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PROCEEDINGS

ICCTER - 2014 2ND INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH

Sponsored By INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Technical Program 22 September, 2014 Hotel NRS SAKITHYAN, Chennai

Organized By INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

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Copyright ÂŠ 2014 by IAETSD All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the publisher.

ISBN: 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

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Proceedings preparation, editing and printing are sponsored by INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT COMPANY

About IAETSD: The International Association of Engineering and Technology for Skill Development (IAETSD) is a Professional and non-profit conference organizing company devoted to promoting social, economic, and technical advancements around the world by conducting international academic conferences in various Engineering fields around the world. IAETSD organizes multidisciplinary conferences for academics and professionals in the fields of Engineering. In order to strengthen the skill development of the students IAETSD has established. IAETSD is a meeting place where Engineering students can share their views, ideas, can improve their technical knowledge, can develop their skills and for presenting and discussing recent trends in advanced technologies, new educational environments and innovative technology learning ideas. The intention of IAETSD is to expand the knowledge beyond the boundaries by joining the hands with students, researchers, academics and industrialists etc, to explore the technical knowledge all over the world, to publish proceedings. IAETSD offers opportunities to learning professionals for the exploration of problems from many disciplines of various Engineering fields to discover innovative solutions to implement innovative ideas. IAETSD aimed to promote upcoming trends in Engineering.

About ICCTER: The aim objective of ICCTER is to present the latest research and results of scientists related to all engineering departmentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; topics. This conference provides opportunities for the different areas delegates to exchange new ideas and application experiences face to face, to establish business or research relations and to find global partners for future collaboration. We hope that the conference results constituted significant contribution to the knowledge in these up to date scientific field. The organizing committee of conference is pleased to invite prospective authors to submit their original manuscripts to ICCTER 2014. All full paper submissions will be peer reviewed and evaluated based on originality, technical and/or research content/depth, correctness, relevance to conference, contributions, and readability. The conference will be held every year to make it an ideal platform for people to share views and experiences in current trending technologies in the related areas.

Conference Advisory Committee:

Dr. P Paramasivam, NUS, Singapore Dr. Ganapathy Kumar, Nanometrics, USA Mr. Vikram Subramanian, Oracle Public cloud Dr. Michal Wozniak, Wroclaw University of Technology, Dr. Saqib Saeed, Bahria University, Mr. Elamurugan Vaiyapuri, tarkaSys, California Mr. N M Bhaskar, Micron Asia, Singapore Dr. Mohammed Yeasin, University of Memphis Dr. Ahmed Zohaa, Brunel university Kenneth Sundarraj, University of Malaysia Dr. Heba Ahmed Hassan, Dhofar University, Dr. Mohammed Atiquzzaman, University of Oklahoma, Dr. Sattar Aboud, Middle East University, Dr. S Lakshmi, Oman University

Conference Chairs and Review committee:

Dr. Shanti Swaroop, Professor IIT Madras Dr. G Bhuvaneshwari, Professor, IIT, Delhi Dr. Krishna Vasudevan, Professor, IIT Madras Dr.G.V.Uma, Professor, Anna University Dr. S Muttan, Professor, Anna University Dr. R P Kumudini Devi, Professor, Anna University Dr. M Ramalingam, Director (IRS) Dr. N K Ambujam, Director (CWR), Anna University Dr. Bhaskaran, Professor, NIT, Trichy Dr. Pabitra Mohan Khilar, Associate Prof, NIT, Rourkela Dr. V Ramalingam, Professor, Dr.P.Mallikka, Professor, NITTTR, Taramani Dr. E S M Suresh, Professor, NITTTR, Chennai Dr. Gomathi Nayagam, Director CWET, Chennai Prof. S Karthikeyan, VIT, Vellore Dr. H C Nagaraj, Principal, NIMET, Bengaluru Dr. K Sivakumar, Associate Director, CTS. Dr. Tarun Chandroyadulu, Research Associate, NAS

2nd ICCTER - 2014 CONTENTS 1

DEBLURRING OF NOISY OR BLURRED IMAGE BY USING KERNEL ESTIMATION ALGORITHM

E-Passport

3 4

INVESTIGATION OF THERMAL BARRIER COATING ON I.C ENGINE PISTON INNOVATIVE BRICK MATERIAL

11 16

VLSI BASED FAULT DETECTION & CORRECTION SCHEME FOR THE ADVANCED ENCRYPTION STANDARD USING COMPOSITE FIELD

NANO MATERIALS FILLED POLYMERS FOR REDUCING THE THERMAL PEAK TEMPERATURE IN A VEHICLE

RTOS BASED ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIAL TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY MONITORING USING ARM PROCESSOR

UNDER-WATER WELDING USING ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGY

MODELING OF MAGNETICALLY COUPLED EMBEDDED Z SOURCE INVERTER

10 11

RSVP PROTOCOL USED IN REAL TIME APPLICATION NETWORKS VERSATILE BICYCLE

60 66

DATABASE INTRUSION DETECTION USING ROLE BASED ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEM

13 14 15 16 17 18

DETECTION OF ADDICTION OF AN INDIVIDUAL AND AVOIDING ADDICTION USING EMBEDDED SYSTEMS SURFACE ROUGHNESS ANALYSIS OF DRILLING ON GFRP COMPOSITES BY EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION AND PREDICTIVE MODELING N-CHANCE BASED COORDINATED COOPERATIVE CACHE REPLACEMENT ALGORITHM FOR SOCIAL WIRELESS NETWORKS CELLULAR MOBILE BROADBAND USING MILLIMETER-WAVE FOR 5G SYSTEMS ELECTRIC ROAD CLEANER ANALYSIS OF OUTPUT DC CURRENT INJECTION IN 100KW GRID CONNECTED VACON 8000 SOLAR INVERTER

79 86 92 99 106 114

ACTIVE RESOURCE PROVISION IN CLOUD COMPUTING THROUGH VIRTUALIZATION

118

CPLM: CLOUD FACILITATED PRIVACY SHIELDING LEAKAGE RESILIENT MOBILE HEALTH MONITORING

123

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS USING HV CLASS-F POWER AMPLIFIER

129

STUDY AND IMPLEMENTATION OF 3 STAGE QUANTUM CRYPYOGRAPHY IN OPTICAL NETWORKS

133

DETECTION, RECOGNITION AND LOCALIZATION OF PARTIAL DISCHARGE SOURCES USING ACOUSTIC EMISSION METHOD

140

24 25 26 27 28 29

EVASIVE SECURITY USING ACLS ON THREADS BONE QUALITY ASSESSMENT USING MEMS ACCELEROMETER ALTERNATE ENERGY IN THE TRACTIONS ADS-B TECHNOLOGY WITH GPS AIDED GEO AUGMENTED NAVIGATION NETWORK SECURITY BASED ON TRACEBACK APPROACH BY USING TRACER EVALUATION: OFDMA & SC-OFDMA PERFORMANCE ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

146 149 155 159 167 177

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

DEBLURRING OF NOISY OR BLURRED IMAGE BY USING KERNEL ESTIMATION ALGORITHM Joseph Anandraj1, R.Deepa2 and Margaret3 2

PG Student- M.Tech. VLSI Design & Embedded System Engineering 1,3 Assistant Professor Dept. Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr.MGR Educational and Research Institute, University Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

rtdeepa2009@gmail.com

KEYWORDS: Matlab, deconvolution, kernel estimation algorithm, deblurring and denoising process, iterative method.

ABSTRACT: This paper presents, that taking the photos under dim lighting conditions using a hand-held camera is challenging. If the camera is set to a long exposure time, the image is blurred due to camera shake. On the other hand, the image will be dark and noisy if it is taken with a short exposure time with a high camera gain. By combining information extracted from both blurred and noisy images, however, this paper shows how to produce a high quality image that cannot be obtained by simply denoising the noisy image or deblurring the blurred image alone. The aim of the paper is image deblurring with the help of the noisy image. First, both images are used to estimate an accurate blur kernel, which otherwise is difficult to obtain from a single blurred image. Second and again using both images, a residual deconvolution is proposed to reduce ringing artifacts inherent to image convolution. Third, the remaining ringing artifacts in smooth image regions are further suppressed by a gaincontrolled deconvolution process. We demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach using a number of indoor and outdoor images taken by off-the-shelf hand-held cameras in poor lighting environments. We extensively validate our method and show comparison with other approaches with respect to blurred image noisy image and our deblurred result.

I. INTRODUCTION Capturing satisfactory photos under low light conditions using a hand-held camera can be a frustrating experience. Often the photos taken are blurred or noisy. The brightness of the image can be increased in three ways. First, to reduce the shutter speed. But with a shutter speed below a safe shutter speed (the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens, in the unit of seconds), camera shake will result in a blurred image. Second, to use a large aperture. A large aperture will however reduce the depth of field. Moreover, the range of apertures in a consumer-level camera is very limited. Third, to set a high ISO. However, the high ISO image is very noisy because the noise is amplified as the cameraâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gain increases. To take a sharp image in a dim lighting environment, the best settings are: safe shutter speed, the largest aperture, and the highest ISO. Even with this combination, the captured image may still be dark and very noisy. Another solution is using a flash; this unfortunately often introduces artifacts such as secularities and shadows. Moreover, flash may not be effective for distant objects.

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In this paper, a novel approach to produce a high quality image by combining two degraded images. One is a blurred image which is taken with a slow shutter speed and low ISO settings. With enough light, it has the correct color, intensity and a high Signal-Noise Ratio (SNR).But it is blurry due to camera shake. The other is an under exposed and noisy image with a fast shutter speed and a high ISO settings. It is sharp but very noisy due to insufficient exposure and high camera gain. The colors of this image are also partially lost due to low contrast.

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

Image deblurring can be categorized into two types: blind deconvolution and non-blind deconvolution. The former is more difficult since the blur kernel is unknown. A comprehensive literature view on image deblurring can be as demonstrated in the real kernel caused by camera shake is complex, beyond a simple parametric form (e.g., single one direction motion or a Gaussian) assumed in previous approaches natural image statistics together with a sophisticated variation Bayes inference algorithm are used to estimate the kernel. The image is then reconstructed using a standard non-blind deconvolution algorithm. Very nice results are obtains when the kernel is small (e.g. 30×30 pixels of fewer). Kernel estimation for a large blur is, however, inaccurate and unreliable using a single image. Even with a known kernel, non-blind deconvolution is still under-constrained. Reconstruction artifacts, e.g., “ringing” effects or color speckles, are inevitable because of high frequency loss in the blurred image. The errors due to sensor noise and quantization of the image/kernel are also amplified in the deconvolution process. For example, more iteration in the Richardson-Lucy (RL) algorithm [H. Richardson 1972] will result in more “ringing” artifacts. In our approach, we significantly reduce the artifacts in a non-blind deconvolution by taking advantage of the noisy image.

Recovering a high quality image from a very noisy image is no easy task as fine image details and textures are concealed in noise. Denoising cannot completely separate signals from noise. On the other hand, deblurring from a single blurred image is a challenging blind deconvolution problem - both blur kernel (or Point Spread Function) estimation and image deconvolution is highly under-constrained. Moreover, unpleasant artifacts (e.g., Ringing) from image deconvolution, even when using a perfect kernel, also appear in the reconstructed image. This difficult image reconstruction problem as an image deblurring problem, using a pair of blurred and noisy images. Like most previous image deblurring approaches, we assume that the image blur can be well described by a single blur kernel caused by camera shake and the scene is static. The two nonblind deconvolution problems are non-blind kernel estimation and non-blind image deconvolution. In kernel estimation, a very accurate initial kernel can be recovered from the blurred image by exploiting the large scale, sharp image structures in the noisy image. The proposed kernel estimation algorithm is able to handle larger kernels than those recovered by using a single blurred image. Greatly to reduce the “ringing” artifacts those commonly result from the image deconvolution, by residual deconvolution approach. Also propose a gain-controlled deconvolution to further suppress the ringing artifacts in smooth image regions. All three steps - kernel estimation, residual deconvolution, and gain controlled deconvolution - take advantage of both images. The final reconstructed image is sharper than the blurred image and clearer than the noisy image.

Recently, spatially variant kernel estimation has also been proposed in [Bardsley et al. 2006]. In [Levin 2006], the image is segmented into several layers with different kernels. The kernel in each layer is uni-directional and the layer motion velocity is constant. Hardware based solutions to reduce image blur include lens stabilization and sensor stabilization. Both techniques physically move an element of the lens, or the sensor, to counter balance the camera shake. Typically, the captured image can be as sharp as if it were taken with a shutter speed 23 stops faster. 2.2 Single image denoising: Image denoising is a classic problem extensively studied. The challenge of image denoising is how to compromise between removing noise and preserving edge or texture. Commercial software - e.g., “Neat Image” (www.neatimage.com) and ”Imagenomic” (www.imagenomic.com), use wavelet-based approaches has also been a simple and effective method widely used in computer graphics.

II. PREVIOUS WORKS 2.1 Single image deblurring:

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Using two images for image deblurring or enhancement has been exploited. This paper shows the superiorities of our approach in image quality compared with previous two-image approaches. These approaches are also practical despite that requires two images. We have found that the motion between two a blurred/noisy image, when taken in a quick succession, is mainly a translation. This is significant because the kernel estimation is independent of the translation, which only results in an offset of the kernel in computer graphics. Other approaches include anisotropic diffusion [Perona and Malik 1990], PDE-based methods [Rudin et al.1992; Tschumperle and Deriche 2005], fields of experts [Roth and Black 2005], and nonlocal methods [Buades et al. 2005].

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

proposed technique can obtain much accurate kernel and produce almost artifact-free image by a deringing approach in deconvolution. III. PROBLEM FORMULATION We take a pair of images: a blurred image B with a slow shutter speed and low ISO, and a noisy image N with high shutter speed and high ISO. The noisy image is usually underexposed and has a very low SNR since camera noise is dependent on the image intensity level [Liu et al. 2006]. Moreover, the noise in the high ISO image is also larger than that in the low ISO image since the noise is amplified by camera gain. But the noisy image is sharp because we use a fast shutter speed that is above the safe shutter speed. We pre-multiply the noisy image by a ratio to compensate for the exposure difference between the blurred and noisy images

2.3 Multiple images deblurring and denoising: Deblurring and denoising can benefit from multiple images. Images with different blurring directions [Bascle et al. 1996; Rav-Acha and Peleg 2000; Rav-Acha and Peleg 2005] can be used for kernel estimation. In [Liu and Gamal 2001], a CMOS sensor can capture multiple high-speed frames within a normal exposure time. The pixel with motion replaced with the pixel in one of the high-speed frames. Raskar et al. [2006] proposed a “fluttered shutter” camera which opens and closes the shutter during a normal exposure time with a pseudo-random sequence. This approach preserves high frequency spatial details in the blurred image and produces impressive results, assuming the blur kernel is known. Denoising can be performed by a joint/cross bilateral filter using flash/no-flash images or by an adaptive spatio-temporal accumulation filter for video sequences. Hybrid imaging system consists of a primary sensor (high spatial resolution) and a secondary sensor (high temporal resolution). The secondary sensor captures a number of low resolutions, sharp images for kernel estimation. This approach estimates the kernel only from two images, without the need for special hardware. Another related work [Jia et al. 2004] also uses a pair of images, where the colors of the blurred image are transferred into the noisy image without kernel estimation. However, this approach is limited to the case that the noisy image has a high SNR and fine details. This paper estimates the kernel and deconvolution the blurred image with the help of a very noisy image. The work most related to this approach is [Lim and Silverstein 2006] which also makes use of a short exposure image to help estimate the kernel and deconvolution. However, this

ISO.B.tB ISO.N.tN where t is the exposure time. We perform the multiplication in irradiance space then go back to image space if the camera response curve [Debevec and Malik 1997] is known. Otherwise, a gamma (= 2.0) curve is used as an approximation. 3.1 PROCESS: The block diagram of the process of kernel estimation is shown in fig.1:

Fig. 1 Block diagram of kernel estimation algorithm

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The goal is to reconstruct a high quality image I using the input images B and N B = I⊗K, (1) where K is the blur kernel and ⊗ is the convolution operator .For the noisy image N, we compute a denoised image ND [Portilla et al.2003] . ND loses some fine details in the denoising process, but preserves the large scale, sharp structures. We represent the lost detail layer as a residual image I:  I = ND +I (2) Our first important observation is that the denoised image ND is very good initial approximation to I for the purpose of kernel estimation from Equation (1). The residual image I is relatively small with respect to ND. The power spectrum of the image I mainly lies in the denoised image ND. Moreover, the large scale, sharp image structures in ND make important contributions for the kernel estimation. As will be shown in our experiments on synthetic and real images, accurate kernels can be obtained using B and ND in non-blind convolution. Once K is estimated, we can again use Equation (1) to non-blindly deconvolute I, which unfortunately will have significant artifacts, e.g, ringing effects. Instead of recovering I directly, we propose to first recover the residual image I from the blurred image B. By combining Equations (1) and (2), the residual image can be reconstructed from a residual deconvolution: B = I⊗K, (3) where B = B−ND ⊗K is a residual blurred image. Our second observation is that the ringing artifacts from residual deconvolution of I (Equation (3)) are smaller than those from deconvolution of I (Equation (1)) because B has a much smaller magnitude than B after being offset by ND ⊗K, (4) The denoised image ND also provides a crucial gain signal to control the deconvolution process so that we can suppress ringing artifacts, especially in smooth image regions. We propose a deconvolution algorithm to further reduce ringing artifacts. The above three steps - kernel estimation, residual de-ringing approach using a gain-controlled deconvolution, and de-ringing - are iterated to refine the estimated blur kernel K and the deconvolute image I.

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4.1 Iterative kernel estimation: The goal of kernel estimation is to find the blur kernel K from with the initialization B =I⊗K I =ND In vector-matrix form, it is b = Ak, where b and k are the vector forms of B and K, and A is the matrix form of I. The kernel k can be computed in the linear least-squares sense. To stabilize the solution, we use Tikhonov regularization method with a positive scalar by solving mink ||Ak−b||2+2||k||2. But a real blur kernel has to be non-negative and preserve energy, so the optimal kernel is obtained from the following optimization system flowchart as shown in fig.2: Initialize β̂ (0)=0

Measurement z(k)

Calculate X̂

Calculate Ẑ (K)

Given {z(j); j=1,….,m}

Calculate β̂ *l+1

|m(β̂l*)| < ε?

Y N *

β̂(k)=β̂

IV. KERNEL ESTIMATION ALGORITHM In this section, we show that a simple constrained least-squares optimization is able to produce a very good initial kernel.

conv

Fig.2 Flowchart of an kernel estimation algorithm

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min k ||Ak−b||2+2||k||2 ; ki ≥ 0 and iki = 1. We adopt the Landweber method [Engl et al. 2000] to iteratively update as follows.

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between two images. It has two options to capture such image pairs very quickly. Initially, choosing a noisy an deblurred image fig.3(a); First, two successive shots with different camera settings are triggered by a laptop computer connected to the camera. This frees the user from changing camera settings between two shots. Second, using exposure bracketing built in many DSLR cameras. In this mode, two successive shots can be taken with different shutter speeds by pressing the shutter only once. Using these two options, the time interval between two shots can be very small, typically only 1/5second which is a small fraction of typical shutter speed (> 1 second)of the blurred image. The motion between two such shots is mainly a small translation if we assume that the blurred image can be modeled by a single blur kernel, i.e., the dominant motion is translation. Because the translation only results in an offset of the kernel, it is unnecessary to align two images. It can also manually change the camera settings between two shots. In this case, we have found that the dominant motions between two shots are translation and in-plane rotation. To correct inplane rotation, we simply draw two corresponding lines in the blurred/noisy images. In the blurred image, the line can be specified along a straight object boundary or by connecting two corner features. The noisy image is rotated around its image center such that two lines are virtually parallel. If an advanced exposure bracketing allowing more controls is built to future cameras, this manual alignment will become unnecessary.

1. Initialize k0 =, the delta function. 2. Update kn+1 = kn +(AT b−(ATA+2I)kn). 3. Set kin+1 =0 if kin+1 <0 and Kin+1=kin+1/i kin+1  is a scalar that controls the convergence. The iteration stops when the change between two steps are sufficiently small. We typically runabout 20 to 30 iterations by setting = 1.0. The algorithm is fast using FFT, taking about 8 to 12 seconds for a 64×64 kernel and a 800×600 image. 4.2 Hysteresis thresholding in scale space: The above iterative algorithm can be implemented in scale space to make the solution to overcome the local minimal. A straightforward method is to use the kernel estimated at the current level to initialize the next finer level. However, we have found that such initialization is insufficient to control noise in the kernel estimation. The noise or errors at coarse levels may be propagated and amplified to fine levels. To suppress noise in the estimate of the kernel, the global shape of the kernel at a fine level to be similar to the shape at its coarser level. To achieve this, we propose a hysteresis thresholding [Canny 1986] in scale space. At each level, a kernel mask M is defined by thresholding the kernel values, Mi = 1 if ki > tkmax, where t is a threshold and kmax is the maximum of all kernel values. We compute two masks Mlow and Mhigh by setting two thresholds tlow and thigh. Mlow is larger and contains Mhigh. After kernel estimation, we set all elements of Kl outside the mask Mhigh to zero to reduce the noise at level l. Then, at the next finer level l +1, we set all elements of Kl+1 outside the upsampled mask of Mlow to zero to further reduce noise. This hysteresis thresholding is performed from coarse to fine. The pyramids are constructed using a down sampling factor of 1/√2 until the kernel size at the coarsest level reaches 9×9. We typically choose tlow = 0.03, and thigh = 0.05.

5.2 Image denoising: For the noisy image N, we apply a waveletbased denoising algorithm [Portillaetal. 2003] with Matlab code from http://decsai.ugr.es/∼javier/denoise/. The algorithm is one of the state-of-art techniques and comparable to several commercial denoising software. It also experimented with bilateral filtering but found that it is hard to achieve a good balance between removing noise and preserving details, even with careful parameter tuning is clearly shown in fig.3(b). VI. SIMULATED RESULTS

V. IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS

This approach to a variety of blurred/noisy image pairs in low lighting environments using a compact camera (Canon S60,5M pixels) and a DSLR camera (Canon 20D, 8M pixels).

5.1 Image acquisition: In practice, it requires one image be taken soon after another, to minimize misalignment

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6.1 Comparison: Comparing this approach with denoising [Portillaetal. 2003], and a standard RL algorithm. Figure 8, from left to right, shows a blurred image, noisy image (enhanced), denoised image, standard RL result (using our estimated kernel), and this result. The kernel sizes are 31×31, 33×33, and 40×40 for the three examples. It manually tunes the noise parameter (standard deviation) in the denoising algorithm to achieve a best visual balance between noise removal and detail preservation. Compared with denoised results. The results contain much more fine details, such as tiny textures on the fabric in the first example, thin grid structures on the crown in the second example, and clear text on the camera in the last example. Because the noise image is scaled up from a very dark, low contrast image, partial color information is also lost. This approach recovers correct colors through image deblurring and standard RL deconvolution results which exhibit

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Fig.3(c) blurred image for the process of deblurring

Fig. 3(d) deblurred and denoised image unpleasant ringing artifacts. Finally, getting the denoised image as shown in fig.3(c). 6. 2 Large noise: A blurred/noisy pair containing a detailed structure. The images are captured by the compact camera and the noisy image has very strong noises. The estimated initial kernel and the refined kernel by the iterative optimization. The iteration number is typically 2 or 3 in our experiments. There fined kernel has a sharper and sparser shape than the initial one.

Fig.3(a) original image as noised and blurred

6.3 Large kernel: The kernel size is 87×87 at the original resolution1200×1600. The image shown here is cropped to 975×1146.Compared with the state-of-art single image kernel estimation approach [Fergus et al. 2006] in which the largest kernel is 30 pixels, this approach using an image pair significantly extends the degree of blur that can be handled.

Fig.3(b) image denoised by a filter

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ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

approach to other image deblurring applications, such as deblurring video sequences, or out-of-focus deblurring. Our techniques can also be applied in a hybrid image system [Ben-Ezra and Nayar 2003] or combined with coded exposure photography [Raskar et al. 2006]. REFERENCE

Fig. 4

[1] Li Xu, Shicheng Zheng Jiaya Jia,The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Unnatural L0 Sparse Representation for Natural Image Deblurring.

graph for the estimated output

[2] Lin Zhong, Sunghyun Cho, Dimitris Metaxas, Sylvain Paris, Jue Wang,Rutgers University; Handling Noise in Single Image Deblurring using Directional Filters.

6.4 Small noise and kernel In a moderately dim lighting environment, it can capture input images with small noise and blur. This is a typical case assumed in Jiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach [2004] which is a color transfer based algorithm. The third and fourth columns in Figure 11 are color transferred result [Jiaet al. 2004] and histogram equalization result from the blurred image to the denoised image. The colors cannot be accurately transferred, because both approaches use global mappings. This result not only recovers more details but also has similar colors to the blurred image for all details. The shutter speeds and ISO settings are able to reduce exposure time (shutter speed Ă&#x2014; ISO) by about 10 stops. Therefore, the final deblurred and denoised image is estimated as shown in fig.3(d).

[3] Esmaeil Faramarzi, Member, IEEE, Dinesh Rajan, Senior Member, IEEE,and Marc P. Christensen, Senior Member, IEEE; Unified Blind Method for Multi-Image SuperResolution and Single/Multi-Image Blur Deconvolution. [4] Jiaya Jia, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Single Image Motion Deblurring Using Transparency. [5] James G.Nagy, Katrina palmer, Lissa perrone; Iterative methods for image deblurring.

VII. CONCLUSION This paper proposed an image deblurring approach using a pair of blurred/noisy images. This approach takes advantage of both images to produce a high quality reconstructed image. By formulating the image deblurring problem using two images, it has developed an iterative deconvolution algorithm which can estimate a very good initial kernel and significantly reduce deconvolution artifacts. No special hardware is required. This proposed approach uses off-the-shelf, hand-held cameras. Limitations remain in approach, however, shares the common limitation of most image deblurring techniques: assuming a single, spatial-invariant blur kernel. For spatial-variant kernel, it is possible to locally estimate kernels for different parts of the image and blend deconvolution results. Most significantly, this approach requires two images; the ability to capture such pairs will eventually move into the camera firmware, thereby making two-shot capture easier and faster. In the future, planning to extend our

[6] J. Telleen , A. Sullivan , J. Yee , O. Wang , P. Gunawardane , I. Collins , J. Davis, University of California, Santa Cruz; Synthetic Shutter Speed Imaging.

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E-Passport 1. K.Ranjani Department of Information technology,(2nd year) 2. T.Sandhiya Department of electronics and communication engineering,(2nd year) 1.janaranjani27@gmail.com 2.sandhiya2166@gmail.com M.Kumarasamy College of engineering, Karur.

ABSTRACT:

organization (ICAO). The threat of terrorism increases the need for positive identification and anticounterfeiting. The challenge facing immigration officials today is simple: How do they know that the person carrying the passport is actually the rightful owner of the passport? A 2” X 2”photograph of the owner only provides so many clues as to the answer to this question and photographic means have security limitations. Considering that all of the 9/11hijackers immigrated or traveled to the U.S. from other countries, it is of the utmost importance to the security of this country that homeland security and immigration officials be confident that they know who is entering and Exiting the country.

The RFID is a new technology and take major role in the embedded system. In this project the RFID card and reader are used. The card consists of information about the passenger, which will not change. Each passenger has unique information. The RFID card reader reads the information from the card and compares with the information stored in the passenger database. Introduction: Travel among countries and security concerns are driving efforts to improve the identification and passport documents. The international community is Debating policy and technologies regarding electronic approaches such as radiofrequency identification (RFID) devices. To facilitate travel, the twenty-seven member nations participating in the Visa Waiver Program (VWP)require standardized passport documents based on standards determined by the International Civil Aviation

Area of Paper • Embedded System. • RFID • Biometric Identification Literature survey:

2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 8

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• IEEE papers about RFID based Passport system (base paper)

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

Methodology:

• IEEE paper about the RFID voting system, Pin Diagram:

Latest security system such as: • Thumb print. • Face recognizer. • Password setup. • Eye recognizer. Tools Required:  MP Tool Kit. Software Embedded ‘C’ VB .NET

ADVANTAGES:

Target Device PIC18F452 Microcontroller

 Low cost  easy to use for rural areas  automated operation  Low Power consumption Conclusion: We analyzed the major current and potential uses of RFID in identity documents. We identified some of the areas of promise for existing and future deployments, and we considered the security concerns

2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 9

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ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

which accompany them. Most important among these was the theme that future implementers of RFID-based identity documents should take note of the challenges involved in deploying the electronic passport, and should appreciate the need for document security at all steps in the development process.

