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Structural Engineering Documents

13 Use of Timber in Tall Multi-Storey Buildings

International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE)

Structural Engineering Documents About the Authors:

Objective:

Dr. Ian Smith is Lifetime Professor Emeritus of Structural Engineering at the University of New Brunswick in Canada, where he leads a research group in hybrid construction. He holds Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Science Degrees from London South Bank University in the United Kingdom.

To provide in-depth information to practicing stuctural engineers in reports of high scientific and technical standards on a wide range of structural engineering topics.

SED Editorial Board: J. Sobrino, Spain (Chair); H. Subbarao, India (Vice Chair); M. Bakhoum, Egypt; C. Bob, Romania; M. Braestrup, Denmark; M.G. Bruschi, USA; R. Geier, Austria; N.P. Hoej, Switzerland; S. Kite, Hong Kong; D. Laefer, Ireland; R. Mor, Israel; H.H. (Bert) Snijder, The Netherlands; R. von Woelfel, Germany.

Topics:

Dr. Andrea Frangi is Professor for Structural Engineering at the Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering at ETH Zurich, where he leads the research group of Timber Structures. He received his diploma in civil engineering and his doctoral degree from ETH Zurich.

The International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE) operates on a worldwide basis, with interests of all type of structures, in all materials. Its members represent structural engineers, employed in design, academe, construction, regulation and renewal. IABSE organises conferences and publishes the quarterly journal Structural Engineering International (SEI), as well as reports and monographs, including the SED series, and presents annual awards for achievements in structural engineering. With a membership of some 4,000 individuals in more than 100 countries, IABSE is the international organisation for structural engineering.

Readership: Practicing structural engineers, teachers, researchers and students at a university level, as well as representatives of owners, operators and builders.

Publisher:

With Contributions From: G.C. Foliente, R.H. Leicester, S. Gagnon, M.A.H. Mohammad, C. Ni, M. Popovski, A. Asiz, A. Ceccotti, A. Polastri, S. Rivest, B. Kasal, D. Kruse, E. Serrano, J. Vessby, J. Bonomo, H. Professner.

The International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE) was founded as a non-profit scientific association in 1929. Today it has more than 3900 members in over 90 countries. IABSE’s mission is to promote the exchange of knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering worldwide. IABSE organizes conferences and publishes the quarterly journal Structural Engineering International, as well as conference reports and other monographs, including the SED series. IABSE also presents annual awards for achievements in structural engineering.

For further Information: IABSE c/o ETH Zürich CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland Phone: Int. + 41-44-633 2647 Fax: Int. + 41-44-633 1241 E-mail: secretariat@iabse.org Web: www.iabse.org

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Structural Engineering Documents

13 Use of Timber in Tall Multi-Storey Buildings

International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE)

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Copyright © 2014 by International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN 978-3-85748-133-8 Publisher: IABSE c/o ETH Zürich CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland Phone: Fax: E-mail: Web:

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Int. + 41-44-633 2647 Int. + 41-44-633 1241 secretariat@iabse.org www.iabse.org

07/05/14 11:44 AM

Table of Contents

Introduction

1.1 1.2 1.3

1 5 6

Structural Design Issues 2.1 2.2

2.3 2.4 2.5

2.6 2.7

Historical use of timber for construction Modern renaissance of timber as a construction material Other chapters

Introduction Design practices and assumptions 2.2.1 Load combinations, load factors, and resistance factors 2.2.2 Achieving an elastic response and allowance of damage 2.2.2.1 Factors to consider 2.2.2.2 Recommended design practices 2.2.3 Analysis methods Effect of superstructure shape and height Importance of horizontal diaphragms Acceptable risk levels and avoidance of disproportionate damage 2.5.1 Risk 2.5.2 Mitigating damage potential Podium and other constructed systems with articulated dynamic responses Additional comments

9 11 12 13 13 15 18 18 20 21 21 21 23 24

Fire Design Concepts

3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6.

