Clyde Riverfront Regeneration

Key Access Opportunities

Underpass beneath bridges Active Street Frontages

Public Swimming Pool

Cyclist friendly Glasgow Green

Access from Glasgow Green Accessible Green Bank

Extended Green Edge

Clyde Riverfront Regeneration How can the Clyde riverfront realize its potential to become a lively and connected main attraction of the Glasgow city centre?

A study of successful waterfront cities in Scandinavia to draw lessons for Glasgow.

Hugo Rafael Da Mota Silva

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

Declaration AB 964 Design Studies 5A 2018/2019 BSc Honours Architectural Studies BSc Honours Architectural Studies with International Study MArch/Pg Dip Advanced Architectural Design MArch Architectural Design International Declaration “I hereby declare that this dissertation submission is my own work and has been composed by myself. It contains no unacknowledged text and has not been submitted in any previous context. All quotations have been distinguished by quotation marks and all sources of information, text, illustration, tables, images etc. have been specifically acknowledged.

I accept that if having signed this Declaration my work should be found at Examination to show evidence of academic dishonesty the work will fail and I will be liable to face the University Senate Discipline Committee.�

Name:

HUGO RAFAEL DA MOTA SILVA

Signed: Date:

19/08/2019

University of Strathclyde Department of Engineering MArch Architectural Design (International) 22900 Dissertation Dissertation Supervisor: Dr. Branka Dimitrijevic

Hugo Rafael Da Mota Silva Registration Number: 201881143 2

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

Acknowledgments I gratefully acknowledge my supervisor, Dr. Branka Dimitrijevic, for the continual guidance throughout the process of writing this thesis, time invested in reading my work, and immense expertise. Her valuable comments have allowed me to develop a critical approach to the review of literature and case study analysis which was essential to formulate my conclusions.

Finally, I would like to thank my grandparents for their support and investment in my education.

3

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

Abbreviations A-S:L

Austin-Smith:Lord

CDP

City Development Plan

GCC

Glasgow City Council

GL

Ground Level

SDF

Strategic Development Framework

SDP

Strategic Development Plan

Word Count

Chapter 1

Introduction

1668

Chapter 2

The Forgotten and Inaccessible Clyde Riverfront

2034

Chapter 3

Policy Context

2007

Chapter 4

Case Studies

3875

Chapter 5

A Lively and Connected Riverfront

1612

Chapter 6

Conclusion

673

TOTAL = 11,869

4

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

Abstract

“Glasgow made the Clyde, and the Clyde made Glasgow” The relationship between Glasgow and the Clyde has defined the city for centuries. Throughout the 19th and 20th century, the Clyde was the gateway to the city and a major industrial centre as the world’s foremost shipbuilding location. However, the riverside areas have fallen into decline with the collapse of the shipbuilding industry in the late 20th century, and the effects of this decline are visible up to this day. Nowadays, Glaswegians consider their riverfront to be a “forgotten” and “inaccessible” part of Glasgow, but are aware of its immense potential of regeneration to become a main attraction of the city centre. Although the regeneration of the Clyde riverfront is mentioned as an objective of most of the city development plans, there is a lack of concrete design proposals, or possible projects, to bring the necessary high-quality urban environment to the riverfront.

This study addresses the lack of design strategies for the regeneration of the river corridor and verifies, through case studies of successful waterfronts, that a regeneration strategy comprises (1) a continuous, safe and attractive promenade for pedestrians and cyclists with reduced vehicular dominance; (2) an improved connectivity to the city centre and to the south bank with addition of a new bridge; (3) a provision of all-weather and all-day activities and uses to reactivate the river quays; (4) a dynamic relationship with water, with increased accessibility and possible activities on the Clyde; and (5) the implementation of a sustainable river ecosystem and the ability to adapt to climate change. The potential of Clyde’s riverfront as a contemporary public space and the cultural heritage of Glasgow is acknowledged.

The research has also identified that the design of high-quality waterfront spaces should be contextual to Glasgow’s historic background, contemporary culture and society, and local architecture.

5

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

List of Figures No.

Title

Page No.

1

Lancefield Quay

12

2

Cycling Route Detour

12

3

Dissertation Research Framework

14

4

Scope of Study Map

15

5

19th Century Broomielaw Quay

18

6

21st Century Broomielaw Quay

18

7

Summary of the Historic Background of the Clyde

19

8

City Centre Districts with Broomielaw and St.Enoch Highlighted

19

9

District of Broomielaw at 1:7500 Scale

20

10

Gated Green Space

20

11

Gated Access to Water

20

12

Lancefield Quay Flats

21

13

View Towards the M8

21

14

Broomielaw Quay Promenade

21

15

View towards Brown St.

21

16

Riverview Gardens

21

17

South River Bank

21

18

District of St. Enoch at 1:7500 Scale

22

19

Area Adjacent to Riverboat Casino

22

20

Route Under King George V Bridge

22

21

Space Underneath Rail Bridge

23

22

Gated Docks

23

23

Space Adjacent to Tiger Mural

23

24

Clyde St. Quay

23

25

Approach Towards Victoria Bridge

23

26

Clyde St. Towards Glasgow Green

23

27

River Rooms Concept

24

28

Haga Park, Stockholm

25

29

Green Cycling Route, Copenhagen

25

30

Nyhavn, Copenhagen

25

31

Historic Waterfront Houses in Bergen, Norway

25

32

Waterfront Residential Developments, Copenhagen

26

33

Market Square, Helsinki

26

6

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

No.

Title

Page No.

34

Finnieston Crane, Glasgow

27

35

Harbour Bath, Copenhagen

27

36

Overlapping Character Model

27

37

Glasgow and The Clyde Valley SDP

30

38

River Corridor 2050 SDF

30

39

Glasgow City Centre Strategic Development and Action Plan 2014-19

30

40

(Y)Our Broomielaw SDF

30

41

(Y)Our St. Enoch SDF

30

42

Opportunities in Broomielaw and St. Enoch

32

43

Case Studies Map

38

44

Oslo Opera House

39

45

Bjørvika Barcode

39

46

Proposed Redevelopment of Bjørvika

40

47

Aker Brygge

40

48

Stepped Promande of Aker Brygge

41

49

Vippa Food Market

41

50

Sørenga Seawater Pool

42

51

Floating Sauna

42

52

Contemporary Housing in Sørenga

42

53

District of Eriksberg in Norra Älvstranden

43

54

Regeneration of Frihamnen

43

55

Northern Riverfront Promenade

44

56

Lindholmen Pedestrian Bridge

44

57

Stepped Promenade Adjacent to Fish Market

45

58

Proposed New Activity at Quayside

45

59

Henning Larsen’s Masterplan for Lindholmen

45

60

Flooding Retreat Strategy

46

61

Aarhus Docklands

47

62

Aarhus River Promenade

47

63

Bernhardt Jensens Boulevard

48

64

Aarhus Bay

48

65

Åboulevarden Promenade

49

66

Pop-Up Cafés at Aarhus Ø

49

7

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

No.

Title

Page No.

67

Aarhus Ø Public Baths & Watersports Complex

50

68

Navitas Harbour Front

50

69

Current Broomielaw Quay

52

70

Model for Reconfiguration of Vehicle Lanes

53

71

Proposed Continuous Pedestrian and Cycling Lanes

72

Access to Riverfront via Buchanan St.

54

73

Public Realm in Aker Brygge, Oslo

54

74

Model for Public Realm Improvements

55

75

Proposed Improved Links to Riverfront

54/55

76

Lack of Activity at Clyde St. Quay

56

77

Dome of Visions, Aarhus

56

78

Current Anderston Quay

57

79

Possible Activity at Anderston Quay

57

80

Proposed Reconfiguration of Quayside to Insert Activity

81

Proposed Watersports Centre at Finnieston Quay

58

82

Water Taxi on the Clyde, Design Studies 4B

58

83

Water Taxi Station in Glasgow, Design Studies 4B

59

84

Proposed Activities on the Clyde

85

Floating Green Edge Diagram

60

86

Extended Green Edge Diagram

60

87

Flood Resilient Design Strategy in Løgstør (Denmark), Design Studies 5B

61

88

Proposed Sustainability Strategy

60/61

89

Overview of Possible Projects

62/63

52/53

56/57

58/59

8

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

List of Tables No.

Title

Page No.

1

Dissertation Structure

17

2

CDP Objectives, Significance on a Regional Level and Significance for the Clyde Riverfront

31

3

Opportunities for St.Enoch and Broomielaw

32

4

Overview of Opportunities Which Align With the River Clyde SFD

35

5

Issues Affecting the Riverfront and Potential Regeneration Strategy

36

6

Summary of Case studies Findings

51

7

Possible Projects for the Clyde Riverfront Regeneration

51

8

Overview of Possible Projects

9

Overall Summary of Findings

62/63 64

9

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

Table of Contents Chapter 1.0: Introduction

12

1.1

Background & Research Problem

12

1.2

Significance of Research

13

1.3

Research Questions, Aim, Objectives & Methodology

14

1.3.1

Literature Review

15

1.3.2

Case Studies

15

1.4

Scope of Study & Limitations

15

1.5

Structure of the Dissertation

16

Chapter 2.0: The Forgotten and Inaccessible Clyde Riverfront

18

2.1

Introduction to Chapter

18

2.2

Historic Background

18

2.3

Contemporary River Clyde

19

2.3.1

Broomielaw District

20

2.3.2

St. Enoch District

22

Approach to Regeneration

24

2.4.1

“River Rooms” Model by A-S:L & MVRDV

24

2.4.1.1 Green Room

24

2.4.1.2 Historic Room

25

2.4.1.3 Contemporary Room

26

2.4.1.4 Harbour Room

26

2.4.2

“Overlapping Character” Model

27

2.4

Summary of Findings

28

Chapter 3.0: Policy Context

30

3.1

Introduction to Chapter

30

3.2

Glasgow and the Clyde Valley Strategic Development Plan

31

3.3

Glasgow City Centre Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2019

32

3.4

Glasgow City Centre Districts Regeneration Frameworks

33

3.4.1

Broomielaw District Regeneration Framework (DRF)

33

3.4

3.4.2

St. Enoch District Regeneration Framework (DRF)

34

3.5

River Clyde 2050 Strategic Development Framework (SDF)

35

3.6

Summary of Findings

36

Chapter 4.0: Case studies

38

4.1

Introduction to Chapter

38

4.2

Oslo, Norway

39

4.2.1

Introduction to Case Study

39

4.2.2

Continuity of Pedestrians and Cycling Routes

40

2.5

10

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY

4.3

4.4

4.2.3

Accessibility Between City and Waterfront

40

4.2.4

All-Weather, All-Day Activity at the Quaysides

41

4.2.5

Dynamic Relationship with Water

41

4.2.6

Sustainable and Green Strategy

42

4.2.7

Critical Reflection and Lessons for Glasgow

42

Gothenburg, Sweden

43

4.3.1

Introduction to Case Study

43

4.3.2

Continuity of Pedestrians and Cycling Routes

44

4.3.3

Accessibility Between City and Waterfront

44

4.3.4

All-Weather, All-Day Activity at the Quaysides

45

4.3.5

Dynamic Relationship with Water

45

4.3.6

Sustainable and Green Strategy

46

4.3.7

Critical Reflection and Lessons for Glasgow

46

Aarhus, Denmark

47

4.4.1

Introduction to Case Study

47

4.4.2

Continuity of Pedestrians and Cycling Routes

48

4.4.3

Accessibility Between City and Waterfront

48

4.4.4

All-Weather, All-Day Activity at the Quaysides

49

4.4.5

Dynamic Relationship with Water

49

4.4.6

Sustainable and Green Strategy

50

4.4.7

Critical Reflection and Lessons for Glasgow

50

Summary of Findings

51

Chapter 5.0: A Lively and Connected Riverfront

52

5,1

Introduction to Chapter

52

5.2

A Pedestrian and Cyclist Friendly Promenade

52

5.3

An Accessible City Centre River

54

5.4

A Vibrant Riverfront

56

5.5

A Place to Connect with Water

58

5.6

A 21s Century Sustainable River Corridor

60

5.7

Overview of Possible Projects

62

Chapter 6.0: Conclusion

64

4.5

6.1

Overall Summary of Findings

64

6.2

Lessons for Waterfront Regeneration

65

6.3

Recommended Further Research

65

Bibliography

66

Figure References

68

Table References

11

75

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction 1.1

Background & Research Problem

The sailing of ships through the Clyde enabled the rapid growth of Glasgow during the 19th and 20th centuries, first as a conduit for trade and later for the leading shipbuilding centre of the British Empire. However, the late 20th century saw the collapse of the shipbuilding industry due to the increase in air travel and containerization of freight transport (GCC, 2018). As a result, the riverside areas fell into decline and have been unable to fully recover up to this day. Despite the large investments made in key areas of the quayside, such as Laurieston and the Glasgow Harbour, the riverfront spaces within the city centre boundary have not unlocked the full potential of the Clyde and fall short in comparison to successful waterfront cities elsewhere in Europe. Nonetheless, the ambition, tradition of urban reinvention and gallus1 character of Scotland’s most populated city, provides the ideal setting for a major riverfront regeneration to take place.