Reference: [1]

Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State. Visa Waiver Program (VWP), (2005).

[2]

International Civil Aviation Organization. “Foundation of theInternational Civil Aviation Organization.” 20 June 2005.

[3]

United States Government Acountability Office. “Information Security: Radio Frequency Identification Technology in the Federal Government” May 2005

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ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

INVESTIGATION OF THERMAL BARRIER COATING ON I.C ENGINE PISTON S. Lakshmanan1 G. Ranjith Babu2 S. Sabesh3 M. Manikandan4 1 Research scholar, Anna University, Chennai 1 Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Veltech Multi tech Engineering College, Avadi 234 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Veltech Multi tech Engineering college, Avadi

Abstract:

The selection of TBC materials is restricted by some

Thermal Barrier Coating(TBC) are used to stimulate the reduced heat rejection in engine cylinders.It reduces the heat transfer to the water cooling jacket and exhaust system.Thus improves the mechanical efficiency.In this operation Zirconia Ceramic is coated on the I.C engine piston using Plasma arc technique.Their performance characteristics and results are studied and tabulated.

(1) High melting point,

INTRODUCTION

(6) Good adherence to the metallic substrate and

basic requirements:

(2) No phase transformation between room temperature and operation temperature, (3) Low thermal conductivity, (4) Chemical inertness, (5) Thermal expansion match with the metallic substrate,

(7) Low sintering rate of the porous microstructure.

According to the First law of thermodynamics,themal energy is conserved by reducing the heat flow to the cooling and exhaust systems.itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s known that only one third of energy is converted into useful work,therotically if rejection of heat is reduced then the thermal efficiency likely to be increased.to a considerable extend.

Among

those

properties,

thermal

expansion coefficient and thermal conductivity seem to be the most important.

MATERIALS

The Application of TBC decreases the heat transfer to the cooling and exhaust system which ultimately results in the high temperature gas and high temperature combustion chamber wall which reduces the level of smoke and hydrocarbon(HC) emission.

Zirconia PSZ are cream colored blends with approximately 10% MgO and are high in toughness, retaining this property to elevated temperatures. it retains many properties including corrosion resistance at extremely high temperatures, zirconia does exhibit structural changes that may limit its use to perhaps only 500 Â°C. It also becomes electrically conductive as this temperature is approached. Zirconia is commonly blended with MgO, CaO, or Yttria (3&4) as a stabilizer in order to facilitate transformation toughening. This induces a partial cubic crystal structure instead of fully tetragonal during initial firing, which remains metastable during cooling. Upon impact, the tetragonal precipitates undergo a stress induced phase transformation near an advancing crack tip. This action expands the structure as it absorbs a great deal of energy, and is the cause of the high toughness of this material. Reforming also occurs dramatically with elevated temperature and this negatively affects strength along with 3-7% dimensional expansion. PSZ is adopted

In particular, for the latter, durability concerns for the materials and components in the engine cylinders, which include piston, rings, liner, and cylinder head, limit the allowable in-cylinder temperatures. The application of thin TBCs to the surfaces of these components enhances high-temperature durability by reducing the heat transfer and lowering temperatures of the underlying metal. In this article, the main emphasis is placed on investigating the effect of a TBC on the engine fuel consumption with the support of detailed sampling of in-cylinder pressure. The optimization of the engine cycle and the exhaust waste heat recovery due to a possible increase in exhaust gas availability were not investigated in this study. II. LITERATURE REVIEW

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Type

Horizontal 4 stroke single cylinder water cooled diesel engine

Combustion chamber

Direct injection

`Bore

95 mm

Stroke

95 mm

Displacement

673.4 cc

Compression ratio

18:1

Max. torque

4.2 kg- /1900 rpm

Max. HP

13 HP@2400 rpm

S.F.C

192 g/ Hp / hr

Cooling system

Condenser type thermo siphon cooling system

Lighting system

12 volts / 35 watts

Std. pulley (DIA)

100 mm/optional 120mm

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

mounted on it because no fill space is available for such installation. To fix the transducer, an adapter mounting was fabricated. Table1

Zirconia Ceramic is a ceramic material consisting of at least 90% of Zirconium Dioxide (ZrO2). Zirconium Oxide is produced from natural minerals such as Baddeleyite (zirconium oxide) or zirconium silicate sand. Pure zirconia changes its crystal structure depending on the temperature: At temperatures below 2138 ºF (1170ºC) zirconia exists in monoclinic form. At temperature of 2138ºF (1170ºC) monoclinic structure transforms to tetragonal form which is stable up to 4300ºF (2370ºC). Tetragonal crystal structure transforms to cubic structure at 4300ºF (2370 ºC). Structure transformations are accompanied by volume changes which may cause cracking if cooling/heating is rapid and non-uniform and structural failure of any ceramic coating. Additions of some oxides (MgO, CaO,Y2O3) to pure zirconia depress allotropic transformations (crystal structure changes) and allow to stabilize either cubic or tetragonal structure of the material at any temperature. The most popular stabilizing addition to zirconia is yttria (Y2O3), which is added and uniformly distributed in proportion of 5.15%.

To draw the pressurized gas out of the combustion chamber, a 1.3-mm through-hole was drilled into the third cylinder at the rear of the cylinder head (Fig. 2), the only place suitable for the mounting of the adapter and bypassing of the water jacket of the cylinder head. In addition to pressure measurement, a. crank shaft encoder was used to trigger the acquisition of the pressure signal and also to provide crank positional information. The shaft encoder possessed a resolution of 0.1° crank angle (°CA); however, the data acquisition was set at a sampling rate of 0.2 °CA. In this experiment, a nondispersive infrared (NDIR) analyser and flame ionization detector (FID) measured concentrations of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs), respectively. The TBC was examined with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after the tests had been conducted, and the chemical composition was analysed with an energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) unit

Expiremental setup and operation A fully instrumented CI engine was mounted on a computer-controlled engine dynamometer. Table 1 tabulates the specifications of the engine, while figure shows the schematic of the overall arrangement of the engine test bed. To appreciate the effect of a TBC on engine performance, in particular fuel consumption, obtaining engine indicator diagrams is necessary. A 10mm water-cooled piezoelectric pressure transducer was used to measure the dynamic cylinder pressure. Unfortunately,the transducer of this size to be directly

A.Plasma spraying technique:

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In the various ceramic materials, partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ) has excellent toughness, hot strength, and thermal shock resistance, low thermal conductivity, and a thermal expansion coefficient close to those of steel and cast iron. PSZ has been widely used as a thermal barrier coating in the combustion chambers of diesel engines.(6) Hence, in the present work, PSZ was chosen as the material for the thermal barrier coating in the piston crown. In the present investigation,(5) the piston crown was coated with the PSZ ceramic material, using a plasma spraying technique. Plasma spraying is a thermal spray process that uses an inert plasma stream of high velocity to melt and propel the coating material on to the substrate.(1)

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

The rejection of heat flow to the water cool jackets and the exhaust system which ensures a better combustion in a engine than the baseline engine.The decrease in the fuel consumption level which also indicates a better thermal efficiency in the coated I.C. engine

Brake Mean Effective Pressure vs Brake Thermal Efficiency 30 BTE

PERFOMANCES AND CHARTERISTICS Figures compares the results obtained from both the baseline and TBC piston tests. In general, the TBC piston tests showed lower exhaust gas temperatures, which, combined with the results shown in Figure, positively indicated that the performance of the engine would be improved.(2)

BTE (Baseline) %

10 0 0

BTE (Coated) %

BMEP (bar)

In the emission Swept volume Speed Voltage Current Power FC FC FC SFC BMEP CV Fuel Energy Efficiency measurements, the tailpipe uHC and CO concentrations cu.m rpm V A kW s/5cc g/hr kg/s g/(kW.hr) bar kJ/kg kW were % conducted. It was discovered that the CO did not 0.000673 1500 230 0 0 28.13 537.5044 0.000149 0 42500 6.345539vary 0much in either the baseline or TBC test. The 0.000673 1500 230 2 0.541176 23.38 646.7066 0.00018 1195.001 0.642937 42500 7.634731variations 7.088351 were more or less within the resolution of the 0.000673 1500 230 4 1.082353 18.57 814.2165 0.000226 752.2652 1.285873 42500 9.612278NDIR 11.26011 analyzer, which was Âą0.1 vol.% concentration,(21) 0.000673 1500 230 6 1.623529 17.31 873.4835 0.000243 538.0152 1.92881 42500 10.31196whereas 15.74414 the resolution of the FID used was Âą 1 ppm. 0.000673 1500 230 8 2.164706 15.87 952.741 0.000265 440.1249 2.571747 42500 11.24764Figure 19.24587 6 compares the brake specific fuel consumption between 0.000673 1500 230 10 2.705882 12.31 1228.27 0.000341 453.9258 3.214683 42500 14.50041 18.66073 the baseline and TBC piston tests. Results show that, in general, the fuel consumption was lower in the 0.000673 1500 230 12 3.247059 11.86 1274.874 0.000354 392.6241 3.85762 42500 15.05059 21.5743 TBC piston tests for the same operating condition, with BASE LINE ENGINE an improvement of up to 6% at lower engine power. The self-optimized cycle efficiency due to the altered ignition characteristics in the TBC piston engine outnumbered the VS slightly reduced combustion efficiency with an overall improvement in thermal efficiency as a whole. The level COATED ENGINE of improvement that has been predicted ranged from 2 to 12 %. They attribute this to insulation of in-cylinder components Swept voluSpeed me Voltage Current Power FC FC FC SFC BMEP CV Fuel EnergyEfficiency .

A 230 230 230 230 230 230 230

s/5cc g/hr kg/s g/(kW.hr) bar kJ/kg kW % 0 0 24.86 608.206 0.000169 #DIV/0! 0 42500 7.180209 0 2 0.541176 22.85 661.7068 0.000184 1222.719 0.642937 42500 7.811816 6.927665 4 1.082353 20.12 751.4911 0.000209 694.3124 1.285873 42500 8.871769 12.19997 6 1.623529 18.38 822.6333 0.000229 506.6944 1.92881 42500 9.711643 16.71735 8 2.164706 15.37 983.7345 0.000273 454.4426 2.571747 42500 11.61353 18.63951 10 2.705882 13.27 1139.412 0.000317 421.0871 3.214683 42500 13.45139 20.116 12 3.247059 13.13 1151.561 0.00032 354.6475 3.85762 42500 13.59482 23.88453

Brake Power vs Fuel Consumption FC

cu.m rpm V 0.000673 1500 0.000673 1500 0.000673 1500 0.000673 1500 0.000673 1500 0.000673 1500 0.000673 1500

0.0004 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0

FC (Baseline) kg/s

5 BP (kW)

A.THERMAL

EFFICIENCYON

FUEL

FC (Coated) kg/s

EXHAUST EMISSION:

CONSUMPTION:

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shortening of the ignition delay that decreases the proportion of the premixed combustion. Load vs NOx

A.HYDROCARBONS: The level of emission of unburned hydrocarbon(UHC) is considerably decreased due to reduction of flow of heat to the water cool jackets and exhaust system.But due to high temperature gas and high temperature combustion wall which contributes combustion of lubricating oil,which ultimately leads to emission of unburned hydrocarbon.

NOx

Load vs NOx

Load vs HC 15 10

HC (Coated) ppm

B.Carbon monoxide(CO): The higher temperatures both in the gases and at the combustion chamber walls of the LHR engine assist in permitting the oxidation of CO.The higher temperature causes complete combustion of carbon which results in combustion of CO emission.

Load vs CO 0.08 CO- by volume %(base line)

0.02 0 0

10 20 LOAD (Amps)

Nox in ppm(Final)

Few drawbacks with TBCs During operation TBCs are exposed to various thermal and mechanical loads such as thermal cycling, high and low cycle fatigue, hot corrosion and high temperature erosion. Currently, because of reliability problems, the thickness of TBCs is limited, in most applications, to 500Îźm. Increasing coating thickness increases the risk of coating failure and leads to a reduced coating lifetime. The failure mechanisms that cause TTBC coating spallation differ in some degree from that of the traditional thinner coatings. A major reason for traditional TBC failure and coating spallation in gas turbines is typically bond coat oxidation. When the thickness of the thermally grown oxide (TGO) exceeds a certain limit, it induces the critical stress for coating failure. Thicker coatings have higher temperature gradients through the coating and thus have higher internal stresses. Although the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of 8Y2O3-ZrO2 is close to that of the substrate material, the CTE difference between the substrate and coating induces stresses at high temperatures at the coating interface. The strain tolerance of TTBC has to be managed by controlling the coating microstructure. Use of thicker coatings generally leads to higher coating surface temperatures that can be detrimental if certain limits are exceeded. In the long run, the phase structure of yettria stabilized zirconia (8Y2O3ZrO2) is not stable above 1250Â°C. Also the strain tolerance of the coating can be lost rapidly by sintering if too high surface temperatures are allowed.

LOAD (Amps)

0.04

Nox in ppm(baselin e)

LOAD (Amps)

0.06

800 600 400 200 0 0

HC (Baseline) ppm

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

CO-by volume %(Coated)

C.Nitrogen oxides: NOx is formed by chain reactions involving Nitrogen and Oxygen in the air. These reactions are highly temperature dependent. Since diesel engines always operate with excess air, NOx emissions are mainly a function of gas temperature and residence time. Most of the earlier investigations show that NOx emission from LHR engines is generally higher than that in water-cooled engines. They say this is due to higher combustion temperature and longer combustion duration. . Reference reports an increase in the LHR engine NOx emissions and concluded that diffusion burning is the controlling factor for the production of NOx. Almost equal number of investigations report declining trend in the level of emission of NOx. Reference indicates reduction in NOx level. They reason this to the

CONCLUSIONS The results showed that, increasing the brake thermal efficiency and decreasing the specific fuel consumption for Light heat Rejection engine with thermal coated piston compared to the standard engine. There was increasing the NOx emission and O2 for thermal barrier

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coated engine. However there was decreasing the CO and HC emissions for thermal coated piston engine compared to the standard engine.

The following conclusions can be drawn. 



S.H. Chan and K.A. Khor, “The Effect of Thermal Barrier Coated Piston Crown on Engine Characteristics”. Submitted 14 July 1998, in revised form 7 June 1999. V. Ganesan,” Internal Combustion Engines”. 4th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education

The TBC, using PSZ, applied to the combustion chamber of the internal combustion engine showed some improvement in fuel economy with a maximum of up to 4% at low engine power. The peak cylinder pressures were increased by a magnitude of eight to ten bars in the TBC piston engine, in particular at high engine power outputs, though the exhaust gas temperatures were generally lower, indicating good gas expansion in the power stroke. The unburned hydrocarbon concentrations were increased most seriously at low engine speed and/or low engine power output with a TBC piston engine. The authors suspected that this could be due to the porous quenching effect of the rough TBC piston crowns, where oxidation of hydrocarbons was unable to be achieved by the combustion air. Sampling of cylinder pressures in the cylinders showed that the ignition point of the TBC piston engine advanced slightly relative to the baseline engine, indicating the improvement in ignitability and heat release before the top dead center, which caused the peak cylinder pressure to raise.

Private Limited. 7.

8. 9.

10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

REFERENCES 1.

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

Krzysztof Z. Mendera, “Effects of Plasma Sprayed Zirconia Coatings on Diesel Engine Heat Release”. Journal of KONES. Internal Combustion Engines, Vol. 7, No.1-2, 2000. Pankaj N. Shrirao, Anand N. Pawar. “Evaluation of Performance and Emission characteristics of Turbocharged Diesel Engine with Mullite as Thermal Barrier Coating”. P. N. Shrirao et al. / International Journal of Engineering and Technology Vol.3 (3), 2011, 256-262. Pankaj N. Shrirao, Anand N. Pawar. “An Overview on Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) Materials and Its Effect on Engine Performance and Emission”. International Journal of Applied Research in Mechanical Engineering (IJARME), Volume‐1, Issue‐2, 2011. H. Samadi, T.W.Coyle. “Alternative Thermal

S. PalDey, S.C. Deevi, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 342 (1-2) (2003) 58-79. [2] J.G. Han, J.S. Yoon, H.J. Kim, K. Song, Surf. Coat. Technol. 8687(1996)82-87. K.L. Lin, M.Y Hwang, C.D. Wu, Mater. Chem. Phys. 46 (1996)77-83. T. Björk, R. Westergård, S. Hogmark, J. Bergström, P. Hedenqvist, Wear 225-229 (1999) 1123-1130. J.G. Han, K.H. Nam, I.S. Choi, Wear 214 (1998) 91-97. [6] R.D. James, D.L. Paisley, K.A. Gruss, S. Parthasarthi, B.R. Tittmann, Y. Horie, R.F. Davis, Mater. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 410 (1996) 377382. D.-Y Wang, C.-L. Chang, K.-W. Wong, Y -W. Li, W.-Y Ho, Surf. Coat. Technol. 120-121 (1999) 388-394. A. Kimura, H. Hasegawa, K. Yamada, T. Suzuki, J. Mater. Sci. Lett.19 (2000)601-602. T. Suzuki, D. Huang, Y Ikuhara, Surf. Coat. Technol. 107 (1998)41-47. T. Ikeda, H. Satoh, Thin Solid Films 195 (1991) 99-110. Y. Tanaka, T.M. Gür, M. Kelly, S.B. Hagstrom, T. Ikeda, K. Wakihira, H. Satoh, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 10 (4) (1992) 1749-1756. .R. Roos, J.P. Celis, E. Vancoille, H. Veltrop, S. Boelens, F. Jungblut, J. Ebberink, H. Homberg, Thin Solid Films 193-194 (1990) 547-556.

20. Taymaz, I.; Cakir, K.; Mimaroglu, A. Experimental study of effective efficiency in a ceramic coated diesel engine. Journal of Surface and coatings technology (2005).

Barrier Coatings for Diesel Engines”.

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ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

Innovative Brick Material M.Scinduja1, S.Nathiya1, C.V.Shudesamithronn1, M. Harshavarthana Balaji1,

T.Sarathivelan1 S. Jaya pradeep2 2. Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Knowledge Institute of Technology, Kakkapalayam, Salem – 637 504, Tamil Nadu, India 1. U .G Student , Department of Civil Engineering, Knowledge Institute of Technology, Kakkapalayam, Salem – 637 504, Tamil Nadu, India

 Environmental friendly  Less weight INTRODUCTION  Inflammable Since the large demand has been

 Less water absorption

placed on building material industry especially  Easily available

in the last decade owing to the increasing population which causes a chronic shortage of

The main objective of this project is

building materials, the civil engineers have

optimize the papercrete mix with desirable

been challenged to convert the industrial

properties,

wastes to useful building and construction

mentioned needs.

materials.

MATERIALS USED

This

experimental

study

which

satisfies

the

above

In this project waste materials were utilized to

investigates the potential use of waste paper

produce building

for producing a low-cost and light weight

materials were used in this investigation

composite brick as a building material. These

bricks.

The

following

CEMENT

alternative bricks were made with papercrete.

Cement is one of the binding materials in this project. Cement is the important

OBJECTIVES

building material in today’s construction

The major Objective of the project is

world

replacing the costly and scarce conventional building

bricks

innovative

and

53 grade Ordinary Portland Cement

alternative building bricks, which satisfies the

(OPC) conforming to IS: 8112-cement used.

following characteristics, Properties of cement

 Required  Cost effective 1

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Description of test

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

Test results

Requiremen

obtained

IS:

8112 1989 Initial

Min.

setting time

minutes

30minutes

Final setting 270

Max.

time

minutes

600minutes

412.92

Min.

Fig GGBS QUARRY DUST Getting good Quarry dust free from

Fineness

m /kg

225

organic impurities and salts is very difficult in

m /kg

now a day. While adding the Quarry dust to the mix. And the Quarry dust should be in uniform size i.e., all the Quarry dust particles should be fine. The Quarry Dust obtained from local resource was used in concrete to cast test bricks. The physical and chemical properties of Quarry Dust obtained by testing the samples as per Indian Standards are listed in

Fig . Cement

table GROUND

GRANULATED

BLAST Properties of Quarry dust

FURNACE SLAG (GGBS) Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag

Property

(GGBS) is a byproduct which is obtained

Quarry

Natural

dust

sand

during the manufacturing process of pig iron

Specific gravity 2.54-2.60

in blast furnace. This process produces a

Bulk

glassy, homogeneous, non-crystalline material

density (kg/m )

that has cementitious properties. GGBS

Absorption (%)

powder was collected from Quality polytech,

Moisture

Mangalore. It is off white in colour by

content (%)

appearance. The specific gravity is 3.09. The

Fine

particles

GGBS powder is shown in fig

less

than

2.60

relative 3

1720-1810

1460

1.20-1.50

Nil

1.50

12-15

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together with the power of hydrogen bond.

0.075mm (%) Sieve analysis

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

Zone II

Coating this fiber with Portland cement

Zone II

creates a cement matrix, which encases the fibers for extra strength. Of course paper has more in it than cellulose. Raw cellulose has comparatively rough texture. Clay, rice husk ash is added to make the cellulose very smooth. Fig Quarry Dust PAPER Paper is principally wood cellulose. Cellulose is natural polymer. And Fig.3.4.1 shows the links of cellulose bonds. The cellulose chain bristles with polar-OH groups. These groups form hydrogen bonds with -OH group on adjacent chains, bundling, and the

Fig. Microscopic view of cellulose

chain together. The chains also pack regularly in places to form hard, stable crystalline

While adding more sand or glass to the

region that give the bundled chains even more

mix results in a denser, stronger, more flame

stability and strength.

retardant material, but adds weight and reduces R- value. Heavy mixes with added sand, glass etc., increases strength and resistance to abrasion,

but

also

reduces

flexibility

somewhat, adds weight and may reduce Rvalue. So the trick is finding the best mix for

Fig. Cellulose hydrogen bonds

the application.

Fig.shows the network of cellulose fibers and smaller offshoots from the fibers

This mould was collected from ACC

called fibrils. In this, fibers and fibrils network

brick suppliers in the size of 230mm length,

forms a matrix, which becomes coated with

110mm wide and 80mm deep.

Portland cement. When these networks of The papers, which were collected,

fibers and fibrils dry, they intertwine and cling

cannot be used directly. It should be made into 3 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 18

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paper

pulp

before

mixing

with

other

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

used as an additive for cement concrete,

ingredients.

mortar & plasters. It makes concrete cohesive and prevents segregation.

WATER Water is an important ingredient of

Features & Benefits:

papercrete as it actively participates in the

 Corrosion resistant - Makes

chemical reaction with cement. It should be

concrete more cohesive, hence

free from organic matter and the pH value

protects steel better against

should be between 6 to 7.

corrosion.  Compatibility – Being a liquid, easily dispersible & compatible with concrete/mortar mixes.  Permeability – It reduces the permeability of

water

into

concrete.  Strength –. The setting time and compressive strength of the

Fig Materials Used

concrete remains within the specification limits WATER PROOFING COMPOUND FOR

 Shrinkage – Reduces shrinkage

CONCRETE AND PLASTER

crack development in plaster & concrete.  Workability

–

Improves

workability of freshly mixed cement concrete.  Durability

–

Increases

durability

improving

waterproofing of concrete. Fig. Water Proofing Compound MODIFIER

Dr. Fixit Pidiproof LW+ is specially formulated

integral

compound

composed

liquid of

BONDING

COMPOUND

waterproofing surface

CUM

active

Dr. Fixit Super Latex is a highly potent

plasticizing agents, polymers & additives. It is

and versatile SBR based liquid for high 4

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ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

performance applications in waterproofing and

minor refinements. There has been hardly any

repairs.

effort in our country to improve the brick-

Features & Benefits:

making process for enhancing the quality of

 Excellent Coverage - 70-80

bricks.

sq.ft per kg/ in 2 coats

A brick is generally subjected to the

 Less material wastage- material

following tests to find out its suitability for the

does not fall baclV rebound

construction work.

 Highly cost effective due to better

coverage

ABSORPTION

lesser

A brick is taken and it is weighed dry.

wastage

It is then immersed in water for a period of 24

 High Bonding Strength

hours. It is weighed again and the difference in

 Prevents leakages & dampness

weight indicates the amount of water absorbed

 Enhances strength & provides

by the brick. It should not, in any case, exceed

durability

20% of weight of dry brick. CRUSHING STRENGTH The crushing strength of a brick is found out by placing it in a compressiontesting machine. It is compressed till it breaks, as per BIS: 1077-1957, the minimum crushing

Fig. Modifier cum Bonding Compound

strength of brick is 3.50 N/mm2 .The brick

MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS

with crushing strength of 7-14 N/mm2 are

BRICKS

graded as ‘A’ and those having above 14 N/mm2 is graded as ‘AA’.

The bricks are obtained by moulding clay in a rectangular block of uniform size and

HARDNESS

then by drying and burning the blocks. As the

In this test, a scratch is made on the

bricks are of uniform size, they can be

brick surface with the help of finger nail. If no

properly arranged and further, as they are in

impression is left on the surface, the brick is

lightweight, no lifting appliance is required for

treated to be sufficiently hard.

them. The common brick is one of the oldest PRESENCE OF SOLUBLE SALTS

building materials and it is extensively used at

The soluble salts, if presents in brick

present as a leading material in construction.

will cause efflorescence on the surface of

In India, process of brick making has not

bricks. For finding out the presence of soluble

changed since many centuries except some 5

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salts in brick, it is immersed in water for 24

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

STRUCTURE

hours. It is then taken out and allowed to dry

A brick is broken and its structure is

sunshade. The absence of grey or white

examined. It should be homogeneous, compact

deposits on its surface indicates absence of

and free from defects such as holes, lumps etc.

soluble salts.

PAPERCRETE

If the white deposit covers about 10%

Papercrete is a tricky term. The name

surface, the efflorescence is said to be slight

seems to imply a mix of paper and concrete,

and it is considered as moderate, when the

hence papercrete. But more accurately, only

white deposit cover about 50% surface. If grey

the Portland cement part of concrete is used in

or white deposits are found on more than 50%

the mix-if used at all. Arguably, it could have

of surface, the efflorescence becomes heavy

been called “paperment” papercrete may be

and it is treated as serious, when such deposits

mixed in many ways. Different types of

are converted into powdery mass.

paperecrete contain 50-80% of waste paper.

SHAPE AND SIZE

Up to now, there are no hard and fast rule, but

In this test, a brick is closely inspected.

recommended standard will undoubtedly be

It should be of standard size and its shape

established in fuature.

should be truly rectangular with sharp edges.

The basic constituents are waste nearly any

For this purpose, 20 bricks of standard size

kind of paper, board, glossy magazine stock,

(190mm X 90mm X 90mm) are selected at

advertising brochure, junk mail or just about

random and they are stacked length wise,

any other types of “mixed grade” paper is

along the width and along the height.

acceptable. some types of paper work better

For a good quality brick, the results

than other, but all types of works, newsprint

should be within the following permissible

are the best. Water proofed paper and card

limits:Length: 3680mm to 3920mm

board, such as butcher paper, beer cartons ect., are hard to break down in water. Catalogs,

Width : 1740mm to 1860mm

magazines and other publication are fine in Height: 1740mm to 1860 mm

and of themselves, but some have a stringy,

SOUNDNESS

rubbery, sticky spine, which is also water

In this test, two bricks are taken and

resistance. Breaking down this kind of

they are struck each other. The bricks should

material in the mixing process can’t be done

not break and a clear ringing sound should be

very well. Small fragments and strings of

produced.

these materials are almost always in the final mix. 6

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When

using

papercrete

containing

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

the

volume. Once of the most advantageous

unwanted material in a finish, such as stucco

properties of papercrete is the way paper fibers

or plastering ,the unwanted fragment some

hold the Portland cement or perhaps the way

time shown up on the surface, but this is not

Portland cement adheres to paper fibers when

the serious problem.

the water added to the Portland cement drains from the mix, it come out almost clear.

