaswillingtotakerisksifheknewitwouldbringhimclosertohisgoals.

DuringhisCivilWarleadership,Lincolnutilizedsuchstrongdirectionthatheeven encounteredclaimsofdictatorship(Owens5).Even“defendersofLincolnadmitthathe oversteppedconstitutionalboundsbydeclaringmartiallaws,arbitrarilyarrestingciviliansand tryingthembymilitarytribunal,andshuttingdownoppositionnewspapers.Afterthewar,the SupremeCourtcriticizedmanyofthesemeasuresin Ex parte Milligan”(18).However,Lincoln believedhisextremeactionstobenecessaryforlimitingthechaosofwar.Hissteadfastsenseof instinctcontributedgreatlytohissuccess.

3. Relatability

Lincolncanfurtherbecharacterizedbyhisability torelatetopeoplewithhishumor,wit, andhumbleupbringing.Inasense,“LincolnwasthefirsttruehumoristtooccupytheWhite House”(Sandburg561).Toexecutehisambitiousagenda,Lincolnhadtoformaconnectionwith thepublic.Hisgoodnaturedrewdoubtfulpeopleinandhelpedpreservehisreputeduringthe tribulationsofwar.Lincoln’shumoralsocontributedtohisabilitytobeamotivationalmilitary leaderdespitehisinexperience.

However,hiseloquencecouldbeusedformorestrategicpurposesaswell.Lincoln“used storiesasalaughcureforadroopingfriendorforhisownmelancholy,yetalsotoclinchan

argument,tolaybareafallacy,todisarmanantagonist,butmostofthestorieswere ‘labor-savingcontrivances’”,meanttoachievequicksolutionstoanydispute(Sandburg562).

Throughhisdeliberativeapproachtocommunication,Lincolnwasabletowinoveracrowdand exhibitmasterfulunderstandingofhisaudience.

Hiscongenialitycameinhandyduringmilitarymanagement,too.Lincolnhasbeen paintedasasoft-spokenmanthatusedhiswordswiselyandsparsely(Edu). However, sometimes,lessismore,andLincolnprovedthatfewpowerfulwordscanbemuchmore influentialthanmanyineffectualones.Infact,hisreserveandconsiderationofeveryword improvedhismilitaryreputation.HestartedofftheCivilWarwithalackofmilitaryexperience butinsteadoffretting,mockedhimselfforit,showingmaturitybyjoking,“[d]idyouknowIam amilitaryhero?Ifought,Ibled,andcameawayafterchargesuponthewildonionsandagood manybloodystruggleswiththeMusquetoes”(Edu).Lincoln’sjesthelpedothersseepasthis errorsandinitialignorancebyhumanizinghimself.

Lincoln“transformedthePresident'sroleascommanderinchiefandaschiefexecutive intoapowerfulnewposition,makingthePresidentsupremeoverbothCongressandthecourts” (Burlingame).Hadhenotexpressedanadeptunderstandingofcommunications,thiswouldnot havebecomeareality.Lincoln’scelebratedvoiceandachievementsinwarwerecreditedtohis skillinunitingthemostdifferentofpeoplebychoosingpatienceratherthanviolenceand seekingouteachgroup’struevisionforthenation(Burlingame).Hewassosuccessfulthat scholarsbelieved“[n]oPresidentinAmericanhistory everfacedagreatercrisisandnoPresident everaccomplishedasmuch”(Burlingame).TheresultingtrustLincolnbuiltwithAmerica overpoweredhisshortcomingsduringhispresidency.

III.PRAGMATICLEADERSHIPCOMPARISON

Themoststrikingparallelbetweenthesetwopragmaticleadersistheiremphasison diplomacyinmilitarymanagement.Washingtonclearlyinstructedhissubordinatestoactkindly towardthetownspeopleduringwarwhileLincolnapproachedcriticismwitharestorative,and oftenverypositive,light.Indoingso,theseleadersfosteredasenseofdignityandencouraged theirsoldiersandgeneralstobecomebetterpeople.Inturn,themilitiagainedrespectforeach presidentandstrengthenedtheiralliance.Additionally,theseleadersknewwhentolistenand whentogowiththeirgut,upholdingfirmmoralsforthebenefitofthenation.Futureleaderscan reflectonthesetwosuccessfultacticsbyimplementingthemintotheirownpersonalized leadershipstyleinordertomaintainstrongrelationshipswiththeAmericanpeopleandto establishreliability

IV. CHARISMATICLEADERSHIP

Acharismaticleaderisrecognizedby“personalmagnetismandvisionaryappeals[that] causefollowerstoidentifypersonallywiththeirleaders,andinternalizetheirleaders’goals, valuesandbeliefs,resultinginfollowersdesiringtoemulatethe[m]”(AndersonandSun77). Thecharismaticleader‘‘conveys[a]clear-cut,highlyvisiblepersonality,’’isa‘‘skilledand self-confidentnegotiator,’’‘‘usesrhetoriceffectively,’’andisa“dynamoofenergyand determination”(Simonton126).Inthissection,thepresidenciesofcharismaticleadersJohnF. KennedyandBarackObamawillbeevaluated.