When asked about their city, Glaswegians identified the “forgotten and inaccessible riverfront” as an urgent challenge of the city centre, and the “potential of the riverfront as a city park” as a main opportunity to be seized. The poor quality of the public spaces and lack of activity along and on the Clyde is regarded as disappointing and frustrating by locals and visitors (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018). Instead of a place to gather, the quays currently act as a barrier to and from the city centre: the areas along the river are lifeless and unattractive (Fig. 1), pedestrian and cycling routes are discontinuous (Fig. 2) and there is no of interaction with the water.

This study follows the author’s professional experience as part of the multidisciplinary team for the Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks during the RIBA Part 1 placement, academic experience in Scandinavia and travels to the case study cities.

1

gallus: Scottish word for wild, unmanageable, bold.

Fig. 1 Lancefield Quay (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 2 Cycling Route Detour (Author’s Own, 2019)

Monotonous public realm with minimal activity at the

Severed pedestrian and cycling routes which makes the

quayside and no interaction with the water.

quays difficult to access.

12

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY INTRODUCTION

1.2

Significance of Research

In the contemporary period, riverfronts are urban areas of great importance which reflect the competitive development strategies of 21st-century cities (Küçükyağcı, 2017). As such, former port cities have become the target for waterfront regeneration strategies which provide excellent opportunities to make use of the attractive qualities of water in an urban setting to create connected, sustainable and multi-functional networks of places. European cities such as Oslo (Norway), Gothenburg (Sweden) and Aarhus (Denmark) are examples of the importance of waterfront regeneration as a strong framework for successful placemaking. In Glasgow however, the potential of the Clyde riverfront as a main attraction of the city centre, even though recognized by Glaswegians, remains unrealized.

If the city centre of Glasgow is to flourish and undergo major developments in the 21st-Century, the potential of the urban areas adjacent to its river must be realized. Despite the significant achievements made in the past two decades, the regeneration of the Clyde riverfront is necessary to ensure Glasgow’s future as a sustainable and competitive city (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018).

Therefore, the regeneration of the Clyde riverfront is a project of regional and national importance.

The development of a river strategy has been identified as a priority action in the “Glasgow City Centre Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2019” document, with a focus on improving the connectivity between the riverfront and the city centre and creating highquality public realm for pedestrians and cyclists at the river’s edge (GCC, 2014). These objectives are also highlighted in the “Glasgow City Development Plan 2017”, the “River Clyde 2050 Strategic Development Framework”, and other development and regeneration strategies for Glasgow and the Clyde (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018). However, apart from the work developed by architects Austin-Smith:Lord and MVRDV, there is a lack of research and design solutions to meet these objectives and achieve the aim to bring the high-quality public environment to the river corridor. This study addresses this research gap and tests design solutions, through selected case studies, for the regeneration of the Clyde riverfront.

13

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY INTRODUCTION

1.3

Research Questions, Aims, Objectives & Methodology

The aim of this dissertation is to verify that the introduction of a Clyde regeneration strategy comprising (1) A continuous, safe and attractive promenade for pedestrians and cyclists with reduced car dominance, (2) Improved connectivity to the city centre and to the south bank with the addition of a new bridge, (3) The provision of all-weather and all-day activities and uses to reactivate the quayside, (4) A dynamic relationship with water, with increase accessibility and activities on the Clyde, and (5) A sustainable river ecosystem and the ability to adapt to climate change, will bring the necessary high-quality public environment to the riverside and unlock the potential of the River Clyde to become a main attraction of the city centre of Glasgow. The research framework to achieve the aim of this study is outlined in Fig. 3.

QUESTIONS

RESEARCH PROBLEM: The forgotten and inaccessible Clyde riverfront in Glasgow.

OBJECTIVES

1. What is the Clyde riverfront lacking, and why it considered

by Glaswegians to be “forgotten” and “inaccessible”?

1. Identify the factors which have contributed to the decline of the Clyde riverfront.

2. How do current development and regeneration strategies in Glasgow address the Clyde riverfront?

2. Review and analyze development and regeneration frameworks for Glasgow and the Clyde.

3. What makes a successful urban riverfront?

3. Identify what makes a waterfront an inviting and exciting urban space integrated in it its surroundings.

4. How can the Clyde riverfront realize its potential to become a lively and connected main attraction of the Glasgow city centre?

4. Suggest design solutions to unlock the full potential of the Clyde Riverfront as a main attraction of the city centre.

Fig. 3 Dissertation Research Framework (Author’s Own, 2019) 14

METHODOLOGY

LITERATURE REVIEW

ARGUMENT/AIM:

CASE STUDIES

Propose a regeneration strategy for the Clyde waterfront.

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY INTRODUCTION

The following methodology is applied:

1.3.1 Literature Review

1.3.2 Case studies

Chapters 2 and 3 consist of a literature review which

Chapter 4 analysis and compares case studies of

examines the historical, social and cultural background of

successful riverfronts against the factors identified in the

the research problem, how it is addressed in regeneration

literature review to make the Clyde an urban barrier rather

strategies of Glasgow and the River Clyde, and identify

than a place to come together.

what these strategies lack (knowledge gap).

The selected case study cities have a similar geographical The literature review also allowed an in-depth understanding

and cultural context to Glasgow and have undergone

of the reasons to why contemporary Glasgow turns its

successful waterfront developments.

back on its river, in the metaphorical and physical sense.

These factors were selected as the criteria of analysis for the case studies of successful riverfronts in Scandinavia, presented in Chapter 4.

1.4

Scope of Study & Limitations

The scope of this research is the Clyde riverfront, from the Albert Bridge, at the edge of Glasgow Green, to the Clyde Arc next to the Finnieston Crane. The total length is 1.4 miles or 2.25 km. This study focuses on the north riverfront, as this area is within the Glasgow boundary, however, the south riverfront is also considered in certain regeneration strategies, mostly when it comes to improving connectivity between the city centre and south-side.

As can be seen from the public consultation and community engagement events conducted on this topic over the last years, there is a wide range of opinions on what makes a successful waterfront, and what the most suitable regeneration strategy for the Clyde is. This study will, however, base its conclusions on the case studies of cities with the similar context to Glasgow which have undergone riverfront regeneration and have seen clear improvements in the relationship between the people, the city and its river.

Areas of Research Focus

Scope of Study Areas

Fig. 4 Scope of Study Map (Author’s Own, 2019) 15

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY INTRODUCTION

1.5

Structure of Dissertation

Phase I: Introduction Chapter 1 introduces the research problem, Glasgow’s neglected and inaccessible riverfront, and sets this study into context by outlining the background research and the significance of research. This section also outlines the aim and objectives of this dissertation, methodology, scope of study and limitations.

Phase II: Literature Review Chapters 2 and 3 address research questions 1 and 2, respectively “What is the Clyde riverfront lacking, and why is it considered by Glaswegians to be forgotten and inaccessible?” and “How do current development and regeneration strategies in Glasgow address the Clyde riverfront?”. To answer these questions, Chapter 2 analysis the historical, cultural and social background of Glasgow and the River Clyde, and Chapter 3 reviews of city-wide and riverfront regeneration and development strategies.

Phase III: Research Methodology (Case studies) Chapter 4 addresses research question 3 “What makes a successful urban riverfront?” through case studies of cities in Scandinavia with similar geographic and cultural context of Glasgow, which are considered to have a successful relationship to its riverfront. This chapter identifies design solutions to meet the common objectives of development plans in Glasgow, outlined in Chapter 3.

Phase IV: Analysis of Findings/Discussion Chapter 5 addresses research question 4 “How can the Clyde riverfront realize its potential to become a lively and connected main attraction of the Glasgow city centre?” by analyzing the findings gathered through literature review and case studies. This section proposes interventions in the Clyde riverfront, based on the case studies, to counter the factors which make the Glasgow an unsuccessful riverfront.

Phase V: Conclusion Chapter 6 presents the conclusions and recommendations of this study, as well as an overall summary of findings.

The structure of the dissertation is further illustrated in Table 1.

16

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY INTRODUCTION

Context & Literature Review

Phase

Chapter No. & Heading

I - Introduction

1. Introduction

2. The Forgotten and Inaccessible Clyde Riverfront II - Literature Review 3. Policy Context

III - Research Methodology Thesis Core Development

Argument/ Conceptual Analysis

IV - Findings & Discussion

V - Conclusion

4. Case Studies

5. A Lively and Connected Riverfront

Research Question Addressed

1) What is the Clyde riverfront lacking, and why is it considered by Glaswegians to be “forgotten” and “inaccessible”?

2) How do current development and regeneration strategies in Glasgow address the Clyde riverfront?

3) What makes a successful urban riverfront?

4) How can the Clyde riverfront realize its potential to become a lively and connected main attraction of the Glasgow city centre?

6. Conclusion

Table 1 Dissertation Structure (Author’s Own, 2019)

17

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

2.0 The Forgotten and Inaccessible Clyde Riverfront 2.1

Introduction to Chapter

Chapter 2 examines the historical background of the River Clyde as a means to identify the causal and contributing factors to the research problem of this study, the forgotten and inaccessible Clyde riverfront, and the historical context to be addressed in a successful regeneration strategy. The main problems currently affecting the quaysides are identified by the usage of maps and photographs. Finally, this chapter reviews the regeneration model of “River Rooms” proposed

by MVRDV & A-S:L, and presents the author’s own input of an “Overlapping Character” model.

2.2

Historic Background

The Clyde has played a pivotal role in the history and development of the Glasgow region. The potential of the Clyde as a conduit for trade was firstly explored at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, driven by the geographic location of Glasgow as a port facing the Americas. However, only in the mid-19th century the Clyde became fully navigable due to a major dredging project to allow large cargo ships to sail all the way up to Glasgow (Clyde Waterfront, 2018).

Throughout the 19th and 20th century, Glasgow became a worldwide renowned shipbuilding centre and entered an era of rapid growth (GCC, 2018). The Broomielaw wharf, in particular, became a busy spot for sailors and passengers of the steamers (Fig. 5). The sheds on the quayside provided shelter for passengers and storage facilities, and the adjacent buildings were of commercial use such as a fish market and a hotel (Jones, 2010). Nowadays, Broomielaw is dominated by car traffic, has limited accessibility to the riverside and does not reflect its rich historic connection to the Clyde.

In the first half of the 20th century, the activity on and along the Clyde was the powerhouse of Scotland (Clyde Waterfront, 2014). However, by the late 20th century the shipbuilding industry went rapidly into terminal decline due to the increase in air travel and the containerization of freight transport. Due to the industrial recession, the areas along the river were left abandoned and fell into decline (GCC, 2018).

The effects of the collapse of the shipbuilding industry are still visible up to this day, and were accentuated by the riverside areas being forgotten in the post-industrial planning of Glasgow. As a consequence, there is a severance of pedestrian routes from the city centre to the riverfront and the river corridor is discontinuous and fragmented.

Fig. 5 19th Century Broomielaw Quay (Washington, 1870 )

Fig. 6 21st Century Broomielaw Quay (Author’s Own, 2019) 18

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

Broomielaw is a busy central district with sailors, and steamer passengers.

Riverside areas fall into decline and the effects are visible up to this day.

1775

1880

1960

Small coasters began traveling upstream to Glasgow.

The Clyde is deepened and becomes fully navigable all the way up to Glasgow.

Collapse of the shipbuilding industry.

Fig. 7 Summary of the Historic Background of the Clyde (Author’s Own, 2019)

2.3

Contemporary Clyde Riverfront

Glaswegians and visitors have described the riverfront as “forgotten” and “inaccessible” in the community engagement events conducted for the Broomielaw and St.Enoch districts. The car dominance of the motorway, the lack of “things to do” and the severed pedestrian and cycling paths were recurring topics in these consultation events (A-S:L & MRVDV, 2018). Despite the improvements made over the past decades such as the Tradestone Bridge, the SEC and the Hydro, Glasgow still compares unfavourably to other cities when it comes to the quality of the public spaces along the waterfront.

The following photographic study focuses on the districts of Broomielaw and St.Enoch, and highlights some of the one reoccurring issues one encounters when taking a walk along the Clyde which affect negatively the quality of the public spaces.

Fig. 8 City Centre Districts with Broomielaw and St.Enoch Highlighted (Author’s Own, 2019) 19

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

2.3.1 Broomielaw District

N

10

11

12 13

14

15

16 17

1:7500 (M) 0

50

Fig. 9 District of Broomielaw at 1:7500 Scale (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 10 Gated Green Space (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 11 Gated Access to Water (Author’s Own, 2019)

The green space at Lancefield Quay is gated for private

The existing stepped of access to water is gated.

use.

20

100

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

Fig. 12 Lancefield Quay Flats (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 13 View Towards the M8 (Author’s Own, 2019)

The path adjacent to the riverside flats is narrow and has

The photograph shows the barrier between the motorway

no designated spaces for pedestrian and cyclists.

and river and the vacant sites adjacent to the M8.

Fig. 14 Broomielaw Quay Promenade (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 15 View towards Brown St. (Author’s Own, 2019)

The Broomielaw Quay is pleasant during the day but

The excessive railing and unattractive landscaping makes

deserted in the evening due to the lack activity.

the access between the city and the riverfront difficult.

Fig. 16 Riverview Gardens (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 17 South River Bank (Author’s Own, 2019)

The pedestrian route along the river is severed in certain

The south bank is monotonous, has no provision of

locations such as Riverview Gardens.

street furniture and spaces for activity to take place.