25 26 27 28 30 36 38 38 39 40 40

Introduction Fire action Fire safety objectives and strategy Fire resistance of structural timber elements Design model for the veriďŹ cation of the separating function Fire design concept for tall timber buildings 3.6.1 Main differences between mid-rise and tall buildings with regard to ďŹ re safety 3.6.2 Is it still possible to design a tall building using timber as structural material? 3.7. Example of tall building project 3.8. Experimental studies 3.8.1 Fire performance of timber structures under natural ďŹ re conditions

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3.8.2 Results of sprinklered ﬁre tests 3.8.3 Results of non-sprinklered ﬁre tests 3.9. Additional comments

41 41 44

Durability Design Concepts

4.1 4.2 4.3

45 46 48 48 48 50 50 51 51 52 52 53 53 54 55 56

4.4

4.5

4.6

Timber Frameworks with Rigid Diaphragms: Special Considerations

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

57 58 61 64 69 69

6.4 6.5

Introduction Massive timber diaphragms for composite hybrid systems Twenty-four-storey case studies 6.3.1 Scope and methods 6.3.2 Case study results 6.3.2.1 Structural steel framework systems 6.3.2.2 RC framework systems General implications of using CLT slabs Additional comments Acknowledgements

71 71 72 72 72 76 76 78 81 82 83

Platform Construction Using Timber Plates: Special Considerations

7.1 7.2

85 86 86 87 88 89 92

7.3 7.4 7.5

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Introduction Useful lessons from low-rise timber construction (circa less than 20 m tall) Modern renaissance tall timber frame systems (circa 20–80 m tall) Effective connection methods Additional comments Acknowledgements

Steel or Reinforced Concrete Frameworks with Timber Diaphragms: Special Considerations 6.1 6.2 6.3

Introduction State-of-the-art Attack mechanisms 4.3.1 Mould 4.3.2 Decay 4.3.3 Termites 4.3.4 Corrosion Design strategies 4.4.1 Non-structural elements 4.4.2 Non-critical structural elements 4.4.3 Critical structural elements Calculation of engineered service life 4.5.1 Australian approach 4.5.2 Example calculation Additional comments Acknowledgements

Introduction CLT as structural material 7.2.1 General characteristics 7.2.2 Typical design properties Platform construction concept Connection methods Structural analysis and design

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7.5.1

7.6

7.7

92 92 92 94 95 97 98 100 100 100 101 106 107

Example Project 1: Six-Storey Hybrid Building in Quebec City, Canada

109

8.1 8.2

109 110 110 112 114 116 116 117 118 119 120 120 121 122 123

8.3

8.4 8.5

8.6

General aspects 7.5.1.1 Basis of analysis and design 7.5.1.2 Load paths and robustness 7.5.1.3 Design of ﬂoors 7.5.1.4 Design of walls 7.5.1.5 Design of connections 7.5.2 Expected performance during seismic events 7.5.3 Design manuals Example of seismic design practices 7.6.1 Background 7.6.2 Seven-storey case study Additional comments Acknowledgements

Background Superstructure system 8.2.1 Description and construction 8.2.2 Glulam framework and diaphragms 8.2.3 Timber connection methods Structural Design 8.3.1 General aspects 8.3.2 Project speciﬁc considerations 8.3.3 Analysis method and design results Fire design Measurement of the building response 8.5.1 Differential movements 8.5.2 Vibration response Additional comments Acknowledgements

Example Project 2: Fire Design of a Seven-Storey Hybrid Building in Berlin, Germany 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

9.5

Background Description of the building superstructure Fire compartmentalization of the building Detailed aspects of the design 9.4.1 Floor slabs 9.4.2 Critical element junctions 9.4.3 Gravity load system 9.4.4 Cavity ﬁres and transmission of hot gases Additional comments Acknowledgements

10 Example Project 3: Limnologen—Block of Four Eight-Storey Residential Buildings in Växjö, Sweden 10.1 Background 10.2 Architectural design 10.3 Structural design 10.3.1 Wall elements 10.3.2 Floor elements

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125 125 125 127 129 129 131 132 133 133 134