A. JohnF.Kennedy

1. Charm

SomethingthatsetKennedyapartthroughoutcampaigning washisyouth,whichheused togainpopularitywiththepeople.Kennedytookadvantageofthenewmedia, "astrategy wherebyapresidentpromoteshimselfandhispoliciesbyappealingtotheAmericanpublicfor support”(Altschuler185).Kennedy’suseofmediabroughthiscampaigntolifeandallowedhim towintheWisconsinandWestVirginiaprimariesbyappealingtodoubtfulpartyleaders (185–186).Heknewhowtousethemediatopromoteinterestinhimselftothepublicusinga “mixofattractiveness,relevantmessage,andvoterneeds”(Soddu1).Kennedyunderstoodhow toentrancetheAmericanpeoplewithhisvoice,usingeverythinghecouldtodrawthemin. In1953,Kennedywasonthe Edward R. Murrow Person in Person show,and“aringing inthebackgrounddistractedhim.Helookedoverhisshoulder,flashedanendearinglysheepish grinandsaid:‘Perhapssomebodycouldanswermyphone’”(3).Thesituationallowedfora momentofunexpectedcharisma,amomentthatwouldmakethecountryfallinlovewiththe ideaofKennedyasPresident.Thepublicfoundhimsoalluringthatafterdeliveringaspeech nominatingStevenson,“Kennedybecametheparty’sattractionand‘televisionviewerswere favourablyimpressedwiththeslenderandwinsomesenatorfromMassachusetts.Hewasvery soonthemostsoughtafterspeakerintheDemocraticparty’”(3).Kennedymadeithismissionto winovertheAmericanpeople.Hismagneticpersonalitytransformedhimfrommerelyayoung Senatorintoanenigmaandicon. However,hisremarkablecharismadoubledasadisguiseforhislackofexperience.Near theendoftheColdWar,“KennedygavethegreenlighttoanEisenhower-initiatedinvasionof theBayofPigsinCubain1961.Basedonfaultyintelligence,themilitaryaction,whichwas

carriedoutbyCubanexileswithoutcrucialairsupportwasafiasco”(History).Kennedywasnot asputtogetherasheledotherstobelieve.Thoughheknewhowtoattractacrowdandreinforce hisideas,Kennedydidnothaveexperienceinmilitarydirection.Hischarmwaspowerful,butit couldnotalwaysredeemhim.

2. Resolve

KennedydisplayedresolveinhismilitarydecisionsregardingtheColdWar.For example,in1962,EisenhowerassuredKennedythattheinvasionwouldnotresultinphysical war.However,Kennedydidnotchangehismindandcarriedthroughwithablockade(Miller). Byusinghisownjudgment,Kennedydemonstratedthathewasnotafraidtomakechoices lackingagreementifhethoughtitwouldcreatealong-termsolution(Sherwin).Astrong presidentgoeswiththeirgutandmakesthedecisionthatenforcesdiplomacyandpeace.

Kennedydidthat,eventhoughitrequiredhimtogoagainsthisadvisors.Thisambitionand priorityofpersonalgoalsissimilartothestyleofObama,whowentintohispresidencywith cleargoalsforObamacare,advocatingforthemdespitepushback.39 Similarly,Kennedywas strong-willedandnotpronetocompromise.

Kennedy’sdecisivenessfortifiedhisspeechesaswell.Inhis1960PresidentialCampaign KickoffDinner,hesaid,“Ithinkwecanwin.Ithinkwewillwin.IthinktheAmerican people––after‘eightgrayyears,’touseFDR’sphrase––willknowthat,fortheirownfutureand theirchildren’sfuture,wemustwin”(Library).KennedytoldtheAmericanpeople,with confidence,whatitwouldtaketosucceedandhow.Heleftnoroomforuncertaintyinhis speeches,leadinglistenerstotrusthismessage.

3. Logic

Inapproachingcommunicationwithcolleagues,Kennedy wasdeliberate,particularly duringhiscampaigningprocess.He“soughthelpfromthescienceofopinionpolling,"with extensivesurveys"commissionedatgreatexpensetoprobeareasofweaknessandstrength,to evaluateopponentsandissues,andtohelpdecideonschedulesandtactics"(Alschuler2). Atthe sametime,Kennedycapturedhisaudienceemotionally,choosingwordsthatheknewtheywould respondthemostto.Kennedy’s“overridingcampaignthemein1960wastheneedtoget Americamovingagain.AftertheseemingstillnessoftheEisenhoweryears,thepromiseofa societyinmotion,howevervague,wasexhilarating”(Soddu2).Kennedyhadforesightand gearedhiscampaignaroundaninspiringandprogressivevision,onethatopposedthestaid natureofthepreviouspresidency.Indoingso,heshowedthepeoplewhattheywantedbefore theythemselvesknew.

Kennedy’slogicwasevenmoreapparentinthesteadyandpensivenatureofhis speeches.Ina1960speechmadetogainWestVirginia’ssupport,Kennedystated:

[S]ome clear, practical steps the national government should take to help you in your urgent, immediate difficulties: First, we should set national minimum standards for unemployment benefits, adequate to the economic catastrophe that long term job lossmeanstoamanwithafamily.InWestVirginia,Ihaveheardof men trying tosupporteightchildrenon$50amonth;unemploymentbenefitshere are lower, compared to wages, than they were 20 years ago. There is only one practical way to [meet] this problem. I am sponsoring legislation right now, against Administration opposition, to set Federal Standards for unemployment benefits (Library).Kennedyprovidedlogicalsolutionsratherthanvoicinghypotheticals.He announcedaneconomicplan,clearlystatingthenextstepstoamendingjoblosswhile acknowledgingcurrentstruggles.Kennedyunderstoodthatthebestwaytopersuadethe statewastospeakwithreasonratherthanfeeling.