21

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

2.3.2 St. Enoch District

N 19

20

21

22

23

24 25

26

1:7500 (M) 0

50

100

Fig. 18 District of St. Enoch at 1:7500 Scale (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 19 Area Adjacent to Riverboat Casino (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 20 Route Under King George V Bridge (Author’s Own, 2019)

The private parking lot adjacent to the Riverboat Casino

Narrow, poorly lit and uninviting spaces.

creates a barrier between the city centre and the Clyde.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

Fig. 21 Space Underneath Rail Bridge (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 22 Gated Docks (Author’s Own, 2019)

The spaces underneath rail bridge have a “rough”

The existing dock infrastructure is gated and for private

industrial character and feel unsafe and uninviting.

use.

Fig. 23 Space Adjacent to Tiger Mural (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 24 Clyde St. Quay (Author’s Own, 2019)

Despite mural to improve the quality of public space, no

The public spaces at Clyde Street Quay are of poor

urban features for activity to take place are provided.

quality.

Fig. 25 Approach Towards Victoria Bridge (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 26 Clyde St. Towards Glasgow Green (Author’s Own, 2019)

Photograph shows the dead-end zone near Victoria

The green areas along the river towards Glasgow Green

Bridge.

are inaccessible and used for waste disposal.

23

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

2.4

Approach to Regeneration

2.4.1 “River Rooms” Model by A-S:L & MVRDV The spatial character of the areas along the Clyde alternate as the river runs through the city centre (Fig. 27). These areas, designated as “river rooms”, have distinct urban characteristics. As such, each “river room” presents a unique opportunity for the design of public spaces that not only regenerates the riverfront but also improves the overall quality of the city centre of Glasgow and creates new connections to the river.

Public consultation and site analysis conducted as part of the Glasgow City Centre Strategy validates the concept of “river room” and the interest of the people of Glasgow to react differently to the distinct areas along the river (A-S:L & MVRDV, 2018). This is also mentioned in the River Clyde 2050 document (GCC, 2018).

Fig. 27 River Rooms Concept (A-S:L & MVRDV, 2018)

2.4.1.1 Green Room

The “Green Room” is the portion of the river which runs from Glasgow Green until the Victoria Bridge and is characterized

by Glasgow’s only central green park. There is restricted access to water as the areas along the river are fenced, and the quayside between Albert and Victoria Bridge is poorly maintained and used for rubbish disposal.

The greatest asset of the “Green Room” area is its existing biodiversity which could potentially be enhanced and safeguarded to improve the environmental quality of the river corridor. The provision of nature related activities could also reactivate the area and promote a healthier, greener and sustainable Glasgow. If combined with a smart flooding strategy, the planting of trees and vegetation along the river could aid in preparing Glasgow for possible changes that could derive from climate change.

24

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

Example of “Green Rooms” in Scandinavia:

Fig. 29 Green Cycling Route, Copenhagen (Unknown Author, Unknown Year)

Fig. 28 Haga Park, Stockholm (Unknown Author, 2019)

2.4.1.2 Historic Room

The “Historic Room” is the area along the Clyde which runs from Victoria Bridge until the King George V Bridge and is within the St.Enoch city centre district. This river room is characterized by Glasgow’s collection of historic bridges and landmarks, and adjacent listed buildings. The “Water Bus” sign reminisces to a time when the Clyde was bustling with activity and passenger ferries were a common way of travelling to and within the city.

As the most accessible river room due to the proximity to the Central Train Station, and closer to most restaurants and bars, the “Historic Room” has the potential to become a vibrant river edge if provided with the necessary facilities and public spaces for social activities and gathering. Spaces are currently uninviting and feel unsafe due to poor lighting and lack of activity at night time.

Example of “Historic Rooms” in Scandinavia:

Fig. 30 Nyhavn, Copenhagen (Best of Copenhagen, Unknown Date)

Fig. 31 Historic Waterfront Houses in Bergen, Norway (Gehl, 2018)

25

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

2.4.1.3 Contemporary Room

The “Contemporary Room” corresponds to the Broomielaw quayside and is framed by the King George V Bridge and the Kingston Bridge (M8). The office buildings near the Central Train Station are of modern and distinct design and bring people to the area during working hours, but the vacant sites towards the M8 feel unsafe and disconnected to the city centre. Despite the provision of green spaces in the quayside, there is no activity along and on the river apart from “The Ferry” restaurant. Therefore, the “Contemporary Room” feels like a transitional space rather than a place to gather. In addition, the the 6-lane road creates a visual and physical barrier to the city centre.

The areas along the riverfront offer the opportunity for the “Contemporary Room” to become a vibrant leisure and recreational space of the city centre of Glasgow. The provision of sports facilities on the water could bring the necessary activity make this a vibrant area.

Example of “Contemporary Rooms” in Scandinavia:

Fig. 32 Waterfront Residential Developments, Copenhagen (Emdal, 2018)

Fig. 33 Market Square, Helsinki (Unknown Author, 2009)

2.4.1.4 Harbour Room The “Harbour Room”, running from the Kingston Bridge towards the Riverside Museum and is characterized by industrial structures such as the Finnieston Crane and the Clyde Arc Bridge. Although quayside area feels disconnected to the city centre due to the physical barrier imposed by the M8 and the adjacent empty sites, it leads to popular leisure and business facilities such as the Hydro, Armadillo and the SEC Centre. Recent developments in the area, such as the Radisson Red Skybar, attract locals and visitors but there is a lack of activity in the riverfront. The river corridor is also discontinuous due to fencing and dead-end zones, and narrow in front of the Riverside Apartments.

Although the “Harbour Room” is located at the periphery of the city centre, it remains an important part of Glasgow as the location of the main concert and sport venues. This provides the opportunity for the design of public spaces with areas for sports and recreation which lead to the SEC and Hydro. The industrial character of this river room could also provide the ideal setting for integrating lighting and artwork along the quays.

26

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

Example of “Harbour Rooms” in Scandinavia and Glasgow:

Fig. 34 Finnieston Crane, Glasgow (ADF Architects, 2017)

Fig. 35 Harbour Bath, Copenhagen (Saxberg, 2008)

2.4.2 “Overlapping Character” Model The “River Rooms” model is a simplified area-specific regeneration approach which divides the riverfront into “rooms” of different characters and focuses on their potential to be distinct from one another. However, limiting each “river room” to the uses related to each specific character can be detrimental to the riverfront as it is likely to lead to single-use type areas, which is one of the problems affecting negatively the quality of the public spaces along the Clyde. In addition, the analysis conducted on the contemporary riverfront, presented in 2.3.1 and 2.3.2, does not validate the concept of a transitional character, but of overlap of co-existing characters along the riverfront.

An “Overlapping Character” regeneration approach will provide a dynamic and vibrant sequence of waterfront spaces which is welcoming to all visitors and residents of Glasgow and secures all-day use of the public spaces adjacent to the Clyde. Nonetheless, certain areas are more suitable to a particular activity due to the proximity to different parts of the city centre and typology of adjacent buildings. The Broomielaw Quay, for example, is more suitable to have provision of street furniture and spaces to eat rather than the Clyde Street Quay, due to the proximity to office buildings. On the other hand, the Clyde Street Quay has the potential to become an extension to Glasgow Green, due to the existing trees and vegetation next to the water. However, it is essential to secure mixed-uses to each quay. Fig. 36 highlights the potential of an “Overlapping Character” Regeneration model.

1 2

3

4 5

River Clyde

1 Continuous cycling lane 2 Green areas 3 Pop-up pavilions, sports 4 Gathering spaces, street furniture 5 Continuous pedestrian promenade

Fig. 36 Overlapping Character Model (Author Own, 2019)

27

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

2.5

Summary of Findings

Chapter 2 has identified the historical context of the decline of the Clyde quayside and the factors which currently contribute to the poor quality of public spaces within the city centre riverfront. Although the Clyde has never fully recovered from the collapse of the shipbuilding Industry, post-industrial planning did not explore its potential as a vibrant and connected main attraction of Glasgow. To achieve this vision, it is necessary to tackle the following issues: (1) Pedestrian routes along the Clyde are severed with dead-end zones, and commonly used by cyclists which can lead to hazardous situations. The current layout of the motorway does not provide cycling lanes.

(2) Accessibility between the city centre and the riverfront is limited due to the barrier imposed by the motorway and the main city centre streets not extending down to the river or gradually loosing quality in the public realm towards the riverfront.

(3) The riverfront is monotonous with very little change in character from Glasgow Green to the Clyde Arc. Apart from the street benches in Broomielaw, there are very few places for gathering and activity to take place.

(4) There are no accessible points of access or proximity to the water along the river. Even though there are existing docks in key location within the city-centre, these are gated for private use. Glasgow makes very little to no use of the resources of the Clyde.

(5) Green spaces are lacking along the riverfront and the few existing do not offer conditions to build upon the existing biodiversity. There is currently no sustainable strategy in place to mitigate flooding risks which might arise from climate change.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY THE FORGOTTEN AND INACCESSIBLE CLYDE RIVERFRONT

29

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

3.0 Policy Context 3.1

Introduction to Chapter

Chapter 3 reviews active city development plans in Glasgow to (1) investigate how strategies in place address the decline of the public spaces along the river, (2) identify the objectives for the future of the Clyde riverfront within the wider context of the Glasgow region, and (3) determine the parameters to be considered in a design proposal which addresses the research gap of this study. Reports reviewed:

(3.2)

(3.5)

Fig. 37 Glasgow and The Clyde Valley SDP (Clydeplan, 2017)

Fig. 38 River Corridor 2050 SDF (GCC, 2018)

(3.3)

(3.4.1)

(3.4.2)

Fig. 39 Glasgow City Centre Strategic Development and Action Plan 2014-19 (GCC, 2014)

Fig. 40 (Y)Our Broomielaw SDF (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018)

Fig. 41 (Y)Our St. Enoch SDF (MRVDV & A-S:L, 2019)

30

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

3.2

Glasgow and the Clyde Valley Strategic Development Plan

Glasgow is one of the 4 largest city regions in Scotland in which a Strategic Development Plan (SDP) is required.

The Glasgow and the Clyde Valley SDP sets the framework for local development plans and is based on 4 planning outcomes of national importance (Clydeplan, 2017). Table 2 highlights these 4 ambitions, its significance on a regional level, and how these principles can be applied to the regeneration of the Clyde waterfront.

4 Planning outcomes City Region as a...

Significance on a regional level (National Planning Framework 3)

Significance for the regeneration of the Clyde riverfront (Author’s Input)

(1) Successful and sustainable places

Improvement of health and wellbeing; Focus on regeneration planning; Development of a new vibrant waterfront district to attract investment and increase footfall.

Design of high-quality public realm with flexible spaces for activity to take place.

(2) Low carbon places

Reduction of greenhouse emission; Non urban areas for potential wind farm development identified; Reduction of car dependence in the city-centre.

Continuous cycling paths and reduction of car lanes in roads along the waterfront to reduce car dependency.

(3) Natural and resilient places

Maximize Glasgow’s green infrastructure; Provide suitable conditions to grow existing biodiversity; Implement sustainable strategies which make Glasgow adaptable to climatic change.

Extend the “green corridor” from Glasgow Green towards the city-centre; Revive the river economic system for future generations; Develop a drainage strategy suitable for the challenges of climate change.

(4) Connected places

Modal shift to public transportation to reduce CO2 emission; Improvement of pedestrian and cycling networks; Better connectivity between city centre districts.

Electrical waterbus transportation network in the Clyde. Improved accessibility between riverfront and the city centre.

Table 2 CDP Objectives, Significance on a Regional Level and Significance for the Clyde Riverfront (Author’s Own, 2019)

The (1) Clyde Waterfront and (2) River Clyde are identified as priorities in the delivery of a spacial development strategy for the Glasgow and the Clyde valley. The aim for the (1) Clyde Waterfront is to reconnect the people of Glasgow to their river by improving accessibility and supporting economic activity. The banks and communities along the (2) River Clyde have been identified as areas of regeneration of the SDP, with the aim to unlock the potential of the Clyde for recreation, leisure and transport (Clydeplan, 2017).

The framework for regeneration set by the Strategic Development Plan can inform the regeneration of the Clyde riverfront to provide holistic solutions of national importance to tackle the factors identified in Chapter 2 as reasons to why the Clyde is seen by many as the forgotten and inaccessible part of Glasgow. The SDP is linked to the Glasgow City Centre Strategy and Action Plan 2014-19, reviewed in the next sub-chapter.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

3.3

Glasgow City Centre Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2019

One of the priority actions outlined in this report is the development of a river strategy, with a focus on improving the links between the city centre the river, and expanding its existing biodiversity. The secondary objective is the design of interconnected public spaces for recreation along the riverfront (GCC, 2014).

The core of the City Centre Strategy was to develop a framework for the development and regeneration of the 9 city centre districts (GCC, 2014). The most relevant frameworks for the River Clyde, the Broomielaw and St.Enoch districts, were made public in August 2018 and May 2019 respectively, and are reviewed in the next sub-chapter.

St Enoch Strategy:

Broomielaw Strategy:

The north riverfront, from Albert Bridge to Glasgow

Broomielaw has a strong historical link to the

Bridge, is identified as a catalyst regeneration project

riverfront as Glasgow first quay and former home to

and pedestrian and cycle avenue. There is the

passenger and commercial steamers. The riverfront

opportunity to improve the pedestrian environment to

is currently a single use type area and therefore

establish clearer links to and from the city centre, and gets deserted of activity at night-time. There is to promote the riverfront a major public space and

the opportunity to improve the public realm at the

key attraction of Glasgow.

waterfront, to make the space inviting to pedestrians, cyclists, introduce activity and promote Broomielaw as a vibrant business district.