135 135 136 137 137 138

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10.3.3 Lateral load design 10.4 Fire design 10.5 Acoustical design 10.6 Protection of elements and construction of buildings 10.6.1 Moisture and weather protection 10.6.2 Construction of buildings 10.7 Research studies 10.7.1 Measurements of vertical settlement 10.7.2 Time study on installation of load-bearing elements 10.8 Additional comments Acknowledgements

11 Example Project 4: BjĂśrkbacken, a 10-storey hybrid building in Stockholm, Sweden 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7

Background Superstructure concept Fire compartmentalization Vertical load resisting system Lateral load resisting system Construction of building Additional comments Acknowledgements

12 Looking to the Future 12.1 Likely limits on heights of multi-storey superstructure systems 12.1.1 Lightweight timber plate assemblies 12.1.2 Massive timber plate assemblies 12.1.3 Heavyweight timber-framed assemblies 12.1.4 Hybrid/composite assemblies 12.2 Example of proposed systems: LifeCycle Tower concept 12.3 Refocusing design codes 12.3.1 General requirements 12.3.2 Timber structural design 12.3.3 Timber ďŹ re design 12.4 Final comments Acknowledgements

13 References

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139 139 140 140 140 140 142 143 145 146 146

147 147 148 150 150 151 151 153 153

155 155 156 158 159 161 163 167 167 168 169 169 169

171

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Preface

Much has been written in the last few decades about the relative merits of alternative materials for building construction. As part of such efforts, this Structural Engineering Document (SED) provides guidance to engineers on how to properly design multi-storey buildings that incorporate timber and timber-based products as superstructure elements. The scope encompasses traditional systems for buildings up to 10 storeys made from conventional timber products and innovative systems that employ modern timber-based composites, as well as emerging possibilities for using timber elements in very tall buildings. Poor building performance is usually accompanied by a failure to integrate design across all aspects of a project; or a failure to link design concepts with the realities of local construction and maintenance practices. For example, if timber elements are not properly protected from wetting (i.e. more than occasionally wetted at rates that exceed ambient drying rates), they are unlikely to be durable. However, if they are protected adequately, timber elements are likely to retain their initial properties for centuries. This document emphasises attainment of Total Performance Goals on a cradle to grave basis, taking account of structural and non-structural considerations. In the contemporary parlance, structural design decisions must support attainment of Total Performance Goals from cradle to grave. Even though the lifespan of most buildings are indeterminate at the time of their conception, their design and construction must address issues like capability of the fabric to retain integrity up to and beyond the likely lifespan and eventual dismantling. The intended audience for this SED is structural engineering practitioners, construction professionals, academic researchers, code drafting bodies, and students. However it is hoped that there will be ancillary audiences amongst architects, property developers, town planners, and governmental policy makers. Ian Smith Andrea Frangi

1 Chapter

1 Introduction

Summary: Since the dawn of civilization, timber has been a primary material for achieving great structural engineering feats. Yet during the late 19th century and most of the 20th century it lost currency as a preferred material for construction of large and tall multi-storey building superstructures. This Structural Engineering Document (SED) addresses a reawakening of interest in timber and timber-based products as primary construction materials for relatively tall, multi-storey buildings. Emphasis throughout is on the holistic addressing of various issues related to performance-based design of completed systems, reﬂecting that major gaps in knowhow relate to design concepts rather than technical information about timber as a material. Special consideration is given to structural form, ﬁre vulnerability, and durability aspects for attaining desired building performance over lifespans that can be centuries long. This chapter discusses the historical use of timber as a high-performance construction material and lays the groundwork for detailed discussion of modern practices and possibilities in other chapters.