B. BarackObama

1. Authenticity

DuringObama’spresidency,heexhibitedakeytraitofcharismaticleadership: authenticity Authenticleadershipstemsfrom“therelationshipbetweenleadersandfollowers” (Campos).Authenticleadersbringforwardtheirownideologyandmasterintrapersonaland interpersonalrelations(Campos).OnewayObamaestablishedaconnectionwithpeoplewasby addressingthepublic.He“quotedpreviousUSleaders,”whichshowedthathetookthetimeto learnfromthepast.Itwashiscloseobservationof“theirleadershipapproachesthatmadehim outstandingwheneverhewastomakealeadershipdecision”(Campos). ThoughObamawas charismaticandpresentedpersonalstoriestoconnectwiththeaudience,hewasdeliberate.He showedinsight,reflection,andhonesty;allofwhichturnedcrowdsinhisfavor Obamauseddirectandopencommunicationinhis NationalAddresstoAmerica’s Schoolchildren(WakefieldHighSchool,Arlington,Virginia)onSeptember8,2009,admittingto thechildren,

I know a lot of you have challenges in your lives right now that make it hard to focus on your schoolwork. Igetit.Iknowwhatit’slike.Myfatherleftmyfamily when I was two yearsold,andIwasraisedbyasinglemomwhohadtoworkand who struggled at times to pay the bills and wasn’t always able to give us the thingsthatotherkidshad (Obama78).Byestablishingalinktothesechildren,theycouldseethepresidentassomeone human,withsimilarexperiencestotheirown.Obamashowednotonlycomfortaddressinga largeanddiversegroupofpeople,butalsovulnerability.

2. Optimism

Obamawasopenabouttheprejudicehefacedduetohisskincolor.Tocombatthat judgment,heappealedtoaudienceswithoptimismthroughempathyandhumor Thisspirit

provedtobeoneofhisdefiningqualities.Forexample,“inhistenuretherewasextensivedebate onLGBTrights,hedidnotfearanycontroversybutstoodfortherightsofallAmericans regardlessoftheirsexuality”(Campos).Anotherissuehewaspersistentaboutwashealthcare, anddespitethebrutalresistancehefacedincreatingObamacare,hewaspreparedtofightfor whathebelievedthepeopledeserved(Campos).HealthcarewasanissueObamafought tirelesslyfor,anddespitemuchopposition,hegainedrespectandadmirationforpursuingagoal hehopedwouldbenefitmillionsofpeople.

Obamahadambitiousdreamsofpeace,especiallyintermsofforeignanddomestic policy.Inforeignpolicy,hewantedtosteerawayfrom“un-American”practicesoftorture (Unger1).Obama’svoicewashopeful;hearticulatedhisdreamsofdiplomacytothepeoplewith fervor Inhisdomesticaspirations,Obamafrequentlyemphasizedthecommunity’sinvolvement. Ina2007announcementtoformaPresidentialExploratoryCommittee,hesaid:“Yearsago,asa communityorganizerinChicago,Ilearnedthatmeaningfulchangealwaysbeginsatthegrass roots,andthatengagedcitizensworkingtogethercanaccomplishextraordinarythings”(Obama 22).Heprovidedinspiringinsightintohisobjectivesthroughcommentingonhisdedicationto thecommunity.Byshowingtheaudiencewhathelearnedaswellasthesignificanceofhishard work,hebrokedownthewallbetweenspeakerandlistenerandappealedtothemasacitizen. Obamacraftedhismessagesaroundhisownexperiences,transforminghisdreamintothe public’saswell.

3. Persuasion

Obamacrushedhiscampaigncompetitorswithhischarisma and“althoughtherewas littledifferencebetweenClintonandObamaontheissues,Obamaranonathemeofchangeand Clintononathemeofexperience.Inayearwhentheeconomywassteadilydeteriorating,change

wasthemoreappealingtheme,especiallyamongDemocraticvoters”(Nelson).Withthis,Obama combinedpersuasionwithoptimismandauthenticity,encouragingtheAmericanpeople.Obama knewwhenhewaspromotinghimselfinhiscampaigns,hewasnotjustpromotinghisgoalsbut alsohispersonalityandmorals.

Inpresidentialspeeches,Obamaspokewithpassion.Inhis2013 Statementonthe AffordableCareActandtheGovernmentShutdown,henotedthat “thisshutdownisnotabout deficits,it’snotaboutbudgets.Thisshutdownisaboutrollingbackoureffortstoprovidehealth insurancetofolkswhodon’thaveit.…This,morethananythingelse,seemstobewhatthe RepublicanPartystandsforthesedays”(Obama413).Hisjabsarepresentedinawaytoattract thosequestioningtheirstancetowardDemocraticideals:throughthisspeechtheywouldseethat Obamahadtheirbestinterestsatheart,and,bystoppingtheAct,onewouldbepreventingothers fromreceivinghelp.

Inthesamespeech,Obamausedemotionalexamplestoenhancehisargument.Hesaid:

Trinace Edwards was laid off from her job a year ago today.Sixmonthsago,she was diagnosed withabraintumor Shecouldn’taffordinsuranceontheindividual market,soshehasn’treceivedtreatmentyet.HerdaughterLenace,astudentatthe University of Maryland, is considering dropping out of school to help pay her mom’sbills (Obama414). Obamausedsympathyandlogictocapturetheaudienceafteranydoubtsthe opposingpartycreated.Byusingtherealityofsomeone’slifeinhisspeeches,hetouchedthe heartsofhislisteners,persuadingthemwithstunningtruth.