In the optimization work the admixture like conplast WP90, Dr.Fixt 105 water proof and

There is no messy eco-unfriendly cement

polymer like nitrobond SBR are as the water

sediment left on the ground, running in to

repellent agents

waterways ect., papercrete can be produced using solar energy. The only power needed is

Papercrete’s additives can be,

for mixing and pumping water. Its R-value is  Cement

in 2.0-3.0 per inch. Since walls in a one or two

 GGBS

storey house will be12-16 inch thick, the long

 Quarry dust

energy saving of building with papercrete will be a bonanza for the home owner and the

 Paper

environmental. Papercrete is having the following derivatives, PADOBE  Fibrous concrete Padobe has on Portland cement. it is  Padobe

admix paper, water, earth with clay. Here clay

 Fidobe

is binding material instead of using the cement, earth is used in this types of brick. This earth should have clay content more than 30%. With regular brick, if clay content is too

FIBROUS CONCRETE

high the brick may crack while drying, but

Fibrous concrete is a mixture of paper,

adding paper fiber to the earth mix strengthens

Portland cement, water. There are on harmful

the drying block and give some flexibility

by-products or excessive energy use in the

helps to prevent cracking.

production of papercrete. While it can be

FIDOBE

argued that the Portland cement is not

Fidobe is like padobe,but it may

environmental friendly, it is not used in all

content other fibrous materials

types of papercrete, and when it represents a fairly small percentage of cured material by

7 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 22

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ECO – FRIENDLY Phenomenal growth in the construction industry

depends

upon

the

deflectable

resources of the country. Production of building

materials

lead

irreversible

environmental impacts. Using eco-friendly materials is the best way to build an ecofriendly building. Eco-friendly, describes a product that has been designed to do the least possible damage to the environment.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS

Fig. Mould

There was no clear past details about

This mould was non-water absorbing

the project. And there is no hard procedure for

in the size of 230mm length, 110mm wide and

casting the bricks. So the procedure that is

80mm deep. The shorter sides of the mould

given below was followed by our own. And

are slightly projecting to serve as handle. And

the equipments which were used in this project

joints were made without any hole or gap to

are for our convenience only.

avoid leakage.

MOULD PREPARATION After collecting all the materials, a mould was prepared. A typical

5.3 PULP GENERATION

mould is

The papers, which were collected

shown in the below figure.

cannot be used directly. It should be made into paper

pulp

before

mixing

with

other

ingredients. The following are the steps involved in the generation of pulp.  First the pins, threads and other materials in the papers were removed.  Then the papers were teared into small pieces of papers. 8 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 23

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 Then, a 200 litre water tank was taken. And 2/3

paste like form. Then the paper was taken out

of it was

from water and taken to the mixer machine to make it as a paper pulp.

filled with water.  Then the small pieces of paper

The pulp generating process was

were immersed in the water

tedious and time consumption. For lab purpose

tank. The paper pieces were

only these procedures were followed. While

immersed individually not in a

going for mass production, the Tow mixers

bulky manner in order to make

were recommended to reduce the cost. The

the pieces completely wet.

Tow mixers have sharp blades and it can

Before immersing it into the water,

the

papers

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

operate mechanically or electrically.

were MIXING

weighed. The figure shows the papers were being immersed in

After all the ingredients were ready,

the water tank.

the mixing was done. In this project, mixing was done manually. The mixing process of fibrous concrete bricks and padobe bricks are different, and that processes are given below. The exact mix proportion was not known. So, trial proportions were used in this project.

Fig.

Immersed

Paper

Fig. Mixing PAPERCRETE MIX RATIO Table : PAPERCRETE MIX RATIO

Fig. Paper Pulp

Trial Mix

The papers were kept in the tank for 2 to 3 days otherwise until the papers degrade into a

Identif

Ingredients (%)

ication

9 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 24

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Mark

N Dr

Qua

men

rry

dust

GGBS

% of weight of cement

xit 10

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

Fixit

was selected nearer to the

302

casting place.  First

Super

Quarry

Latex

the

ingredients

dust/

GGBS

like were

placed.

 Then cement was placed over that ingredient. 1 .

2 .

3 .

2 P1

20%

 These two were dry mixed with 50ml

shovel thoroughly still uniform

color was formed.

2 P2

30%

50%

 Then the paper pulp, which was 50ml

in a wet condition, was placed

separately. Paper pulp should

contain less water. So the

50ml

excess water was squeezed out.

 The already mixed cement and GGBS/Quarry dust was placed

 Weigh batching was carried out

over the paper pulp and mixed

in this project .So the materials

thoroughly to get the uniform

were measured in Kilograms.

mix.

According to the particular

 There was no further water was

proportion the materials were

added separately unless it was

measured

kept

essential. The water in the pulp

separately .This was done just

was utilized for mixing the

before the mixing starts.

papercrete.

 Glows,

first

shoes,

and

masks

 After the mix, the required

were

wearied before the mixing.

amount of papercrete was taken

 Then, the non–water absorbing

to the site and the remaining

and smooth surface was made

amount was kept free from

for mixing.

evaporation. CASTING OF BRICKS

 Water was sprinkled over that surface. And this mixing place

10 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 25

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were carried out to check the properties of the bricks. And the results of the test were analyzed with the existing and standard results. The following tests were carried out to check the strength of the brick. WEIGHT Table : Weight of Papercrete Bricks S.No. 0f

Dry

Identification

Mark

GGBS

1.773

After mixing, it should be placed in the

1.842

mould within 30 minutes. So, two moulds

1.862

Weight (kg.)

Fig. Manufacturing of Brick

were used at the time to make the process very fast. The bricks were moulded manually by hand and on the table. The following are the steps involved in molding,  The mould was over a table  The lump of mix was taken and it was placed in the mould.  The extra or surplus mix was removed either by wooden strike or the metal strike or frame with wire.  The casted papercrete bricks dried for 14 days.

RESULT & DISCUSSION After casting the bricks, they were analyzed for using as a brick. Various tests 11 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 26

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specimen to room temperature and obtain its weight (M1) specimen too warm to touch shall not be used for this purpose. Immerse completely dried specimen in clean water at a

Water Absorption result in

temperature of 27+2C for 24 hours. Remove

% (24 hours)

the specimen and swipe out any traces of

Trail Mix

20%

30%

water with damp cloth and weigh the

50%

specimen after it has been removed from water 40.11%

33.85%

(M2)

23.74%

TABLE

WATER ABSORPTION TEST

OF PAPECRETE BRICKS

WATER ABSORPTION TEST

% OF WATER ABSORPTION

40.11 %

Fig. Weight of bricks-(P1,P2,P3)

33.85 %

The

ordinary

conventional

bricks

weight varies from 3 to 3.5 Kg but the fibrous concrete and padobe bricks weight varies from 1 to 2 Kg. The maximum weight is less than

23.74 %

G-20%

G-30%

G-50%

0 P1

P224 HOURSP3

2Kg only. In this above proportion GGBS is having 1/3 rdof the conventional brick weight

Fig. Water absorption test for Trial Mix

only. Sand based bricks are having weight 2/3 rd

COMPRESSION TEST

of conventional brick weight only. So this

bricks are light weight and it will also reduce total cost of construction due to the reduction in dead load. WATER ABSORBTION TEST Dry the specimen in ventilated oven at a temperature of 105C to 115C till it attains substantially

constant

mass.

Cool

the Fig. Compression test 12

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The test was carried out by a

was hold tightly without any

Compression Testing Machine. This test was

movement.  Then the load was applied

carried out on 14th day from the date of casting papercrete brick.

While testing the

axially at a uniform rate  This load was applied till the

papercrete brick great care must be taken, because

papercrete

catastrophically,

brick

never

failed

just compressed

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

half of the brick.  Three

bricks

from

same

squeezing rubber. So load was applied up to

proportion were tested every

half compression.

time.  And the compressive strength

When papercrete brick failed at the

was calculated by this formula,

higher load, the structure was not fully

Compression strength= (load/surface area)

collapsed. Only the outer faces cracked and peeled out. The papercrete brick are having elastic behavior and less brittleness.

Best Compressive Strength in Trial Mix

N/mm2

( 14 Days)

20%

30%

Fig. Brick after testing TABLE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

50%

PAPECRETE BRICKS 5.9

7.5

8.7

The following steps were followed for COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST COMPRESSIVE STRENTH IN N/mm2

compression testing. 10

 First the irregularities in the

surface were removed.

5.9N/ mm2

7.5N/ mm2

8.7N/ mm2

 The brick was placed centrally

G2…

on the bottom plate of the

universal testing machine.

 Then the upper plate of the

P2 14 DAYS P3

universal testing machine was Fig. Compression test for Trial Mix

lowered down up to the brick 13

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HARDNESS TEST In this test, a scratch was made on brick surfaces. This test was carried out for all the three proportions of brick. While the scratch was made with the help of finger nail on the bricks, very light impression was left on the fibrous concrete brick surface. So this test results that fibrous concrete bricks are sufficiently hard.

Fig. Inner structure of fibrous concrete brick

PRESENCE OF SOLUBLE SALTS The soluble salts, if presents in bricks

In this test fibrous concrete brick were

will cause efflorescence on the surface of

cut into equal parts. The fibrous concrete brick

bricks. For finding out the presence of soluble

piece structure was homogenous, compact,

salts in a brick, this test was carried out. In this

and free from defects and this brick pieces

test fibrous concrete brick were immersed in

look like a cake piece.

water for 24 hours. Then the bricks were taken

NAILING

out and allowed to dry in shade. And there was no any grey or white deposit on the bricks surface. It results that the bricks are free from soluble salts. SOUNDNESS TEST In this test two bricks from same proportion were taken and they were struck with each other. The bricks were not broken and a clear ringing sound was produced. So the bricks are good.

Fig. Nail in the brick

STRUCTURE TEST

Fibrous concrete bricks are less hard

In this test, the bricks were broken and

when compare to conventional bricks. So this

the structures of that bricks were examined,

test was carried out to find out whether bricks

whether they were free from any defects such

hold the nail or not. A nail was hammered in

as holes, lumps, etc.

the brick and a screw is also screwed in the 14

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ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

brick. In this two (Fig.6.8), fibrous concrete

Many cut bricks are wasted in now a

brick did not hold nails any better than dry

day. But the two fibrous concrete brick

wall, but screws worked well and hold a

pieces can be hold together by putting a

considerable weight. So, the screws are the

medium amount of glue on the bottom

anchors of choice for fibrous concrete bricks.

piece. This will not come apart (Fig.6.9.2). This

CUTTING AND GLUE

would

seem

indicate

that

papercrete could be used in application calling for quick assembly by cutting the pieces to size in advance and letting the user simply glue them together.

Fig. Brick pieces

PLUMBING AND ELECTRICAL

In site lot of bricks are wasted while cutting only. The labors could not able to cut the bricks exactly what they need. But, fibrous concrete bricks can be cut into exactly two pieces (Fig. 6.9.1) by using conventional saw blades. So, we can get any shape and size of fibrous concrete brick. Fig. Hole in the brick

Fig.6.9.2 Joined brick pieces 15 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 30

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fibrous concrete bricks not for padobe brick.

Fig.Channel in the brick Installing plumbing

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

lines

Because padobe brick was already heated in

requires

cutting holes and channels in papercrete. It

kiln at high temperature so, it won’t burn. The

was very easy in fibrous concrete bricks.

following are the steps involved in this test,

Electrical runs were cut with a circular saw

 First, the brick was wiped with

or chain saw. To make holes for outlets,

cloths and all the foreign

horizontals and vertical slits was cut with a

matters were removed.  Then the flammable sticks were

circular saw. Then unwanted pieces were removed with a screwdriver.

fired. After that, the bricks were held on the flame for five

Outlet boxes can be angle screwed

minutes.

directly into the papercrete. Home fires

 After five minutes fixing was

start, where the wiring enters the outlet

stopped and the bricks were

boxes.

observed. So, nonflammable mortar should be put behind the outlet boxes for safety.

From the above test, it was observed

Once the electrical wiring and outlets are

that the fibrous concrete bricks did not

installed and then tested, the channels for

burn with an open flame. They smoldered

the electrical runs are for filled with

like charcoal. But these brick would be

papercrete.

reduced to ashes after burning several

FIRE

hours. If the interior plaster and exterior stucco is provided on the fibrous concrete bricks, the bricks won’t burn. The only weak point is inside the block, near electrical outlets, switches and other places where wires gives through walls, into boxes etc.,. Properly wired places never

Fig. Fire test A

cause fire. If we apply the plaster without brick

which

used

any hole or leakage on the bricks, it won’t

for

burn or smolder inside. Because there will

construction should not flammable in open

be lack of oxygen for burning.

flame, so this test was carried out for the

CONCLUSIONS

bricks. This test was carried out only for 16

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 Using the papercrete brick in a

From the above experimental studies we can conclude that,

building, total cost will be reduced from 20% to 50%.

 Papercrete bricks are suitable REFERENCE

for non-load bearing walls only.

1. B J Fuller, AFafitis and J L Santamaria.

 The weight of this brick is 1/3

ISBN : 378 - 26 - 138420 - 6

2/5

lesser

(May 2006) “The Paper Alternative”,

than

ASCE Civil Engineering Vol. 75 No.5 pp.

conventional clay brick.

72-77.

 These bricks are not suitable

2. J Pera and J Ambroise (2005) “Properties

for water logging and external

of Calcined Paper Sludge”, Construction

walls. It can be used in inner

and Building MaterialsV0l.21, No.5 pp

partition walls.

405-413.

 Due to less weight of these

3. Lex

Terry,

(2006)“Papercrete

bricks, the total dead load of

Construction”- Building Environment and

the building will be reduced.

Thermal

 Since,

these

bricks

Envelope

Council

(BETEC)

are

Symposium was held on 13th to 16th

relatively light weight and

October 2006 at the Northen New mexico

more flexible, these bricks are

Community College in EIRito.

potentially ideal material for

4. M O’Farrell and S Wild. (2006) “A New

earthquake prone areas.  Papercrete

brick

does

Concrete incorporating Watepaper Sludge not

Ash

(WSA)”

Cement

Concrete

expand or contract, so sheets

CompositesVol.17, No.3 pp 149-158. ,

of glass or glass block can be

5. ParvizSoroushian et al (February 1994)

embedded in and trimmed

“Durability and Moisture Sensitivity of

with papercrete.

Recycled Wastepaper – Fiber – Cement

 The papercrete bricks are good

Composites”,

sound absorbent, hence paper

6. R.Garcia

these bricks can be used in

Properties

auditoriums.

Construction

 Since, the waste materials are it

will

reduce

Concrete

Composites Vol. 16 No.2 pp 115-128.

is used in these bricks. So,

used,

Cement

(2008)

Paper and

“Pozzolanic

Sludge

Building

Waste”, Materials,

Vol.22 No.7, July 2008, pp 1484 – 1490.

the

7. Tarun R Naik et al (January 2004)

landfills and pollution.

“Concrete Containing Pulp and Paper Mill 17

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Residuals”, Proceedings of International Conference on Fibre Composites, High Performance

Concretes

and

Smart

Materials, Chennai, pp 515-525. 8. IS: 3495-1992 (Part 1 to 4), “Methods of Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks”, Bureau of Indian Standards, Third Revision, New Delhi. 9. IS: 383-1970, “Specification for coarse and fine aggregates from natural sources for concrete”, Bureau of Indian Standards. New Delhi.

18 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 33

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VLSI BASED FAULT DETECTION & CORRECTION SCHEME FOR THE ADVANCED ENCRYPTION STANDARD USING COMPOSITE FIELD MR.G.MANIKANDAN 1 , MR. M. SURESH 2, K.ANURADHA3 1,2

transformations in the AES encryption include SubBytes (implemented by16 S-boxes), ShiftRows, MixColumns, and AddRoundKey. Further more, to obtain the original plaintext from the cipher ext, the AES decryption algorithm is utilized. The decryption transformations are the reverse of the encryption ones [1]. Among the transformations in the AES, only the S-boxes in the encryption and the inverse S-boxes in the decryption are nonlinear. It is interesting to note that these transformations occupy much of the total AES encryption/decryption area [1]. Therefore, the fault detection schemes for their hardware implementations play an important role in making the standard robust to the internal and malicious faults. There exist many schemes for detecting the faults in the hardware implementation of the AES .Among them, the schemes presented in are independent of the ways the AES S-box and inverse S-box are implemented in hardware. Moreover, there exist other fault detection schemes that are suitable for a specific implementation of the S-box and the inverse S-box. The approach in and the one in which is extended are based on using memories (ROMs) for the S-box and the inverse S-box. Moreover, a fault tolerant scheme which is resistant to fault attacks is presented . To protect the combinational logic blocks used in the four transformations of the AES, either the parity-based scheme proposed in or the duplication approach is implemented. Furthermore, to protect the memories used for storing the expanded key andt he state matrix, either the Hamming or Reedâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Solomon error correcting code is utilized. It is noted that our proposed fault detection approach is only applied to the composite field S-box and inverse S-box. Whereas, the scheme presented in uses memories. Using ROMs may not be preferable for high performance AES implementations. Therefore, for applications requiring high performance, the S-

Abstractâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the faults that accidently or maliciously occur in the hardware implementations of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) may cause erroneous encrypted/decrypted output. The use of appropriate fault detection schemes for the AES makes it robust to internal defects and fault attacks. In this paper, we present a lightweight concurrent fault detection scheme for the AES. In the proposed approach, the composite field S-box and inverse S-box are divided into blocks and the predicted parities of these blocks are obtained. Through exhaustive searches among all available composite fields, we have found the optimum solutions for the least overhead parity-based fault detection structures. Moreover, through our error injection simulations for one S-box(respectively inverse S-box), we show that the total error coverage of almost 100% for 16 S-boxes (respectively inverse S-boxes) can be achieved. Finally, it is shown that both the applicationspecific integrated circuit and field-programmable gate-array implementations of the fault detection structures using the obtained optimum composite fields, have better hardware and time complexities compared to their counterparts. I. INTRODUCTION THE Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) has been lately accepted by NIST [1] as the symmetric key standard for encryption and decryption of blocks of data. In encryption, the AES accepts a plaintext input, which is limited to 128 bits, and a key that can be specified to be 128 (AES-128), 192 or 256bits to generate the cipher text. In the AES-128, which is here after referred to as the AES, the cipher text is generated after10 rounds, where each encryption round (except for the final round) consists of four transformations. The four

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box and the inverse S-box are implemented using logic gates in composite fields . The schemes in are suitable for the composite field implementation of the S-box and the inverse S-box. The approach in is based on using the parity-based fault detection

method for a specific S-box using composite field and polynomial basis for covering all the single faults. In the scheme , the fault detection of the multiplicative inversion of the S-box is considered for two specific composite fields.

The transformation and affine matrices are excluded in this approach. Moreover, in [14], predicted parities have been used for the multiplicative inversion of a specific S-box using composite field and polynomial basis. Furthermore, the transformation matrices are also considered. Finally, in the parity-based approach in[15], through exhaustive search among all the fault detection S-boxes utilizing five predicted parities using normal basis, the most compact one is obtained.

transformation and affine matrices). It is interesting to note that the cost of our multi-bit parity prediction approach is lower than its counterparts which use single-bit parity. It a so has higher error coverage than the approaches using single-bit parities.We have implemented both the proposed fault detection S-box and inverse S-box and other counter parts. Our both ASIC and FPGA implementation results show that compared to the approaches presented in[13] and [14], the complexities of the proposed fault detection scheme are lower. • Through exhaustive searches, we obtain the least area and delay overhead fault detection structures for the optimum composite fields using both polynomial basis and normal basis. While in [15], only the S-box using normal basis has been considered. • The proposed fault detection scheme is simulated and we show that the error coverages of close to

The contributions of this paper are as follows. • We have presented a low-cost parity-based fault detection scheme for the S-box and the inverse S-box using composite fields. In the presented approach, for increasing the error coverage, the predicted parities of the five blocks of the S-box and the inverse S-box are obtained (three predicted parities for the multiplicative inversion and two for the

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100% for 16 S-boxes (respectively inverse S-boxes) can be obtained. â&#x20AC;˘ Finally, we have implemented the fault detection hardware structures of the AES using both 0.18- m CMOS technology and on Xilinx Virtex-II Pro FPGA. It is shown that the fault detection scheme using the optimum polynomial and normal bases have lower complexities than those using other composite fields for both with and without fault detection capability.

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implementation complexities of different blocks of the S-box and the inverse S-box and those for their predicted parities are dependent on the choice of the coefficients and in the irreducible polynomials and used for the composite fields. Our goal in the following is to find and for the composite fields and for the composite fields so that the area complexity of theentire fault detection implementations becomes optimum. According to [21], 16 the possible combinations for and exist. Moreover, for the composite fields , we have exhaustively searched and have found the possible choices for making the polynomial irreducible. These parameters determine the complexities of some blocks as explained next. Blocks 1 and 5: Based on the possible values of and in ( in ), the transformation matrices in Fig. 1 in blocks 1 and 5 of the S-box and the inverse S-box can be constructed using the algorithm presented in [21]. Using an exhaustive search, eight base elements in (or ) to which eight base elements of are mapped, are found to construct the transformation matrix. In [22], the Hamming weights, i.e., the number of nonzero elements, of the transformation matrices for the case and different values of in are obtained. It is noted that in [21], instead of considering the Hamming weights, subexpression sharing is suggested for obtaining the low-complexity implementations for the S-box. Here, we have also considered these transformation matrices for as well as the transformation matrices for the inverse S-box for different values of and and have derived their area and delay complexities. Moreover, the gate count and the critical path delay for blocks 1 and 5 and their predicted parities, i.e., and , of the S-box and the inverse S-box in have been obtained. Blocks 2 and 4: As shown in Fig. 1, block 2 of the Sbox and the inverse S-box consists of a multiplication, an addition, a squaring and a multiplication by constant in . We present the following lemma for deriving the predicted parity of the multiplication in , using which the predicted parities of blocks 2 and 4 in Fig. 1 are obtained. Lemma 1: Let and be the inputs of a multiplier in . The predicted parities of the result of the multiplication of and in for and are as follows, respectively.

II. PRELIMINARIES In this section, we describe the S-box and the inverse S-box operations and their compositefield realizations. The S-box and the inverse S-box are nonlinear operations which take 8-bit inputs and generate 8-bit outputs. In the S-box, the irreducible polynomial of is used to construct the binary field . Let and be the input and the output of the S-box, respectively, where is a root of , i.e., . Then, the Sbox consists of the multiplicative inversion, followed by an affine transformation [1]. Moreover, let and be the input and the output of the inverse S-box, respectively. Then, the inverse Sbox consists of an inverse affine transformation followed by the multiplicative inversion. The composite fields can be represented using normal basis or polynomial basis . The S-box and inverse Sbox for the polynomial and normal bases are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. As shown in these figures, for the S-box using polynomial basis (respectively normal basis), the transformation matrix (respectively 1) transforms a field element in the binary field to the corresponding representation in the composite fields . It is noted that the result of in Fig. 1 (respectively in Fig. 2) is obtained using the irreducible polynomial of (respectively ). III. FAULT DETECTION SCHEME To obtain low-overhead parity prediction, we have divided the S-box and the inverse S-box into five blocks as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. In these figures, the modulo-2 additions, consisting of 4 XOR gates, are shown by two concentric circles with a plus inside. Furthermore, the multiplications in are shown by rectangles with crosses inside. Let be the output of the block denoted by dots in Figs. 1 and 2 for the Sbox. As seen in Fig. 1 and . Similarly, from Fig. 2, , and . One can replace with and with for the inverse Sbox. In the following, we have exhaustively searched for the least overhead parity predictions of these blocks denoted by in Figs. 1 and 2. A. The S-Box and the Inverse S-Box Using Polynomial Basis The

IV. ASIC AND FPGA IMPLEMENTATIONS AND COMPARISONS In this section, we compare the areas and the delays of the presented scheme with those of the previously reported ones in both both applicationspecific integrated circuit (ASIC) and fieldprogrammable gate array (FPGA) implementations. We have implemented the S-boxes using memories and the ones presented in [20] (the

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hardware optimization of [17]), [18], and [22] which use polynomial basis representation in composite fields. We have also implemented the fault detection schemes proposed in [2], [8] (both united and paritybased), and [10] which are based on the ROM-based implementation of the S-box. The results of the implementations for both original and fault detection scheme (FDS) in terms of delay and area have been tabulated in Tables II and III. As seen in these tables, the original structures are not divided into blocks and full optimization of the original entire architecture as a single block is performed in both ASIC and FPGA. This allows us to find the actual overhead of the presented fault detection scheme as compared to the original structures which are not divided into five blocks. We have used 0.18- m CMOS technology for the ASIC implementations. These architectures have been coded in VHDL as the design entry to the Synopsys Design Analyzer. The results are tabulated in Table II. Moreover, for the FPGA implementations in Table III, the Xilinx Virtex-II Pro FPGA (xc2vp27) [24] is utilized in the Xilinx ISE version 9.1i. Furthermore, the synthesis is performed using the XST. we have implemented the fault detection scheme presented in [2] and [8] based on using redundant units for the S-box (united S-box). Furthermore, the fault detection scheme proposed in [10] is implemented. This scheme uses 512 9 memory cells to generate the predicted parity bit and the 8-bit output of the S-box [10]. One can obtain from Tables II and III that for both of these schemes, the area overhead is more than 100%. As mentioned in the introduction, the approach in [11] utilizes the scheme in [10] for protecting the combinational logic elements, whose implementation results are also shown in Tables II and III. Additionally, for certain AES implementations containing storage elements, one can use the error correcting code-based approach presented in [11] in addition to the proposed scheme in this paper to make a more reliable AES implementation. Moreover, the parity-based scheme in [8] which only realizes the multiplicative inversion using memories is implemented. As seen in these tables, we have also implemented the schemes in [13]

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and [14]. It is noted that the scheme in [13] is for the multiplicative inversion and does not present the parity predictions for the transformation matrices. Moreover, we have applied the presented fault detection scheme to the S-boxes in [18] and [22]. As seen in bold faces in Tables II and III, with the error coverage of close to 100%, the presented lowcomplexity fault detection S-boxes (presented in Section III) are the most compact ones among the other S-boxes. The optimum S-box and inverse S-box using normal basis have the least hardware complexity with the fault detection scheme. Moreover, as seen in the tables, the optimum structures using composite fields and polynomial basis ( and ) have the least post place and route timing overhead among other schemes. It is noted that using sub-pipelining for the presented fault detection scheme in this paper, one can reach much more faster hardware implementations of the composite field fault detection structures V. CONCLUSION In this paper, we have presented a high performance parity based concurrent fault detection scheme for the AES using the S-box and the inverse S-box in composite fields. Using exhaustive searches, we have found the least complexity S-boxes and inverse S-boxes as well as their fault detection circuits. Our error simulation results show that very high error coverages for the presented scheme are obtained. Moreover, a number of fault detection schemes from the literature have been implemented on ASIC and FPGA and compared with the ones presented here. Our implementations show that the optimum S-boxes and the inverse S-boxes using normal basis are more compact than the ones using polynomial basis. However, the ones using polynomial basis result in the fastest implementations. We have also implemented the AES encryption using the proposed fault detection scheme. The results of the ASIC and FPGA mapping show that the costs of the presented scheme are reasonable with acceptable post place and route delays.