Table 3 Opportunities for St.Enoch and Broomielaw (Author’s Own, 2019)

Clyde Navigation Trust

St. Enoch SPT Station

St. Enoch’s Shopping Centre

Tolbooth Steeple Tron Theatre

St. Andrew’s Square

The Briggait

District Boundary Suggested Catalyst Project Major Public Spaces Buildings of Interest Indicative Route of Potential Improved Links

Sheriff Court

Central Mosque Riverside Museum

Fig. 42 Opportunities in Broomielaw and St. Enoch (NTS) (Author’s Own, 2019) 32

St. Andrew’s in the Square

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

3.4

Glasgow City Centre Districts Regeneration Frameworks

The Glasgow City Centre Districts Regeneration Framework delivers a development framework for each of the 9 districts of the city centre, to meet the objectives outlined in the Glasgow City Centre Strategy and Action Plan 2014-2019 (GCC, 2014). The regeneration strategies of Broomielaw and St.Enoch have been prepared by a multidisciplinary team including architects Austin-Smith:Lord and MVRDV. These are the result of extensive consultation with stakeholders and local communities, and the analysis of waterfronts from around the world.

3.4.1 Broomielaw District Regeneration Framework (DRF) The regeneration framework for the Broomielaw quay is centered around the potential of the river corridor as a city park, which would be an amenity for Glaswegians and a catalyst for the regeneration of the waterfront. The river park would extend from Glasgow Green through the city centre until the Riverside Museum (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018).

Public engagement events were conducted in 2016 and although an array of opinions were expressed from different groups, there is a general feel of disappointment with the quality of the public spaces in and leading to the riverfront; and the lack of activity on and along the water (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018). Therefore, improving the quality of the public realm and introducing activity in the river banks and on water is of crucial importance to meeting the needs of Glaswegians for the regeneration of their riverfront.

The strategy proposed by A-S:L and MVRDV is compliant with the model of “river room� regeneration strategy which, as analysed in Chapter 2, imposes limitations in the flexibility and dynamic character of the river corridor as a whole. In addition, although the examples of waterfronts shown are successful in prompting the discussion of what is the most suitable strategy for the Clyde, many of these are set in cities with very different historical, cultural and/or social context from Glasgow.

33

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

3.4.2 St. Enoch District Regeneration Framework (DRF) The main issues addressed in the regeneration framework of St.Enoch, similarly to Broomielaw, are the inaccessibility between the city centre and the riverfront, the dominance of car traffic at the northern quayside, the poor quality of public spaces, and the lack of activity on and along the river. The car park at King Street and the St. Enoch centre are also identified as physical barriers which hinder the connection to the river quays (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2019). Due to these factors, the Clyde St. quay has a low footfall and is in need of improvement.

Despite the fair number of valuable buildings and historic bridges at St. Enoch’s quayside, and the existing pedestrian promenade which leads to Glasgow Green, the only green park in the city centre of Glasgow, there is very little activity in the area (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2019). These factors are identified as opportunities in the St. Enoch DRF, to transform the riverfront into a main attraction of the city centre.

As part of the process of drafting the St. Enoch DRF, community engagement sessions were conducted throughout 2016 and 2017. The outcome of these consultations were a set of priority projects to transform the riverfront: pavilions at the quays, approachable water, continuous quays, activity on water, clean Clyde, and extended city park (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2019). The St. Enoch DRF, such as Broomielaw, follows the “river room” regeneration model, which has been identified in Chapter 2 as inefficient to maintain all-day all-weather activity at the quaysides.

34

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

3.5

River Clyde 2050 Strategic Development Framework (SDF)

The River Clyde SDF was published in 2018 and sets out the objectives for the systematic approach required to deliver a comprehensive approach to the regeneration of the riverfront. The focus of this document is to react and adapt to the challenges which Glasgow is expected to face as a result of climate change, in particular the risk of flooding. Secondary objectives include improving accessibility between the riverfront to the city centre, Govan and Partick; and to develop and interconnect the blue and green networks into the urban fabric of the city centre (GCC, 2018).

The overall vision of the River Clyde SDF aligns with the key objectives of the Glasgow and the Clyde Valley SDP of a (1) successful and vibrant place and (2) a green and connected place. The SDF also recognizes the potential of systematic approach to the regeneration of areas along the river with different character, the “river rooms”. However, this approach can potentially contribute to single use type areas rather than achieving the desired dynamic character for the Clyde riverfront.

A Successful and Vibrant Place

A Green and Connected Place

Tackle inactive single-use type areas by providing housing Repair broken links between the Clyde and the city centre and business facilities to improve density, potentially at and create new ones by improving the public realm of the the vacant sites at Broomielaw towards the M8.

main streets leading to the river such as Buchanan St.

Reactivate the Clyde and its banks with flexible spaces for Reconnect communities and workplaces to the riverside, activity to take place such as stepped promenade; and potentially by providing spaces to gather and play, and provide the facilities for water sports and/or a waterbus provide a suitable environment along the river for business network.

to thrive.

Provide engaging high-quality public realm spaces which Build on the existing biodiversity to create a continuous accommodate different uses such as walking and cycling. green loop which responds to the lack of parks in the city centre and connects to Glasgow Green and Kelvingrove.

Table 4 Overview of Opportunities Which Align with the River Clyde SFD (Author’s Own, 2019)

This document recommends that a multidisciplinary agency is assembled to prepare the regeneration framework for the Clyde riverfront, which was accomplished in the process of consultation for the Glasgow City Centre Districts Regeneration Frameworks. Although the report sets the vision for the Clyde in 2050, no design proposals or examples of successful riverfronts are presented.

35

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

3.6

Summary of Findings

The critical review of development and regeneration frameworks within Glasgow and the Clyde identifies the following strategies to tackle the poor quality public spaces along the riverfront:

Issues Affecting the Riverfront

Clyde Riverfront Regeneration Strategy

(1) Severed pedestrian routes and cyclist unfriendly

(1) Reconfigure the motorway to provide more space

layout.

for the river promenade, a bus lane and a cyclying lane; improve the public realm along the river to ensure continuity of pedestrian routes.

(2) Lack of accessibility between the city centre and the

(2) Introduce new crossing points and improve the

riverfront.

public realm of the main streets leading from the city centre to the riverfront.

(3) Lack of activity at the quayside which leads to single

(3) Take advantage of the intertwined characters of the

use type areas.

river to introduce different types of activity for different times of the day and weather conditions.

(4) Unapproachable water and lack of activity in the river. (4) Make use of the river by introducing activity, and providing access to the water.

(5) Lack of a strategy in place to mitigate the risks of

(5) Create a more sustainable and resilient system which

climate change.

is adaptable to climate change and the risk of flooding with the use of SUDs (sustainable urban drainage systems).

Table 5 Issues Affecting the Riverfront and Potential Regeneration Strategy (Author’s Own, 2019)

The review of development and regeneration frameworks identifies that although a clear set of objectives is defined for the transformation of the Clyde riverfront, there are not many examples on how these objectives can be implemented in a design. The next chapter tests this criteria in case studies of cities in Scandinavia and the UK to draw conclusions for the riverfront of Glasgow.

36

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY POLICY CONTEXT

37

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.0 Case studies 4.1

Introduction to Chapter

Chapter 4 analyses and compares case studies of selected cities in Scandinavia which were subject to successful waterfront regeneration schemes to draw lessons for the Clyde riverfront. The selection of case studies was based on the author’s academic experience in Scandinavia, visits to the riverfronts and conversations with locals. While it is clear that each regeneration scheme is designed according to the distinct historical, cultural and socio-economic context of each case study, this analysis focuses on tackling the contributing factors identified in Chapters 2 and 3 as to why the Clyde riverfront is considered by Glaswegians to be “forgotten” and “inaccessible”. Thus, the vision for the Clyde as a lively and accessible waterfront, and criteria of analysis, is as follows: (1) Continuity of pedestrian and cycling routes; (2) Accessibility between city and waterfront; (3) All-Weather, All-Day Activity at the Quaysides; (4) Dynamic relationship with water; (5) Sustainable and green strategy.

The purpose of this chapter is to identify potential design solutions which could be applied to the Clyde riverfront to achieve the necessary high-quality public space integrated into the city centre of Glasgow.

Oslo, NO Glasgow, UK

Gothenburg, SE

Aarhus, DK

Fig. 43 Case studies Map (Author’s Own, 2019) 38

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.2

Oslo, Norway

4.2.1 Introduction to Case Study Similarly to Glasgow, Oslo was an industrial port-city dominated by the shipbuilding industry up until the 1980s.

Transport infrastructure, highways, railways, freight and passenger terminals built during the industrial prime of Oslo broke the links between the city centre and the scenic landscape of the fjord. The collapse of the shipbuilding industry led to post-de-industrialization brownfields which were identified by the municipality as areas of potential regeneration.

To rekindle the connection between Oslo and the fjord, the Aker Brygge neighbourhood was constructed in the former industrial sites during the 90s, and the “Fjord City” scheme to redevelop the harbour areas was set in motion in 2018 (Kolstø, 2013).

The key objectives of the “Fjord City” were to improve accessibility to the fjord and provide recreational areas for both visitors and residents of Oslo. The project is divided into 12-sub-projects, each with a distinct objectives that contribute to the common aim of the regeneration scheme (Oslo Kommune, 2018). Overall, the “Fjord City” has received positive feedback and has been commended for reintroducing the role of fjord in the city of Oslo. However, not all projects have been well received. Although Oslo Opera House (Fig. 44) is widely considered to be successful building, the Barcode masterplan (Fig. 45) has been criticized for not respecting the Oslo’s cultural heritage (Balch, 2011).

The design of the Opera House relinks the Oslo to the fjord by providing access to the water and acting as an extension to the public realm.

The scale of the buildings imposes a barrier between the city and fjord and defies the character of Oslo as a historical, green and low-rise city.

Fig. 44 Oslo Opera House (Snøhetta via Archdaily, 2019)

Fig. 45 Bjørvika Barcode (MVRDV, 2019)

The building was well received and commended by

According to a survey in 2008, 71% of the residents

the locals and visitors of Olso (Barch, 2011).

of Oslo opposed the project (Oslo Kommune, 2018).

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.2.2 Continuity of Pedestrian and Cycling Routes The development of Bjørvika, a central district of Oslo and previous container port, ties the east and west of the city together through continuous pedestrian and cycling paths along the waterfront (Fig. 46). These routes are further extended to the outskirts of the city to tackle the visual and physical barriers imposed by the highway (Oslo Kommune, 2018). The public realm improvements in the harbour promenade stretch over a length of 9km, and link parts of the city with distinct urban characteristics. The success of this approach has been verified with the completed regeneration of the Aker Brygge waterfront (Fig. 47).

Existing continuous harbour promenade which links the east and west of the city, landmarks and public gathering spaces.

Proposed pedestrian and cycling paths.

Fig. 47 Aker Brygge (Majewski, Tomasz via LANDEZINE, 2015)

Fig. 46 Proposed Redevelopment of Bjørvika (Oslo Kommune via Nordregio, 2018)

4.2.3 Accessibility Between City and Waterfront One of the priorities of the “Fjord City” is to improve the accessibility between the city centre and the fjord. To achieve this, highways have been degraded by the construction of a cross-harbour tunnel in Bjørvika; and public realm improvements have been made in the key streets linking the city to the waterfront (Oslo Kommune, 2018).

The removal of 70% of traffic from the urban ground floor level proved to be successful in reducing the physical and visual barrier of the E18 highway, decreasing the levels of noise and pollution, and improve the permeability between Oslo and its waterfront (Briers, 2013).

40

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.2.4 All-Weather, All-Day Activity at the Quaysides The renewed waterfront of Olso benefits from significant public realm improvements and the development of areas for recreational use. At Aker Brygge, the waterfront promenade celebrates the role of social interaction in the public realm by providing flexible spaces for planned and unplanned activity to take to place (Fig. 48). The concept of the custom designed street furniture and “steps” approaching the water encourage social gathering and promote the waterfront as a “place to stay” rather than a circulation corridor (LINK Landskap via LANDZINE, 2013).

Contemporary mix-use buildings at the quayside have commercial facilities at ground level with esplanades open to the fjord. Vippa, food market at the waterfront promenade with indoor and outdoor facilities, provides shelter and activity on a rainy day (Fig. 49).

Developments facing the waterfront with

Food market with indoor and

cafés and esplanades at ground level.

outdoor spaces.

The steps interact with the fjord and provide spaces to gather.

Fig. 48 Stepped Promande of Aker Brygge (Majewski, via LANDEZINE, 2015)

Fig. 49 Vippa Food Market (Baklund via VisitOslo, Unkown Date)

4.2.5 Dynamic Relationship with Water Sørenga, formerly a container port, was transformed into a new residential district with a swimming area (Fig. 50) (Nikkel, 2017). A timber deck was constructed to provide spaces for swimming and sunbathing which are free of access to the visitors and locals of Oslo. Despite the Baltic semi-continental climate, this is a popular spot not only during the summer but also for winter bathing. The use of passenger ferries, saunas and kayaks are other activities taking place on the water (Fig. 51).

The public realm improvements provide points of access to the water in key locations along waterfront, such as the areas adjacent to the Oslo Opera House and the Munch Museum.

41

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

Activity in the water.

Use of natural resources for leisure.