V.CHARISMATICLEADERSHIPPERSUASION

SomethingthatmadebothKennedyandObamasuccessfulwastheirconfidence.Bothleaders utilizedspeech-makingasavesselforinfluenceandpersuasion.Fromthestartofhiscampaign,

bytakingadvantageofthegrowingmedia,Kennedy’scharmingreputationprecededhimself. Thepublicwasawareofhispassionrightfromthestart,andallowedthevisionofayoung, inspiredsenatortoconvincethemofKennedy’spotential.DuringObama’sterm,heunderstood thepowerofapersonalanecdote—astrategicbridgebetweenspeakerandlistener WhenObama spokeabouthischildhoodtoyoungschoolchildren,orofhisstrugglesinthetwentiethcentury UnitedStates,hebreachedthemoldof“president”andrevealedhimselfashuman,anindividual thatrelatedtoavastmajorityoftheAmericanpopulation.Hisauthenticityaccompaniedwith determinationpersuadedthepublicofhiscapabilities,thesamewayKennedy’smagnetismdid. Inthefuture,politicalleaderscanusethismethodofconnection,presentingthemselveswith convictionandcompassiontoeveryaudienceinordertowintheirapproval.Incorrectly employingthetoolofpublicspeaking,acharismaticleadercanstrengthentheirleadershipand usetheirsturdysenseofselftoovershadowtheirareasofweakness.

VI. CONCLUSION

Charismaticleadersachievetheirgoalsthroughstrategicinteractionsandareskillful communicators.Pragmaticleadersrelyheavilyonimplementingabroadervision––agoal everyonecangatheraround.Thoughbothstylesarepowerfulandsuccessfulininspiringhope, pragmaticleadersarethemostessentialwhenthecountryisinneedofunityandaclearplanin thefaceofmilitaryconflict.Charismaticleadersaremoreeffectivewhenthecountryneedsan advocate—someonetofightfortheirspecificdesiresandmotivatethemthroughdriven speeches.

TheresultsofthisstudysuggestthatLincolnhasbeentheleaderwiththemosteffective approach,ashehassuccessfullyaccomplishedthemostwithinhisterm.ManyofObama’sgoals

weremorepersonalized,makingitdifficulttogainimmensenationalsupport.Lincolnwasnever aggressiveinadmonishinghisopposition,butObamadidsometimespointfingerswhen Obamacarefacedbacklash.Lincoln’sstrategywascenteredaroundgreatconsideration,being carefultonotsayanythingthatwouldbeinterpretedasrude,makinghimlikableandaunifier Washingtonwasmorecautiousinhiswareffortsandpromotingequality,tryingtocreateasolid foundationforfollowingleaderswhileLincolnusedthatfoundationtomakelarge-scalesocial changeinthenation.BecausethegovernmentsystemwasmoreestablishedthanWashington’s term,Lincolnwasabletotakemorerisks.Meanwhile,Kennedy’sgoalsforinternationalpeace andevendomesticachievementswereoftenoverlyambitious.Despitethehopehesymbolized, hemademanymilitarymistakesduringtheColdWar.Lincoln’sachievementsandorganization throughpragmaticleadershipcanbeseenasthemostapparentinthisresearch. However,somethingallfouroftheseleadershadincommonwascourage.Theyeach heldauniqueandpowerfulvisionforafutureAmerica,despitetheirdifferentmethodsof achievingit.EachofthemwerewillingtofightfortherightsofAmericansandputthepeople’s desiresfirst.Andfinally,thesepresidentswerewillingtochange,toadapttotheworld’sdesires bylisteningtothosearoundthem.Butevenastheydid,theyknewtofollowtheirowninstincts. Throughanalyzingbothleadershipstyles,onethinghasbecomeevident:presidentsmust balancepassionandlogictoreachtheirgoals,relyingequallyonbothtraitstoinformtheir choicesandgainsupport.Itisonlybylookingtothepastandunderstandingthemistakesand successesofpreviousleadersthatfuturepresidentscanmakethegreateststridestoward developingthemosteffectiveleadershipstylesforthemselvesandthecountry.

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AnAnalysisofAmbiguityinLaw

By Lale Şevval Göncüoğlu

Tenzile Erdoğan Islamic Girls High School, Class of 2024 Istanbul, Turkey

Mentored by: Elif Demiryürek, Teacher Edited by: Mia McElhatton, Maya Espinel Reviewed by: Laurence Claus

Abstract

Justicerequiresprecisionandaccuracytodistinguishbetweenvictimandcriminaland avoidanyoneencouraging crimescommittedtomaintainthesocialorder Thus,whenitcomes toambiguouswordsinstatutes,theprecisionweseekinlawbecomesvagueandcreates loopholeswithinthelegalsystem.Inthispaper,Iwillexaminetheeffectsofambiguityinthe legalsystemthroughthesupremecourtcase Yates v. United States,includingseveralother supremecourtcases,andanalyzecertaincanonsthataddresstheambiguityinthelaw.Inthe lightof Yates v. United States andthedilemmasJudgesfaced,Iconcludedthatwhenitcomesto ambiguity,courtsshouldnotlimittheevaluationofthecaseswiththeword'smeaning,butalso considerthedefendants'intentiontoavoidencouragementsofusageofloopholes.Also,courts shouldavoidimposingheavypenaltiesfordefendantswhomightnotfullyunderstandthestate duetoambiguity,leadingtopossibleovercriminalization.