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SCREEN SHOTS

Hexa Decimal Input

Hexa Decimal Input Operation

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Encription Output In Hexa Decimal

Encription Output In Binary

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REFERENCES

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[12] M. Mozaffari-Kermani and A. ReyhaniMasoleh, “Parity-based fault detection architecture of S-box for advanced encryption standard,” in Proc. DFT, Oct. 2006, pp. 572–580. [13] S.-Y. Wu and H.-T. Yen, “On the S-box architectures with concurrent error detection for the advanced encryption standard,” IEICE Trans.Fundam. Electron., Commun. Comput. Sci., vol. E89-A, no. 10, pp. 2583–2588, Oct. 2006. [14] A. E. Cohen, “Architectures for Cryptography Accelerators,” Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Minnesota, Twin Cities, Sep. 2007. [15] M. Mozaffari-Kermani and A. ReyhaniMasoleh, “A lightweight concurrent fault detection scheme for the AES S-boxes using normal basis,” in Proc. CHES, Aug. 2008, pp. 113–129. [16] D. Canright, “A very compact S-box for AES,” in Proc. CHES, Aug. 2005, pp. 441–455. [17] A. Satoh, S. Morioka, K. Takano, and S. Munetoh, “A compact Rijndael hardware architecture with S-box optimization,” in Proc. ASIACRYPT, Dec. 2001, pp. 239–254. [18] J.Wolkerstorfer, E. Oswald, and M. Lamberger, “An ASIC implementation of the AES SBoxes,” in Proc. CT-RSA, 2002, pp. 67–78. [19] V. Rijmen, Dept. ESAT, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Efficient Implementation of the Rijndael S-Box, 2000. [20] X. Zhang and K. K. Parhi, “High-speed VLSI architectures for the AES algorithm,” IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. (VLSI) Syst., vol. VLSI-12, no. 9, pp. 957–967, Sep. 2004. [21] X. Zhang and K. K. Parhi, “On the optimum constructions of composite field for the AES algorithm,” IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II, Exp. Briefs, vol. 53, no. 10, pp. 1153–1157, Oct. 2006. [22] N. Mentens, L. Batina, B. Preneel, and I. Verbauwhede, “A systematic evaluation of compact hardware implementations for the Rijndael S-box,” in Proc. CT-RSA, Feb. 2005, pp. 323–333. [23] L. Breveglieri, I. Koren, and P. Maistri, “An operation-centered approach to fault detection in symmetric cryptography ciphers,” IEEE Trans. Computers, vol. C-56, no. 5, pp. 534–540, May 2007. [24] Xilinx [Online]. Available: http://www.xilinx.com/

[1] National Institute of Standards and Technologies, Announcing the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) FIPS 197, Nov. 2001. [2] R. Karri, K. Wu, P. Mishra, and K. Yongkook, “Fault-based side-channel cryptanalysis tolerant Rijndael symmetric block cipher architecture,” in Proc. DFT, Oct. 2001, pp. 418–426. [3] R. Karri, K. Wu, P. Mishra, and Y. Kim, “Concurrent error detection schemes for fault-based side-channel cryptanalysis of symmetric block ciphers,” IEEE Trans. Comput.-Aided Des. Integr. Circuits Syst., vol. 21, no. 12, pp. 1509–1517, Dec. 2002. [4] A. Satoh, T. Sugawara, N. Homma, and T. Aoki, “High-performance concurrent error detection scheme for AES hardware,” in Proc. CHES, Aug. 2008, pp. 100–112. [5] L. Breveglieri, I. Koren, and P. Maistri, “Incorporating error detection and online reconfiguration into a regular architecture for the advanced encryption standard,” in Proc. DFT, Oct. 2005, pp. 72–80. [6] M. Karpovsky, K. J. Kulikowski, and A. Taubin, “Differential fault analysis attack resistant architectures for the advanced encryption standard,” in Proc. CARDIS, Aug. 2004, vol. 153, pp. 177–192. [7] P. Maistri and R. Leveugle, “Double-data-rate computation as a countermeasure against fault analysis,” IEEE Trans. Computers, vol. 57, no. 11, pp. 1528–1539, Nov. 2008. [8] C. H. Yen and B. F.Wu, “Simple error detection methods for hardware implementation of advanced encryption standard,” IEEE Trans. Computers, vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 720–731, Jun. 2006. [9] G. Bertoni, L. Breveglieri, I. Koren, P. Maistri, and V. Piuri, “A parity code based fault detection for an implementation of the advanced encryption standard,” in Proc. DFT, Nov. 2002, pp. 51–59. [10] G. Bertoni, L. Breveglieri, I. Koren, P. Maistri, and V. Piuri, “Error analysis and detection procedures for a hardware implementation of the advanced encryption standard,” IEEE Trans. Computers, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 492–505, Apr. 2003. [11] C. Moratelli, F. Ghellar, E. Cota, and M. Lubaszewski, “A fault-tolerant DFA-resistant AES core,” in Proc. ISCAS, 2008, pp. 244–247.

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NANO MATERIALS FILLED POLYMERS FOR REDUCING THE THERMAL PEAK TEMPERATURE IN A VEHICLE SIDHARTH RADHAKRISHNAN *, SUDHIRNAATH1 *UG Student, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RMK Engineering College, Chennai. 1

UG Student Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, RMK Engineering College, Chennai.

time is 10 min, 1 g of SWNTs can besynthesized per day by this method. The SWNTs arecharacterized by high-resolution transmission electronmicroscopy and by Raman spectroscopy, showing the quality and the quantity of products.The catalytic decomposition method was suitable for scaling up and for achieving a "controlled production" of SWNT. By this we implied the ability to control the selectivity towards SWNT by changing catalyst parameters and operating conditions, all combined with the ability to obtain a reliable quantitative measurement of the amount of SWNT produced.The CVD processes offer the best approach to the manufacturing of larger SWNT quantities, with perhaps the most scalable being the CoMoCAT process which uses a fluidized bed reactor ( similar to those used in petroleum refining, albeit, on a much smaller scale.

1. INTRODUCTION There is an increasing demand for fuel nowadays and it is soonexpected that there will be an acute shortage in the fuel that weare using at present. Hence there is a need to optimize the fuelusage. Almost 10% of fuel in a vehicle is used for maintaining thetemperature within it for the comfort level of the passengers andthe main factor that influences this is the air conditioner in thevehicle. have made a carbon nano tube which is blasted withGraphite vapors forming a chicken wired structure. It is thencondensed with a polymer, which brings up the required behavior of the material i.e. it can act both as a sun proof sheetor as a normal transparent sheet (allows sunlight to pass through) according to the requirement. This can be stuck to thewindow pane. Now a voltage of 5V is given to change itsbehaviour from sun proof sheet to normal sheet and vice versa.This eliminates the peak thermal temperature attained in thevehicle when parked and hence the work load of the AC isabruptly reduced. 2.FABRICATION OF CNT Carbon nano tubes are tubular fibrous structures composedentirely of graphitic carbon planes. The carbon –carbon doublebonds form a hexagon shape within the lamellar graphite planesthat resemble common chicken wire. The orientation of thegraphite planes is parallel to the fiber axis along with theseamless nature of tube structure that enables their extrememechanical properties. This can be done by ball milling or bynormal chemical vapor Deposition method. It is then condensedwith a polymer such as SMP (Shape memory polymer) to get the requiredproperty.Large quantities of SWNTs can be synthesized by catalyticdecomposition of methane over well-dispersed metal particlessupported on MgO at 1000°C. The thus produced SWNTs can beseparated easily from the support by a simple acidic treatment toobtain a product with high yields (70–80%) of SWNTs. Because the typical synthesis

Fig .1 SCALABLE PROCESS

An illustration of a fluidized bed reactor which is able to scale up the generation of SWNTs using the CoMoCATprocess.In this CoMoCAT method, SWNT are grown by CO disproportionate

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(decomposition into C and CO2) at 700-950ºC in flow of pure CO at a total pressure that typically ranges from 1 to 10 atm.A process was developed that is able to grow significant amounts of SWNT in less than one hour, keeping selectivity towards SWNT better than 90 percent. We discovered a synergistic effect between Co and Mo that is critical for the performance of the catalyst. The catalyst is effective when both metals are simultaneously present on a silica support with a low Co: Mo: separated, they are unselectiveshows the selective synthesis of a SWNT using the CoMoCAT method.

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product of the CoMoCAT process the dual benefit of low cost and high product quality. This supported catalyst approach also offers the unique ability to provide a substantial degree of chirality control during synthesis.SMPs can retain two or sometimes three shapes, and the transition between those is induced by temperature. In addition to temperature change, the shape change of SMPs can also be triggered by an electric or magnetic field, light or solution. As well as polymers in general, SMPs also cover a wide property-range from stable to biodegradable, from soft to hard, and from elastic to rigid, depending on the structural units that constitute the SMP. SMPs include thermoplastic and thermoset (covalently cross-linked) polymeric materials. SMPs are known to be able to store up to three different shapes in memory. SMPs have demonstrated recoverable strains of above 800%.

2.1 Electro-active SMPs This SMP is used in this project.The use of electricity to activate the shape-memory effect of polymers is desirable for applications where it would not be possible to use heat and is another active area of research. Some current efforts use conducting SMP composites with carbon nanotubes short carbon fibers (SCFs). Carbon black, metallic Ni powder. These conducting SMPs are produced by chemically surface-modifying multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) in a mixed solvent of nitric acid and sulfuric acid, with the purpose of improving the interfacial bonding between the polymers and the conductive fillers. The shape-memory effect in these types of SMPs have been shown to be dependent on the filler content and the degree of surface modification of the MWNTs, with the surface modified versions exhibiting good energy conversion efficiency and improved mechanical properties.Another technique being investigated involves the use of surface-modified superparamagnetic nanoparticles. When introduced into the polymer matrix, remote actuation of shape transitions is possible.

Fig 2 SWNT

Fig.3 Diameter Distribution from Fluorescence Analysis

The Histogram for SG 65 material shows the very narrow distribution of SWNT diameters possible with the CoMoCAT process. 90% of the tubes have a diameter between 0.72 and 0.92 nm. 52% of the tubes are (6,5) chirality.

2.1.1 SYNTHESIS OF SHAPE MEMORY POLYMERS: Preparation of Poly actide based urethane:

Two of the unique characteristics of the CoMoCAT process are that it is readily scalable and its intrinsic high selectivity is preserved as the reactor size is scaled up. These characteristics impart the SWNT

(i)Materials required: l‐lactide, 1,4‐Butanediol(BDO) , stannous octate (Sn(Oct)2),Hexamthylene diisocyanate (HDI) ,

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toluene which is dried over Na wire and distilled before use ,Ethyl Acetate which is dried over CaH2 before use. (ii)Preparation of poly(l-lactide) diol (HO-PLAOH) l-lactide was recrystallized in ethyl acetate for three times. It was then added to a glass container which had been flame-dried and equipped with a magnetic stirring bar. A toluene solution of 1,4Butanediol(BDO) and Sn

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A certain amount of the above prepared poly(l‐lactide) diol (PLA diol ) was dissolved in double volume of toluene and heated at 75 °C for 20 min. Sn(Oct)2 (1% of the PLA diol, mol/mol) in dried toluene and a given amount of Hexamthylene diisocyanate (HDI) were added to the solution. After stirring for 10 min at 75 °C, 1,4‐butanediol (BDO), the mole number of which was equal to the molar difference between HDI and PLA diol, was added and the reaction mixture was stirred for another 6 h. The polymer was isolated by dissolving the reaction mixture in chloroform followed by precipitation in ethanol.

Fig. 5 CARBON NANO TUBE CHICKEN WIRED STRUCTURE

3.ADVANTAGES According to the statistics published, there is a consumption of about 40 billion liters of gasoline/ year for the usage of airconditioners alone, assuming 80% of vehicles use AC. Even anincrease of 0.4 km/liter will save around $6 billion annually. The results of a study showsthat the fuel consumption of the test vehicles with air conditioning systems in operation increases with rising ambientair temperature and humidity, reaching a value of about 18 percent on a typical Swiss summer day with an air temperature of27 degrees and relative humidity of about 60%.

Fig 4 Deformation under loading and unloading

(Oct)2(0.3% of the BDO, mol/mol) was then transferred. An equal amount of toluene was then injected into the container. The reaction vessel was immersed into a thermostatic oil bath maintained at 125 °C for 24 h. The reaction product was precipitated into ethanol, filtered and dried at 40 °C in vacuum for 48 h.

4.CONCLUSION Using the CNT sheets in the window pane isfollowed, then around 20 billion liters of fuel can be saved in ayear approximately and the efficiency of the vehicle will have an increase of 5-7% from the normal value.

(iii)Preparation of poly (l‐lactide) polyurethane (PLAU)

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Sorting by Sequence-Dependent Assembly".Science302 (5650): 1545–1548.

DNA

Lendlein, A., Kelch, S. (2002). "Shape-memory polymers".Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.41: 2034–2057. Mohr, R. et al. (2006). "Initiation of shape-memory effect by inductive heating of magnetic nanoparticles in thermoplastic polymers" (free-download). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.103 (10): 3540–3545.. Lendlein, A. et al. (2005). "Light-induced shapememory polymers".Nature434 (7035): 879–882. JinsongLeng, HaibaoLv, Yanju Liu and Shanyi Du. (2008). "Comment on "Water-driven programable polyurethane shape memory polymer: Demonstration and mechanism"". Appl. Phys. Lett.92: 206105.b Toensmeier, P.A., "Shape memory polymers reshape product design", Plastics Engineering. 2 April 2009 Voit, W., T. Ware, et al. (2010)."High-Strain ShapeMemory Polymers."Advanced Functional Materials 20(1): 162-171.

REFERENCES: Sen, S.; Puri, Ishwar K (2004). "Flame synthesis of carbon nanofibers and nanofibers composites containing encapsulated metal particles". Nanotechnology15 (3): 264–268. Naha, Sayangdev, Sen, Swarnendu, De, Anindya K., and Puri, Ishwar K. (2007)."A detailed model for the Flame synthesis of carbon nanotubes and nanofibers".Proceedings of The Combustion Institute31: 1821–29.. Yamada T, Namai T, Hata K, Futaba DN, Mizuno K, Fan J, et al. (2006). "Size-selective growth of doublewalled carbon nanotube forests from engineered iron catalysts". Nature Nanotechnology1: 131–136. MacKenzie KJ, Dunens OM, Harris AT (2010). "An updated review of synthesis parameters and growth mechanisms for carbon nanotubes in fluidized beds".Industrial & Engineering Chemical Research49: 5323–38. Jakubek LM, Marangoudakis S, Raingo J, Liu X, Lipscombe D, Hurt RH (2009). "The inhibition of neuronal calcium ion channels by trace levels of yttrium released from carbon nanotubes". Biomaterials30: 6351–6357. Hou P-X, Liu C, Cheng H-M (2008). "Purification of carbon nanotubes".Carbon46: 2003–2025. Ebbesen TW, Ajayan PM, Hiura H, Tanigaki K (1994)."Purification of nanotubes".Nature367 (6463): 519.. Xu Y-Q, Peng H, Hauge RH, Smalley RE (2005). "Controlled multistep purification of single-walled carbon nanotubes".Nano Letters5: 163–168 Meyer-Plath A, Orts-Gil G, Petrov S et al. (2012). "Plasma-thermal purification and annealing of carbon nanotubes".Carbon50: 3934–3942.. Arnold, Michael S.; Green, Alexander A.; Hulvat, James F.; Stupp, Samuel I.; Hersam, Mark C. (2006). "Sorting carbon nanotubes by electronic structure using density differentiation".Nature Nanotechnology1 (1): 60–5. Tanaka, Takeshi; Jin, Hehua; Miyata, Yasumitsu; Fujii, Shunjiro; Suga, Hiroshi; Naitoh, Yasuhisa; Minari, Takeo; Miyadera, Tetsuhiko et al. (2009). "Simple and Scalable Gel-Based Separation of Metallic and Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes".. T.Tanaka. "New, Simple Method for Separation of Metallic and Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes". Zheng, M.; Jagota, A; Strano, MS; Santos, AP; Barone, P; Chou, SG; Diner, BA; Dresselhaus, MS et al. (2003). "Structure-Based Carbon Nanotube

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RTOS Based Electronics Industrial Temperature and Humidity Monitoring using ARM Processor A. Prasath

P. Dhakshinamoorthi

PG Scholar M.E - Embedded System Technologies Nandha Engineering College Erode, Tamilnadu, India sivaprasath15@gmail.com

PG Scholar M.E - Embedded System Technologies Nandha Engineering College Erode, Tamilnadu, India dhakshinamoorthi08@gmail.com

patching to kernel. So the system updates also possible when it required. The ARM Controller is latest one and it support higher end applications now a days. In here we can choose the ARM controller ported with real timeoperating system(RTLinux).The system connected through the wireless sensor network for monitoring remote area. RTLinux is a preemptive, hard real-time deterministic multitasking kernel for ARM Controller. RTLinux running with Linux command and ANSI C source code for system and compilation.RTLinux can runs on more number of tasks by patching as our requirement. RTLinux performs inter-process communication (like semaphores, message queuesand mailbox), timer management and memory management. It supports for monitoring and controlling the environment by getting information from sensed value of electronics manufacturing industriesby guidance of the Engineers. The complete architecture of this paper has beendivided into 3 parts: the system hardwaredetails, software detail and finally the conclusion.

Abstract--The main of this paper is to monitor the temperature and humidity values in manufacturing electronic plants and assembling environment. The temperature and humidity are the key issues in manufacturing electronics plant and it leads to loss in production. This paper aims to provide a solution to this problem by remote monitoring of the temperature and humidity levels of different area of the plant with the help of the Wireless Senor Network Module and thesystem implemented withARM processor with porting of Linux based real time operating system. Here in addition, thebuzzerfacility is there tointimationsoundswhen over limit and SD cardfor further reference and to stores the data instantly and contiguous. These things make the electronic industries to manufacture the device ideal. Keywords--ARM Processor,RTLinux, Communication Protocol, Gateway, SD card.

WSN,RTC(DS1307),

I. INTRODUCTION Recently the electronics industries and others facing major production fault due to temperature and humidity, thus temperature cause more defects like improper soldering joints, extra oxidation of boards and bridging, solder components. Even though the environment, particularly some machines like solder paste refrigerator and desiccators for storage of paste and bare PCB respectively also have to control over these parameters. Also some factory looking to control their machineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s temperature with certain level to improve the efficiency of the particular machine, such a case some time lead unexpected accident, low product quality and more. Hence now the monitoring and control system established with LabView tool and interfaces of microcontroller. But the authors have coming to share their ideas in this paper, to implement the monitoring and allotment the temperature and humidity system with ARM with porting of RTLinux. The system which is implemented with RTOS is having multitasking capability to monitor multiple tasks and controlling it. Also the system can add more applications by

II. HARDWARE DETAILS Real-Time Module includes support for USB storage devices, such as thumb drives and external USB hard drives, for RT targets that have onboard USB hardware refer Fig 1.

Fig 1.Block diagram of industrial monitoring system

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The wireless gateway function in here is to receive the task from sensors and pass the task to ARM Processor.

A.ARM PROCESSOR ARM designs microprocessor technology that lies at the heart of advanced digital products, from mobile phones and digital cameras to games consoles and automotive systems, and is leading intellectual property (IP) provider of highperformance, low-cost, power-efficient RISC processors, peripherals, and system-on-chip (SoC) designs through involvement with organizations such as the Virtual Socket Interface Alliance (VSIA) and Virtual Component Exchange (VCX). ARM also offers design and software consulting services.

E.RTC (DS1307) The DS1307 Serial Real time clock(RTC) counts seconds, minutes, hours, day of the week, date, month and year.The purpose of an RTC or a real time clock is to provide precise time and date which can be used for various applications. RTC is an electronic device in the form of an Integrated Chip (IC) available in various packaging options. It is powered by an internal lithium battery. As a result of which even if the power of the system is turned off, the RTC clock keeps running. It plays a very important role in the real time systems like digital clock, attendance system, digital camera etc. In applications where time stamp is needed, RTC is a good option. Using RTC for designing such application has always been a good designer’s choice although the beginning might be a bit difficult.While designing any real time system which deals with time, there are two ways of handling the time factor. One is to generate the time internally which is done by programming the timers of the controller and the other is to use an RTC. The RTC is low power, 56 bytes of non-volatile RAM for data storage, 2 serial interface wire in bi-directional and 8 pin Dual Inline Package. The battery backup mode is less than 500nA and it has automatic power switching to battery when power fails at 2 5 °C. The RTC operates in industrial temperature range from 4 0 °C to +85°C. It is used in TV, VCR and phonenumber recall. The DS1307 RTC is connected to ARM controller using I²C bus with time counters refer Table 1.

ARM7 processor family continues to be used today for simple 32-bit devices, newer digital designs are increasingly making use of the newer, more powerful and feature-rich ARM processors which offer significant technical enhancements over the ARM7 family. System designers wishing to upgrade from ARM7 benefit from a robust ARM processor roadmap providing multiple upgrade options, including the latest Cortex processors.In most cases migration is straightforward, and brings significant benefits in PPA, features and efficiency. ARM's architecture is compatible with all four major platform operating systems: Symbian OS, Palm OS, Windows CE, and Linux. As for software, ARM also works closely with its partners to provide optimized solutions for existing market segments. B. TEMPERATURE SENSOR The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not required any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of ±¼°C at room temperature and ±¾°cover a full -55 to +150°C temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level

UNIT

COUNTING CYCLE

CARRY TO NEXT UNIT

Seconds Minutes Hours(24) Hours(12)

00 to 59 00 to 59 00 to 23 12AM 01 AM to 11 AM 12PM 01 PM to 11 PM

59 to 00 59 to 99 23 to 00 -

Date

C. HUMIDITY SENSOR Humidity is the presence of water in air. The amount of water vapor in air can affect human comfort as well as many manufacturing processes in industries. The presence of water vapor alsoinfluences various physical, chemical, and biological processes. Humidity measurement in industries is critical because it may affect the business cost of the product and the health and safety of the personnel. Hence, humidity sensing is very important, especially in the control systems for industrial processes and human comfort. Controlling or monitoring humidity is of paramount importance in many industrial & domestic applications. In semiconductor industry, humidity or moisture levels needs to be properly controlled & monitored during wafer processing

Months Years Weekdays Timer

01 to 31 01 to 30 01 to 29 01 to 28 01 to 12 01 to 03 0 to 6 00 to 99

CONTENT OF THE MONTH COUNTER -

11PM to 12AM 31 to 01 30 to 01 29 to 01 28 to 01 12 to 01 6 to 0 No carry

1,3,5,7,8,10,12 4,6,9,11,

Table 1.Cycle length of the time counters, clock modes

F.SD Card The SD-memory card is non-volatile flash memory, portable device used in mobile, computer and other consumer appliances. It gives high security, memory size can vary depends on cost, used in audio and video recording. The SD-memory card is a Secure Digital Input Output (SDIO) card, it support data protection, avoid the duplication sensed value in same timing and security systems based on identification cards in International standard ISOD. GATEWAY 7816. An embedded version of MMC is eMMC, according to The wireless gateways from Comcast provide the the JESD84-A43. The interfacing of SD card with ARM using functionality of a Wi-Fi router and voice modem in a single Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) bus and operates in 3.3volts device. The wireless gateway functions such as firewall, port in Table 2. It offers up to 8-bit wide interface and can be forwarding, port blocking, diagnostic tools and WI-FI applied in SD-memory card compatible hardware interfaces. Protected Setup. It gives a secure wireless home network and While the SD-memory card adds an advanced data storage connects your computers, laptops, and other Wi-Fi electronic functions to an application and easily accessible. products (such CONFERENCE as game systems, tablets, or mobileINphones). 2nd INTERNATIONAL ON CURRENT TRENDS ENGINEERING RESEARCH 46

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assembler and linker operation of embedded product in real time in fig 2.

PIN NUMBER

NAME

TYPE

DESCRIPTION

NCS

SPI card select (CS) (negative logic)

SPI serial (MOSI)

VSS

Ground

VDD

Power

CLK

SPI serial (SCLK)

VSS

Ground

SPI serial data out (MISO)

NC nIRQ

Unused

data

clock

Fig 2.RTLinux Operating System Table 2.SPI Interfacing pins for SD memory card

RTLinux design objective is that the system should be transparent, modular, and extensible. Transparency means that there are no unopenable black boxes and the cost of any operation should be determinable. Modularity means that it is possible to omit functionality and the expense of that functionality if it is not needed. The base RTLinux system supports high speed interrupt handling and no more. And extensibility means that programmers should be able to add modules and tailor the system to their requirements. It has simple priority scheduler that can be easily replaced by schedulers more suited to the needs of some specific application. When developing RTLinux, it was designed to maximize the advantage we get from having Linux and its powerful capabilities available.

G. BUZZER Buzzer is an audio signaling device and it is mechanical, electromechanical or piezoelectric. It is used as alarm device in timing manner and confirmation of user input from personnel computer or other devices by making sound. Buzzer is connected to ARM using one wire connecting wire. H.LED Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor light sources and it has two terminals. The light emitted from LEDs varies from visible to infrared and ultraviolet regions. They operate on low voltage and power. LEDs are one of the most common electronic components and are mostly used as indicators of circuit. LED display the monitoring value of temperature and pressure in real time environment.

RTLinux functions schedule a priority scheduler that supports both a "lite POSIX" interface described below and the original V1 RTLinux API, which controls the processor clocks and exports an abstract interface for connecting handlers to clocks. It posix IO supports POSIX style read/write/open interface to device drivers, FIFO connects RT tasks and interrupt handlers to Linux processes through a device layer so that Linux processes can read/write to RT components. RTLinux is a semaphore contributed package by Jerry Epplin which gives RT tasks blocking semaphores and POSIX mutex support is planned to be available in the next minor version update of RTLinux. RTLinuxMemorybuffer is a contributed package written by Tomasz Motylewski for providing shared memory between RT components and Linux processes

III. SOFTWARE DETAIL It is a written description of a software product, that a software designer writes in order to give a software development team overall guidance to the architecture of the software project. An SDD usually accompanies an architecture diagram with pointers to detailed feature specifications of smaller pieces of the design. Practically, a design document is required to coordinate a large team under a single vision. A design document needs to be a stable reference, outlining all parts of the software and how they will work.

A. RTLinux RTLinuxis open source hard real-time RTOS microkernel.The function of the RTLinux is mostly depends on kernel. The programming of RTLinux is written in Linux command and C coding. It is portable, scalable, preemptive, high-performance interrupt handling and multitasking kernel. It is developed for commercial purpose by FSM Lab andWind River System and it has connectivity with GUI and File Systems. It is multi-environment real time kernel running in core environment and supports multiple porting of devices. It is easy to implement and highly secure real time system. It supports processors and controllers embedded applications in real time. RTLinux program coding supports compiler,

And the other application supporting codes are can develop with C and C++ language which are generally used for development of usual general purpose and special purpose system. IV. COMMUNICATIONS PROTOCOL All communications between devices require that the devices agree on the format of the data. The set of rules defining a format is called a protocol. Communication protocols cover authentication, error detection and correction, and signaling. They can also describe the syntax, semantics, and synchronization of analog and digital communications.. There are thousands of communication protocols that are used

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everywhere in analog and digital communications.It supports both wired and wireless communication.

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1-Wire bus. The 8-bit family code, a subset of the 64-bit ID, identifies the device type and functionality. Typically, 1-Wire slave devices operate over the voltage range of 2.8V (min) to 5.25V (max). Most 1-Wire devices have no pin for power supply; they take their energy from the 1-Wire bus (parasitic supply). It is a unidirectional bus and it is connects the LED display to ARM processor.

A. SPI BUS SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) bus is a low power, full duplex, master-slave interfacing bus. It is solid role in embedded systems whether it is system on chip processors, both with higher end 32-bit processors such as those using ARM, MIC or Power PC and with other microcontrollers such as the AVR, PIC etc. These chips usually include SPI controllers capable of running in either master or slave mode. In-system programmable AVR controllers can be programmed using an SPI interface. Chip or FPGA based designs sometimes use SPI to communicate. So, SPI is a common technology used nowadays for communication with peripheral devices where we want to transfer data speedily and within real time constraints. There are many serial interfaces right from Morse code telegraphy, RS232, USB, Fire wire, Ethernet and many more. Each serial interface offers advantages or disadvantages for many designs, depending on criteria such as needed data rate, space availability, and noise considerations. It is simple 4 wire serial communication bus and it operates on 10MH. In SPI data is shifted in /out one at a time and transmit data from master device to/from one or more slave devices over short distances. It is high speed data transferring bus and no limit upto 8 bit transfer.The SPI bus is straightforward and versatile, enabling simple and fast communication with a variety of peripherals. A high speed multi-IO mode host adapter and some invaluable tool in debugging as well as adding SPI communication capabilities to any test system.

V. CONCLUSION In this paper, the authors are develops the idea to monitor the temperature and humidity value using wireless sensor in Real time. In this paper the existing model has to monitor the temperature and humidity value using microcontroller. The result of this paper is more secure to keep the monitoring data in real time RTLinux. In future, ability to add some more tasks to monitor, such as employee authentication checking, data logging of cctv camera and etc. The values of the monitoring data in real time are displayed on the LED and Buzzer for intimation of warning. VI. REFERENCES

[1].Prasath.A,”PC based Data acquisition system with Interfacing of I2C RTC (DS1307) & SPI ADC (MCP3201) with 8051”, project done at 2011. [2].Kollam.M,”Zigbee Wireless Sensor Network for Interactive Industrial Automation” published Year 2011.