1.1

Historical use of timber for construction

Evidence has been found that in Neolithic China the pre-human species “Peking Man” constructed “nest residences” from branches and thatch. Earth was compacted around thick timber struts, and it is speculated that this was to prevent them from catching fire [1]. Although the practices were crude, this arguably means that timber engineering (structural use of timber) and fire engineering (control of fire risk) were born between 300 000 and 1 million years ago and predate humans. Similarly, carpentry skills that are the basis of modern ability to interconnect timber members have ancient origins. Stone Age people created load-bearing building systems that interconnected timbers using mortise-and-tenon joints that are the direct forerunner of traditional Chinese architecture [1]. From antiquity onwards, urban utilization of construction materials has been shaped by their fire performance when assembled into buildings. City-wide or district-wide conflagrations were the impetus for prescriptive building regulations that date back to the Roman Empire [2]. More modern catastrophes like The Great Fire of London in 1666 and The Boston Fire in 1872 have reinforced fear of urban fires, and many specific building code restrictions created between 17th and 19th centuries are recognizably alive today in some jurisdictions (e.g. not allowing timber buildings to have more than four storeys above ground). Historical building regulations

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

and material prohibitions were enactments to mitigate the extent of destruction that could be wrought by invading enemies, as well as safeguards against disproportional consequences of accidental events. Modern knowledge in fire-proofing (as well as modern firefighting techniques) precludes the likelihood of the uncontrollable fires of previous millennia. However, until the latter part of the 20th century societies have been slow to adapt to changes in fire technologies and threat levels, but now that they have adapted, a new era in timber construction has commenced. During the last 50 years, fire performance and safety of buildings has become the subject of systematic study, and fire engineering has developed as a science that can be applied robustly in practice. Contemporaneously, fire detection and suppression methods have been developed to an extent where it is no longer necessary to simply contain localized fires within non-combustible compartments long enough for building evacuation or arrival of the firefighters. Technical measures available today can detect and extinguish fires quickly using a wide range of devices. In practical terms, modern fire engineering and available technical measures result in mitigation of fire damage to the extent that large buildings can be easily repaired after fires, and minimise the possibility of fire spreading from one building to another. Building codes and governmental authorities are starting to retreat from blanket prohibitions of timber materials for certain uses. Additionally, prescriptive building regulations have been replaced by explicit Building Performance Outcome (BPO) requirements (e.g. in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and Switzerland). BPO codes recognise that satisfactory fire performance can be achieved in circumstance-specific ways, and that previous “one size fits all needs” approaches are not necessarily ideal. Such codes embody principles, objectives, and quantitative performance-related technical limitations that are independent of the construction materials employed. In Canada for instance, there is now no material-specific limitation on building heights as long as a building’s design meets required objectives in accordance with applicable regulations. Although the BPO approach extends beyond fire aspects of building design, it has so far been the most effective mechanism to overcome outdated and overly restrictive codes and practices related to timber. Despite nature designing trees to decompose once they are dead, structures like the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda in China and the Gümmenen Bridge in Switzerland demonstrate that decomposition can be delayed indefinitely, if structures are appropriately designed, constructed, and maintained (Fig. 1.1). One of the most prestigious examples of this is the pagoda of the Horyuji Buddhist temple in Japan, arguably the world’s oldest timber building. One of its Japanese cypress posts is thought to have been felled in 594 AD, thus that structure might actually be around 1400 years old. Its longevity reflects that if timbers are cut and dried soon after trees are felled and then kept dry in service, they are unlikely to experience extensive damage from biological attacks by decay fungi or other destructive agents (Chapter 4). Ancient timber buildings owe their longevity to people who constructed them understanding the characteristics of timber and employing system level design concepts that protected the primary structural elements from durability threats. Similarly, if longevity is a goal of modern design then timber should be shielded from direct or indirect wetting, especially if the timber is a portion of a critical structural load path. Simple measures like large roof overhangs, draining water away from foundations, and providing barriers to capillary wetting are highly effective [2,3]. In relatively modern times it has been a practice in some countries to treat exposed timbers using creosote or synthetic chemicals. However, although durability is improved by introducing these toxic materials, the serviceable lifetimes of wetted timbers remain finite. Furthermore, the