Keywords: Tangibleobject,Ambiguity,Laws,andlegislations, SupremeCourt

INTRODUCTION

Theleadingcase, Yates v. United States,demonstratesadefendant’soffenseanddefense againstanaccusationbyusingapossiblyambiguousword‘’tangibleobject’’andtheoriginsof thecodeheisaccusedofcommitting.WhatmakesYates’scasesignificantregardingambiguity ishowhedefendshimselfbypointingoutanambiguouswordandthebackgroundofthecode. Yateswaschargedwithviolating18U.S.C§1519bydumpinganundersizedgroupofredfish againsttheinspection’sinstructions.Hefacedwithtwentyyearsimprisonmentbyviolating §1519,whichstatesapersonwillbeimprisonedifhe‘’knowinglyalters,destroys,mutilates, conceals,coversup,falsified,ormakesafalseentryinanyrecord,document,ortangibleobject withtheintenttoimpede,obstructorinfluence’’afederalinvestigation(Yates v. United States, 2015).Yatesarguedinthecourtthatthelanguage“tangibleobject”doesnotincludefish.Yates alsoarguedthatbecausetheact,§1519,waspassedaspartoftheSarbanes-Oxleyactdueto multiplebankruptciesandfinancialfraudscomingintopublicknowledgein2002,falsifyingor makingafalseentranceisvalidinthecaseofrecordsanddocumentsbutnotfish.Therefore,the questionregardingambiguityiswhatkindofmeasuresthecourtcantakewhenfacedwith ambiguityandwhatneedstobeconsideredinsuchcases.

A. DefinitionofAmbiguity

Whenitcomestoambiguouswords,thefirstsourcesappliedtoconsiderandevaluatethe meaningofthewordsaredictionaries.Black’sLawDictionarydefines ambiguity as‘’duplicity indistinctness,oruncertaintyofthemeaningofanexpressionusedinwritteninstrument’’(Henry CampbellBlack,1968).MozleyandWhiteley’sdefineitas‘’uncertaintyofmeaninginthe wordsofawritteninstrument’’(West&Neave,1904),andOxford’sLawdictionarydefinesitas ‘’uncertaintyofmeaning’’(ElizabethA.Martin,2003).Theonlythingtheyhaveincommonis

thatambiguitycausesconfusion,whichnecessitatesnumerousmeaningsratherthanjustone.It isalsonoteworthytomakethedistinctionbetweenambiguityandvaguenesstoavoidanyfurther confusion.Incertainways,vaguenessdiffersfromambiguity.Mainly,vaguenessdoesnot specifyanyparticularthingorstatement.Bysayingawordisvague,itisimpliedthatitlacks clarity,istoogeneral,andsoforth.Incontrast,sayingawordisambiguous;onestatesthat uncertaintycomeswhenthewordhasmorethanonemeaning.Itimpliesthatthewordcanbe interpretedinseveralways.Forexample,‘’Maryisasuccessfulwoman’’isavaguestatement becausethequestionarisesofwhatisacceptedassuccessful,howsuccessful,andcomparedto who/whomMaryissuccessful.Ontheotherhand,‘’Ibroketheframe’’isanambiguous statementsinceonecanaskaboutthemeaningoftheframe,whichcanmeanaframeworkfora pairofeyeglasses,apicture,orevenabodypart (“Frame” | Definition and Related Words, n.d.) Hence,asseenhere,ambiguityallowsinterpretationtofindtherightmeaninginthegiven context. Moreover,aswillbeobservedinthecaseof Yates v. United States,interpretation frequentlyignoresthegoalsofthepartiessinceitonlyconcentratesonthewordsandtheir meaning.Thus,amethodthattakesintoaccounttheparties'intentions,backgroundinformation, potentialloopholes,andtheovercriminalizationcausedbyambiguitymustbedemonstrated.

B. AmbiguityinLaw

Certaincanonswereestablishedtoaddressambiguityandavoidsuchinterpretation.For example,in Yates v. United States,weseecanonsthatthecourtapplied,including ejusdem generis and rule of lenity. Ejusdem generis statesthatifstatuteslistpersonsorthingsingeneral, thesecanonlyapplytosimilarpersonsandthings(ThePeople'sLawDictionary,2005). Rule of lenity affairsthatincaseofambiguityinthestatute, thecasewillresolveinfavorofthe

defendant(Merriam-Webster,n.d).Thesedonotlimitthecanonsthataddressambiguity;for instance,somerevokeeachother'srule,andsomearedeferencesbasedoncaseresults.

Noscitur a sociis, similarto ejusdem generis, isadoctrinethatsuggestsanambiguousword shouldbeevaluatedintheassociatedcontext(Merriam-Webster,n.d). Contra proferentem acts oppositeto the rule of lenity andstatesthatifthecaseinvolvesambiguity,theclauseshouldbe resolvedagainstthedefender(OxfordReference,n.d).

Furthermore,thetwoessentialdeferencesforambiguityare Chevron and Auer deferences.

Chevron deference pointsoutthatifanissueisimplicit,thecourtcannotsubstituteits interpretationwiththeinterpretationmadebytheagency(LegalInformationInstitute,n.d). Thus, Chevronhastwoevaluationsteps:courtsdeterminingwhethertheintentisambiguousornotand ifitisambiguous;movingtosteptwo,thecourtdecideswhetherthecongresswasexplicitor implicit.Ifthecongressisimplicit,theagency'sinterpretationisacceptedasbinding (Ballotpedia,n.d).Incontrast, Auer's deference doesnotincludeatwo-stepevaluationandgives theagencytherighttointerprettheregulationifitisambiguous(''Auerv.Robinson'',2021).

II. THECASESAPPLIEDCANONS

Beforeexaminingtheapplicationsofthesecanonsandanalyzing the Yates v. United States, we willreviewthreesupremecourtcasesthatusethecanonsanddeferenceswementionedabove.