Better

[3].Agrawal,”Complete industrial solution for automation in temperature and humidity monitoring using labview” published on IEEE conference at year 2012. [4].Tamilselvan.K,“SD card based Data Logging and Data Retrieval for Microcontrollers to using μc/os- II” International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT) Vol.2 Issue 11, November 2013.

B. I²C BUS Two wires: serial data (SDA) and serial clock (SCL). All I2C master and slave devices are connected with only those two wires. Each device can be a transmitter, a receiver or both. Some devices are masters – they generate bus clock and initiate communication on the bus, other devices are slaves and respond to the commands on the bus. In order to communicate with specific device, each slave device must have an address which is unique on the bus. I2C master devices (usually microcontrollers) don’t need an address since no other (slave) device sends commands to the master .It supports both Multi-master and Multi-slave, so it can detect the collision easily. It supports 7 and10-bit addressing and each device connects to the bus using software with unique address. The maximum speed of the I²C bus is 3.4Mbits/sec and it varies depends on the modes of application. I²C bus is simple and flexible used in many applications.I2C bus is transferred in 8-bit packets (bytes). There is no limitation on the number of bytes, however, each byte must be followed by an Acknowledge bit. This bit signals whether the device is ready to proceed with the next byte. For all data bits including the Acknowledge bit, the master must generate clock pulses. If the slave device does not acknowledge transfer this means that there is no more data or the device is not ready for the transfer yet. The master device must either generate Stop or Repeated Start condition.

[5].Prasath.A,

Dineshbabu.N,”CompleteIndustrialSolution for Automation in Temperature andHumidity Monitoring using Microcontroller”presented at NCICC-2014,SNS College of Technology at 2014.

[6].Tamilselvan.K, Dhakshinamoorthi.P,”An Efficient Data Acquisition System for Microcontrollers with RTOS “presented at PCID-2014, BannariammanInstitute of Technology.

C. ONE WIRE BUS One –wire bus is a makes connection to one master and multiple slaves. 1-Wire technology is a serial protocol using a single data line plus ground reference for communication. A 1-Wire master initiates and controls the communication with one or more 1-Wire slave devices on the 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH 48

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UNDER-WATER WELDING USING ROBOTIC TECHNOLOGY V.Prasanth1, S.Sukesh Kumar2, Dr.R.Gnanaguru3 1 Final year Mechanical, Narasu’s Sarathy Institute of Technology,Salem. Email: prasanthvbala@gmail.com 2 Final year Mechanical, Narasu’s Sarathy Institute of Technology,Salem. Email: sukeshkumaran007@gmail.com 3 Professor & Head / Mechanical, Narasu’s Sarathy Institute of Technology,Salem. Email: nsithodmech@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In some intricate situations, the Robot based welding processes have replaced human welders. During the last few years, the automation of welding process for pipe structures have gained significant momentum with an objective to improve the productivity and accuracy in the areas involving marine applications, etc. Various research studies in the welding environment have shown that productivity improvement is a major thrust area of welding industry. The welders in today’s world are under tremendous pressure to meet two major challenges. These are: the higher weld quality and; reduced manufacturing cost.

Welding in offshore and marine application is an area of research and understanding, where many problems are still unsolved. The important application of the off shore welding is the ship building and pipeline construction. Since underwater welding is done at the elevated pressure, the care must be ensured to improve the welder’s safety. Hence the robotic technology is recommended to overcome the problem relating to the life threat of the welder’s. In this paper, a brief description of the robot, designed for the underwater welding is made. The problems in underwater welding have also been discussed in context to the existing welding techniques. Finally, the scope of further research has been recommended.

Another emerging area in marine application welding systems is the underwater welding technique. Underwater Welding (UW) has been significantly used for over five decades. However, its use has not reached to a significant level in a welding environment due to number of factors. The underwater welding process came into existence with the development of water-proof electrodes in 1940’s (Keats, 2005). It is the process of welding at elevated pressures, normally underwater. It may be carried out in the water itself or dry inside a specially constructed positive pressure envelope, thereby providing a special environment. Under water is also known as “hyperbaric welding” when used in a dry environment, and “underwater welding” when in a wet environment. The application areas of this welding technique include a wide variety of structures, such as repair ships, offshore oil

Keywords: Underwater Welding, Welder’s Safety, Robotic Technology.

I. INTRODUCTION The recent developments in the manufacturing world have led to a revolutionary change in the design and development of various systems. Developments in welding technology are one of such changes. Welding processes have been used extensively as a joining technique, used in design and fabrication of various structures like naval ships, airplanes, automobiles, bridges, pressure vessels, etc. Welding has emerged as a better option in contrast to other joining techniques in terms of joint efficiency, mechanical properties with a greater application impact.

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platforms, and pipelines. Steel is the most common material welded (Cary and Helzer, 2005). Various researchers have defined the concept of underwater welding in different ways (Haddad and Farmer, 1985; Oates, 1996; Schmidt, 1996; Khanna, 2004; and Cary and Helzer, 2005).

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includes the self-shielded flux cored arc welding. From economics point of view, the wet welding technique with coated electrodes is considered. The cooling rate in wet welds is much higher than in those obtained in dry welding. In the temperature range from 800 to 500 °C it can change from 415 to 56 °C/s (Steen, 1991). Underwater wet welds are also known to contain high amounts of porosity. Porosity may be formed by molecular hydrogen, carbon monoxide or water vapour (Irie et al., 1997; Cavaliere et al., 2006; and Cavaliere et al., 2008). Pores are present to some extent in all wet welds. The main factors affecting this phenomenon are (Shida et al., 1997; Irie et al., 1997; Cavaliere et al.,2006; and Cavaliere et al., 2008): water depth, electrode covering and arc stability.

II. IMPORTANCE OF UNDERWATER WELDING IN MARINE APPLICATIONS In practice, the use of underwater wet welding for offshore repairs has been limited mainly because of porosity and low toughness in the resulting welds. With appropriate consumable design, however, it is possible to reduce porosity and to enhance weld metal toughness through microstructural refinement. Hence, welding in offshore and marine application is an important area of research and needs considerable attention and understanding where, many problems are still unsolved. In the present review, a brief understanding of the problems in underwater welding will be discussed in context to the existing welding techniques. Detailed description of a few advanced welding techniques has also been made. Finally, the scope of further research would be recommended.

Special precaution should be taken to produce underwater arc to protect it from surrounding water. Wet welding does not need any complicated experiment set up, it’s economical and can be immediately applied in case of emergency and accident as it does not need water to be evacuated. However, difficulties in welding operation due to lack of visibility in water, presence of sea current, ground swells in shallow water and inferior weld qualities (increased porosities, reduced ductility, greater hardness in the heat affected zone, hydrogen pick up from the environment) are the notable disadvantages of wet welding technique.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF UNDERWATER WELDING Underwater welding may be divided into two main types, wet and dry welding (Oates, 1996).There are many welding types in each case. Wet type is considered here in this robotic welding.

V. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is among the most widely used welding processes. During the process, the flux covering the electrode melts during welding. This forms the gas and slag to shield the arc and molten weld pool. Figure 1 shows the schematic of shielded metal arc welding process. The slag must be chipped off the weld bead after welding. The flux also provides a method of adding scavengers, deoxidizers, and alloying elements to the weld metal. For underwater wet welding with Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) technique, direct current is used and usually polarity is straight (Khanna, 2004). Electrodes are usually water proofed. Furthermore, it is flux coated which causes generation of bubble during welding and displaces water from the welding arc and weld pool area. Hence, the flux composition

IV. WET WELDING This type of welding process is carried out at ambient water pressure in which, there exists a relationship between the welder and the diver in the water. This is carried out by means of a water-proof stick electrode, with no physical barrier between water and welding arc (Oates, 1996). In wet welding technique, the complex structures may also be welded (Oates, 1996; Shida et al., 1997; Khanna, 2004; and Kruusing, 2004). One of the most commonly used wet welding techniques is the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process and the Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) process. It also

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and depth of flux coating should be optimized to ensure adequate protection. Electrodes for shielded metal arc welding are classified by AWS as E6013 and E7014 (Khanna, 2004). Versatility, simple experiment set-up, economy in operation and finished product quality are notable advantages of the technique. However, during welding, all electrical leads, lighting gear, electrode holder, gloves, etc., must be fully insulated and in good condition. Ferrite electrodes with a coating based on iron oxide should be used as they resist hydrogen cracking. Flux cored arc welding is another technique which could not yet competed with SMAW because of reported excessive porosities and problems with underwater wire feeding system (Oates, 1996).

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VII. PARTS OF UNDERWATER ROBOTIC WELDING The robot that is designed for the underwater welding is based on the submarine design. The main parts of the robot is       

Propeller Electromagnetic Wheels Welding Rod holder and Rod Stepper Motors ATmega 16 Microcontroller Camera Lights

a.) Propeller A propeller is a mechanical device for propelling a boat or aircraft, consisting of a revolving shaft with two or more broad, angled blades attached to it. There are 4 propellers used in this robot. Two propellers face the front side and the other two propellers face the top side. When the propellers in the front rotate clockwise the robot moves forward and vice versa for anticlockwise direction, and when the propellers at the top rotate clockwise the robot moves up and vice versa for the anticlockwise direction. The side wards movement i.e. Right to left is done by deflecting the propeller arm.

Fig1: Schematic of shielded metal arc welding VI. ROBOTICS Robot is a machine capable of carrying out a complex series of actions automatically, especially one programmable by a computer. The word robot was introduced to the public by the Czech interwar writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), published in 1920.(Zunt, Dominik, 2007) The play begins in a factory that uses a chemical substitute for protoplasm to manufacture living, simplified people called robots.

Fig2: NX CAD model of propeller b.) Electromagnetic Wheels An electromagnet is a soft metal core made into a magnet by the passage of electric current through a coil surrounding it. The DC current supply is given to the wheels to magnetize and stick firmly on the metal surface.

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PM and VR techniques to achieve maximum power in a small package size.

Fig 3: NX CAD model of electromagnetic wheels Fig 4: Stepper Motor c.) Welding Rod Holder and Rod e.) ATmega 16 Microcontroller The positive side of the DC power supply is given to the welding rod holder and whereas the metal to be welded is given with the negative charge. The rod used here is the consumable rod and the rod is flux coated with the insulated material suitable for the underwater welding.

ATMEGA 16 microcontroller is used in this type of the robot. A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated µC, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general purpose applications.

d.) Stepper Motor A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into a number of equal steps. The motor's position can then be commanded to move and hold at one of these steps without any feedback sensor (an open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the application. The stepper motor is connected to the H-Bridge and is interfaced to the microcontroller.

Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes.

There are four main types of stepper motors: (Liptak, Bela G., 2005)    

Permanent magnet stepper Hybrid synchronous stepper Variable reluctance stepper Lavet type stepping motor

Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator electromagnets. Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles. Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a combination of

Fig 5: ATMEGA 16 Microcontroller

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f.) Camera Camera is a device for recording visual images in the form of photographs, film, or video signals. The camera here converts the image to the co-ordinate system. This co-ordinate system helps to find the weld area in this context. The camera here is supported by the focus light system on the either side.

Fig 7: NX CAD model of robot

CONCLUSION The working safety is an important factor for the weld done in the underwater. The threat to the welder is from various aspects during the weld. This exclusive model of a robot will be a solution for the problems related to the underwater welding. There is also a numerous future scope for this system.

Fig 6: NX CAD model of camera g.) Lights Light is the natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things visible. The light here supports the camera to generate the better picture.

REFERENCES [1] Anand and Khajuria(2013), welding processes in marine applications: a review, International Journal of mechanical engineering research and robotics, Vol.2, Jan2013, ISSN 2278-0149

VIII. OPERATION OF THE UNDER-WATER ROBOT WELD The operation of the robot is controlled by the micro controller. The microcontroller gets its input from the computer system. The wired interface is used because it’s unable to construct an wireless design efficiently in the place having the elevated pressure. The electromagnetic wheels and propellers are actuated by the stepper motors. This stepper motors are interfaced to the microcontroller using the H bridges. The movement of the robot is done using the propellers and electromagnetic wheels are used to stick to the surface. The camera helps to find the area of the weld and converts it into the coordinate system. This co-ordinate system helps to monitor the weld and make a weld accurately on the surface. The figure below is the NX CAD model of the robot.

[2] Cary H B and Helzer S C (2005), Modern Welding Technology, Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education, New Jersey. [3] Cavaliere P, Campanile G, Panella F and Squillace A (2006), “Effect of Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of AA6056 Joints Produced by Friction Stir Welding”, J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 180, pp. 263-270. [4] Cavaliere P, Squillace A and Panella F (2008), “Effect of Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of AA6082 Joints Produced by Friction Stir Welding”, J. Mater. Process. Technol., Vol. 200, pp. 364-372.

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[5] Haddad G N and Farmer A J (1985), Weld. J., Vol. 64, No. 12, pp. 339-342. [6] Irie T, Ono Y, Matsushita H et al. (1997), Proceedings of 16th OMAE, pp. 43-50. [7] Keats D J (2005), Underwater Wet Welding—A Welder’s Mate, Speciality Welds Ltd. [8] Khanna O P (2004), A Textbook of Welding Technology, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P) Ltd., New Delhi, India. [9] Kruusing A (2004), Optics and Lasers in Engineering, Vol. 41, pp. 329-352. [10] Liptak, Bela G. (2005). Instrument Engineers' Handbook: Process Control and Optimization. CRC Press. p. 2464. ISBN 978-0-8493-1081-2. [11] Oates W A (Ed.) (1996), Welding Handbook, Vol. 3, American Welding Society, Miami, USA. [12] Schmidt H-P (1996), IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol. 24, pp. 1229-1238. [13] Shida T, Hirokawa M and Sato S (1997), Welding Research Abroad, Vol. 43, No. 5, p. 36. [14] Steen W M (Ed.) (1991), Laser Material Processing, Springer Verlag, New York. [15] Zunt, Dominik. "Who did actually invent the word "robot" and what does it mean?". The Karel Čapek website. Retrieved 2007-09-11.

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MODELING OF MAGNETICALLY COUPLED EMBEDDED Z SOURCE INVERTER V. Vidhya1, Jeyasree Tagore2 , ME. Applied Electronics Professor V.Thyagarajan Ph.d ,Dean Electronics &Communication Department. Sriram Engineering College, Perumalpattu, Chennai vidhyasreeeee@gmail.com,jeyatag@gmail.com ABSTRACT This Project deals with an Embedded Z source inverter to control the three phase induction motor. The Z source inverters are recent topological options for buck boost energy conversion with a number of possible voltage and current type circuitries. Embedded Z Source inverter is a single stage converter which performs both buck boost energy conversions using the LC impedance network. The proposed inverters provide high boost voltage inversion ability, a lower voltage stress across the active switching devices, a continuous input current and a reduced voltage stress on the capacitors. In addition, they can suppress the startup inrush current, which otherwise might destroy the devices. The microcontroller is used to generate PWM pulses and to control operation of Z Source inverter. The complete hardware is designed to drive the three phase induction motor. This paper presents the operating principles, analysis, and simulation results, and compares them to the conventional switched inductor Z source inverter. The desired three phase PWM signals are generated by using control circuit and detailed hardware results are presented. KEYWORD Embedded Z source, PWM, voltage boost, Z Source Inverter, Boost inversion ability, motor drives, buck boost.

INTRODUCTION

work has been done in power quality improvement using variable generators and power electronic devices. Small-scale standalone wind energy systems are an important alternative source of electrical energy, finding applications in locations where conventional generation is not practical. Unfortunately, most of these systems do not capture power at every wind speed especially low wind speeds which are low in power but can be very common, but modern permanent magnet synchronous generator technology offers high efficiency power conversion from mechanical into electrical power. Moreover, it allows for special machine design with very low speed e.g. in gearless wind and hydro application and at very high speed for micro-gas turbines, which is of interest for several regenerative or co-generative power conversion technologies. A survey of already realized prototypes or in use PM generator systems is presented for that purpose. Impedance source inverter also

Now-a-days, PV energy has attracted interest as a next generation energy source capable of solving the problems of global warming and energy exhaustion caused by increasing energy consumption. So, solar energy is considered as input source and this energy is given to the Z-Source. As we know solar module can give constant energy so to satisfy load conditions i.e. buck boost operations can be achieved by using Z Source inverter. As we know, we have voltage source inverter where voltage buck operation is achieved and in current source inverter, boost operation is achieved. So, to overcome these effects and to achieve buck boost operation in a single stage converter, a new technique is implemented i.e. z source inverter, by using Z source Voltage buck boost operation is achieved in single stage conversion. In recent years, a lot of

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referred as Z-Source Inverter is an advanced PWM inverter topology. Z Source Inverter is more advantageous over traditional inverters with high efficiency, improved power factor and THD, EMI immunity and so on. Nowadays PWM control method is mostly used in power converter applications. These PWM signals can be generated using analog circuit as well as digital circuit. PWM generation using analog circuit requires large number of discrete circuits such as triangular carrier wave generator circuit, sine wave generator circuit; comparator, adder circuits and phase shifters etc. Each of these circuits is formed by connecting many discrete components together such as transistors, resistors, capacitors, inductors, opamps and so on. In addition analog method of three phase PWM generation requires accurately designed phase shifter circuits and other circuit. Also the response of analog circuit may get affected by environmental conditions, noise, changes in the voltages and currents in the circuit and so on. Thus analog method is critical and increases complexity and cost of the circuit. Digital method of PWM generation requires only microcontroller and its minimum configuration. With the advent in the technology now many microcontrollers has in built feature of PWM generation. While some special controller ICs are also available that are designed and fabricated for three phase PWM generation and control purpose. PWM generation digitally require only knowledge of internal architecture of controller and good programming skill. 2.

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voltage gain are analyzed in detail and verified by simulation. Shahrokh FARHANGI [2] have presented the design procedure of the Z-source converter as a single phase PV grid connected transformerless inverter has been presented in this paper. An optimal switching pattern for the modulation of the converter has been proposed, which reduces the switching loss and common mode EMI. In single phase application, the output power is not constant and leads to a low frequency ripple in the converter elements. An approximate analysis has been proposed, which considers this effect. The validity of the design method has been verified by simulation. 3.

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

An impedance network abbreviated as ZSource is couples the inverter main circuit and input power source. Z-Source circuit consists of two capacitors and two inductors connected in such a way as to form second order filter, smoothens dc link voltage and current. Zsource inverter circuit provides both voltage buck and boost properties, which cannot be achieved with conventional voltage source and current source inverters. Three phase inverter circuit consists of six switches connected in three legs, converts input dc link voltage in to corresponding three phase ac voltage. Microcontroller and driver circuit is used to control on/off time of switching devices in a proper sequence in a particular time used in the main inverter circuit. Microcontroller PIC used to generate modified maximum constant boost PWM signal. These PWM signal is applied to the gate terminals of MOSFETs through gate. ZSource is the X â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Shaped structure consists of L1, L2, C1, and C2 in which we can obtain both buck-boost operations in single stage conversion. In this DC Source is placed at farleft in series with diode. So, by this, chopping is occurred in the source current which is caused by the commutation of diode D. So, in this condition to smoothen the source current an additional LC filter is required which would rise over all cost of the system and construction of the system by this additional LC filter is complex. So, to overcome the above drawbacks, a new technique is

RELATED RESEARCH

Some of the recent researches related to power quality improvement for wind energy conversion systems and solar PV using z source inverter are discussed Fang Zheng Peng et al. [1] have proposed control methods for the Z-source inverter and their relationships of voltage boost versus modulation index. A maximum boost control is presented to produce the maximum voltage boost (or voltage gain) under a given modulation index. The control method, relationships of voltage gain versus modulation index and voltage stress versus

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proposed i.e. embedded source inverter. In this EZ-Source inverter, source is placed in series with the inductor L1 andL2 and chopping current i.e. Obtained in the previous section is filtered. EZ-Source inverter, smoothens the source current without any additional LC filter but the gain of the ZSource and Ez Source is same but only source filtering is achieved without any additional LC filter. The voltage stress experienced by C1 and C2 is lower than the original network but in this EZ-Source inverter requires two PV panels which are cost effective. So to reduce stress across the capacitor and its rating, to achieve lower harmonics, to obtain low switching losses and to make system compact in size, a new technique is implemented i.e. partially parallel EZ-Source inverter with reduced switches. The Z-source network makes the shootthrough zero state possible. This shootthrough zero state provides the unique buckboost feature to the inverter. The Z-source inverter can be operated in three modes.

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Vd=VD= 0 Idc=IL+IC Ii= IL− IC Idc≠ 0 Mode III:

Shoot-Through(Sx= Sx‗ON, x = A, B, or C; D = OFF) VL=VC +V dc /2 Vi= 0 Vd= VD= −2VC The inverter bridge is operating in one of the seven shoot-through states. The equivalent circuit of the inverter bridge in this mode is as shown. This mode separates the dc link from the ac line. This shoot-through mode is to be used in every switching cycle during the traditional zero vector period generated by the PWM control. Depending on how much a voltage boost is needed, the shoot-through interval (T0) or its duty cycle (T0/T) is determined. It can be seen that the shoot-through interval is only a fraction of the switching cycle.

Mode 1 In this mode, the inverter bridge is operating in one of the six traditional active vectors; the equivalent circuit. The inverter bridge acts as a current source viewed from the DC link. Both the inductors have an identical current value because of the circuit symmetry. This unique feature widens the line current conducting intervals, thus reducing harmonic current.

4. TYPES OF EZ-SOURCE In this embedded Z-Source inverter, we have A) Shunt embedded Z-Source inverter B) Parallel embedded Z-Source inverter A) Shunt embedded z-source inverter: In general we have jumping currents which flow in the input DC source which will induce the power Interruption in the input. By this jumping currents, the complexity to control maximum power and designing of system increases. To overcome the traditional network, Shunt EZ-Source is proposed, Shunt EZ-Source consist two types 1. Partially shunt EZ-Source 2. Fully shunt EZ-source

Non-shoot-Through (Sx≠Sx‗, x = A, B, or C; D = ON) VL=Vdc /2− VCVi= 2VC

Partially shunt embedded Z (PSEZ)-Source

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inverter: In this PSEZ-Source inverter, VSI operates as current source inverter during shoot-through conditions. A switch SW is used for removing the unwanted conditions of the diode during voltage boost operations and it should be turned off during traditional CSI

SIMULATION RESULTS:

For PWM generation microcontroller is used. The control circuit diagram is shown in the following in fig, drawn using Proteus software. The six PWM signals are send at port P2 pins P2.0 through P2.5. The control circuit simulation is performed using Proteus software. Five switches are provided for special purposes, to interrupt microcontroller, increment, decrement shoot-through time and input voltage values and to change the mode of operation two types of edge aligned PWM waveforms are generated using microcontroller. This circuit includes LCD interface at port0 of microcontroller, five push button switches and one led interfaced to port3 pins, gate driver circuit not shown interfaced to PWM output port2 pins and microcontroller minimum circuit. LCD display is used to display starting message regarding project title, welcome message and provides user interface. It also displays theoretical values of output voltage for given input voltage. For this two modes of operation are provided: one is traditional mode of operation and other is boost mode. In traditional mode of operation traditional PWM is generated, while in boost mode of operation some part of traditional zero state is converted into shoot-through state.

In this, Vdc and inductor L are used for inverter boost operation and this voltage boost is equal to traditional CSI. Alternatively for buck operation open circuit tate should be connected in the switching sequence referring to SX and SXâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (X=A, B or C)Switching OFF simultaneously, meanwhile SW turns ON toset the effective dc-link voltage. The voltage-buck (current-boost) ratio equals to the traditional current type Z-Source inverter. Fully shunt embedded Z (FSEZ)- Source inverter: In FSEZ-Source inverter,an equal voltage dc source is placed instead of a capacitor C 1 in the shunt leg. Voltage boost and buck capability are same in both FSEZ and PSEZ.The current ratio of L 1 and L 2 are reduced due toequal DC-link currents of L1 and L 2. But huge circulating currents between inductor and source are occurred and reduce output voltage amplitude due to unequal input of two dc voltage sources are considered. So to avoid this, small rated capacitor is placed in series with one dc source to share the voltage difference. This current type SEZSource inverter is not an ideal choice for substituting traditional Z-Source inverter but easily smoothen source current.

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6.CONCLUSION The partially parallel embedded Z-Source inverter with reduced switches reduces number of PV panels and wind power; Capacitor rating smoothens source current and also reduces total harmonic distortion. PPEZSource inverter makes system compact which reduces cost and switching losses, lower voltage stresses and line harmonics. The two main objectives for WECSs are extracting maximum power from wind and feeding the grid with high-quality electricity. Compared to conventional WECS with simple boost converter based Z-Source inverter method, the voltage profile is improved 35% by using maximum constant boost with third harmonic injection based Z-source inverter method.

REFERENCE

The E Z-source inverter can be operated in both boosts and buck operations depending on values of ‘M’. If M is greater than 0.5 it acts as boost inverter, if M is less than 0.5 then it acts as buck inverter. Here a 3-phase RLC parallel load is connected to ZSI.

[1]Miao Zhu, Member, IEEE, Kun Yu, Student Member, IEEE, and Fang Lin Luo, Senior Member, IEEE,” Switched Inductor ZSource Inverter.” IEEE Trans. Power Electron, VOL. 25, No. 8, August 2010. [2]Miao Zhu, Member, IEEE, Kun Yu, Student Member, IEEE, and Fang Lin Luo, Senior Member, IEEE,” Switched Inductor Z-Source Inverter.” IEEE Trans. Power Electron, VOL.25, No. 8, August 2010. [3]S.Kamalakkannan, S.Deve Gowda, “Digital simulation of renewableEnergy Source Controlled EZ-Source inverter system”, 2012 IEEE. [4] J. Li, J. Liu, and Z. Liu, “Loss Oriented Evaluation and Comparison of Z-Source Inverters Using Different Pulse Width Modulation Strategies”, in 2009 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition. [5] F.Z. Peng, M. Shen, and Z. Qiang, “Maximum Boost Control of the Z-Source Inverter”, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 20no.4, pp. 833-838, July 2004. [6] P.C. Loh, D.M. Vilathgamuwa, Y.S. Lai, G.T. Chua, and Y. Li, “Pulse-Width Modulation of ZSource Inverter”, in Conf. Rec. 2004 IEEE Industry Applications Conferences, pp. 148-155 [7] FZ. Peng, "Z-source inverter", IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 39, pp. 504-510, MarApr 2003. [8] J. B. Liu, J. G. Hu, and L. Y Xu, "A modified space vector PWM for z-source inverter - Modeling and design," ICEMS 2005, in Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems, Vols 1-3, pp. 1242-1247, 200

The 3-phase output voltage across load is shown

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RSVP PROTOCOL USED IN REAL TIME APPLICATION NETWORKS Dr.S.Ravi1, A.Ramasubba Reddy 2 and Dr.V.Jeyalakshmi3 2

PG Student- M.Tech. VLSI and Embedded System 1, 3 Professor Dept. Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr.MGR Educational and Research Institute, University Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

Rama.annareddy@gmail.com

fixed network has been facing a great challenge due to the participation of mobile hosts.

Abstract RSVP is a receiver oriented reservation protocol being an Internet standard approved by Internet Engineering Task Force [IETF].The goal of the Resource ReSerVation Protocol (RSVP) is to establish Quality of Service information within routers and host computers of the Internet. High speed networks support use of dedicated resources through Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). With RSVP, the network resources are reserved and released there by providing a mechanism to achieve a good quality of service (QoS). This requests to reserve a path are transmitted in the network b/w the data senders and receivers. This paper provides an analysis of the RSVP protocol used in peerto-peer networks where each system works simultaneously as client and server. This experimentation for Audio and video conferencing application in various scenarios implemented in OPNET software. This RSVP protocol reduces the packet end-to-end delay.