Fig. 50 Sørenga Seawater Pool (Knudsen via EUmiesaward, 2017)

Fig. 51 Floating Sauna (Unkown Author via VisitOslo, 2017)

4.2.6 Sustainable and Green Strategy Oslo is surrounded by hills and forests which act as a green belt to the city. Preserving these natural boundaries is the municipality’s priority and as a such, new developments are restricted to the existing city limits. The city’s green infrastructure was developed through the use of river corridors which link parks and central districts to the fjord (Balch, 2011). Rather than planting new vegetation along the waterfront, the Fjord City improves the connection between the city, the fjord and Oslo’s existing natural assets.

The information available to the public on whether the Waterfront housing.

waterfront regeneration strategy actively reacts to the predictions of moderate sea level rise along the Norwegian coast is scarce. However, the developments built in close proximity to the water (Fig. 52) suggest that this factor did not have a significant weight in the design decision making process.

Fig. 52 Contemporary Housing in Sørenga (Nikkel, 2017)

4.2.7 Critical Reflection and Lessons for Glasgow Oslo is a pertinent case study for Glasgow as an example of a “people first” approach comprising the design of highquality public realm spaces and improved accessibility to the waterfront which achieved the desired footfall and level of activity at the waterfront.

The design of the Opera House and adjacent public realm achieved the goal of reconnecting the city to the fjord, but the controversy surrounding the height of the Barcode buildings highlights the overarching importance of urban regeneration strategies to react/respond to the local context (Oslo Kommune, 2018). Additionally, Oslo’s new waterfront lacks a sustainable strategy to actively react to the challenges which might arise from climate change, such as the rising sea levels, which can potentially be detrimental for the city’s future.

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4.3

Gothenburg, Sweden

4.3.1 Introduction to Case Study Gothenburg’s northern riverside, Norra Älvstranden, is a former shipyard, container terminal and port site which was active up until the 1970s. Similarly to Glasgow, the shipbuilding industry was the core of Gothenburg’s image and internal recognition. As such, upon the closure of the shipyards due to the oil crisis, the areas along the riverfront fell into a steep decline. The existing industrial infrastructure, including large-scale buildings unsuitable for other purposes, was left behind (URBED, 2008).

The derelict of Norra Älvstranden was visible from the historic town centre of Gothenburg, and as such, the need for regeneration quickly became apparent (URBED, 2008). Initially, the public sector explored the potential of the former shipyard as an event venue, but it was only when the Council took control of the site that a major regeneration project was established. The transformation of Norra Älvstranden is underway as of 2019, and the district is now home to 2 major university campus, high-tech industries, and modern residences (Fig. 53). The completion of its regeneration to a mixed-use district with a vibrant and accessible waterfront is expected to be complete in 2025 (Cadell et al., 2008).

Following the success of Norra Älvstranden, the RiverCity Gothenburg vision was launched by the Council in 2012 (Fig. 54). This initiative is structured around 3 main objectives: to connect the central districts, to expand the city centre and to achieve this by embracing water as a feature of urban life (City of Gothenburg, 2012).

Regeneration of the northern riverside, with new residential buildings, harbour

Proposed quayside with new residences,

and riverside promenade.

activity on the water and green river corridor.

Shipbuilding infrastructure.

Fig. 53 District of Eriksberg in Norra Älvstranden (Unknown Author, via BJURFORS, 2018)

Fig. 54 Regeneration of Frihamnen (City of Gothenburg, 2019)

The principles applied to the regeneration of Norra Älvstranden, such as retaining existing shipbuilding infrastructure, were specific to the historical context of Gothenburg.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.3.2 Continuity of Pedestrian and Cycling Routes Gothenburg’s river corridor links the central districts through a network of continuous pedestrian, cycling and public transportation routes which are proposed for redevelopment as part of the RiverCity vision (City of Gothenburg, 2012).

Cycling culture is predominant in Sweden, therefore dedicated cycling lanes are provided in the main streets and along the waterfront (Fig. 55).

Designated pedestrian and cycling lanes.

Pedestrian routes along the river link important landmarks and public spaces. Therefore, visitors and locals can have a sound overview of the city just by walking along the river. The high-quality public ream blends in with the local context and brings a high footfall to the area. In contrast, Glasgow’s riverfront does not provide a fair overview of the city, which makes it an opportunity to be seized.

Fig. 55 Norra Älvstranden Promenade (Unknown Author, 2012)

4.3.3 Accessibility Between City and Waterfront.

As the metropolitan area of Gothenburg is significantly higher than Glasgow’s, the accessibility between the city and the waterfront has to be analyzed on a district level, rather than on a city-wide level. Newer districts such as Norra Älvstranden were strategically planned and designed to benefit from livable and inviting river spaces (URBED, 2008). In addition, riverfront districts which are currently being redeveloped in accordance to the strategy outlined in the RiverCity, aim to reinforce the centre and make use of the river corridor as a connective link which brings the city together (City of Gothenburg, 2012).

Gothenburg’s waterfront is located within a short walking distance from the Central Train Station, the city’s main point of arrival, and is considered to be part of the centre.

Connected quaysides.

The quaysides are well connected by pedestrian bridges which bring a high footfall to the north and south banks (Fig. 56).

Fig. 56 Lindholmen Pedestrian Bridge (Unknown Author, 2019)

44

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.3.4 All-Weather, All-Day Activity at the Quaysides Gothenburg’s quaysides have localized activity depending on the typology of the adjacent buildings (Fig. 57). Therefore, the footfall of the each district’s waterfront varies throughout the day. Nonetheless, the river is easily accessible from and to the city centre, is well lit, continuous and benefits from a pleasant view towards the harbour and residential buildings, it feels inviting and safe at all times.

The RiverCity Gothenburg proposes new high-quality public spaces at the quayside for all-day, all-weather activities to take place (City of Gothenburg, 2012). These will be achieved by the design of multi-use buildings along the waterfront, with cafés and cultural institutions at ground level; and a variety of different public spaces, such as parks and areas with street furniture, where all locals and visitors can gather.

Fish Market at riverfront.

Pop-up shops.

New Esplanades.

Stepped promenade.

Fig. 57 Stepped Promenade Adjacent to Fish Market (City of Gothenburg, 2019)

Fig. 58 Proposed New Activity at Quayside (City of Gothenburg, 2012)

4.3.5 Dynamic Relationship with Water Gothenburg makes use of its river primarily for passenger

Proposed spaces to engage with water.

ferries connecting the north and south banks. There are a few of existing water sports facilities, but these are not located the within the city centre. Although the quaysides have a high footfall, and attractive public realm, activity on the river is limited.

Public swimming pool.

The regeneration of Norra Älvstranden introduced parking for private boats, and steps approaching the water which can function as gathering spaces. However, these spaces are rarely used as the area is mostly residential. Some RiverCity projects, such as Henning Larsen’s masterplan for Lindholmen, make use of the water as a feature of

Fig. 59 Henning Larsen’s Masterplan for Lindholmen (Henning Larsen, 2017)

urban life (Fig.59) (Walsh via Archdaily, 2017).

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.3.6 Sustainable and Green Strategy No information is available to the climatic change considerations of the redevelopment of Norra Älvstranden. Therefore, it can be assumed that a strategy to react to the predictions of rising sea levels was not in place. However, to use climate adaptation as a driver force is one of the objectives of Gothenburg RiverCity (City of Gothenburg, 2012). The design of each RiverCity area incorporates a strategy, or combination of strategies, to react to the predictions of sea level rise. These are divided into 3 categories (1) attack, (2) defence and (3) retreat: (1) Attack: Design of buildings and neighbourhoods as floating structures, connected by piers, which can function independently of the changes in sea levels.

(2) Defence: Design of areas protected by embankments to hold back water and prevent flooding.

(3 Retreat: Design of buildings with areas that can be temporarily or permanently flooded. The ground floor structure would function as a pier and building functions in the upper levels are maintained (Fig. 60).

The areas adjacent to the river are being developed into a green corridor, in which the improvement of conditions to grow existing biodiversity is expected to enrich the urban environment (City of Gothenburg, 2012).

Fig. 60 Flooding Retreat Strategy (City of Gothenburg, 2012)

4.3.7 Critical Reflection and Lessons for Glasgow The scope of the RiverCity is significantly larger than the Glasgow city centre boundary. Whilst the vision for Gothenburg is focused on the transformation of several districts, and how these are linked through the river, the solutions for the Clyde are smaller interventions in strategic places of the riverfront. Nonetheless, the redevelopment of Norra Älvstranden is a successful example of regeneration of a former shipyard into an independent mixed-use district which is easily accessible by ferry to the city centre.

Comparatively to regeneration frameworks in Glasgow, the RiverCity strategy takes a more proactive approach to adapt Gothenburg to the sea levels rise and extreme weather conditions that might arise from climate change. Therefore, new developments are expected to be designed to maintain their functions in the event of temporary or permanent flooding.

A similar strategy for the areas adjacent to the Clyde is necessary to ensure not only the future of the riverfront but also of Glasgow’ city centre.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.4

Aarhus, Denmark

4.4.1 Introduction to Case Study Aarhus entered a phase of rapid growth at the start of the 21st century due to population growth, political and economic prosperity. The redevelopment of Aarhus Ø carried out by BIG architects, transformed a former container port into a vibrant waterfront district with mixed-use high-rise buildings and water sports facilities (Fig. 61) (Rosenfield via Archdaily, 2015). The Dokk1 public library, constructed simultaneously, embraces the Aarhus River with a waterfront plaza which views the industrial harbour and functions as gathering space. The architecture of these developments contrasts with its surroundings, but has succeeded in transforming the Aarhus Bay into a vibrant and connected urban space.

The portion of the Aarhus River which runs through the historic town is framed by cafés, restaurants and public gathering spaces used by students and families. Åboulevarden, the street and river promenade linking the city centre to Dokk1 and the Aarhus Bay has gained recognition as its own riverside quarter, and widely acknowledged as the heart of Aarhus (Fig. 62).

The case study derives primarily from the author’s first4

hand experience as an exchange student at the Aarhus

1

School of Architecture for the period of 4 months, and secondarily from literature review.

3 6 2

2

Continuous river promenade which links the

6

city centre, Dokk1 and the Aarhus Bay.

5

Dokk1.

Fig. 61 Aarhus Dockland (SDFE Skråfoto, 2017) Main road from/to city centre from/to Aarhus Ø Aarhus Ø main roads New walking paths / river promenade 1

Aarhus Watersports

4

Yacht parking

2

New public spaces

5

Urban gardens

3

Pop-Up Spaces

6

Canal for private boats

Fig. 62 Aarhus River Promenade (Unknown Author, 2019)

The Aarhus Public Baths and Watersports Facilities introduce activity on the water, and the pop-up spaces activate the waterfront.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.4.2 Continuity of Pedestrian and Cycling Routes The Danish cycling culture has a significant weight in

Continuous pedestrian and cycling route

placemaking of new developments and regeneration

between Aarhus Ø and city centre.

strategies. Thus, the new waterfront promenade from the city centre to Aarhus Ø is continuous, has designated pedestrian and cyclists lanes, and links areas which interact with water in different ways (Fig. 63).

The areas adjacent to the water in the historic town are car free and link the riverfront districts to the bay of Aarhus through a continuous, attractive, pedestrian and cyclist friendly promenade. The high-quality public spaces and cycling infrastructure give the waterfront the quality of

Tree planters and street furniture.

being a connective link between residential, industrial and Fig. 63 Bernhardt Jensens Boulevard (Unknown Author, 2012)

park city centre districts.

4.4.3 Accessibility Between City and Waterfront.

Indre By, the historic town centre, was developed around the Aarhus River where Viking merchant boats sailed through during the Middle Ages (Aarhus Kommune, 2019). Nowadays, the river remains the central element of Aarhus and is easily accessible from the residential and education quarters. Unlike Glasgow, in which the Clyde divides the city centre and Southside, the areas adjacent to the north and south banks of the Aarhus River are considered central.

The river promenade and main streets which link the city centre to the Aarhus Bay waterfront are pedestrian and cyclist friendly, have rows of trees, and are unobstructed (Fig. 64).

7

Waterfront Landmarks 6

4

1

Nativas education centre

5

Industrial harbour

2

Bestseller office

6

Architecture School

7

Aarhus Cathedral

4

3 4

City Centre Landmarks

Waterfront Spaces

1 2 5

4

3

Artificial canal promenade

4

Aarhus Bay gathering spaces Main road from/to city centre from/to Aarhus Ø

5

Aarhus Ø main roads New walking paths / river promenade

Fig. 64 Aarhus Bay (SDFE Skråfoto, 2017)

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.4.4 All-Weather, All-Day Activity at the Quaysides The portion of the Aarhus river which runs through the historic town centre is surrounded by restaurants, cafés and bars (Fig. 65) which bring all-day activity to the quayside. The adjacent spaces are designed to embrace the riverfront and are used by locals, mostly students, for gathering purposes. In addition, temporary events such as concerts and markets take place in specific areas of the riverfront throughout the year.

The vacant sites of Aarhus Ø have been occupied by pop-up spaces (Fig. 66) which activate the quayside and bring a younger demographics to the residential district. As the high-end residential developments of Aarhus Ø are occupied by professional who works in the city centre, the pop-up spaces prevent the district to become a single type use area.

The café and restaurant esplanades, and public gathering spaces along the waterfront attract locals and visitors.

Pop-up spaces with pop-up cafés which activate the vacant waterfront sites.