1.1 HISTORICAL USE OF TIMBER FOR CONSTRUCTION

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 1.1: Durable historical timber structures: (a) Yingxian Wooden Pagoda (courtesy of Dr. Lin’an Wang, China National Institute of Cultural Property) From Lam & He SEI 2, 2009; (b & c) Gümmenen bridge over the river Saane close to Mühlenberg, Switzerland (length about 100 m, built in 1555 and still used) leaching of these chemicals from timbers can poison groundwater. Consequently this approach is being increasingly banned. The philosophy espoused in this SED is that engineers should not use timber for structural purposes if it cannot be kept dry. The meaning of dry can be ambiguous. As used here the meaning corresponds to Service Class 1 of Eurocode 5 or similar definitions, i.e. “... characterized by a moisture content in the material corresponding to a temperature of 20°C and the relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeding 65 percent for a few weeks per year” [4]. As discussed in detail in Chapter 4, there can be valid durability design reasons for inoculating structural timbers with low dosages of synthetic preservatives, with combating termite attacks being the most common one. In the 1940s Howard Hughes and his engineers designed, constructed, and flew the H-4 Hercules single hull flying boat constructed from laminated birch. The erroneously named “Spruce Goose” was designed to carry 750 troops, is 24.18 m high, 66.65 m long, and has a wingspan of 97.54 m [5], making it approximately the same size as the Airbus A380 (the world’s largest airliner at the beginning of the 21st century). That the H-4 Hercules could fly and resist enormous internal force flows generated during takeoff and landing is irrefutable. Furthermore, aeroplanes were not the first large high-performance timber structures. More than 5000 years before around 3500 BC enormous timber sailing ships were common sights in Egypt and Mesopotamia [2]. The most famous was the three-mast Syrakosia of Alexandria, thought to have been about 70 m

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Year of construction

Name and location

Number of storeys

1934 (destroyed 1945)

Muhlacker Radio Tower, Germany

N/A

190

1935

Gliwice Radio Tower, Poland

N/A

118

2003

Sa˘pânt¸a-Peri Church, Romania

N/A

1056

Sakyamuni Pagoda, Yingzian, China

1720 (moved 1802)

Bârsana Monastery, Romania

N/A

1942–1943

Tillamook Hanger, OR, USA

N/A

58.5

1942–1943

Hangers 2&3, Mofﬁt Field, CA, USA

N/A

1906

Claremont Hotel, Oakland, CA, USA (Tower)

10 + Cupola

1709

Daibutsu-den, Todaiji Temple, Japan

N/A

48.6

1992 (demolished 2008) Sutyagin House, Russia

1890

N/A

43.5

1893 St. Paulus Church, San Francisco, USA N/A (destroyed by ﬁre 1995)

43.5

1921

Lattice frame industrial building, Cardona, Spain

N/A

32.4

2008

Stadthaus, London, UK

Started 1992

Tennessee Tree House, USA

29.5

St. Georges Anglican Catholic Church, Guyana

Total height (m)

Table 1.1: Tallest man-made timber structures long, which was commissioned by the tyrant Hieron and superintended and launched by the mathematician Archimedes [6]. There are also many examples of historic wood structures that towered over the landscape. Built in 1056, China’s 67.13 m tall Sakyamuni Pagoda was the world’s tallest building for several centuries and has withstood many earthquakes [7]. Currently the tallest timber structure is the 118 m high Gliwice Radio Tower in Poland that was constructed in 1935 (Fig. 1.2). Table 1.1 summarises the tallest known historical and large man-made timber structures. For further information, Langenbach [8] provides additional details of many of the listed structures, and Foliente [9] provides an engineering overview of the historical development of human use of timber as a construction material. In summary, timber is a material that can be used highly effectively to create large and tall structural systems capable of withstanding intense external actions. However, as with any other structural material, good performance is intrinsic to the skill of the designers and builders and not only an attribute of the material itself. Timber buildings that are well designed and properly maintained, on the basis of educated know-how, typically exhibit exemplary performance under normal and abnormal circumstances associated with human usage and natural events.