An inter network[2] is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate networking devices, that functions as a single large network. Internetworking refers to the industry, products, and procedures that meet the challenge of creating and administering internetworks. Fig:1 illustrates some different kinds of network technologies that can be interconnected by routers and other networking devices to create an internetwork. Implementing a functional internetwork is no simple task. In this paper, we perform a comparative analysis of the working of RSVP protocol in conjunction with multimedia applications including audio and video conferencing. We use a peer-to-peer based network in which each system acts as a client and a server. The reservation messages are generated by the hosts and depending upon the flow of data, some of the requests are accepted. Consequent to the reservation of network bandwidth, the network performance of the considered application improves. For the analysis of RSVP protocol, we use the metrics of the RSVP control traffic generated and the packet end-to-end delay. Our simulation has been performed using the OPNET IT Guru Academic Edition v 9.1 (OPNET, 2011).

KEY WORDS: - RSVP, QoS, OPNET.

I. INTRODUCTION Resource ReSerVation Protocol (RSVP) is a receiver oriented resource reservation setup protocol designed for Integrated Services Internet. RSVP has a number of attributes that make it be adopted as an Internet standard approved by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) [1]. These attributes include scalability, robustness, flexibility, dynamic group membership, and stability for multi cast sessions, support for heterogeneous receivers, and varieties of reservation styles. However, the RSVP designed for

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the desired QoS in terms of a service class, which comprises a Reservation Specification (RSpec), and a Traffic Specification (TSpec). A RSpec defines the reservation characteristics (i.e. the desired QoS) of the flow, for example, the service rate the application requests. A TSpec defines the traffic characteristics of the flow, for example, the peak data rate. RSVP uses several messages in order to create, maintain and release state information for a session between one or more senders and one or more receivers as shown in Figure 2.

Path Setup: In RSVP, reservation requests travel from receivers to the senders. Thus they flow in the opposite direction to the user data flow for which such reservations are being requested. Path messages are used by the sender to set up a route to be followed by the reservation requests.

Figure 1: Internetwork using different Network Technologies Using RSVP, the request to reserve the resources is generated by a host in the form of a message and sent to another receiver host that in turn responds with another message. When a router receives the message, it may decide to reserve the resources and communicate to other routers in order to effectively handle the packets. The reservation of the resources such as communication bandwidth for a data flow ensures efficient delivery of data for that particular data flow thereby improving the performance of the running application.

Path Error: A node that detects an error in a Path message, generates and sends a PathErr message upstream towards the sender that created the error.

Path Release: RSVP tear down messages are intended to speed up the removal of path and reservation state information from the nodes.

Setup: Resv messages carry reservation requests (e.g. for bandwidth and buffers) used to set up reservation state information in the nodes of the route established by the path set-up message. They travel upstream from the receiver(s) to the sender [4]. Reservation

II. RESOURCE RESERVATION PROTOCOL OVERVIEW The Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) is a Transport Layer protocol designed to reserve resources across a network for an integrated services Internet. RSVP operates over an IPv4 or IPv6 Internet Layer and provides receiver initiated setup of resource reservations for multicast or unicast data flows with scaling and robustness. It does not transport application data but is similar to a control protocol, like Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) or Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP). RSVP is described in RFC 2205. RSVP can be used by either hosts or routers to request or deliver specific levels of quality of service (QoS) for application data streams or flows. RSVP defines how applications place reservations and how they can relinquish the reserved resources once the need for them has ended. RSVP reservation requests are defined in terms of a filter specification (filter spec) and a flow specification (flow spec) [3]. A filter spec is used to identify the data flow that is to receive the QoS specified in a flow specification. A flow spec defines

Figure: 2 RSVP messages. Reservation Refresh: A reservation refresh is the result of either a reservation state refresh timeout or a receiver request to modify the reservation. Like path states, reservation states need to be refreshed.

Reservation Release: ResvTear messages travel from the receiver(s) to the sender and remove any

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reservation state information associated with the receiver’s data flow.

congestion. Some of the characteristics that qualify a Quality of Service are:   

Reservation Error: If a node detects an error in a Resv message, it sends a ResvErr message downstream to the receiver that generated the failed Resv message. Processing ResvErr messages does not result in the removal of any reservation state.

Reservation Confirmation: Optionally, a receiver may ask for confirmation of its reservation. A ResvConf message is used to notify the receiver that the reservation request was successful. In the simplest case, a ResvConf message is generated by the sender.

    

Minimizing delivery delay. Minimizing delay variations. Providing consistent data capacity.

throughput

PRESENT WORK

The objective of this experimentation is to do the Resource ReSerVation protocol (RSVP) as a part of Integrated Services approach to providing Quality of Service (QoS) to individual applications or flows. Two approaches have been developed to provide a range of QoS. These are Integrated Service and Differentiated Services. The RSVP follows the Integrated Service approach , where QoS is provided to individual applications or flows. The differentiated Services approach provides QoS to large classes of data or aggregated traffic. Before doing of RSVP protocol, first we have to do Queuing network of tat application. Queuing schemes [9] provide predictable network service by providing dedicated Band width, controlled jitter, and latency and improved packet loss characteristics. Each of following schemes require customized configuration of output interface queues. Queuing schemes are  First In First Out(FIFO)  Priority Queuing (PQ)  Custom Queuing(CQ)  Weighted Fair Queuing(WFQ) In this application we have used only Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ). These Queuing model diagram of RSVP is shown Fig 3. In order to evaluate the performance of the RSVP protocol, we used two different logical scenarios in OPNET IT Guru Academic Edition Software. Both the scenarios contain hosts (workstations) together with routers using the Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) (IETF, 1998-b) routing protocol. The two applications considered for experimentation are audio and video conferencing with single application running at a time in a physical scenario. Each physical scenario is further duplicated to represent scenario with and without RSVP based communication. Router1 and Router2 are the nodes which presents the two branches of organizations. Here in this scenario, users of these two branches are communication each other. Those users are provided with VOIP,FTP and VEDIO applications. Router1 contains three users and Router2 contains two users

Design goals of RSVP are [5]  

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Accommodate heterogeneous receivers. Adapt to changing multicast group membership. Allow receivers to switch channels. Adapt to changes in the underlying multicast and unicast routes. Exploit resource needs different applications in order to use network resources efficiently. Make the design modular to accommodate heterogeneous underlying technologies. Control protocol overhead so that it doesn’t grow linearly (or worse) with the number of participants.

Types of Real Time Applications Real-time communication, which generally means audio and/or video, may be divided into playback applications and interactive applications. For interactive applications, the end-to-end delay is significant, e.g. for internet phone it should rather not exceed 0.3s[6][7]. For playback application, where the communication is only in one direction, delay as such is not critical, but jitter may be[8] classifies realtime applications into rigid and adaptive applications. Rigid applications have a fixed playback point. Adaptive applications move the playback point so that the signal is replayed as soon as possible while the data loss rate is acceptable. Thus, adaptive playback applications work well on moderately loaded datagram networks. The bandwidth requirement may not be fixed, but some "rateadaptive" playback applications may change their coding scheme according to network service available. Quality of Service means providing consistent, predictable data delivery service during periods of

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along with one server. This server uses to save the data and this can be used by both router1 users and router2 users for storing the data. Here data travelling along the network is also stored n this FTP server temporarily still the data reaches the destination, so this will be helpful when there is data loss during the transformation and the nodes can be retrieve plays main role in configuration process and providing the application and maintaining the quality of the network. Following the network layer of scenario2. In this scenario we have to add another two hosts or work stations, these are VOIP_RSVP server caller, VOIP_RSVP server called. These VOIP_RSVP server caller is connecting with west router and same as VOIP_RSVP server called is connected with the east router. The voice application uses the G.711 transmission between peers, whereas the video

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conferencing application transmits 10 frames per second with each frame containing 128*120 pixels. We use the shared explicit mode of reservation style that allows multiple senders to share the same reservation. The flow specification is set to 50,000 bytes/sec and buffer size is 10,000 bytes, whereas 75% is allowed as the reservable bandwidth at each router and host. As shown in Fig. 3, the (logical) scenario 1 contains two hosts, both of them are workstations acting as peers since they transmit and receive data simultaneously. The hosts are connected using a core network of routers. These routers are of type ethernet4_slip8_gtwy_adv and are interconnected following the mesh topology. As shown in Fig. 4, the (logical) scenario 2 contains hosts, all of them are workstations acting as peers. In contrast to scenario 1.

Figure: 3 Queuing model network scenario 1

Figure: 4 RSVP model network scenario 2

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III. SIMULATION AND RESULTS

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Packet Delay Variation is the variance among end-to-end delays for voice packets received by this node. Packet End-to-End Delay for a voice packet is measured from the time it is created to the time it is received. And Fig 6 and 7 are the voice packet end to end delay of RSVP and voice packet delay variation.

Following are the graphs of traffic received and sent in the both scenario 1 and scenario 2. These two traffics must be same for any network to be more efficient. See the Fg:5 for Queuing results are video conferencing traffic received(bytes/sec), voice packet delay variation, and voice packet end to end delay (sec).

Figure:6 Time average in voice calling party, packet end to end delay of RSVP

Figure: 5 Queuing model of RSVP i.e voice packet delay, voice packet end to end delay.

Figure: 7 voice packet delay variation

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[6] Jan Lucenius , Research Scientist VTT Information Technology “The Application Of RSVP”.

IV. CONCLUSION This paper presents a performance analysis of the RSVP protocol. We simulate two logical scenarios while incorporating the voice and the video applications. The scenarios differ in the number of hosts among which the communication takes place. We use the peer-to-peer model for network communication. The RSVP protocol is evaluated in terms of the metrics of the control traffic sent and the packet end-to-end delay. Both for the voice application and video application, a large number of RSVP control traffic is sent only if the amount of data being transmitted conforms to the flow specification given for RSVP. For scenarios with small number of hosts, a large amount of data meets the requirement, thereby generating a large amount of RSVP control traffic. RSVP therefore reserves the resources and allows dedicated communication. Consequently, the communication performance improves as the packet end-to-end delay decreases. In contrast, for scenarios with large amount of data, the RSVP protocol is unable to perform well and the delay increases for voice application.

[7] Schwantag, Ursula: An Analysis Of The Applicability Of RSVP. Diploma Thesis. University Of Oregon And University Of Karlsruhe. June 1997. [8] R. Braden, D. Clark, And S. Shenker “Integratedservices In The Internet Architecture: An Overview.Request For Comments (Informational) RFC 1633, [9] Internet Engineering Task Force, June 1994 Salil Bhalla, Kulwinder Singh Monga,Rahul Malhotra “Optimization Of Computer Networks Using Qos”.

REFERENCES [1] M. A. Khan, G. A. Mallah* And A. Karim “Analysis Of Resource Reservation Protocol (Rsvp) For P2p Networks”. [2] Vikas Gupta1, Baldev Raj2 “Optimization Of Real-Time Application Network Using RSVP” ISSN: 22316612 Oct. 2013 [3] Braden R., Et Al. Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) -- Version 1: Functional Specification. RFC 2205, IETF, September, 1997. [4] María E. Villapol , Jonathan Billington “A Coloured Petri Net Approach To Formalising And Analysing The Resource Reservation Protocol” [5] Lixxia Zhang, Stephen Derring, Deborah Estrin, Scott Shenkar, And Daniel Zappala “RSVP: A New Resource Reservation Protocol” IEEE Sep 1993.

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VERSATILE BICYCLE (AN AMPHIBIOUS VEHICLE) -Shyam.C, IV yr, Mechanical Department, ID no: VM6446, Veltech Multitech Engineering College Mob:9962685946 E-Mail: shyamfeb1993@gmail.com

-Saravana Muthu.K, IV yr, Mechanical Department, ID no: VM6484, Veltech Multitech Engineering College Mob:9962096121 E-Mail: saravank19@gmail.com

-Santhosh.P, IV yr, Mechanical Department, ID no: VM6431, Veltech Multitech Engineering College Mob:7708577673 E-Mail: santhoshpalani94@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE OF OUR PROJECT

A versatile bicycle that runs both on land and water is to be designed and fabricated. Usually bicycle is designed to run on land. But our vehicle is more versatile. We have used high density thermocol blocks to create buoyancy force that makes the cycle float on water. The thermocol blocks are attached to the L- clamps. For the movement in water ,we have fixed paddles to the rear of the cycle that is connected to the rear wheel sprocket through chain drive. While riding on land, the L-clamp can be easily folded and locked. If necessary the thermocol blocks can be detached from L-clamp. Its useful is crossing back waters, lakes etc., can be used in flood days and also as water sport. Our project deals with solving the real time problems faced by people in India.

The main objective of our project is to modify a normal bicycle so that, it can be used both on land and water. We make sure that the modifications do not cause any unease to the rider and the comfort of riding on land is not reduced.

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VERSATILE BICYCLE BOTH IN WATER AND LAND MODE

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MATERIALS USED Material Bicycle Thermocol

Specifications

No.

density of 20 kg/m3 ,200 mm thickness

M.S.Sheet M.S.Sheet M.S.Sheet Iron rod

3mm thickness 6 mm thickness 1 mm thickness Tempered, 6mm dia Standard Standard Standard Single side threaded Double side threaded

Lorry hinges Chain drive Sprocket Hub Hub

4 4 2 2 1 1

THERMOCOL

Versatile bicycle in swimming pool

Thermocol is one of the major raw materials of our project. We use 4 blocks of thermocol to create buoyancy force that makes the cycle to float in water.We have cut the thermocol blocks in aerodynamics shape to provide better displacement in water.

THE L - CLAMPS The L-clamps are re made of mild steel of thickness 3mm and 6 mm. The clamp is foldable and can be folded while operating the bicycle on the land. The folding is done by fixing hinges. The thermocol blocks can be fitted and locked by using bold and nuts. The thermocol can be attached or detached detache according to the riders wish. The supporting rod should be fitted while moving in water.

Versatile bicycle on land

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PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL (for L-Clamps Clamps , adjusting plate , paddles) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Possess good ductility and can be bent easily. Possess good machinability. Has good tensile strength. Possess excellent weld ability. Good toughness and hardness.

PROPERTIES OF TEMPERED STEEL (used for supporting rods)

3-D MODEL OF VERSATILE BICYCLE

1. Very high tensile strength. 2. Excellent toughness and hardness. 3. Ductility is reduced. 4. Machinability is reduced.

PADDLES The paddle is used to give displacement in water. Its made of sheet metal of 1 mm thickness. The paddles are nothing but blades that rotate by peddling action. The paddle blades are welded to a hollow pipe which is welded to a hub. ub. The hub is welded with the sprocket and chain drive connects the paddle sprocket with the rear double threaded hub sprocket. Thus the paddle rotate by the chain drive power transmission. There are 6 blades in total which acts as paddle in the versatile bicycle.

3-D MODEL OF L-CLAMPS CLAMPS

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS Average speed in water : 4 to 5 km/hr Average speed on land : 15 to 20 km/hr Time for fitting the thermocol blocks

3-D MODEL OF PADDLES

: 2 to 3 mins

Time for dismantling the thermocol blocks

: 1 to 2 mins

PADDLES IN VERSATILE BICYCLE

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BUOYANCY FORCE

WORKING OF VERSATILE BICYCLE

Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus a column of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column than at the top. This difference in pressure results in a net force that tends to accelerate an object upwards. The magnitude of that force is proportional to the difference in the pressure between the top and the bottom of the column, and is also equivalent to the weight of the fluid that would otherwise occupy the column, i.e. the displaced fluid. For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately (as in a boat), the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a "downward" direction. In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward buoyancy force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body.

In versatile bicycle, we have used thermocol blocks to create buoyancy force.There are 4 blocks of even volume to give balance in the water .The thermocols are attachable and detachable in the L-clamps and the L-clamps itself is foldable. The movement in the water is given through paddles that are fixed to back of the versatile bicycle. These paddles are connected to the rear wheel of the bicycle through chain drive. Double threaded hub has been used to put on two sprockets .In one sprocket, the normal chain is connected to the pedals and in another sprocket, the chain drive that rotate the paddles are connected. Thus, the movement is given. These paddles can be adjusted according to the weight of the rider when inside the water. There is an adjustable rod that increases or decreases the altitude of the position of the paddles. The paddles should be half inside and half outside the water to maximum displacement.

ADVANTAGES BICYCLE

PROPERTIES OF EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (THERMOCOL) Typical Properties:

Density Range

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15-30 Kg/m

0.028Thermal conductivity at 0.031 K 10 mean temperature cal m/hr. mc Compressive Strength

0.8-1.6 Kg/cm

Cross breaking Strength

1.4-2.0 Kg/cm

Tensile Strength

3-6 kg/cm

Application Range

-200 +80 deg C

Water absorption by % Volume for 7 days in 0.5% water Self ignition point

300 C

Melting Range

100-200C

VERSATILE

•

Single vehicle is used instead of two vehicles while crossing water bodies.

•

Reasonable speed on water is achieved.

•

No major unease or discomfort to rider while riding on land.

•

The thermocol blocks are detachable, hence weight is reduced while riding on land.

•

There is no sucking of water by thermocol as its of high density quality.

•

In overall , the vehicle is very robust and can be used in any conditions.

•

As the vehicle is cycle, its pollution free and environmental friendly.

•

No extra fuel or energy required.

•

As the factor of safety given is 2, the chances of drowning is zero.

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Required surface area = 51020/20 = 2551 cm2.

DESIGN CALCULATIONS Density of water Density of thermocol

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The thermocol blocks locks are cut in aerodynamic shape as per design requirement shown (surface are > 2551 cm2) in fig

1 g/cm3

= 20 kg/m3 => 0.02g/cm3

Final dimensions of the thermocol block Density of thermocol > density of water Thus thermocol floats in water. Material

Weight

•

Bicycle

25 kg

•

Rider

75 kgs

Total

100 kgs (app. mass)

Applied load = 100 x 9.8 Newtons = 980 Newtons Required factor of safety is 2. Factor of safety = allowable load/applied load

The dimensions are chosen to get the required surface area, thus to satisfy the design.

2= allowable load / 100 x 9.8 Allowable load = 2 x 100 x 9.8 Newtons

Surface area = [(50 x 36)+(0.5 +(0.5 x (12+50) x 25 )]

Allowable mass = 200 kg or 200000 0000 grams

= 2575 cm2 (> 2551 cm2)

1 cm3 of thermocol can bear (1- 0.02) grams of mass.

Volume of 1 block = 2575 x 20 = 51500 cm3 (> 51020 cm3)

= 0.98 grams of mass Thus the design of thermocol blocks are satisfied.

So for bearing 200000 grams of mass , we need 200000/0.98 cm3 of thermocol. = 204081 cm3 of thermocol required. No. of blocks needed = 4 So , volume of 1 block = 204081/4 = 51020 cm3. Standard thickness of thermocol blocks = 20 cm Volume of 1 thermocol block = surface area x thickness 51020 = required surface area x 20

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TEST DRIVE IN WATER

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APPLICATIONS BICYCLE

VERSATILE



Used to cross rivers, ponds, lakes in villages.



Can be used as main mode of transport in states like Kerala, Goa etc. where crossing of back waters is very much necessary task.



Can be used in flood prone states like Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa etc. as a medium of transport for evacuation process.



Can be used as a medium of transport in areas

Velachery,

Madipakkam,

Adambakkam, Korattur, Annanur etc. where short term flooding occurs during monsoon season. 

Can be used as a water sport in tourist spots like Ooty, Kodaikanal etc. along with boating.

TEST DRIVE IN LAND



Can be used for small scale fishing process in lakes and ponds.



Can be used by children for having fun in water ride and also serves as normal bicycle.

LIMITATIONS BICYCLE

VERSATILE

•

Though the versatile bicycle reaches a reasonable speed in water, its lower than hitech amphibious vehicles that runs on fuel.

•

The stylish shape of the bicycle is slightly altered.

•

Doubles cannot be ridden in versatile bicycle as the clamps are fixed.

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COST OF FABRICATION S.NO

COMPONENTS

COST

BICYCLE

2000

THERMOOL

1000

M.S.SHEET

1000

MISCELLENEOUS (HUBS,SPROCKETS,CHAINS ETC)

1000

FABRICATION (LABOR,TRANSPORTATIONS ETC)

2000

TOTAL

7000

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•

To improve the aesthetics of the bicycle to make it more marketable.

•

To use aluminum hollow pipes instead of mild steel to decrease the weight.

•

To increase the velocity of the bicycle in water.

•

To improve the aesthetics and ergonomics of the versatile bicycle.

REFERENCE BOOKS An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics by Bachelor Fluid mechanics by R.K.Bansal

COMMERCIALIZATION PRODUCT

OUR

Engineering Mechanics by Koteeshwaran

Our product has not yet hit the market so far. So it will be a brand new innovation .It has a great potential market in states like Kerala, Goa where crossing of back water is a unavoidable test , in flood prone states like Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu etc, Once it is launches in market, our product will become a basic need in each and every house. As our product has a lot of major applications, it has a great potential to be commercialized in the market successfully

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS VERSATILE BICYCLE

ACHIEVEMENTS BICYCLE SO FAR…

VERSATILE



II place in ICTACT young innovator award,2014



III place in CII innovator award,2014



Applied for patent successfully.

•

To replace the thermocol material with welded sheet metal of that shape.

•

Making the whole L-clamp detachable and attachable.

•

To replace the paddles with propellers for giving high displacement in water.

•

To give rust preventive coating for the rust prone areas like frame, chain, sprockets of bicycle.

easily

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DATABASE INTRUSION DETECTION USING ROLE BASED ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEM Mrs. ANTONY VIGIL ASSISTANT PROFESSOR SRM UNIVERSITY

MRINALINI SHRIDHAR STUDENT SRM UNIVERSITY

R OVIYA STUDENT SRM UNIVERSITY

used to protect the data and the system. Amending all the above methods, newer methods have come up to protect the same for daily operations and decision making in organizations. Database is a group or collection of data's which may contain valuable and sensitive information about the institution and organization, which is accessed by the people of the organization internally and externally every day. Any leak of information in these systems will devastate the whole database system and the data's, leading to a great loss. Hence the data need to be protected and secured. The recent models of protection of DBMS were the dynamic threshold method and the data mining method of Intrusion detection system. Intrusion detection method is a process which analyses the unauthorized access and malicious behaviors and finds intrusion behaviors and attempts by detecting the state and activity of an operating system to provide an effective means for intrusion defend. In this paper, we will see how RBAC will help us to protect the database along with the intrusion detection with limited rules. RBAC- Role based access control, also known as role based security is a method to restrict access of just one user, and also many users depending on the role of the users. The roles are prioritized like Example: Administrators access sensitive attributes and the DBMS and its attributes can be used. RBAC is a rich technology for authentication privileges and controlling the access of the information and data. It makes the administration of the security (work) much easier and simpler, though the process may be tedious and little vast. The possibility of adding newer application inside the secured system is much easier with the different access control mechanism. Extracting the data from the protected information system is much easier only by an authorized person. Talking about the sensitivity of the attributes we will have to refine the audit log to extract the data attributes. In the past few years computer crime and security survey conducted by the Computer Security Institute(CSI) have seen a lot of drastic improvement

ABSTRACT- In this paper, we propose a different approach for the database intrusion detection (IDS). Database Management (DBMS) has become a key criteria in the information system (IS) storing valuable information of the system. We are urged to protect it to the fullest without losing any bit of information. Intrusion detection, which gathers and analyses the information system was one of the methods which protects the database the fullest with all sorts of rules. In this paper, we move into the Role based Access Control (RBAC) system which controls the administered databases for finding out sensitive attributes of the system dynamically. Role based Access Control is a method to restrict system access by authorized and unauthorized people directly. The access is based on the roles of the individual users within the organization. Important roles like administrator, access sensitive attributes and if their audit logs are mined, then some useful information regarding the attributes can be used. This will help to decide the sensitivity of the attributes. Since the models of the database intrusion detection has proposed a lot of rules , it is time to change the system to protect it more evidently with less rules and regulations which would be useful for detecting all sorts of transactions. Keywords: Database intrusion detection, Role based access control system, Administered database, Audit logs, Sensitive and attributes. 1.INTRODUCTION In past years, Database Management System (DBMS) have become an indispensible part of the life of the organizers and the users using it. Hence it was the primary priority to safeguard the DBMS, no matter how easy or difficult it was. The motive of the researches was first based on these ideas of protecting the DBMS and to prevent the leakage of data. The past years, Authentication user privileges , Auditing, Encryption and lots of methods have been

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in both the aspects ,but only thing was that there need to be a lot of adjustments in the rules given by each model. We are in the scoop of improving the database system and protecting it. In 2005, about 45% of the inquired entities have reported increased unauthorized access to information due to the poor system management. In 2007, financial application fraud was the leading cause and found it double as compared to the previous year also 59% of the respondents outlined insider abuse as the security problem. In 2013, survey the number has dropped down and the security was much more than the past few years. The statistics being, the percentage threats due to insiders has been dropped to 20% and the financial fraud which was a cause before were eliminated in the upcoming years. Now only 10-20% are reported as unauthorized users. This shows that the database security has been improving day to day and researches have been conducted every time a model is proposed before implementing to action.

USERS

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TASK /JOB

ACCESS

CONSTRAINTS SESSIONS

FIG 1. MODEL OF RBAC

3.RELATED WORKS RBAC supports three well known principles and hence we work out our plan in 3 steps: 1. Principle of minimal authority 2. Divide and rule method of duties 3. Data abstraction

2.ROLE BASED ACCESS CONTROL MODEL The Role based access control model proposes 3 relationships between the attributes given. They are: a) USER-JOB: Which defines the relationship between the user and the task defined in that system. b) JOB-ACCESS: Which defines the relationship between the job or the task of the person and the access to that particular work. c) JOB-JOB: Which defines the job to job relationship between the users. Now defining each attribute of the model we have the users of an organization represents an organizer or an agent of that field. The task or the job represents the responsibility or the functioning of the user within the organization. The access represents the approval or a permission to that particular task or event of that organization. The sessions box represents the overall relationship between the user and the task the contribution both has in the RBAC model. It does not point towards the access field as the access field is directed only by the task the user performs. Constraints represent the limitations or the boundary of each entity of that data that is, the user, task or job, access as well as the relationship between them is also restricted. The sessions represent the Divide and rule mechanism of the RBAC model. The fig 2 and 1 are interlinked process and each step of the data flow diagram will implement the following attributes of the user.

User Data secured

Principle of minimal authority Authorization access

Divide and rule method

Data abstraction

Data FIG 2. DATA FLOW DIAGRAM The sensitivity of an attribute is based on the database application. We have to divide the attributes into 3 divisions so as to protect the attributes according to the sensitivity or the position order they hold. Sensitivity refers to the position order a data has to be protected. If the data are least sensitive we can give it minimal protection. If the data are highly sensitive in the attribute set we need

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to protect it to the fullest. In some schematics we are not able to tell whether the data is sensitive or not. To give a clear picture of the attributes we have taken the Student Database Schema. TABLE 1.TEACHER'S SALARY SCHEMA

NAME*

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STAFF ID*

ADDRESS*

DATABASE STAFF

TABLE NAME

ATTRIBUTE NAME GETS Name [i], Staff-id [j], Address [d], Phone no [a]

STAFF ACCOUNT

SALARY TYPE

ACCOUNTS Administrator

ACCOUNT

Account-id [b], Staff-id [c], Status [g], Month [e], Year [f], Amount [h] Salary-type [k], LOP and Deductions [l] ACC ID*

TABLE 2. TYPES OF SENSITIVE ATTRIBUTES SENSITIVITY

ATTRIBUTE

Light sensitivity

a, b, c, d, i, ,j ,k

Medium sensitivity

e, f

High sensitivity

g, h, l

III

AMT DEPOSIT***

STATUS**

FIG 3.RBAC MODEL USING E-R MODEL

WEIGHTS a) Principal of minimal authority- Also known as the principle of least privilege means that the access to the information system or its resources for only its own legitimate purpose by every user or the module. In simple words, we can say that an authorized user can access that information system or the resource only for their own privileged purpose. Privileged/ Authority refers to the right a user has or granting access to the user to use a particular system. For example, the user defined in its domain can access only its domain and its attributes. The person accessing a bank account can go through only their bank procedures and account. The system does not access or grant permission to access other accounts. Similarly an admin user accessing a computer can go into only the admin user account all other password accounts are blocked for the admin user. b)Divide and rule method of duties- it can also be termed as the separation of duties among the users. It helps the task to be completed faster. A mutual exclusive role is achieved to complete a particular set of task. RBAC brings this advantage of time management. the database is secured as well as the data are given to the authorized people easily with security. c)Data abstraction- Data abstraction is a simple concept of accessing the data whenever we want to but with the permission of authorized people. It has different modes to it.