Inviting Public Realm

Fig. 65 Åboulevarden Promenade (Hallett, 2018)

Fig. 66 Pop-Up Spaces at Aarhus Ø (Author’s Own, 2018)

4.4.5 Dynamic Relationship with Water Aarhus Ø was designed with the aim to respond to the housing demands and activate the waterfront (Rosenfield via Archdaily, 2015). The contemporary residential developments provide spaces for boat parking and platforms for winter bathing, and the Aarhus Public Baths and Watersports Complex bring activity to the water and bind the city with the Aarhus Bay (Fig. 67). In addition, the education quarter has spaces of approachable water (Fig. 68) and the river in the historic centre is used for canoeing and sailing leisure boats during the Aarhus Summer Festival.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

The provision of activity in the water attracts locals and visitors to the new Gathering spaces with approachable

waterfront district.

water at the Aarhus Bay.

Aarhus Public Baths.

Fig. 67 Aarhus Ø Public Baths & Watersports Complex (BIG, 2018)

Fig. 68 Navitas Harbour Front (Landskab via LANDZINE, 2017)

4.4.6 Sustainable and Green Strategy Aarhus Ø was constructed on an area which is expected to be flooded in 2090-2099 according to the predictions of extreme weather flooding (Moeslund, 2009). This indicates that the potential effects of climate change were not taken into consideration in the regeneration strategy of 21st-century of waterfront districts.

Green spaces were preserved in key areas of the riverfront, which create suitable environments for existing biodiversity to grow in the city. The district boundary of Aarhus is framed by 2 nature reserves which are connected to the centre by a green and blue waterfront corridor with pedestrian and cycling lanes.

4.4.7 Critical Reflection and Lessons for Glasgow Some of the concepts applied to the design of the new waterfront of Aarhus can inform the regeneration strategy to improve the quality of the public spaces along the Clyde in Glasgow. The use of pop-up spaces to activate the vacant sites of the Aarhus Ø, and construction of the Public Baths and Watersports Complex to introduce activity on the water, were successful in bringing the community together and binding the city to the Aarhus Bay. The same principles can potentially be applied to give a new purpose to the empty plots adjacent to the M8 and to tackle the lack of activity on the Clyde.

The river promenade in the historic city centre of Aarhus is an inviting, lively and accessible space. The esplanades, high-quality public realm and outdoor gathering spaces along the river ensure that the area remains active throughout different times of the day and weather conditions. As such, the introduction of pavilions with cafés, restaurants and bars at the Broomielaw Quayside could potentially extend the city centre nightlife to the Clyde, provide sheltered spaces for rainy days, bring the desired footfall to the area and make the area safer during the nighttime.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CASE-STUDIES

4.5

Summary of Findings

The case studies of Oslo, Gothenburg and Aarhus have identified the design solutions implemented in the waterfront regeneration of these Scandinavian cities which realize the 5 objectives, or 5 “visions”, for a lively and connected Clyde riverfront. These findings are summarized in Table 7.

Clyde Riverfront Regeneration Vision

How this vision is realized, in case studies Oslo

Gothenburg

Aarhus

(1) Continuity of pedestrian and cycling routes;

Continuous promenade with attractive landscaping and designated cycling and pedestrian lanes.

Car-free city centre riverfront. Different pavement for cycling lanes in new districts.

Designated lanes for cyclists and pedestrians.

(2) Accessibility between city and waterfront;

Downgrading of urban highways and public realm improvements.

Pedestrian bridges between quaysides.

Pedestrian and cycling lanes between city and waterfront districts.

(3) All-weather, all-day activity at the quaysides

Stepped promenade with cafés and restaurants at GL; bespoke street furniture, food market.

Stepped promenade; pop-up cafés and shops; esplanades; landmarks at waterfront.

Stepped promenade; pop-up spaces to activate vacant sites.

(4) Dynamic relationship with water;

Public swimming pool; passenger ferries.

Water inlets in the city; passenger ferries.

Public baths and watersports complex;

(5) Sustainable and green strategy.

No strategy in place.

Attack, defense and retreat flooding strategy,

No strategy in place.

Table 6 Summary of Case Studies Findings

Table 8 table highlights the leading contributing factors to the poor quality of public spaces along the Clyde and potential design solutions, based on the case studies, to overcome these problems.

Current: Forgotten and Inaccessible Clyde Riverfront

Clyde Riverfront Regeneration Strategy Potential Projects, based on case studies

(1) Severed pedestrian routes and cyclist unfriendly promenade layout;

Continuous promenade from Glasgow Green until the West End, with designated pedestrian and cycling lanes in different pavement material.

(2) Poor accessibility between the city centre and riverfront;

Reduce car lanes from 4 to 2 to allow space for esplanades; public realm improvements on main streets linking riverfront, inc. zebra crossing.

(3) Lack of activity at the quayside, leading to single-use type areas;

Pop-up café and shop units to be installed quaysides; pop-up spaces to activate vacant sites adjacent to M8; stepped promenade in Broomielaw quay.

(4) Unapproachable water and lack of activity in the river;

Reintroduction of a waterbus network in the Clyde.

(5) No strategies are in place to mitigate the risks of climate change;

Adjacent buildings and spaces which can be temporarily flooded.

Table 7 Possible Projects for the Clyde Riverfront Regeneration

Chapter 5 suggests specific areas along the Clyde in which potential projects, for the Clyde Riverfront Regeneration Strategy can take place, based on the design strategies identified in Chapter 4.

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

5.0 A Lively and Connected Riverfront 5.1

Introduction to Chapter

Chapter 5 suggests design strategies to transform the Clyde Riverfront into a lively and connected public space in Glasgow city centre. The proposals are supported by the study of successful waterfront spaces in Scandinavian cities and are adapted according to the historical and social context of Glasgow and the analysis of the current Clyde riverfront. A strategy is suggested for each of the 5 main reasons why the Clyde riverfront is widely considered to be “forgotten” and “inaccessible”.

5.2

A Pedestrian and Cyclist Friendly Promenade

The quayside is currently a car-dominated space which does not provide a high-quality and safe public environment for pedestrians and cyclists. The Quays have 4 to 6 car lanes which create a barrier to the riverfront and do not allow space for a wide promenade (Fig. 69 shows the current Broomielaw Quay). Therefore, it is necessary to reconfigure the quayside to provide a continuous promenade, with designated lanes for pedestrians and cyclists. The new configuration should extend to both river banks and bridges, to improve the connection between north and south and increase footfall on both sides of the

Fig. 69 Current Broomielaw Quay (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018)

river.

N

Widened pedestrian lane

Repaired broken link

Repaired broken link

Pedestrian routes over the water Pedestrian lanes Cycling lanes Fig. 71 Proposed Continuous Pedestrian and Cycling Lanes (Author’s Own, 2019) 52

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

Fig. 70 Model for Reconfiguration of Vehicle Lanes (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018)

This project aims to create a continuous river promenade for pedestrians and cyclists which will facilitate the access between quays, encourage gathering along the waterfront and promote the River Clyde as a public space of regional and national importance. •

To reduce car dominance, the number of vehicle lanes should be reduced from 6 to 4 throughout the quayside (Fig. 70). This would make room for cycling lanes, wide pedestrian pathways on both sides of the road, rows of trees, outdoor spaces for esplanades, flexible gathering spaces and pop-up pavilions.

•

Provision of a continuous, attractive and car-free promenades, with high-quality public realm, which will link Glasgow Green to Kelvingrove Park and Riverside Museum. A suspended walkway over the water should be installed in narrow spaces along the quayside, such as the space adjacent to the casino and riverside flats. This reconfiguration should also be implemented to the Clyde bridges, to improve the connection between north and south banks.

Underpass beneath bridges

Cyclist friendly Glasgow Green

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5.3

An Accessible City Centre River

The analysis of the current riverfront identifies that the public realm of the main streets linking the city centre and the Clyde gradually loses quality as it approaches the quayside. Limited zebra crossings and physical barriers, such as railings and parking lots, positioned along the river make the quayside difficult to access from the city centre. There is also only a small number of pedestrian and cycling links between the north and south banks, particularly in the Broomielaw Quay due to the long distance between the Tradeston Bridge and Clyde Arc, and the vacant sites adjacent to the M8.

Uninviting Link to River

Attractive Public Realm

Fig. 72 Access to Riverfront via Buchanan St. (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 73 Public Realm in Aker Brygge, Oslo (Saiko, 2017)

N

Improved Pedestrian Links

New Pedestrian Bridge Car Park Removed

Major/Key Public Realm Improvements Improved Pedestrian Links Important Car/Cycle Connections Existing Crossing Proposed Crossing Fig. 75 Proposed Improved Links to Riverfront (Author’s Own, 2019) 54

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

Active street frontages with commercial facilities on ground level to increase footfall.

Pedestrian and cyclist friendly streets with rows of trees and street furniture, linking the city centre and riverfront.

Fig. 74 Model for Public Realm Improvements (MVRDV & A-S:L, 2018)

This project aims to unlock the potential of the Clyde riverfront as a high-quality public space of the Glasgow city centre.

Improving the accessibility to and between the quays has the potential to transform Glasgow into an internationally recognized riverfront city. This project suggests to: •

Repair the severed links between the city centre and the Clyde by improving the public realm of the main streets leading to the quayside (Fig. 74). The landscape architecture project should include rows of trees, street furniture, improve lighting, increase the number of pedestrian crossings and remove the physical barriers, such as excessive railing, which make the river difficult to access.

•

Introduce a new pedestrian and cycling bridge between the Tradeston Bridge and the Clyde Arc, located underneath the M8, to improve the connection between river banks in the area. The new bridge will be a catalyst for the regeneration of the Broomielaw vacant sites into a lively riverfront neighbourhood.

Key Access Opportunities

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

5.4

A Vibrant Riverfront

The Clyde quaysides have the unused potential to become a lively and vibrant attraction of the city centre. The riverfront is currently monotonous space and lacks the necessary engaging public spaces and infrastructure for activity to take place (Fig. 76). The lack of “things to do”, the fact that the street frontages of existing buildings are inactive and the abundant empty sites, particularly in the Broomielaw district, means that the riverside becomes deserted at nightfall, which creates an unsafe and uninviting environment.

To reactivate the Clyde riverfront, it is necessary to provide the facilities to encourage activities, reconfigure the river promenade and street frontage of existing buildings, and make use of the vacant sites.

No activity at Quayside

Pop-Up Pavilion

Fig. 76 Lack of Activity at Clyde St. Quay (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 77 Dome of Visions, Aarhus (Nyeste Fra, 2018)

N

New Riverfront District

Barriers Removed

Pop-up Pavilions

New mixed-use developments Redeveloped street frontages Fig. 80 Proposed Reconfiguration of Quayside to Insert Activity (Author’s Own, 2019) 56

12m

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

LANCEFIELD QUAY

ANDERSTON QUAY

Pop-Up Pavilions

5m

7m

4m

7m

12m

5m

6m

15m

5m

7.5m

20m

6m

Fig. 79 Possible Activity at Anderston Quay (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 78 Current Anderston Quay (Author’s Own, 2019)

This project aims to introduce all-day, all-weather activity to activate the areas along the river, provide “things to do” at the quayside, attract locals, tourists and new investment to Glasgow.

•

Redevelop existing buildings to include commercial facilities at ground level which will activate the street frontages.

•

Design new buildings in the vacant sites adjacent to the M8 which engage with the waterfront and increase the demographics of the area. This will extend the city centre to the Clyde, give the riverfront the feel of “destination space”, increase footfall and safety.

•

Introduce temporary and permanent activities to activate the quays: small scale, well designed pavilions to accommodate commercial, leisure and cultural facilities throughout all times of the year; and temporary events such as a weekly Sunday market and seasonal festivals (Fig. 79). Reconfiguration of the quaysides in alternating green, pavilion and sport zones adjacent to the water can be performed.

1 2

Active Street Frontages

3

4 5

River Clyde

1 Continuous cycling lane 2 Green areas 3 Pop-up pavilions, sports 4 Gathering spaces, street furniture 5 Continuous pedestrian promenade

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5.5

A Place to Connect with Water

Despite Glasgow’s rich history of shipbuilding and passenger steamers, there is currently no activity taking place on the water. The Clyde was once the powerhouse of Glasgow and the main attraction of the city centre, and this historic connection should be celebrated and be considered for a regeneration strategy. Although the quays have the infrastructure for small water taxis to sail on the Clyde, such as floating docks, these are gated for private use.

The Clyde is widely recognized by Glaswegians and visitors to be one of the city’s greatest assets. As such, the provision of dynamic on-water activities has the potential to re-establish the connection between Glasgow, its people, and their river.

Watersports Centre

Fig. 81 Proposed Watersports Centre at Finnieston Quay (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 82 Water Taxi on the Clyde, Design Studies 4B (Author’s Own, 2018)

Watersports Centre N

Gates Removed

Stepped Promenade

Water Taxi Routes Existing Docks New Infrastructure Existing Gated Access to Water New Stepped Promenade Fig. 84 Proposed Activities on the Clyde (Author’s Own, 2019) 58

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT East Viewing Tower

Waverly Visiting Centre

Pierce Street Housing

Govan H20

Pierce Institute

Overnight boat/ dock storage

West Viewing Tower

Govan Old Parish Church

10 capacity

1

West Viewing Tower

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Waverly Visiting Centre

Govan H20

East Viewing Tower

Riverside Museum

Fig. 83 Water Taxi Station in Glasgow, Design Studies 4B (Author’s Own, 2018)

This project aims to provide the community diverse activities on the River Clyde. This will establish a new dynamic relationship between Glasgow and its river, making the city more attractive and enriching the lives of its residents.