1.2 MODERN RENAISSANCE OF TIMBER AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL

1.2

Modern renaissance of timber as a construction material

Although humanity has a long and rich history of using timber as a construction material, little of this was seen in the 20th century when usage was mostly restricted to low-rise construction. This reflected 19th century bans on the use of timber buildings of more than a few storeys (e.g. maximum of two storeys in Switzerland, maximum of four storeys in most of North America) as reaction to a rash of large urban fires. However, fire performance concerns were not the only factors in the declining use of timber as a preferred structural engineering material. In the early years of the 20th century the rise of architectural modernism, the wide availability of structural steels, the rapid development of reinforced concrete technologies, and the urbanisation of populations following the Second World War, especially in the USA, were all strong drivers in the diminution of the role of timber as a tall building construction material. One result of the changed preferences was that during the 20th century the technological underpinnings necessary for architectural and engineering design in timber and the practical skills for construction of other than low-rise timber buildings, fell largely into obscurity. This included widespread loss of timber instructions in training curriculums for architects, structural engineers, and construction personnel in countries that formerly Fig. 1.2: World’s tallest timber structure: had strong backgrounds in the subject matter. Gliwice Radio Tower, Poland (courtesy of Also, with the exception of glued laminated Andrzej Jarczewski) timber (glulam) products, during the middle of the 20th century structural design codes did not place a strong emphasis on high-performance structural applications of timber. Particularly important in this context was that first generation of what is thought to be modern timber design codes (created circa 1940–1950) were strongly oriented towards the design of lightweight framework superstructures constructed from small dimension lumber framing materials and sawn lumber boards. In some countries that still remains the orientation of such documents, which strongly emphasize the design properties for lightweight timber products (e.g. sawn lumber, plywood, and oriented strand board) and the design practices for joining such materials.

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Despite broad loss of interest during the 20th century in using timber as a fully fledged structural material, the know-how necessary to use it did not die. This was largely because of the dedicated efforts of a cadre of aficionados who collectively maintained existing knowledge and further developed it in readiness for a reawakening of broader interest in timber as a construction material for large and tall building superstructures. Instrumental in this context have been expert panels like Working Commission W18 – Timber Structures who operate under the umbrella of the International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction; and the IABSE Working Commission 2 – Steel, Timber and Composite Structures. Their efforts were not in vain, and during the last three decades there has been renewed technical interest in timber by researchers and practitioners around the world. Consequently, new ideas have emerged for design and construction of timber structures in ways consistent with modern needs and practices. Recent renewed interest in timber coincides with an almost total reversal of the factors that led to suppression of interest in it approximately one century earlier. As already indicated, modern BPO-based codes, circa 1990 onwards, permit timber usage in relatively tall multi-storey buildings provided it can be demonstrated that fire performance objectives will be met by design solutions. In addition, the availability of new high-performance timber-based composites (e.g. Laminated Strand Lumber), innovative building element manufacturing technologies (e.g. Computer Numerical Controlled cutting machines), novel architectural styles and vernaculars; and the search for “greener” construction methods have fuelled a renewal of interest in timber. In response, timber design codes in various parts of the world have begun to be reoriented towards provision of generalized structural engineering information, instead of only focussing on information appropriate for low-rise building applications [4,10]. Currently educational and professional training mechanisms related to modern applications of timber in construction are not at a level comparable with what exists in relation to materials like structural steel and concrete, but significant initiatives addressing this are underway in Austria, Canada, China, France, Germany, Italy, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and elsewhere.

1.3

Other chapters

This SED is timely and appropriate for above mentioned reasons. Whether the 21st century will see full awakening of timber as a structural material for construction of tall multi-storey buildings will depend largely on whether new building systems are developed in harmony with evolved needs of societies in various nation states. Transitioning from what has been done to what can be done requires creation of design and construction techniques that result in buildings that can accommodate modern lifestyles, are healthy to occupy, are green to construct and operate, are durable, and are economic to construct. Some already well developed and efficient traditional timber construction methods will surely continue to be used, but those already in common usage may not address future challenges. Principally what are required are the following: (1) engineered systems that fill existing or emerging construction niches and (2) dissemination of design and construction knowledge to practicing professionals. Other chapters of this document are intended to contribute towards fulfilling those requirements. The remainder of this SED is arranged to present information in four blocks: •

General engineering concepts related to structural, ﬁre, and durability design of large and tall building superstructures (Chapters 2–4).