The sensitivity of the attributes can also be given by the entity-relationship model [E-R]. But with relation to the RBAC model , an administrator is required to control the database for its sensitivity. It is a perception of the real world. It is the diagrammatic representation of how the attributes are considered. The * represents if the attributes are sensitive or not. The model represents a collection of entities or data's and the contribution to the system. To maintain the account and the staff system we need a main administrator. Hence the RBAC system proposed in this E-R model .Thus E-R model is modified as: STAFF + ACCOUNT + SALARY TYPE = ACCOUNTS ADMINISTRATOR

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i)Public Mode- The access to the data by any user of the domain, but limited to a particular organization. This requires a common security where only the users of the organization can access it. ii)Private Mode- The access of the data is limited only to the key user of that particular search of interest. That is only the accountants can handle the accounts of the organization and hence access to that particular class is given only to that particular user. A manager accessing the accounts of the company will be denied from accessing it. iii)Protected Mode- The user in that particular domain and the senior user that is one or maximum two users who has to write to access that domain can access it with ease. Example only the accountants and the chief of the company can check the accounts of hat particular institution and make changes in that. The others have no right to access these without their permission. For the others the domain remains in blocked state.

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a)Develop Plans- To make best use of RBAC we can develop and plan for the RBAC system into best work in an organization or for a project's security of data. Example to extract the maximum security from RBAC a development plan including a project, etc. should be developed along with the deadline , budget etc. b)Compile- This step involves the collection and putting together of all data , files , projects, etc. so as to identify the level of security needed to implement it. Sensitivity of the attributes should be determined so as to segregate and compile the system to one to provide the highest security possible. c)Define Roles- As we have discussed that operation of database system is first best used only by the key user or the important user of that organizer or a system. Hence assigning a particular role to that person for the easy access of the software to access the data with ease and implement any kind of proper change within the system. d)Analyze- this is a main step for any kind of system to know and to formulate RBAC. This would bring about the betterment of the system so that the next stage of implementation would be easier to execute. Any changes needed in the system should be done in this stage so that no further disputes arise at the later stage. e)Integrate- Before any problem occurs in the system like system failure, we need to transfer each application's security system to a centralized security system so as to provide a secured companywide information access. this would be the last step of the process and would be the final stage without making any changes. e)Implement- To put forth whatever we have executed these many steps without any errors or any types of problems. These are the best ways to protect a data from the external user. Thus refining the system and protecting it according to the steps followed would give a better result. Always the principle of divide and rule method is followed in RBAC which is the key principle of the system.

4. IMPLEMENTATION RBAC is a complex system that involves a strategic process prepared by an expertise. RBAC is best implemented by applying a structured and detailed procedure. The use of divide and rule method is very essential to implement these process. Each task or step is broken down into sub tasks for the work and implementation to be easier and more efficient. The steps involved are: DEVELOP PLANS

COMPILE

DEFINE ROLES

5.PROCESS USING A FORMULAE ANALYSE

Each datum is a process streamline flow of information which is guarded by security. These syntaxes along with the formula help in the security purpose. This formula was implemented in the Web Based technology, now it is time to implement it in Database to ensure its safety.

INTERGRATE

IMPLEMENT FIG 4.PROCESS

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Syntax:

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brackets represents that it is a secured data and hence it is the start of the process and that the data must be protected fully. Hence we cannot find the sensitivity of the attribute at the mid stage of the process. The same process with a change to denote the sensitivity is represented as :

P=>| {(staff)P | name(P).X | staff id(P).X | phone(P).X} || {(account)P | account id(P).X | AMOUNT DEPOSITED(P).X | STATUS(P).Y}

P=> run the process | D(P) main data or the attributes | read(P) read the data or the attributes | change(P) change the data or the attributes P=>enable(R).D gives permission to R to access a data P=>disable(R)>D gives permission to R to disable the data or remove or stop the process till R.

The other way is: P1=>| (staff)P| name(P).X | staff id(P).X | phone(P).X P2=>| (account)P | account id(P).X | AMOUNT DEPOSITED(P).X|STATUS(P).Y P=>| P1||P2 Thus this formula would be easy for the generation of large sets of data and to secure the data and hence even if there is a small change in the capitalization or the attributes or the brackets or any syntax mistake there would be an error generated in the system which would spoil the whole set of data. This is done for just a small set of data. We can proceed this for a huge one. An outsider seeing this would not understand the type of data or the importance of the data and hence would hesitate to meddle with it.

For the above E-R diagram of the process ,the interaction between the staff salary and the account we can create a formula based on the process. P=>| {(staff)P | name(P).X | staff id(P).X | phone(P).X} || {(account)P | account id(P).X | amount deposited(P).X | status(P).Y}

The other way of representing it is to split the process:

6.CONCLUSION Intrusion detection mechanism helps to secure the data in an organization. In this paper we have discussed in detail how the database could be secured by using Role Based Access Control System. The key benefits of RBAC are high efficiency and low maintenance cost for any type of organization be it big or small. Also RBAC system could be designed and used to improve the operational performance and strategic business value. This system could streamline and automate any business procedures, thus providing high/ better/ faster benefits to the user. It also helps to maintain privacy and confidentially of the employees in any organization. Thus we can conclude that mission to protect any key business process is a main vision of RBAC system in database intrusion detection.

P1=>| (staff)P| name(P).X | staff id(P).X | phone(P).X P2=>| (account)P | account id(P).X | amount deposited(P).X | status(P) .Y P=>| P1||P2

Where staff and the account have no sensitivity and hence it's just an attribute of the system, where as the other attribute- name, staff id, phone, account, account id, amount deposited are the inputs and the output is the status. The two processes can be divided and then later combined to form a single equation. If the process needs to be changed or read or any other kind of operations, they can be done by the given formula which would be useful for the later run. To calculate the sensitivity or to know the sensitivity of the attributes, automatic capitalization would be invoked to represent the highest sensitive attributes in the given set of data or the formula generated at the end of the process typed. The least sensitive are given in small letters. The medium sensitive might be in italic letters. The ones inside

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REFERENCES [1] Intrusion detection database system with dynamic threshold value By Khomlal sinha and Tripti Sharma [2] Database Intrusion Detection using Weighted Sequence Mining Abhinav Srivastava1, Shamik Sural1 and A.K. Majumdar2 [3] J. Han, M. Kamber, Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers (2001). [4] U. Fayyad, G. P. Shapiro, P. Smyth, The KDD Process for Extracting Useful Knowledge from Volumes of Data, Communications of the ACM, pp. 27-34 (1996). [5] R. Bace, P. Mell, Intrusion Detection System, NIST Special Publication on Intrusion Detection System (2001). [6] A. Srivastava, S. Sural, A.K. Majumdar, Weighted Intratransactional Rule Mining for Database Intrusion Detection, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, Springer Verlag, Proceedings of Pacific-Asia Conference in Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, pp. 611-620 (2006). [7] W. Lee, S.J. Stolfo, Data Mining Approaches for Intrusion Detection, Proceedings of the USENIX Security Symposium, pp. 79-94 (1998). [8] D. Barbara, J. Couto, S. Jajodia, N. Wu, ADAM: A Testbed for Exploring the Use of Data Mining in Intrusion Detection, ACM SIGMOD, pp. 15-24 (2001). [7] C. Y. Chung, M. Gertz, K. Levitt, DEMIDS: A Misuse Detection System for Database Systems, IFIP TC-11 WG 11.5 Working Conference on Integrity and Internal Control in Information System, pp. 159-178 (1999). [8] V.C.S. Lee, J.A. Stankovic, S.H. Son, Intrusion Detection in Real-time Database Systems Via Time Signatures, Real Time Technology and Application Symposium, pp. 124 (2000). [9] Intrusion detection database system with dynamic threshold value By Khomlal sinha and Tripti Sharma [10] Database Intrusion Detection using Weighted Sequence Mining Abhinav Srivastava1, Shamik Sural1 and A.K. Majumdar2 [11] S.Y. Lee, W.L. Low, P.Y. Wong, Learning Fingerprints for a Database Intrusion Detection System, Proceedings of the European Symposium on Research in Computer Security, pp. 264-280 (2002).

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DETECTION OF ADDICTION OF AN INDIVIDUAL AND AVOIDING ADDICTION USING EMBEDDED SYSTEMS Dhivya.R, Department of EEE, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai. divyarcvd@gmail.com

Mathivani.M, Department of EEE, Kongu Engineering College, Perundurai. mathivanimarimuthu@gmail.com based upon are ‘The ‘Brainwaves’ and ‘Addiction’.

ABSTRACT: Addiction is a chronic disease causing disorder in the brain memory and related circuits leading to characteristic biological, psychological, social and spiritual manifestations. This is reflected in an individual pathologically pursuing relief by unrecommended substance use and other behaviors. In the world, about 47% of people are found to spend their waking hours in thinking of matters apart from their normal mind-set and about 80% of the people are addicted to one more addictive substances. In this paper we are going to explain how addiction could be avoided using an embedded device by using the phenomenon of “frequency following response” of the brain by controlling brain waves.

Brain’,

1.1.THE BRAIN: Brain, an electrochemical organ which functions as a coordinating centre of sensation, nervous activity and intelligence. At the root of all our thoughts, emotions and behaviours is the communication between neurons within our brains. Brainwaves are produced by synchronised electrical pulses from masses of neurons communicating with each other. The Brainwaves are produced by the lobes of the brain and they are,  Frontal lobe  Parietal lobe  Temporal lobe  Occipital lobe  Limbic lobe  Insular cortex

1.INTRODUCTION: Before going on to details we are supposed to know the basic terms.The basic terms that this paper is

Thus, temporal lobe processes auditory information from the ears and relates it to Wernicke's area of the

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parietal lobe and the motor cortex of the frontal lobe. The amygdale is located within the temporal lobe and controls social and sexual behavior and other emotions. The limbic system is important in emotional behavior and controlling movements(Refer Fig 1.1).

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frequencies are dominant when we feel wired, or hyper-alert. Brainwave speed is measured in Hertz (cycles per second) and they are dived into bands deliniating slow, moderate, and fast waves. There are four categories of these brainwaves, ranging from most activity to least activity. These are (Refer Fig1.2)  Delta waves  Theta waves  Alpha waves  Beta waves.  Gamma waves Delta waves are waves with high amplitude. It has a frequency of 0.5 – 4 Hertz. They never go down to zero because that would mean that you were brain dead. But, deep dreamless sleep would take you down to the lowest frequency. Typically, 2 to 3 Hertz. Theta waves are waves with amplitude lesser than that of delta waves and have a greater frequency of 5 – 8 Hertz. A person who has taken time off from a task and begins to daydream is often in a theta brainwave state. Alpha waves are waves with amplitude lesser than that of theta waves and have a greater frequency of 9-14 Hertz. A person who takes time out to reflect or meditate is usually in a alpha state. Beta waves are the waves that have the lowest amplitude and have the highest frequency of 15 – 40 Hertz. These waves are again classified into low beta waves and high beta waves according to their range of frequencies.

Fig 1.1 Researchers have speculated that a fully functional brain generates as much as 10 watts of electrical power.Other conservative investigators calculated that the brain generates 50 milli volts. Although, the generated power is limited in very specific ways it occurs as a charateristics of the human brain. 1.2.BRAINWAVES: Electrical activity emanating from the brain is displayed in the form of brainwaves. It is important to know that all humans display five different types of electrical patterns or “brain waves” across the cortex. Our brainwaves change according to what we’re doing and feeling. When slower brainwaves are dominant we can feel tired, slow, sluggish, or dreamy. The higher

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

The low beta waves have a frequency of 15 – 32 Hertz. A person making an active conversation would be in the low beta state.  The high beta waves have a frequency of 33 – 40 Hertz. A person in a stress, pain or addiction would be in the high beta state. Gamma waves are involved in higher processing tasks as well as cognitive functioning. They are important for learning, memory and information processing. It is thought that the 40 Hz gamma wave is important for the binding of our senses in regards to perception and are involved in learning new material. It has been found that individuals who are mentally challenged and have learning disabilities tend to have lower gamma activity than average S.No.

Brainwaves

Frequency range (Hertz)

Delta

0.5 – 4

Theta

5-8

Alpha

9 – 14

Low Beta

15 – 32

High Beta

32 – 40

Gamma

40-100

Fig 1.2 1.2.1.ADDICTION: There are two types of addiction:  Physical dependency  Psychological dependency. Physical dependence can happen with the chronic use of many drugs— including many prescription drugs even if taken as instructed. Thus, physical dependence in and of itself does not constitute addiction, but it often accompanies addiction. In this paper, we are going to solely consider the psychological addictions in designing the addiction avoider device. 1.2.2.PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCY: A person becomes dependent on something to help alleviate specific emotions. Psychological dependence begins after the first trial which a person then becomes satisfied and the satisfaction increases with each use. This constant feeling leads to psychological reinforcement which eventually leads to dependence. Along with substances,

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people can also become dependent on activities as well; such as shopping, pornography, self-harm, and many more. While a psychologically dependent person attempts to recover, there are many withdrawal symptoms that one can experience throughout the process. Some of the withdrawal symptoms are: headache, poor judgement, trembling hands, and loss of attention span and focusing.

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directionality of the sound. This is really just an auditory illusion. The rate of this fluctuation can be controlled by the use of specific sound frequencies. For example, by playing a tone of 200 Hz in the left ear and 210 Hz in the right ear, a fluctuation of 10 Hz is detected by the brain. The difference between the two frequencies could be called a "sub harmonic" – a sound that is below the threshold of human hearing. However, this sub-harmonic binaural frequency may still be detected as a slight pulsing sound. This pulsing, or beating, is why we call them binaural "beats". Binaural beats cause the brain to adjust its dominant frequency to match the sub harmonic frequency of the beating sound. This is what is known as the "frequency following response". We can take advantage of the frequency following response by creating binaural frequencies that help to induce specific brainwave frequencies. For example, we know that someone who is in a state of deep meditation may have a dominant brainwave frequency of say, 6 Hertz (6 cycles per second). When we listen to binaural tones that have been programmed to produce a 6 Hertz sub harmonic frequency, our own brainwaves will follow the frequency of the beat and will naturally adjust in sympathy. Directly using an infrasonic auditory stimulus is impossible, since the ears cannot hear sounds low enough to be useful for brain stimulation. Human hearing is limited to the range of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz,

2.THE ADDICTION AVOIDER: 2.1.PRINCIPLE: ‘Binaural Beats’ is the Principle behind this device. Binaural Beats or "binaural tones" are an auditory effect that is created in the brain when two tones of slightly different frequencies are played separately into each ear. This effect was discovered in 1839 by Heinrich Wilhelm Dove. Normally, when a sound reaches our ears, your brain uses this information to help decipher where the sound is coming from. If we hear a noise that originates slightly to our left, then the sound will not only be a little louder in our left ear, it also arrives at our left ear a few milliseconds sooner than it arrives at our right ear. We may not notice this effect on a conscious level, but our brain certainly does. So our brain is very sensitive to small variations in the frequency of sounds, and to the way those sounds reach our ears. When we listen to binaural beats, our brain is subjected to an effect that is perceived as a constant fluctuation in the

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while the frequencies of human brain waves are below about 40 Hz. To account for this, binaural beat frequencies must be used. According to this view, when the perceived beat frequency corresponds to the delta, theta, alpha or beta range of brainwave frequencies, the brainwaves entrain to or move towards the beat frequency. For example, if a 315 Hz sine wave is played into the right ear and a 325 Hz one into the left ear, the brain is supposed to be entrained towards the beat frequency (10 Hz, in the alpha range). Since alpha range is usually associated with relaxation, this is supposed to have a relaxing effect. Some people find pure sine waves unpleasant, so a pink noise or another background (e.g. natural sounds such as river noises) can also be mixed with them.

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The block diagram(Refer Fig 1.3) consists of the following parts whose operation is as below: 2.3.1.SENSORS: The sensors used are EEG sensors: An electroencephalogram detects abnormalities in the brain waves or electrical activity of the brain. During the procedure, electrodes consisting of small metal discs with thin wires are pasted on the scalp. The electrodes detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of the brain cells. The charges are amplified as analog signals. The sensor sends the analog brainwave signal into the 8515 microcontroller. 2.3.2.MICROCONTROLLER:

2.2. BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 1.4 The Atmel 8515(Refer Fig 1.4) microcontroller is a 40 pin, 4 MHz 8bit microcontroller and has 8K FLASH, 512 EEPROM, 512 SRAM.The AT90S8515 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller. It has an internal analog to digital converter (ADC) and internal battery. The signal that is sent by the sensors is converted from analog to digital signal. The microcontroller has a

Fig 1.3 2.3.EXPLANATION WORKING:

THE

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pre-defined program, which analyses the digital signal and compares it with the digital signal equivalent of the analog signal having the frequency range of 32 – 40 Hz which is already stored in the memory of the microcontroller. If on comparison the analyses on two signals are nearly same then the microcontroller acknowledges and triggers the oscillator 1 and oscillator 2.

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Addiction avoider can be used to cure stress or tension on any individual. The concept of binaural waves can be further researched and used to find a device for communication with deaf and dumb individuals. It can be further used to study the resonance of brain during brain diseases. 4.MERITS: a)The headband used is made of rubber is easy to use. b)The whole device is light weight and can be carried anywhere we want. c)Helps in Relaxation of mind d)Concentration and Focus level can be increased

2.3.3.OSCILLATORS: The oscillator is designed in such a way that it produces a particular audio wave below 1500 Hz. The oscillator will be designed such that it has 10 – 13 Hz difference in frequency with oscillator 1. This difference in frequency creates Binaural Beats. Thus if the brain of an individual produces 32 – 40 Hz (High Beta waves) i.e. if he/she is in stress or addicted to some substance, the binaural beats having a frequency of about 10-13 Hz creates a stimulus making the brain to move towards the stimulated frequency.

5.DEMERITS: 1) Those meeting any of the following criteria/conditions should not use binaural beats  Brain disorders  Pregnant women  People with heart disorders  Photosensitive people

2.3.4.STEREO HEADPHONE: The sensation of auditory binaural beats occurs when two coherent sounds of nearly similar frequencies are presented one to each ear with stereo headphones or speakers. This is done by sending audio waves from one oscillator to one of the two sides of the headphone and another oscillator to another side of the headphone.

6.CONCLUSION: Addiction Avoider is the safest and simplest device to use in prevention of Addiction. It is used for any type of addiction like addiction caused by taking narcotic drugs or alcohol and simple addictions like overeating, sexual intercourse and mannerisms.

3.FUTURE PROSPECTS:

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7.REFERENCE: [1]Wilson.R.Palacios, “Cocktails and dreams: Perspectives on drugs and alcohol use”

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[12]www.angelfire.com/empire/serpentis 666/Brainwaves.htm

[2]Psychological Abstracts, American Psychological Associations. [3]”Cognition and Addiction”, Marcus Munafo, I.Albery. [4]”Addiction Conspiracy: Unlocking Brain Chemistry and addiction”, Lee Tannenbaum, 2008. [5]“Drugs and the Future: Brain Science and Addiction”, David.J.Nutt, Trevor. Robbins, 2006. [6]“Mapping the mind”, Rita Carter, Christopher.D.Frith, 1998. [7]“The truth about addiction and recovery “, Stanton Peele, Archie Brodsky, Mary Arnold. [8]‘Detection of seizures in epileptic and non-epileptic patients using GPS and Embedded Systems’ by Abhiram Chakraborty – Ukranian Journal of Telemedicine and medical Telematics (TOM 3 No.2 Pg. 211) [9] www.bio-medical.com [10]www.ercim.org/publication/ Ercim_News/enw51/bielikova.html [11]www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ ency/article/003931.htm

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Surface Roughness analysis of drilling on GFRP composites by experimental investigation and predictive modeling 1,2

*1 Prasanna Ragothaman,2Harihar Karthikkeyan Department of Mechanical Engineering ,Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,Coimbatore,India 1 prasse1994@gmail.com,2haridooo93@gmail.com

Abstract: Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics composites have an increased application in recent days, due to its enhanced structural properties, Mechanical and thermal properties. Drilling of holes in GFRP becomes almost unavoidable in fabrication. The heterogeneous nature of this kind of materials makes complications during machining operation. However, drilling is a common machining practice for assembly of components. The quality of holes produced in the GFRP material is severely affected by surface roughness, Circularity and Delamination . The objective of the study is to apply the full factorial design, ANOVA and Fuzzy logic model to achieve an improved hole quality considering the minimum surface roughness through proper selection of drilling parameters. The regression method is employed in the Experimental investigation and Mathematical modelling of drilling of GFRP material using HSS drill bits and the fuzzy logic model for the validation of the mathematical model.

factors affect the surface finish. Many theoretical models have concluded that the effect of spindle speed on surface roughness is minimal [8]. In practice, however spindle speed has been found to be an important factor [9]. The quality of drilling surfaces depends on the cutting parameters and tool wear, while changing the cutting parameters causes to tool wear [10].Researchers have attempted to model the surface roughness prediction using multiple regression, mathematical modeling based on physics of process, fuzzy logic [11].Machining operation being highly nonlinear in nature, soft computing techniques have been found to be very effective for modeling [12].The influence of process parameters such as spindle speed, lubrication and feed rate on surface finish were investigated during the experimentation of Metal matrix composites. The experiments were conducted according to the full factorial design .The percentage of contribution of highest influential factors can be determined using analysis of variance(ANOVA) a statistical tool, used in design of experiments[13,14]. Fuzzy logic is a mathematical formalism for representing human knowledge involving vague concepts and a natural but effective method for systematically formulating cost effective solutions of complex problems [15]. A model was developed for surface roughness on drilling of GFRP composites using fuzzy logic [16]. The primary objective of this study is to quantify the influence of process input parameters on surface roughness by formulating a mathematical model and validating using Fuzzy logic model.

Index terms: GFRP, ANOVA, Fuzzy logic, aircraft fuselage, Full factorial Method, Drilling, Surface Roughness.

I.Introduction Glass fiber Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) are widely being used in the automotive, machine tool industry, aerospace components, sporting equipmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s [1] because of their particular mechanical and physical properties such as specific strength and high specific stiffness. An aircraft fuselage structure around 100,000 holes is required for joining purpose [2, 3]. About 60% of the rejections are happening in aircraft industry due to the defects in the holes [4]. Many of these problems are due to the use of non-optimal cutting tool designs, rapid tool wear and cutting parameters [5, 6]. Among the defects caused by drilling with tool wear, Delamination appears to be the most critical [7].The surface finish of the work piece is an important attribute of hole quality in any drilling operation. During machining many

II. Design of Experiment Design of experiment is the design of all information -gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control

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experimenter or not. The cutting speed, feed rate and thickness of GFRP plate are the three parameters under investigation in the present study. A full factorial experimental design with a total number of 27 holes drilled into the GFRP specimen to investigate the hole quality on Surface Roughness. The full factorial design is the most efficient way of conducting the experiment for that three factors and each factor at three levels of experiments is used. Hence as per factor Levels (factors to power of levels) formula = factors 3 Levels ,N = 3 = 27, N- number of experiments.

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Fig 3: Experimental Setup Experiments were carried out in high speed radial drilling machine using HSS drill of 10mm diameter. Experiments were carried out according to full factorial design. It provide a powerful and efficient method for designing processes that operate consistently and optimally over a variety of conditions. The selected levels of process parameters were given in Table 1.Fig. 3 shows the photographic view of the experimental setup. Further, the hole quality characteristics surface roughness measured using roughness tester [Mitutoyo TR-200].Fig. 2 shows the measurement of hole quality characteristics using roughness tester. Point angle was measured before every drill for 27 experiments using Digital Profile Projector [OPTOMECH, 10x magnification].

Table 1:Assignment levels for process parameters Levels Factors 1 2 3 Speed,s(rpm) 280 900 1800 Feed,f(mm/rev) 0.18 0.71 1.40 GFRP Plate 5 10 15 thickness,t(mm)

Fig 1: Fabricated GFRP plate IV . RESULTS AND DISCUSSION III. Specimen preparation The Glass fiber reinforced composite used is fabricated using hand lay-up technique [12]. The composition type is Glass fibers (fiber length=2030mm) reinforced with isopathalic resin with 30% reinforcement .The material was fabricated and then cut into pieces of 22cm x 11cm for all the three thicknesses of plate (Fig.1)

A. ANOVA The Analysis of variance is extensively used to analyze the experimental results. ANOVA tests the significance of group difference between two or more groups. The normal probability plot represents that all the points on the normal plot lie close to the straight line (main line) or not. Versus fits plots represents that how far deviation occur from the normal distribution. An interaction plot is occurs when the change in response from the one level of a factor to another level differs from change in response at the same two level second factor. A main effect plot is present when different levels of an input affect the responses directly.

A. Methodology

B. ANOVA FOR SURFACE ROUGHNESS Fig.4 Represent that all the points lie closer to the regression line, this implies that the data are fairly normal and there is a no deviation from the normal. Histogram graph shows the skewness. The Equation No. 1 represents that feed has much effect on Ra. The main effect plot for Surface Roughness has been shown in the Fig 5. The plot shows that Ra decrease with low cutting speed

Fig 2: Surface Roughness Tester

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and low feed rate for 15 mm plate, as well as the initial (without wear in drill bit ) point angle has less effect on Ra. Table 2 Shows that the analysis of variance of second order model with 95% confidence interval for the Surface roughness experiments. Parameter A gives 44.2% contribution to the Ra.

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Mathematical model for Surface Roughness

The models were based on the Box-Behnkn design method. The developed second order mathematical model for surface roughness. Surface Roughness = 4.87 - 0.00086 (s) + 2.49 (f) + 0.249 (t)-------(1) Table 2 : Analysis of variance Predictors Coef SE Coef

Constant

4.873

2.352

2.07

0.05

8.56e-4

1.09e-3

-0.78

0.442

2.494

1.367

1.49

0.151

0.2487

0.1673

2.07

0.017

S = 3.54808 R-Sq = 21.1% R-Sq(adj) = 10.8%

Fig.4 Residual plot for Ra

Source

Regression

77.44

25.81

2.05

0.135

Residual Error

289.54

12.59

Total

366.99

Fig.6 Represent that high feed rate and low speed have less effect on Ra while drilling on 5mm thickness plate. When drilling on 10mm thickness of plate with cutting parameters of low speed and feed rate shows surface roughness is minimized. For 15mm plate high speed and high feed rate has less effect on Ra. From Fig.5 shows that when decreasing the point angle , the effect of surface roughness is increased . Decreasing the point angle causes tool wear . Fig 7 shows the predicted and measured hole characteristics at different drilling process parameter conditions. The result significantly shows that the values relatively follow the similar trend pattern of the measured value and predicted values from the developed regression model.

Fig 5 Main Effects plot for Ra

V. Fuzzy logic model Fuzzy logic refers to a logical system that generalizes the classical two-value logic for reasoning under uncertainty. It is a system of computing and approximate reasoning based on a collection of theories and technologies that employ fuzzy sets, which are classes of objects without sharp boundaries. Fuzzy logic is the best in capturing the ambiguity in input. Fuzzy logic has

Fig 6 :Interaction plot for Ra

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become popular in the recent years, due to the fact that it is possible to add human expertise to the process. Nevertheless, in the case where the nonlinear model and all the parameters of a process are known, a fuzzy system may be used.

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Rule 1: ‘if Thickness is Low and Speed is Low and Feed rate is Low then surface roughness is Very Very low (VVL)’. D .Aggregation of Rules

A .Development of fuzzy logic model

The aggregation of all the rule outputs is implemented using max method, the commonly used method for combining the effect of all the rules. In this method the output of each rule is combined into single fuzzy set whose membership function value is used to clip the output membership function. It returns the highest value of the membership functions of all the rules.

The surface roughness and circularity error in drilling of GFRP is assumed as a function of three input variables viz.plate thickness, spindle speed, and feed rate. The Fuzzy logic prediction model is developed using Fuzzy Logic Toolbox available in Matlab version 7.10(R2010a).In this work Mamdani type Fuzzy Inference Systems(FIS) is used for modeling. The steps followed in developing The fuzzy logic model are described below.