Thefirstcaseis Deal v. United States.Thedefendant committedsixrobberies,usingagunin eachofthem,andwasconvictedtoatotalof105yearsimprisonmentunder18U.S.C.§924(c), whichstatesthat"ifasecondorsubsequentconvictioniscommitted,thepersonwillbe sentencedtonolessthan25yearsofimprisonment"(FindLaw,2018).Thedefendantarguedthat "secondorsubsequentconviction"statedin§924(c)wasambiguousandrequestedtoinvokethe

ruleoflenity(Deal v. United States, 1993).Theso-calledambiguousword"conviction"is definedas"inageneralsense,theresultofacriminaltrialwhichendsinajudgmentorsentence thattheprisonerisguiltyascharged"byBlack'sLawDictionary(HenryCampbellBlack,1968). Thedefinitionandthedefendant'scontinuityofhisactionsafterthefirstone(subsequentfive robberies)couldnotinvoketheruleoflenity.Thus,petitionerDealwassentencedto105yearsin prisoninviolationof18U.S.C.924(c)(1). In Deal v. United States, weseetwocrucialthings thatconcludeacaseshapearoundambiguity:findingtheword'sdefinitioncoherentwiththe statuteandthedefendant'sactions.Dealv.UnitedStatesisanexampleofacaseinwhichthe defendant'sintentwasseenandthecourtinterpretedanambiguouslegislationinawaythat eliminatedtheambiguity

Thesecondcaseisthesourcecaseofthe Chevron deference, Chevron U.S.A Inc. v Natural Resources Defense Council Inc.TheCleanAir Actrequiresstatestoimplementsome standardsthroughindividualplansapprovedbytheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).

Whilestategovernmentsmonitorandconductinspections,theEPAreviewsthesestate inspections(Ballotpedia,n.d).TheCleanAirActAmendmentsof1977requiredthe nonattainmentstates,whereairqualityisworsethanothers(Non-AttainmentArea,2018),to regulate"newormodifiedmajorstationarysources''ofairpollution.Thisallowedthestatesto adoptthedefinition''stationarysource''whichexplainspollution-emittingdevicescanbe rearrangedwithoutapplyingtherequirementsifthetotalemissionwillnotincrease (ConstitutionalLawReporter,n.d).ThecourtconfirmedtheEPA'splantwidedefinitionof ''stationarysource''andreversedthecase(LegalInformationInstitute,n.d).InChevron,the ambiguousword"stationary"wasthefactordeterminingthesubjectofthecase,asseeninother caseexamples.Itisalsoworthnotingthat,despitethefactthatthecasedoesnotfocusonthe

defendant'scrimes,theambiguousword"stationary"mightbeviewedasaloopholebecauseit createsadiscrepancybetweentwoseparategovernmentstatutes.Thedifficultelementforthe courtwasestablishinganinterpretationaswellasaprecisedefinitionof"stationary."The Chevron deference wasestablishedasaresultofthecourt'sdecisiontoconcurwiththeEPA's definition.Aspreviouslymentioned,Chevrondeferencehasatwo-stepevaluationofthe ambiguouswordinagovernmentagency'sregulationbasedonthiscase.Thesignificanceof ambiguitycanbeexaminedin Chevron U.S.A Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council Inc, as ambiguitycreatedconfusioninstateregulationandputanadditionalrequirementforevaluating theambiguityintheagency'sstatute.

Thelastcase, Auer v. Robbins,whichwasbroughttotheEighthCircuit'sattention, establishedadeferencesimilartoChevronbutfordifferentreasons.Policesergeantsanda lieutenantinSt.LouisprosecutedtheirpolicecommissionersforovertimepayundertheFair LaborStandardsActof1938(Auerv.Robbins).Therespondentputforward29U.S.C. §213(a)(1),whichstatesthattheprovisionof29U.S.Code§206,minimumwageregulation, willnotapplyto''anyemployeeemployedinabonafideexecutive,administrative,or professionalcapacity''(LegalInformationInstitute,n.d).TheU.SDepartmentofLaboralso affirmsthatovertimepaymentwillbemadeiftheemployee(whichisdefinedin§213(a)(1)) worksmorethan40hoursinaworkweekthatisalsostatedintheFairLaborStandards(FLS) (DepartmentofLabor,n.d).Thus,therespondentarguedthattheyarenotrequiredtopaythem overtimebypointingthesergeantsandlieutenantscountwithinthebonafideexecutive, administrative,orprofessionaldefinition. Inaddition,FLSstatesthattoqualifyforthe exemption,employeesmustmeetthe''salarybasistest''.Employeesmustreceive$684perweek, whichiscalledasalarybasisthatmeansanemployeeregularlyreceivesapredeterminednumber

ofwagesweekly(DepartmentofLabor,2019,p.1).Inresponse,petitionersclaimedthatthey couldnotmeetthesalarybasistestsincethePoliceDepartmentregulationscouldtheoretically reducetheirwages(Auerv.Robbins,1997b).Althoughthecaseofambiguityisnotdirecthere asinothercases,definingthe''employee''and''salarybasis''withinthelegislationwas challengedbypetitioners,andthecourtwasonceagainconcernedaboutambiguity. Auer v Robbins builttheveryfoundationsof Auer Deference,therecognitionofanagencytointerpret itsambiguousregulations.Unlikechevron, Auer deference onlyappliestoanagency's ambiguousregulation(Ballotpedia,n.d).

Eachofthesecasesrepresentsdifferentaspectsofambiguityandtheconsequencesthat camewithit.Itiscrucialtounderstandthatambiguitycanbeapossibletooltodamagethelegal systembygivingdefendantsthechancetoplaywiththewordsandhidetheirtrueintentionsbut alsocausingtocreatecontroversialcanonsordeferences,asseenin Chevron and Auer For example,lateron,JusticeScaliaencouragedthecourtnottoapplyAuerdeference.Justice ThomascalledAuerintoquestion,andJusticeScaliawithChiefJusticeRobert,indicatedthe re-considerationofthedeference(Simonsen,2018).