1.3 OTHER CHAPTERS

•

• •

System-speciﬁc concepts applicable to engineering design of building superstructures, with an emphasis on those systems most likely to be applied in the construction of mid-rise and high-rise superstructures (Chapters 5–7). Examples of modern applications of timber in the construction of mid-rise and high-rise superstructures (Chapters 8–11). Thoughts on future possibilities, with an emphasis on hybrid construction systems where timber structural and non-structural elements are used in combination with elements made from other materials (Chapter 12).

Throughout this document, there is an emphasis placed on international practices, as well as an intentional avoidance of proprietary interests related to marketing of speciﬁc construction products.

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References

[1] [2] [3] [4]

[5] [6]

[7] [8] [9]

[10] [11] [12]

[13]

Fux, X., Guo, D., Liu, X., Pan, G., Qian, Y., Sun, D. 2002. Chinese Architecture. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, USA. Smith, I., Snow, M. 2008. Timber: an ancient construction material with a bright future. Forest Chron., 84(4): 504–510. Hu, S. 1991. The earthquake resistant-resistant properties of Chinese traditional construction. Earthquake Spect., 7(3): 355–389. European Committee for Standardisation (CEN). 2004. Eurocode 5—Design of Timber Structures, Part 1-1: General—Common Rules and Rules for Buildings. EN 1995-1-1:2004, CEN, Brussels, Belgium. Yenne, B. 2003. Seaplanes and Flying Boats: A Timeless Collection from Aviation’s Golden Age. BCL Press, New York, NY, USA. Rihll, T.E. 2007. The Syrakosia or Alexandris, Department of Classics and Ancient History. University of Swansea, UK, http://www.swan.ac.uk/grst/What’s%20what%20 Things/Syrakosia.htm. Lam, F., He, M. 2008. Example of traditional tall timber buildings in China – The Yingxian Pagod. Struct. Eng. Int., 18(2): 126–129. Langenbach, R. 2008. Building tall with timber: a paean to wood construction. Struct. Eng. Int., 18(2): 130–132. Foliente, G.C. 2000. History of timber construction. In: Wood Structures; An East-West Forum on the Treatment, Conservation, and Repair of Cultural Heritage. Kelley, S.J., Loferski, J.R., Salenlikovich, A.J., Stern, E.G. (eds.), ASTM STP 1351, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 3–22. Canadian Standards Association (CSA). 2009. Engineering Design in Wood. CSA Standard 086-09, CSA, Toronto, Canada. Smith, I., Landis, E., Gong, M. 2003. Fracture and Fatigue in Wood. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, England. Smith, I. 1999. Joints in timber structures: state-of-the-art knowledge in North America. COST C1 Int. Conf. Control Semi-rigid Behaviour Civil Eng. Struct. Connections. Liège, Belgium, September 17–19, 1998, Ofﬁce Publications European Communities, Luxembourg, 255–264. Foliente, G.C. 1998. Design of timber structures subjected to extreme loads. Prog. Struct. Eng. Mater., 1(3): 236–244.

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Structural Engineering Documents

13 Use of Timber in Tall Multi-Storey Buildings

Structural Engineering Documents

Since the dawn of civilization, timber has been a primary material for achieving great structural engineering feats. Yet during the late 19th century and most of the 20th century it lost currency as a preferred material for construction of large and tall multi-storey building superstructures. This Structural Engineering Document (SED) addresses a reawakening of interest in timber and timber-based products as primary construction materials for relatively tall, multi-storey buildings. Emphasis throughout is on holistically addressing various aspects of performance of complete systems, reflecting that major gaps in knowhow relate to design concepts rather than technical information about timber as a material. Special consideration is given to structural form, fire vulnerability, and durability aspects for attaining desired building performance over lifespans that can be centuries long.

Use of Timber in Tall Multi-Storey Buildings

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