•

Provide a stepped promenade in key locations along the quayside to enable the access to water and function as a flexible gathering space which invites activity.

•

Implement a new water taxi network in the Clyde to reconnect Glasgow to its rich history of shipbuilding by reviving the scenery of boats arriving and departing from the Clyde (Fig. 82 - 83). This network will catalyze the development of areas which are poorly connected to the city centre, such as Springfield Quay.

•

New floating, water-filtering bathing pool at Clyde St. Quay and Watersports Centre at the Finnieston Quay, adjacent to the Finnieston Crane, to introduce activity on the water (Fig. 81).

Public Swimming Pool

Accessible Green Bank

Access from Glasgow Green

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5.6

A 21st Century Sustainable River Corridor

The resilience and adaptability of Glasgow to the expected consequences of climate change will play a vital role to ensure the city’s perseverance over the next 100 years. However, there is no strategy in place at the quayside and for adjacent buildings to react to the predicted sea-level rise.

The Clyde does not currently provide suitable conditions for swimming and the river ecosystem is fragile due to the contamination of water. Therefore, it is necessary to explore strategies to allow for natural filtration, such as floating rafts with plants, to ensure that future generations can use the river.

Floating Green Edge

Extended Green Edge

Fig. 85 Floating Green Edge Diagram (Author’s Own, 2019)

Fig. 86 Extended Green Edge Diagram (Author’s Own, 2019)

N

Flood Resilient Spaces

Smart Flooding Strategy

Floating Green Edge

Fig. 88 Proposed Sustainability Strategy (Author’s Own, 2019) 60

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

Fig. 87 Flood Resilient Design Strategy in Løgstør (Denmark), Design Studies 5B (Author’s Own, 2019)

This project aims to implement a smart flooding strategy at the quaysides which will react to the predicted consequences of climate change, improve the conditions to grow and preserve local biodiversity and ensure the resilience of Glasgow over the next 100 years.

•

Maximise and extend the existing green edges along the water to revive the river ecosystem and enable natural filtration so that for future generations and fish will be able to swim in the river (Fig. 85 - 86).

•

Design new quayside buildings, and redevelop existing ones, to incorporate a retreat flooding strategy. By allowing the ground level to become flooded, the developments will be able to maintain their upper-level facilities once the sea levels rise. Future access to be provided by floating and raised platforms (as per Fig. 87).

•

Smart landscape design to provide areas which are transformed by seasonal floods and reveal new qualities and uses for the riverfront. Spaces designed to be of adaptable use in the present and future.

Extended Green Edge

1:7500 SCALE BAR (M) 0

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100

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

5.7

Overview of Possible Projects

The Clyde Riverfront Regeneration Strategy suggests the following projects: A Pedestrian and Cyclist Friendly Promenade •

Reduce the number of vehicular lanes to make room for activity at the quayside, and minimize car dominance;

•

Repair severed pedestrian and cycling routes at Riverview and Mavisbank Gardens, widen the pedestrian lanes adjacent to the Riverfront flats and beneath the King George V and Glasgow bridges.

An Accessible City Centre River •

Public realm improvements to the main streets connecting the city centre and riverfront, particularly to extend Buchanan St. and Stockwell St. to the quayside;

•

New pedestrian bridge underneath the M8 to link north and south quays.

A Vibrant Riverfront •

Redevelop existing buildings to provide active street frontages with commercial facilities at ground level. Design of new riverfront neighbourhood in Broomielaw which engages with the Clyde;

•

Pop-up pavilions in key locations, to introduce all-day all-weather activity at the quayside.

Watersports Centre Gates Removed

N

New Riverfront District

Smart Flooding Strategy

Widened pedestrian lane Pop-up Pavilions

Stepped Promenade

Car Park Removed Repaired broken link

New Pedestrian Bridge

Floating Green Edge

Repaired broken link

Fig. 89 Overview of Possible Projects (Author’s Own, 2019) 62

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY A LIVELY AND CONNECTED RIVERFRONT

A Place to Connect with Water •

Provision of stepped access to water in key locations;

•

Implement a new Water Taxi network operating on the Clyde;

•

New public floating pool at Clyde St. Quay, and Watersports Centre at Finnieston Quay.

A 21st Century Sustainable River Corridor •

Maximize green edges to provide natural filtration of water;

•

New riverfront buildings to incorporate smart flood strategy. Redevelopment of existing buildings to improve their resilience to flooding.

•

Provide smart landscaping which can gradually be transformed as the sea levels rise.

Table 8 Overview of Possible Projects (Author’s Own, 2019)

Key Access Opportunities

Improved Pedestrian Links

Underpass beneath bridges Public Swimming Pool Active Street Frontages

Extended Green Edge

Accessible Green Bank

Cyclist friendly Glasgow Green

Access from Glasgow Green

1:7500 SCALE BAR (M) 0

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CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CONCLUSION

6.0 Conclusion 6.1

Overall Summary of Findings

Introduction

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Problem Statement: Glaswegians consider their riverfront to be “forgotten and inaccessible” but are aware of its regeneration potential.

CHAPTER 2

The riverside areas fell into decline and the effects are visible up to this day due to poor placemaking,

Literature Review Research Methodology Findings & Discussion

Common objectives: (1) Continuous promenade; (2) Accessible city centre river; (3) A vibrant riverfront; (4) A place to connect with water; (5) Sustainable river corridor.

Knowledge gap: Lack of concrete design solutions/examples on how to implement objectives.

CHAPTER 5 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Historic background, contributing factors & site analysis

Strategies in place to inform the Clyde Riverfront Regeneration

Case studies

Case studies of successful waterfronts in Scandinavia validate hypothesis identifies design solutions which could be applied to transform the Clyde Waterfront into a lively and connected city centre attraction.

Test hypothesis: case study of Oslo, Gothenburg and Aarhus

A Lively and Connected Riverfront

Reduce car lanes to provide cyclist and pedestrian lanes, repair severed routes; Public realm improvements in main streets, new pedestrian bridge underneath M8; Activate street frontages of existing buildings, reconfigure quayside to introduce activity; Introduce water taxi, public baths, watersports complex and stepped access to water; Design of new developments with smart flooding strategy, extend green edges.

CHAPTER 6 Conclusion

(1) Discontinuous promenade; (2) Poor links to city centre; (3) No activity at quays; (4) No interaction with water; (5) No sustainability strategy.

Policy Context

Analysis of regional strategic development frameworks concerning the Clyde riverfront.

CHAPTER 4

Research Problem

The Forgotten and Inaccessible Clyde Riverfront

Collapse of the shipbuilding industry in the 1960’s.

CHAPTER 3

Hypothesis: Regeneration strategy to realize the potential of the Clyde’s riverfront as contemporary public space.

Clyde Riverfront Regeneration Strategy

Conclusion

LESSONS FOR WATERFRONT REGENERATION (6.2)

Table 9 Overall Summary of Findings (Author’s Own, 2019)

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Recommendations

CLYDE RIVERFRONT REGENERATION STRATEGY CONCLUSION

6.2

Lessons for Waterfront Regeneration

This study demonstrates possible projects to transform the Clyde riverfront into a lively and connected attraction of the Glasgow city centre, supported by case studies of Scandinavian cities with successful waterfronts. This following conclusions and recommendations are suggested: •

There is no standard formula of success for waterfront regeneration which can be applied to any city. The regeneration strategy for the Clyde riverfront must be contextual to Glasgow’s historic background, contemporary culture and society, and respect the scale and architectural style of existing buildings.

•

In the climatic context of the 21st Century, a successful waterfront regeneration strategy should consider not only the past but also the future. It is necessary to explore possible solutions to mitigate the effects of climatic change, in particular the expected rise in sea levels. This will not only ensure the future generations to be able to enjoy the public spaces along the waterfront, but also secure the future and resilience of the waterfront city.

•

The spaces along the river should be of overlapping characters and provide activities which cater to different types of users throughout the day and year. This will avoid single-use type of areas, further contribute to a low footfall, and the riverfront becoming unsafe and deserted at nightfall.

•

A waterfront regeneration strategy should be intrinsic to any city-wide development rather than a separate independent project. To transform the Clyde riverfront into a connected and lively public space, it is necessary to reconfigure the main streets linking the city centre and quayside, the street frontage of existing buildings and re-use the vacant sites adjacent to the river. Thus, the River Clyde and Glasgow City Centre strategies should consider one another intently.

6.3 •

Recommended Further Research The case study analysis would have benefited for more accurate data on the sustainability approaches, if any, to address the predicted sea-level rise. A more in-depth research on the topic with the appropriate translation of waterfront regeneration documents would inform a more detailed strategy for Glasgow.

•

The case study of Oslo, Gothenburg and Aarhus was informative and relevant to the regeneration of the Clyde riverfront. However, the analysis of other Scandinavian cities with successful waterfronts such as Copenhagen and Stockholm could potentially benefit the discussion and conclusion sections of this research.

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Bibliography Balch, Chris. (2011). Oslo. The Academy of Urbanism [online]. Available from: https://www.academyofurbanism.org.uk/oslo/. [accessed 22 June 2019].

Briers, Carmen. (2013). Oslo Fjord City: Oslo’s Strategic Waterfront Development Project. KU LEUVEN. Cadell, C., Falk, N., King, F. (2008). A study of successful urban regeneration schemes in mainland Europe to draw lessons for the UK. Joseph Rowntree Foundation [online]. Available from: https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/regeneration-european-citiesmaking-connections [accessed 11 June 2019] City of Gothenburg. (2012). RIVERCITY GOTHENBURG VISION [online]. Available from: http://alvstaden.goteborg.se/wpcontent/uploads/2012/12/rivercity_vision_eng_web.pdf [accessed 11 June 2019].

City of Gothenburg. (2019). Our districts. RIVERCITY [online]. Available from: http://alvstaden.goteborg.se/ourdistricts/?lang=en [accessed 19 July 19] Clyde Waterfront. (2014). River Clyde. Clyde Waterfront [online]. Available from: http://www.clydewaterfront.com/clydeheritage/river-clyde [accessed 07 June 2019] Clydeplan. (2017). Strategic Development Plan [online]. Available from: https://www.clydeplan-sdpa.gov.uk/images/ ApprovedPlanHighRes.pdf [accessed 10 May 2019].

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Glasgow City Council. (2018). River Corridor Strategic Development Framework [online]. Available from: https://www. glasgowconsult.co.uk/UploadedFiles/River%20Corridor%20Strategic%20Development%20Framework%20-%20Draft%20 November%202018.pdf [accessed 10 May 2019].

Glasgow City Council. (2018). Glasgow’s Strategic Development Frameworks [online]. Available from: https://www. glasgowconsult.co.uk/UploadedFiles/SDF%20Introductory%20Document.pdf [accessed 10 May 2019].

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Küçükyağcı, Pınar. (2015). Critical Review of Recent Waterfront Regeneration Projects in Istanbul. Gebze Technical University [online]. Available from: https://www.academia.edu/32300921/Critical_Review_of_Recent_Waterfront_ Regeneration_Projects_in_Istanbul [accessed 05 July 2019].

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LINK Landskap. (2013). The Waterfront Promenade at Aker Brygge. LANDZINE [online]. Available from: http://www. landezine.com/index.php/2015/12/the-waterfront-promenade-at-aker-brygge-by-link-landskap/ [accessed 22 June 2019] Moeslund, Jesper. (2009). Impacts of 21st century sea-level rise on a Danish major city – an assessment based on fine resolution digital topography and a new flooding algorithm. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science [online]. Available from: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/8/1/012022/pdf [accessed 17 July 2019] MVRDV & A-S:L. (2018). (Y)OUR BROOMIELAW. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online].

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MVRDV & A-S:L. (2019). (Y)OUR ST ENOCH. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online].

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Figure References Front and Back Cover Image: Overview of Possible Projects Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 1: Lancefield Quay Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 2: Cycling Route Detour Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 3: Dissertation Research Framework Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 4: Scope of Study Map Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 5: 19th Century Broomielaw Quay Washington, George. (1870). Broomielaw. Glasgow History [online]. Available from: https://www.glasgowhistory.com/ broomielaw.html [accessed 24 June 2018].

Figure 6: 21st Century Broomielaw Quay Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 7: Summary of the Historic Background of the Clyde Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 8: City Centre Districts with Broomielaw and St. Enoch Highlighted Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 9: District of Broomielaw at 1:7500 Scale Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 10: Gated Green Space Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 11: Gated Access to Water Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 12: Lancefield Quay Flats Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 13: View Towards the M8 Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 14: Broomielaw Quay Promenade Author’s Own. (2019).

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Figure 15: View towards Brown St. Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 16: Riverview Gardens Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 17: South River Bank Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 18: District of St. Enoch at 1:7500 Scale Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 19: Area Adjacent to Riverboat Casino Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 20: Route Under King George V Bridge Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 21: Space Underneath Rail Bridge Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 22: Gated Docks Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 23: Space Adjacent to Tiger Mural Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 24: Clyde St. Quay Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 25: Approach Towards Victoria Bridge Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 26: Clyde St. Towards Glasgow Green Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 27: River Rooms Concept MVRDV & A-S:L. (2018). River Rooms. (Y)OUR BROOMIELAW. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online]. Available from: https://www.glasgowcitycentrestrategy.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/190116-ASLGCCBroomielaw-DRF.pdf [accessed 04 August 2019].