III. ANANALYSISOFYATESv.UNITEDSTATES

Yates v. United States hasauniquenesslike Chevron,butinthiscase,ambiguitydoesnot questionthelegislationbutquestionsthecode'sbackgroundandwhyitpassed.Yates'sprimary defensewasbuiltontheSarbanes-OxleyActandtheoriginsof18U.S.C.§1519.Forthese reasons,decidinguponthedefinitionoftheambiguousword''tangibleobject''in Yates v. United States wasnottheonlychallengethe11thcircuitfaced.

A. AccountingScandalsandSarbanes-OxleyAct

In2002,avastcrisishitWallStreetwiththetwogiantcompanies'bankruptcyand accountingscandalswithinthem.OneofthesecompanieswasEnronCorporation,anenergy companybasedinHoustonwortharound101billiondollars(Enron,2021).WhatcausedEnron's bankruptcywasprimarilythe"mark-to-marketaccounting"techniquethatthecompanyrelieson tohideitsfinancialtroubles(Bondarenko,2021a).Marktomarketisatechniquethatadjuststhe valueofanassettothecurrentmarketvalueandshowstheworthofanassetifit'ssoldtoday. Thiscanbereflectedintherecordasgoodprofitsevenifitisatitslowestlevel(Amedeo,2020). InOctober2001,Enronannouncedthatithadlost$638millionforthethirdquarter,andinthe followingdays'governmentstartedtoinvestigateEnron'sfinancialreports(Bondarenko,2021b).

Asaresult,Enronfiledforbankruptcyandceasedallitsoperationsin2007.Anothercompany thatsharedthesamefaithwithEnronwasWorldCom,oneofthelargesttelephonecompaniesin theUnitedStatesinvolvedinsimilaractivitiesandfiledforbankruptcyin2002.

AsaresultofthesescandalsandthebankruptcyofAmerica'sbiggestcompanies, Congressdraftedseverallegislations.MichaelOxleyintroducedthe''CorporateandAuditing Accountability,Responsibility,andTransparencyActof2002''andSenatorPaulSarbanes introducedthe''PublicCompanyAccountingReformandInvestorProtectionActof2002'' (Williams,2003,pp.8,9).Sarbanes-OxleyActwaspassedonJuly30,2002.The Sarbanes-OxleyActstatesandrecognizescrucialregulations,includingconfirmationofthe statedconditionsinthefinancialreportsandstatements,reports'accuracy,andtherequirementof internalcontrols.Ifthesearenotentirelyfulfilled,italsorecognizesseverepenalties,suchas10 to20yearsimprisonment(CorporateFinanceInstitute,2020).Inaddition,18U.S.C.section 1519andfollowings1520waspassedaspartoftheSarbanes-OxleyAct,enactingpenaltiesfor falsestatementsanddestructionofevidence.RonPaulisoneoftheSarbanes-Oxleyact'scritics,

despitethefactthatitsuccessfullydecreasedfraudchargesintheUS.Heurgestherepealof monetaryandfiscalpoliciesthatdistortthemarketanddrawsattentiontotheneedforfeweracts andpreventions.(Haman,2007).Whilecriticismcontinuestoday,theSarbanes-OxleyActplays anessentialroleinAmerica'seconomyandbusinesses.In2015,thisvitalactwillcomebackon stagein Yates v. United States case,butthistimeitwillbethefish,notthemoney,thatthefraud iscommitted.

B. CrimesandDefensesofYates

OfficerJohnJonesoftheFloridaFishandWildlife ConservationCommissionboarded MissKatieduringanoffshoreinspection.Aftermeasuringthethreeredgrouperonthedeck, officerJonesfoundthat72fishwereshorterthanthe20-inchmark.Accordingto50CFR §622.37(d)(2)(ii),theredgroupermustbereleasedifthegrouperislessthan20inches. Therefore,theofficerorderedtoseparatetheredgrouperuntiltheshipreturnedtoshore.Instead, Yatesdirectedhiscrewtooverthrowtheundersizedfish (Yates v. United States,2015). Forthis reason,Yateswaschargedwithdestroyingevidence,violating18U.S.C.§1519.Thecodestates thatiftheperson"knowinglyalters,destroys,mutilates,conceals,coversup,falsifies,ormakesa falseentryinanyrecord,document,ortangibleobjectwiththeintenttoimpede,obstruct,or influenceafederalinvestigation"willbeimprisonednolessthan20years(CrimesandCriminal Procedure,1994a).Otherthan§1519,Yateswasalsochargedtoviolate:16U.S.C.§1857,18 U.S.C.§2232,and50CFR§622.37.Pointingto§1519'soriginasaprovisionofthe Sarbanes-OxleyActof2002,Yatesarguedthat§1519'sreferenceto"tangibleobject"doesnot applytofishbutonlytocomputers,harddrivesthatcanstoretheinformation.Uponthis argument,the11thcircuitstarteddiscussionsondefiningtheambiguousword,''tangibleobject'' andtheoriginsof18U.S.C.§1519.

C. DefiningTangibleObject

ApartfromthemaincodethatYateswaschargedwith,thecourtalsolookedatthe regulationsthatcamebeforeandafter§1519.Forexample,thetitleof18.U.S.C.§1512is ''Tamperingwithawitness,victim,oraninformant''andcontainsregulationsandpenaltiesfor retaliatingagainstawitness,victim,oraninformant;Titleof18.U.S.C.§1520is''destructionof corporateauditrecords''and18.U.S.C.§1517''obstructingexaminationoffinancialinstitutions'' thatisdesignedforfinancialfraudandbankruptcy(LegalInformationInstitute,n.d). Courtalso examinedtheModelPenalCodetoseehowthedestructionofevidencewasaddressed.Justice Ginsburgstatedthat''...unlike§1519,theM.P.C.provisiondidnotprohibitactionsthat specificallyrelatetorecords,documents,andobjectsusedtorecordorpreserveinformation'' (Yates v. United States, 2015,p.17).Thus,Justice Ginsburgpointsoutthatthecourtreliesonthe principleof noscitur a sociis. Therefore,whenthecourtassessedothercodesandtheM.P.C.,it concludedthatthe''tangibleobject''shouldbeevaluatedinthegivencontextinwhichfishcannot befalsified,alteredbutthedocumentsandanyotherrecordcould.Thus,JusticeGinsburgpoints outthatthecourtreliesontheprincipleof noscitur a sociis and ejusdem generis. Therefore, whenthecourtassessedothercodesandtheM.P.C.,itconcludedthatthe''tangibleobject'' shouldbeevaluatedinthegivencontextinwhichfishcannotbefalsified,alteredbutthe documentsandanyotherrecordcould(Yates v. United States,2015c).Also,relatedprovisions andregulationsareconcernedwithfinancialmatters,astheyhadabackgroundthatdatesbackto accountingscandals,andtheverbslistedin§1519,''knowinglyalters,destroys,mutilates, conceals,coversup,falsifies,ormakesafalseentryinanyrecord''cannotbeapplyanythingthan thedocuments,computers,andharddrives.

WhileJusticeGinsburgfocusedontheambiguouswordinthecontextofbackground events,JusticeAlitotouchedonadifferentaspectofthecase,determiningthethreefeaturesof 18U.S.C.§1519,whicharethestatuslistofnouns,verbs,andtitle.Whenreviewingthenouns of§1519,tangibleobjectsaresimilartorecordsordocuments.Next,consideringverbslike ''alters,destroys,mutilates,conceals,coversup,falsifies,ormakesafalseentry''applytoa recordofthedocumentratherthangeneralitemslikefish—lastly,thetitleof18U.S.Code§ 1519.Destruction,alteration,orfalsificationofrecordsinFederalinvestigationsandbankruptcy pointsoutfilekeepingratherthanfish(Yates v. United States, 2015d).JusticeKagan,dissenting, statedthat‘’Section1519 is verybroad.Itisalsoveryclear.Everytraditionaltoolofstatutory interpretationpointsinthesamedirection,toward“object”meaningobject’’andpointstothe factthatthecourtgenerallyfocusedontheordinarymeaning(Yates v. United States, 2015,p.15).

AlthoughtheDistrictCourtfoundYatesguiltyofviolating§1519,the11thcircuit reversedthecase,findingthelowercourt'sdecisionincorrect,agreedwithYates'sargument,and concludedthatitwouldbebesttointerpret"tangibleobject"asonlyapplicabletoobjectsusedto recordorpreserveinformation(Yates v. United States, 2015e).Nevertheless,JohnYateswasstill sentencedtoviolate§1519andimprisonedfor30daysbytheSupremeCourt,establishinga morepreciseguidelineforthelowercourtsonapplyingandinterpreting18U.S.Code§1519.

Oneofthereasonsthecourtwasconcernedindefining"tangibleobject"andlookingat therootof18U.S.C.1519wastheequivalentpenalty,whichisa20-yearimprisonment.The courtwasconcernedaboutpotentialovercriminalizationbasedonambiguity,aswellasthe notionofsentencingsomeoneto20yearsinprisonfordumpingfishintothewater.Asaresult, Yates'argumentwasaccepted,andhewasfinedinaccordancewithhisoffense.

CONCLUSION

Theexamplesexamined,includingYates',demonstrateanimportantaspectofthelegal order'sambiguity Themeaningofawordisapotenttoolthatcanunderminetrustinjusticeby providingapathwayforcriminalsaswellasovercriminalizationduetoambiguityinthelaw.It hasbeenpasseddownfromgenerationtogenerationthateverycrimehasconsequences.Asa result,itwasassuredthatthesocialordercomprisesindividualswhofollowthelawsforthe goodandsafetyofsociety.Therefore,whenitcomestoambiguity,whichisatoolthatcanbe usedtochangelegislationintopersonalstandardswithexceptionsforseriousoffenses,it becomesathreattosocietyandanexemplaryactoftheseacts.AlthoughYatesv.UnitedStates canbeconsideredanexemplaryaction,thecaseshowssomethingsignificant.Crimesdohave penalties,butheavyfinesforminoroffensescreateanotherloophole,whichis overcriminalization.Mostcrimescarryseriouspenalties,suchasjailtime,fines,andalifelong criminalrecordthatcanmakeitdifficulttoobtainwork.Thatiswhythelawmustbepredictable sothatanyonemaydeterminewhethertheirbehaviorisprohibitedanddecidehowtoproceed. Oneofthereasonsjudgesarecautiousofambiguitycanbeseenhere.Theymaynotwantto exposethedefendanttotheheavyconsequencesthatfollowacriminalconvictionbecausethey areunsurewhetherthelegislationintendedtomakesomeimmoralconductillegal.Ifthe legislationisvague,courtsmaybereluctanttopunishadefendantwhoseactscouldnothave beenprojectedtobreakthelaw.Atthesametime,judges'leniencyinanambiguouscasemight provokepublicoutragethatcaninspirelegislativereform.Intheend,ambiguityisatrue dilemmaforjudgesaswellasachallengetothelegalorder,andoneshallseehowthelegal systemmayeffectivelyaddressambiguity,closetheloopholes,andpreventthe overcriminalizationthatcomeswithitinsimilarcasesfeaturingambiguity

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