Figure 28: Haga Park in Stockholm Unknown Author. (2019). Stockholm. Rough Guides [online]. Available from: https://www.roughguides.com/destinations/ europe/sweden/stockholm/ [accessed 19 July 2019].

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Figure 29: Green Cycling Route, Copenhagen Unknown Author. (Unknown Date). Europe’s best Green Active Travel routes highlighted in new case studies. Scottish Green Infrastructure Forum [online]. Available from: http://www.sgif.org.uk/index.php/news-and-events/blog/138-europe-s-bestgreen-active-travel-routes-highlighted-in-new-case studies [accessed 02 August 2019].

Figure 30: Nyhavn, Copenhagen Best of Copenhagen. (Unknown Date). What should you know about Copenhagen?. Best of Copenhagen [online]. Available from: https://www.best-of-copenhagen.com/en/ [accessed 19 July 2019].

Figure 31: Historic Waterfront Houses in Bergen, Norway Gehl, Dominik. (2018). Historic waterfront houses. Trover [online]. Available from: https://www.trover.com/d/1q8Ez-bryggenbergen-norway [accessed 02 August 19].

Figure 32: Waterfront Residential Developments, Copenhagen Emdal, Christian. (2018). A handmade island is floating in Copenhagen’s harbour. The Spaces. Available from: https:// thespaces.com/handmade-island-floating-copenhagens-harbour/ [accessed 02 August 2019].

Figure 33: Market Square, Helsinki Unknown Author. (2009). 10 Things You Have to Do In Helsinki. THE ISSUE. Available from: https://www.theissue.com/ travel/10-things-you-have-to-do-in-helsinki/6 [accessed 02 August 2019].

Figure 34: Finnieston Crane, Glasgow ADF Architects. (2017). ADF float plans for Finnieston Crane pontoon restaurant . Urban Realm [online]. Available from: https://www.urbanrealm.com/news/6628/ADF_float_plans_for_Finnieston_Crane_pontoon_restaurant.html [accessed 08 July 19] Figure 35: Copenhagen Harbour Bath Saxberg, Jacob. (2008). Copenhagen Harbour Bath [online]. Available from: https://www.flickr.com/people/90359200@N00 [accessed 19 July 2019].

Figure 36: Overlapping Character Model Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 37: Glasgow and The Clyde Valley SDP Clydeplan. (2017). Strategic Development Plan [online]. Available from: https://www.clydeplan-sdpa.gov.uk/images/ ApprovedPlanHighRes.pdf [accessed 04 August 2019].

Figure 38: River Corridor 2050 SDF Glasgow City Council. (2018). River Corridor Strategic Development Framework [online]. Available from: https://www. glasgowconsult.co.uk/UploadedFiles/River%20Corridor%20Strategic%20Development%20Framework%20-%20Draft%20 November%202018.pdf [accessed 04 August 2019].

Figure 39: Glasgow City Centre Strategic Development and Action Plan 2014-19 Glasgow City Council. (2014). Getting Ahead of Change. Glasgow City Centre Strategy and Action Plan 2014–19 [online].

Available from: http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=17548 [accessed 10 May 2019].

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Figure 40: (Y)Our Broomielaw SDF MVRDV & A-S:L. (2018). (Y)OUR BROOMIELAW. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online]. Available from: https://www.glasgowcitycentrestrategy.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/190116-ASL-GCCBroomielaw-DRF.pdf [accessed 04 August 2019].

Figure 41: (Y)Our St. Enoch SDF MVRDV & A-S:L. (2019). (Y)OUR BROOMIELAW. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online].Available from: https://glasgow.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=45486&p=0 [accessed 04 August 2019] Figure 42: Opportunities in Broomielaw and St. Enoch Author’s Own. (2019) Figure 43: Case studies Map Author’s Own. (2019) Figure 44: Oslo Opera House Snøhetta Architects. (2019). Oslo Opera House / Snøhetta. Archdaily [online]. Available from: https://www.archdaily. com/440/oslo-opera-house-snohetta [accessed 22 June 2019].

Figure 45: Bjørvika Barcode MVRDV Architects. (2019). [online]. Available from: https://www.mvrdv.nl/projects/124/bj%C3%B8rvika-barcode [accessed 22 June 2019].

Figure 46: Proposed Redevelopment of Bjørvika Oslo Kommune (2018). Fjord City: A waterfront urban renewal project. Nordregio [online]. Available from: https://www. nordregio.org/sustainable_cities/fjordbyen/ [accessed 23 June 2019].

Figure 47: Aker Brygge Majewski, Tomas. (2015). LANDZINE: Landscape Architecture Platform [online]. Available from: http://www.landezine.com/ index.php/2015/12/the-waterfront-promenade-at-aker-brygge-by-link-landskap/ [acessed 23 June 2019].

Figure 48: Stepped Promande of Aker Brygge Majewski, Tomas. (2015). LANDZINE: Landscape Architecture Platform [online]. Available from: http://www.landezine.com/ index.php/2015/12/the-waterfront-promenade-at-aker-brygge-by-link-landskap/ [acessed 24 June 2019].

Figure 49: Vippa Food Market Baklund, Tord. Unkown Date. Vippa Oslo. VisitOslo [online]. Available from: https://www.visitoslo.com/en/ product/?TLp=1235249&Vippa-Oslo [accessed 24 June 2019].

Figure 50: Sørenga Seawater Pool Knudsen, Morten. (2017). Sorenga Seawater Pool. EUmiesaward [online]. Available from: https://miesarch.com/work/3581 [accessed 24 June 2019].

Figure 51: Floating Sauna Unknown Author. (2017). Visit Oslo [online]. Available from: https://www.visitoslo.com/en/articles/saunas-by-the-oslo-fjord/ [accessed 24 June 2019].

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Figure 52: Contemporary Housing in Sørenga Nikel, David. (2017). The New Oslo Waterfront. Life in Norway [online]. Available from: https://www.lifeinnorway.net/the-newoslo-waterfront/ [accessed 24 June 2019].

Figure 53: District of Eriksberg in Norra Älvstranden Unknown Author. (2018). NIMBUSGATAN 4. BJURFORS [online]. Available from: https://www.bjurfors.se/sv/tillsalu/vastragotaland/goteborg/eriksberg2/nimbusgatan-42/ [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 54: Regeneration of Frihamnen City of Gothenburg. 2019. Frihamnen. RiverCity Gothenburg [online]. Available from: http://alvstaden.goteborg.se/ourdistricts/frihamnen/?lang=en [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 55: Norra Älvstranden Promenade Unknown Author. (2012). annarkia.se [online]. Available from: https://annarkia.se/vastkusten/norra-alvstranden-i-goteborgbilder.htm [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 56: Lindholmen Pedestrian Bridge Unknown Author. (2019). Lindholmen Meetings. Lindholmen Science Park [online]. Available from: https://www.lindholmen. se/en/networking/lindholmen-meetings [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 57: Stepped Promenade Adjacent to Fish Market City of Gothenburg. (2019). Feskekôrka stänger på obestämd tid. Gothenburg Direkt [online]. Available from: https://www. goteborgdirekt.se/_internal/cimg!0/opj5qhhbxi8acq8gxctfvz901aqhabz [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 58: Proposed New Activity at Quayside City of Gothenbug. (2012). RiverCity Gothenburg Vision [online]. Available from: http://alvstaden.goteborg.se/wp-content/ uploads/2012/12/rivercity_vision_eng_web.pdf [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 59: Henning Larsen’s Masterplan for Lindholmen Henning Larsen Architects. (2017). Gothenburg to Realise Henning Larsen’s Mixed-Use Urban District. Archdaily [online].

Available from: https://www.archdaily.com/871963/gothenburg-to-realise-henning-larsens-mixed-use-urban-district [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 60: Flooding Retreat Strategy City of Gothenbug. (2012). RiverCity Gothenburg Vision [online]. Available from: http://alvstaden.goteborg.se/wp-content/ uploads/2012/12/rivercity_vision_eng_web.pdf [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 61: Aarhus Docklands SDFE Skråfoto. (2017). Danish Portal of Aerial Photographs [online]. Available from: https://skraafoto.kortforsyningen.dk/ oblivisionjsoff/index.aspx?project=Denmark&lon=10.2027929&lat=56.1277927 [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 62: Aarhus River Promenade Unkown Author. (2019). Åboulevarden 23, 8000 Aarhus C. Ejendoms Torvet [online]. Available from: https://www. ejendomstorvet.dk/ledigelokaler/leje/oestjylland/aarhus/kontor/244668 [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 63: Bernhardt Jensens Boulevard Unknown Author. (2012). Bernhardt Jensens Boulevard. .Kortegaard Plant Catalogue [online]. Available from: http://www. kortegaard.dk/referencer/jylland.aspx [accessed 15 July 2019].

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Figure 64: Aarhus Bay SDFE Skråfoto. (2017). Danish Portal of Aerial Photographs [online]. Available from: https://skraafoto.kortforsyningen.dk/ oblivisionjsoff/index.aspx?project=Denmark&lon=10.2027929&lat=56.1277927 [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 65: Åboulevarden Promenade Hallett, R. (2018). A weekend in Aarhus: discovering Denmark’s second city. love EXPLORING [online]. Available from: https://www.loveexploring.com/news/80041/a-weekend-in-aarhus-discovering-denmarks-second-city [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 66: Pop-Up Spaces at Aarhus Ø Author’s Own. (2018).

Figure 67: Aarhus Ø Public Baths & Watersports Complex BIG Architects. (2018). Aarhus Harbor Bath by BIG: A Floating Seawater Structure for Swimmers. Web Urbanist [online].

Available from: https://weburbanist.com/2018/07/06/aarhus-harbor-bath-by-big-a-floating-seawater-structure-forswimmers/ [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 68: Navitas Harbour Front Landskab, M. (2017). Navitas Harbour Front. LANDZINE [online]. Available from:http://www.landezine.com/index. php/2017/10/navitas-harbour-front-by-marianne-levinsen-landskab/ [accessed 15 July 2019].

Figure 69: Current Broomielaw Quay MVRDV & A-S:L. (2018). (Y)OUR BROOMIELAW. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online].

Available from: https://www.glasgowcitycentrestrategy.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/190116-ASL-GCCBroomielaw-DRF.pdf [accessed 09 August 2019].

Figure 70: Model for Reconfiguration of Vehicle Lanes MVRDV & A-S:L. (2018). (Y)OUR BROOMIELAW. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online].

Available from: https://www.glasgowcitycentrestrategy.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/190116-ASL-GCCBroomielaw-DRF.pdf [accessed 09 August 2019].

Figure 71: Proposed Continuous Pedestrian and Cycling Lanes Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 72: Access to Riverfront via Buchanan St. Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 73: Public Realm in Aker Brygge, Oslo Saiko. (2017). Aker Brygge in Oslo. Dreamstime [online]. Available from: https://www.dreamstime.com/oslo-norway-julypedestrian-promenade-aker-brygge-waterfront-popular-area-shopping-dining-entertainment-image106794262 [accessed 09 August 2019].

Figure 74: Model for Public Realm Improvements MVRDV & A-S:L. (2018). (Y)OUR BROOMIELAW. Glasgow City Centre District Regeneration Frameworks [online].

Available from: https://www.glasgowcitycentrestrategy.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/190116-ASL-GCCBroomielaw-DRF.pdf [accessed 09 August 2019].

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Figure 75: Proposed Improved Links to Riverfront Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 76: Lack of Activity at Clyde St. Quayside Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 77: Dome of Visions, Aarhus Nyeste Fra. (2018). RETHINK7. Dome of Visions [online]. Available from: http://domeofvisions.dk/rethink-camp/rethink7/ [accessed 09 August 2019].

Figure 78: Current Anderston Quay Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 79: Possible Activity at Anderston Quay Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 80: Proposed Reconfiguration of Quayside to Insert Activity Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 81: Proposed Watersports Centre at Finnieston Quay Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 82: Water Taxi on the Clyde, Design Studies 4B Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 83: Water Taxi Station in Glasgow, Design Studies 4B Author’s Own. (2018).

Figure 84: Proposed Activities on the Clyde Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 85: Floating Green Edge Diagram Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 86: Extended Green Edge Diagram Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 87: Flood Resilient Design Strategy in Løgstør (Denmark), Design Studies 5B Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 88: Proposed Sustainability Strategy Author’s Own. (2019).

Figure 89: Overview of Possible Projects Author’s Own. (2019).

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Table References Table 1: Dissertation Structure Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 2: CDP Objectives, Significance on a Regional Level and Significance for the Clyde Riverfront Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 3: Opportunities for St. Enoch and Broomielaw Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 4: Overview of Opportunities Which Align With the River Clyde SFD Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 5: Issues Affecting the Riverfront and Potential Regeneration Strategy Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 6: Summary of Case Studies Findings Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 7: Potential Projects for the Clyde Riverfront Regeneration Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 8: Overview of Possible Projects Author’s Own. (2019).

Table 9: Overall Summary of Findings Author’s Own. (2019).

75

Watersports Centre

Widened pedestrian lane

Improved Pedestrian Links

New Riverfront District

Smart Flooding Strategy

Stepped Promenade Gates Removed

Repaired broken link Floating Green Edge New Pedestrian Bridge Repaired broken link

MArch Architectural Design (International) 22900 Dissertation

August 2019

Car Park Removed