E .Defuzzification The aggregate output of all the rules which is in the form of fuzzy set is converted into a numerical value (crisp number) that represents the response variable for the given data sets. In the present work, the centroid defuzzification method is used for this purpose. It is the most popular method used in most of the fuzzy logic applications. It is based on the centroid calculation and returns center of area under the curve.The predicted values of surface roughness are compared with the experimental output, prediction model output and fuzzy output. The comparison of prediction performance in fuzzy logic output, prediction model output with the experimental results is given in the Table 3.

B. Fuzzification of I/O variables:

Surface roughness,Ra (µm)

The input and output variables are fuzzified into different fuzzy sets. The triangular membership function is used for simplicity yet computationally efficient. It is easy to use and requires only three parameters to define.The input variables plate thickness [5-15 mm] ,spindle speed [280-1800 rpm] and feed rate [0.18-1.4 mm/rev] are fuzzified into three fuzzy sets viz.Low (L),Medium(M),and High(H) as shown in the Fig.11 (a,b,c).The output variable i.e. The surface roughness and circularity error are divided into nine fuzzy sets as Very Very Low(VVL),VeryLow(VL),Low(L),Medium1(M1),Medi um2 (M2), Medium3 (M3),High (H),Very High (VH),Very Very High (VVH) as shown in Fig.11 (d) to increase the resolution and accuracy of prediction. C . Evaluation of IF-THEN rule The three input variables are fuzzified into three fuzzy sets each, the size of rule base becomes 27(3x3x3).For generating the Fuzzy rules, the level of the variable having more membership grade on a particular fuzzy set is considered. With appropriate level of all the input variables representing the corresponding fuzzy set, the surface roughness values are used for 27 data sets of fuzzy rule base. Since all the parts in the antecedents are compulsory for getting the response value, the AND (min) operator is used to combine antecedents parts of each rule. The implication method min is used to correlate the rule consequent with its antecedent. For example, the first rule of the FIS can be written as

20 15 Experimental Value

10 5

Predicted Value

Fuzzified Value 1 5 9 13 17 21 25 Hole number

Fig.9 Correlation between Experimental Ra with predicted Ra and Fuzzified Ra Fig.9 indicates that the outputs from the experiments, Prediction model, Fuzzy are in good correlation with each other.

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Table 3: Surface roughness values for Experimental output, Predicted output and Fuzzy output

S. No

Plate thickness t (mm)

Speed s(rpm)

Feed f(mm/rev)

Point angle θ (◦)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15

280 280 280 900 900 900 1800 1800 1800 280 280 280 900 900 900 1800 1800 1800 280 280 280 900 900 900 1800 1800 1800

0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40 0.18 0.71 1.40

107º32'07" 107º29'47" 107º25'32" 107º20'44" 107º17'58" 107º15'20" 107º19'31" 107º12'25" 107º08'28" 107º02'57" 106º47'11" 106º39'47" 106º30'09" 106º28'42" 106º24'50" 106º21'20" 106º19'26" 106º16'32" 106º32'07" 105º58'10" 105º52'37" 105º44'12" 105º36'04" 105º14'39" 105º22'42" 105º08'35" 104º58'49"

Surface Roughness, Ra (µm) Experimental Predicted output output

Fuzzy output

3.19 11.98 6.49 4.09 9.16 8.79 12.96 7.27 3.33 5.64 8.98 11.42 1.76 7.12 8.58 7.72 10.07 8.97 8.37 10.48 15.75 5.43 18.25 11.43 4.74 6.64 8.55

2.15 10.00 5.75 3.62 7.87 7.87 12.1 5.75 2.50 3.62 7.87 10.00 2.19 5.75 7.87 5.75 10.00 7.87 7.87 10.00 14.30 3.62 16.4 10.00 3.62 5.75 7.87

6.3224 7.6421 9.3602 5.7892 7.1089 8.8270 5.0152 6.3349 8.0530 7.5674 8.8871 10.6052 7.0342 8.3539 10.0720 6.2602 7.5799 9.2980 8.8124 10.1321 11.8502 8.2792 9.5989 11.3170 7.5052 8.8249 10.5430

Fig 10 :Surface roughness vs Speed Fig 12:Surface roughness vs Feed rate The variation of surface roughness with different combinations of input variables is studied using the output surface FIS.Fig 10,11 12 shows the Functional dependence of surface roughness(Ra) with Plate thickness ,feed rate and Spindle speed .It can be observed that the surface roughness increase with increase in plate thickness or increase in spindle speed or increase in feed

Fig 11 :Surface roughness vs Thickness

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rate. And it is also observed that surface roughness is decreases with small plate thickness, medium spindle speed and small feed rate.

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[6] Komaduri R, Machining of fiber-reinforced Composites, Mechanical Engineering, 115 (4), (1993) 58-66.

VI .Conclusion

[7] A.M. Abrao et.al,. Drilling of fiber reinforced plastics: A review, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 186 (2007) 1–7.

This experimental investigation presents the surface roughness characteristics of drilling on GFRP composites. A simple regression prediction model was developed based on the function of process variables and the following conclusions were made

[8] Abrao A M, Faria PE, Campus Rubio J., C., Reis P, PauloDavim J Drilling of fiber reinforced plastics: A Review. J Materl. Process Technology 186 (2007) [9] CaprinoG, Tagliaferi V Damage development in drilling glass fiber reinforced plastics. Int J Mach tools Manuf (6): (1995) 817-829.

1)Surface Roughness was analyzed as a function of process input variables. Validation was done with a developed fuzzy –rule based model. The results obtained from experiments, Prediction model and the fuzzy model are in good correlation with each other.

[10]Hocheng, H.and H. Puw. On drilling characteristic fiber reinforced Thermoset &Thermoplastics. Int J Mach tools Manuf ,32 (1992)583-592.

2)From analysis of variance and from the fuzzy model, the results indicated that low feed rate, high spindle speed and 5mm thickness of GFRP plate gives better Surface Roughness. 3)It was observed that the surface roughness increases with the decreasing of point angle.

[11]M.Chandrasekaran, M.Muralidhar, C.M.Krishna and U.S.Dixit, Application of soft computing techniques in machining performance prediction and optimization:a literature review,Int J Adv Manuf Technol,Vol.46(2010) 445464.

4)Further investigations are needed to enhance the hole quality characteristics considering different tool materials and tool diameters, considering machine vibration, etc during drilling of GFRP composites.

[12]M.Chandrasekaran and D.Devarasiddappa ,Development of Predictive Model For Surface Roughness in End Milling of Al-SiC Metal matrix Composites using Fuzzy logic, Engineering and Technology 68 (2012) 1271-1276

VII .References

[13] C.Y.Hsu,C.S.Chen,C.C.Tsao,Free abrasive wire saw machining of ceramics, Int J Adv Manuf Technology 40 (2009) 503-511.

[1] Park, J. N., Cho, G. J.A Study of the Cutting Characteristics of the Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics by Drill Tools, International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, vol. 8 (2007) 11-15

[14] Bala Murugan Gopalsamy,Biswanath Mondal,Sukamal Ghosh,Optimisation of machining parameters for hard machining:grey relational theory approach and ANOVA,The International journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 45 (2009) 1068-1086.

[2] VijayanKrishnaraj, Member, IAENG, Effects of Drill Points on Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Composite While Drilling at High Speed, Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II, WCEE 2008, July 2-4(2008) London.

[15]Vikram Banerjee et.al,Design space exploration of mamdani and sugeno inference systemsfor fuzzy logic based illumination controller, International journal of VLSI and Embedded system-IJVES (2012) 97-101.

[3] Sonbatry El, Khashaba U.A, Machaly T, Factors affecting the machinability of GFRP/epoxy composites, Comp Structures, 63 (2004) 329-338.

[16]B.latha and B.S.Senthilkumar, Modeling and Analysis of Surface Roughness Parameters in Drilling GFRP Composites Using Fuzzy Logic, Materials and Manufacturing Processes 25 (8) (2010) 817-827.

[4] Montgomery, D.C.,. Design and Analysis of Experiments: RSM and Designs. John Wiley and Sons. New York, USA, 2005. [5] Konig W, WulfCh, Graß P and Willercheid H, Machining of fiber reinforced plastics, Annals CIRP, 34 (2) (1985) 537-548.

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N-chance based coordinated cooperative cache replacement Algorithm for Social wireless networks 1

Yanamala Kumar , Endela Ramesh 1

2 1

M.Tech (CSE) Student,Audisankara Institute Of Technology,Gudur. CSE,Assistant Professor, Audisankara Institute Of Technology,Gudur.

kumaryanamala10@gmail.com,2rameshreddycse@gmail.com

Abstract:Cooperative caching is a technique used in wireless networks to improve the efficiency of information access by reducing the access latency and bandwidth usage.This paper discusses about cooperative caching policies for minimizing electronic content provisioning cost in Social Wireless Networks (SWNET). SWNETs are formed by mobile devices, such as data enabled phones, electronic book readers etc., sharing common interests in electronic content, and physically gathering together in public places. Electronic object caching in such SWNETs are shown to be able to reduce the content provisioning cost which depends heavily on the service and pricing dependences among various stakeholders including content providers (CP), network service providers, and End Consumers (EC).Cache replacement policy plays a significant role in response time reduction by selecting suitable subset of items for eviction from the cache. In addition, this paper suggests some alternative techniques for cache replacement. Finally, the paper concludes with a discussion on future research directions.

1.INTRODUCTION: RECENT emergence of data enabled mobile devices and wireless-enabled data applications have fostered new content dissemination models in today’s mobile ecosystem. A list of such devices includes Apple’s iPhone, Google’s Android, Amazon’s Kindle, and electronic book readers from other vendors. The array of data applications includes electronic book and magazine readers and mobile phone Apps. The level of proliferation of mobile applications is indicated by the example fact that as of October 2010,Apple’s App Store offered over 100,000 apps that are downloadable by the smart phone users. Wireless mobile communication is a fastest growing segment in communication industry[1]. It has currently supplemented or replaced the existing wired networks in many places. The wide range of applications and new technologies[5] simulated this enormous growth. The new wireless traffic will support heterogeneous traffic, consisting of voice, video and data. Wireless networking environments can be classified in to two different types of architectures, infrastructure based and ad hoc based. The former type is most commonly deployed one, as it is used in wireless LANS and global wireless networks. An infrastructure based wireless network uses fixed network access points with which mobile terminals

Keywords:Data Caching, Cache Replacement,SWNETs,Cooperative caching, content provisioning, ad hoc networks

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interact for communication and this requires the mobile terminal to be in the communication range of a base station. The ad hoc based network structure alleviates this problem by enabling mobile terminals to cooperatively form a dynamic network without any pre existing infrastructure. It is much convenient for accessing information available in local area and possibly reaching a WLAN base station,which comes at no cost for users.

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forms cooperative cache collectively takes the replacement decision.This paper discusses about coordinated replacement policy.

2.RELATED WORK: There is a rich body of the existing literature on several aspects of cooperative caching including object replacements, reducing cooperation overhead, cooperation performance in traditional wired networks. The Social Wireless Networks explored in this paper, which are often formed using mobile ad hoc network protocols, are different in the caching context due to their additional constraints such as topological insatiability and limited resources. As a result, most of the available cooperative caching solutions for traditional static networks are not directly applicable for the SWNETs. Three caching schemes for MANET have been presented[9][11]. In the first scheme, CacheData, a forwarding node checks the passing-by objects and caches the ones deemed useful according to some predefined criteria. This way, the subsequent requests for the cached objects can be satisfied by an intermediate node. A problem with this approach is that storing large number of popular objects in large number of intermediate nodes does not scale well.The second approach, CachePath, is different in that the intermediate nodes do not save the objects; instead they only record paths to the closest node where the objects can be found. The idea in CachePath is to reduce latency and overhead of cache resolution by finding the location of objects. This strategy works poorly in a highly mobile environment since most of the recorded paths become obsolete very soon. The last approach in is the HybridCache in which either CacheData or CachePath is used based on the properties of the passingby objects through an intermediate node. While all three mechanisms offer a

Mobile terminals available today have powerful hard ware, but the capacity of the batteries goes up slowly and all these powerful components reduce battery life. Therefore adequate measures should be taken to save energy. Communication is one of the major sources of energy onsumption. By reducing the data traffic energy can be conserved for longer time. Data caching has been introduced[10] as a techniques to reduce the data traffic and access latency. By caching data the data request can be served from the mobile clients without sending it to the data source each time. It is a major technique used in the web to reduce the access latency. In web, caching is implemented at various points in the network. At the top level web server uses caching, and then comes the proxy server cache and finally client uses a cache in the browser. This paper provides algorithms,for Energy efficient cooperative cache replacement in wireless networks. The topic of caching in ad hoc networks is rather new, and not much work has been done in this area.The replacement policies for MANETs are classified into two groups uncoordinated and coordinated. In uncoordinated replacement, the data item to be evicted is determined independently by each node based on its local access information. In coordinated replacement policy,the mobile nodes which

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reasonable solution, and that relying only on the nodes in an object’s path is not most efficient. Using a limited broadcast-based cache resolution can significantly improve the overall hit rate and the effective capacity overhead of cooperative caching. According to the protocols the mobile hosts share their cache contents in order to reduce both the number of server requests and the number of access misses. The concept is extended in for tightly coupled groups with similar mobility and data access patterns. This extended version adopts an intelligent bloom filter-based peer cache signature to minimize the number of flooded message during cache resolution. A notable limitation of this approach is that it relies on a centralized mobile support center to discover nodes with common mobility pattern and similar data access patterns. Our work, on the contrary, is fully distributed in which the mobile devices cooperate in a peer-to-peer fashion for minimizing the object access cost. In summary, in most of the existing work on collaborative caching, there is a focus on maximizing the cache hit rate of objects, without considering its effects on the overall cost which depends heavily on the content service and pricing models. This paper formulated two object replacement mechanisms to minimize the provisioning cost, instead of just maximizing the hit rate. Also, the validation of our protocol on a real SWNET interaction trace with dynamic partitions, and on a multiphone Android prototype is unique compared to the existing literature. From a user selfishness standpoint, Laoutaris et al.investigate its impacts and mistreatment on caching. A mistreated node is a cooperative node that experiences an increase in its access cost due to the selfish behavior by other nodes in the network. In, Chun et al study selfishness in a distributed content replication strategy in which each user tries to minimize its individual access

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cost by replicating a subset of objects locally (up to the storage capacity), and accessing the rest from the nearest possible location. Using a game theoretic formulation, the authors prove the existence of a pure Nash equilibrium under which network reaches a stable situation. Similar approach has been used in which the authors model a distributed caching as a market sharing game. The work in this paper has certain similarity with the above works as we also use a monetary cost and rebate for content dissemination in the network. However, as opposed to using game theoretic approaches. Analysis of selfishness in the work is done in a steady state over all objects whereas the previous works mainly analyze the impact of selfishness only for a single data item.

3.Network Model,Cache Replacement Policies: 3.1 NETORK MODEL Fig. 1 illustrates an example SWNET within a University campus. End Consumers carrying mobile devices form SWNET partitions, which can be either multi-hop (i.e.,MANET) as shown for partitions 1, 3, and 4, or single hop access point based as shown for partition 2. A mobile device can download an object (i.e., content) from the CP’s server using the CSP’s cellular network, or from its local SWNET partition. Two types of SWNETs are considered. The first one involves stationary SWNET partitions. Meaning, after a partition is formed, it is maintained for sufficiently long so that the cooperative object caches can be formed and reach steady states. Second type is also investigated to explore as to what happens when the stationary assumption is relaxed.To investigate this effect, caching is applied to SWNETs formed using human

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interaction traces obtained from a set of real SWNET nodes.

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Data caching in MANET is proposed as cooperative caching. In cooperative caching the local cache in each node is shared among the adjacent nodes and they form a large unified cache. So in a cooperative caching environment, the mobile hosts can obtain data items not only from local cache but also from the cache of their neighboring nodes. This aims at maximizing the amount of data that can be served from the cache so that the server delays can reduced which in turn decreases the response time for the client. In many applications of MANET like automated highways and factories, smart homes and appliances, smart class rooms, mobile nodes share common interest. So sharing cache contents between mobile nodes offers significant benefits. Cache replacement algorithm greatly improves the effectiveness of the cache by selecting suitable subset of data for caching. The available cache replacement mechanisms for ad hoc network can be categorized in to coordinated and uncoordinated depending on how replacement decision is made. In uncoordinated scheme the replacement decision is made by individual nodes. In order to cache the incoming data when the cache is full, replacement algorithm chooses the data items to be removed by making use of the local parameters in each node.

Fig. 1. Content access from an SWNET in a University Campus.

3.2. Cache Replacement Caching in wireless environment has unique constraints like scarce bandwidth, limited power supply, high mobility and limited cache space. Due to the space limitation, the mobile nodes can store only a subset of the frequently accessed data. The availability of the data in local cache can significantly improve the performance since it overcomes the constraints in wireless environment. A good replacement mechanism is needed to distinguish the items to be kept in cache and that is to be removed when the cache is full. While it would be possible to pick a random object to replace when cache is full, system performance will be better if we choose an object that is not heavily used. If a heavily used data item is removed it will probably have to be brought back quickly, resulting in extra overhead. So a good replacement policy is essential to achieve high hit rates. The extensive research on caching for wired networks can be adapted for the wireless environment with modifications to account for mobile terminal limitations and the dynamics of the wireless channel.

3.4.Split Cache Replacement

Fig.2. Cache partitioning in split cache policy.

To realize the optimal object placement under homogeneousobject request model The following Split Cache policy is

3.3. Cache Replacement Policies in Ad hoc networks

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proposed in which the available cache space in each device is divided into a duplicate segment (λ fraction) and a unique segment (see Fig. 2). In the first segment, nodes can store the most popular objects without worrying about the object duplication and in the second segment only unique objects are allowed to be stored. The parameter λ in Fig. 2 (0 ≤ λ ≤1) indicates the fraction of cache that is used for storing duplicated objects. With the Split Cache replacement policy, soon after an object is downloaded from the CP’s server, it is categorized as a unique object as there is only one copy of this object in the network. Also, when a node downloads an object from another SWNET node, that object is categorized as a duplicated object as there are now at least two copies of that object in the network.

store more appropriate data, thereby reducing the number of evictions. If a node doesn’t cache the data that adjacent nodes have it can cache more distinct data items which increase the data availability. There is coordination between the neighboring nodes for the proper placing of data. Another feature of coordinated replacement is that the evicted data may be stored in neighboring nodes which have free space. Some of the replacement policies which make use of coordinated cache replacement are given below. 4.1.1 N-chance The N-chance algorithm dynamically partitions the cache of each client between blocks needed by the local client and the cooperative cache. Managers are responsible for maintaining consistency and block location information.The replacement policy in N-chance uses a combination of local LRU information and duplicate avoidance to decide the best block to replace. Clients always replace the oldest block on their LRU lists. Whether the client forwards or discards the oldest block depends on the number of copies of the block. Blocks with more than one copy are discarded, while blocks with only one copy, or singlets are forwarded to another client at random. If a client does not know whether or not one of its blocks is a singlet, it simply asks the manager.

For storing a new unique object, the least popular object in the whole cache is selected as a candidate and it is replaced with the new object if it is less popular than the new incoming object. For a duplicated object, however, the evictee candidate is selected only from the first duplicate segmentof the cache. In other words, a unique object is never evicted in order to accommodate a duplicated object. 4.Dynamic Partitioning coordinated

cooperative cache replacement Algorithm for Social wireless networks 4.1 Coordinated Policies

Cache

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replacement

5. Discussion and Future work Most of the replacement algorithms used in ad hoc networks is LRU based which uses the property of temporal locality. This is favorable for MANET which is formed for a short period of time with small memory capacity. Frequency based algorithms will be beneficial for long term accesses. It is better if the function based policies can adapt to different workload condition. In

Coordinated cache replacement strategy for cooperative caching schemes in mobile environments should ideally consider cache admission control policy. Cache admission control decides whether the incoming data is cacheable or not. Substantial amount of cache space can be saved by proper admission control, which can be utilized to

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these schemes if we are using too many parameters for finding the value function, which are not easily available the performance can be degraded. Most of the replacement algorithms mentioned above uses cache hit ratio as the performance metric. In wireless network the cost to download data item from the server may vary. So in some cases this may not be the best performance metric. Schemes which improve cache hit ratio and reduce access latency should be devised. In cooperative caching coordinated cache replacement is more effective than local replacement since Algorithm

N-chance

Cache Consistency

Block-based

Block Location

Manager-based

Replacement Policy

Random Client

Duplicate Avoidance

Non-singlets deleted

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the replacement decision is made by considering the information available in the neighboring nodes. The area of cache replacement in cooperative caching has not received much attention. Lot of work needs to be done in this area to find better replacement policies.

Server Caching

Traditional Table.1 key features of the N-chance, GMS

[2]. Denko, M.K., Tian, J.,Cross-Layer Design for Cooperative Caching in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks, Proc .of IEEE Consumer Communications and Networking Conf( 2008). [3]. L. Yin, G. Cao: Supporting cooperative caching in ad hoc networks, IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 5(1):77-89( 2006). [4]. Chand, N. Joshi R.C., and Misra, M., Efficient Cooperative Caching in Ad Hoc Networks Communication System Software and Middleware.(2006). [5] S. Lim, W. C. Lee, G. Cao, C. R. Das: A novel caching scheme for internet based mobile ad hoc networks. Proc .12th Int. Conf. Computer Comm. Networks (ICCCN 2003), 38-43 ( Oct. 2003).

6. Conclusion general comparison were made of the major replacement policies in wireless networks and summarized the main points. Numerous replacement policies are proposed for wireless networks, but a few for cooperative caching in ad hoc networks.The operation, strengths and drawback of these algorithms are summarized. Finally some alternatives are provided for cache replacement and identified topics for future research.

7.References [1] C. Aggarwal, J.L. Wolf, and P.S. Yu, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Caching on the World Wide Web,â&#x20AC;? IEEE Trans. Knowledge and Data Eng., vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 94-107, Jan./Feb. 1999

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[6] Narottam Chand, R.C. Joshi and Manoj Misra, "Cooperative Caching Strategy in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks Based on Clusters," International Journal of Wireless Personal Communications special issue on Cooperation in Wireless Networks, Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 41-63, Oct 2007 [7] Li, W., Chan, E., & Chen, D. (2007). Energy- efficient cache replacement policies for cooperative caching in mobile ad hoc network. In Proceedings of the IEEE WCNC (pp3349–3354). [8]. B. Z heng, J. Xu, and D. L ee. Cache invalidation and replacement strategies for location dependent data in mobile environments,. IEEE Transactions on Computers, 51(10) : 1141–1153, October 2002. [9]. Mary Magdalene Jane.F, Yaser Nouh and R. Nadarajan,“Network Distance Based Cache Replacement Policy for LocationDependent Data in Mobile Environment”, Proceedings of the 2008 Ninth International Conference on Mobile Data Management Workshops ,IEEE Computer Society Washington,DC,USA,2008. [10].Kumar, A., Sarje, A.K. and Misra, M. ‘Prioritised Predicted Region based Cache Replacement Policy for location dependent data in mobile environment’, Int. J. Ad Hoc and Ubiquitous Computing , Vol. 5, No. 1, (2010) pp.56–67. [11]. B. Zheng, J. Xu, and D. L. Lee. cache invalidation and replacement strategies for location-dependent data in mobile environments. IEEE Trans. on Comp, 51(10):14–21, 2002. [12] Q. Ren and M. Dhunham. Using semantic caching to manage location dependent data in mobile computing. Proc. Of ACM/IEEE MobiCom, 99:210–221, 2000. [13] K . Lai, Z .Tari, and P. Bertok . Mobility aware cache replacement for location dependent information services. In

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Technical Report T R- 04-04 ( R MI T School of C S & I T ),2004.

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Cellular Mobile Broadband using Millimeter-Wave for 5G systems B. Praveen Balaji, R. Sriram UG Scholar, Jaya Engineering, Chennai. praveenbalaji8@gmail.com, sriram3838@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Due to the increasing popularity of smart phones and other mobile data devices such as netbooks and ebook readers, mobile data traffic is experiencing unprecedented growth. As today's cellular providers attempt to deliver high quality, low latency video and multimedia applications for wireless devices, they are limited to a carrier frequency spectrum ranging between 700 MHz and 2.6 GHz. The global bandwidth shortage facing wireless carriers has motivated the exploration of the underutilized millimeter wave (mm-wave) frequency spectrum for future broadband cellular communicationnetworks.In this article, we explore the 3–300 GHz spec-trum and describe a millimeter-wave mobile broadband (MMB) system that utilizes this vast spectrum for mobile communication. We describe the millimeter-wave spectrumand its propagation characteristics. We then discuss the network architecture, followed by the air interface design of the MMB system. After that, we conclude the article with a summary and brief discussion of future work.

INTRODUCTION A vast amount of spectrum in the 3–300 GHz range remains underutilized. The 3–30 GHz spectrum is generally referred to as the super high frequency (SHF) band, while 30–300 GHz is referred to as the extremely high frequency (EHF) or millimeter-wave band. mm-wave frequencies could be used to augment the currently saturated 700MHz to 2.6 GHz radio sprectrum bands for wireless communications. The combination of cost effective CMOS technology that can now operate well into the mwave frequency bands, and high-gain, steerable antennas at the mobile and base station, strengthens the viability of mm-wave carrier frequencies allow for larger bandwidth allocations, which translate directly to higher data transfer rates. Mm-wave sprectrum would allow service providers to significantly expand the channel bandwidths far beyond the present 20 MHz channels used by 4G customers.

By increasing the RF channel bandwidth for mobile radio channels, the data capacity is greatly increased, while the latency for digital traffic is greatly decreased, thus supporting much better internet-based access and applications that require minimal latency. Mm-wave frequencies, due to much smaller wavelength, may exploit polarization and new spatical signal processing techniques, such as massive MIMO and adaptive beamforming. Given this significant jump in bandwidth and new capabilities offered by mmwaves, the base station-to-device links, as well as backhaul links between base stations, will be able to handle much greater capacity than today's 4G networks in highly populated ares. The current fourth-generation (4G) systems including LTE and Mobile WiMAX already use advanced technologies such as orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), multipleinput multiple-output (MIMO), multi-user diversity, link adaptation, turbo code, and hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) in order to achieve spectral efficiencies close to theoretical limits in terms of bits per second per Hertz per cell [1]. With limited room for further spectralefficiency improvement, another possibility to increase capacity per geographic area is to deploy many smaller cells such as femtocells and heterogeneous networks. However, because capacity can only scale linearly with the number of cells, small cells alone will not be able to meet the capacity required to accommodate orders of magnitude increases in mobile data traffic. Millimeter-wave communication systems that can achieve multigigabit data rates at a distance of up to a few kilometers already exist for point-to-point communication. However, the compo-nent electronics used in these systems, including power amplifiers, low noise amplifiers, mixers, and antennas, are too big in size and consume too much power to be applicable in mobile com-munication.

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3 GHz

The portion of the

164

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300 GHz

RF spectrum above 3 GHz has been largely

54 GHz

99 GHz

unexploited for commercial wireless applications. More recently there has

All cellular mobile communications

Potential 252 GHz available bandwidth

been some interest

60 GHz oxygen absorption band

in exploring this

Water vapor (H2O) absorption band (a)

spectrum for shortrange and

28.35

27.50

28.60

29.10

29.25

29.50

31.075 31.225

GHz

fixed wireless communications.

75 M Hz

150 MHz

850 MHz

150 MHz

75 M Hz

Block A - 1.15 GHz

LMDS bands

Block B - 150 MHz (b)

5 GHz

2 GHz

5 GHz

95 GHz

0.9 GHz

12.9 GHz 70 / 80 / 90 GHz bands (c)

Figure 1. Millimeter-wave spectrum.

MILLIMETER WAVE SPECTRUM UNTETHERING THE 3–300 GHZ SPECTRUM Almost all commercial radio communications including AM/FM radio, high-definition TV, cellular, satellite communication, GPS, and Wi-Fi have been contained in a narrow band of the RF spectrum in 300 MHz–3 GHz. This band is generally referred to as the sweet spot due to its favorable propagation characteristics for commercial wireless applications.

Within the 3–300 GHz spectrum, up to 252 GHz can potentially be suitable for mobile broadband as depicted in Fig. 1. Millimeter waves are absorbed by oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere. The frequencies in the 57–64 GHz oxygen absorption band can experience attenuation of about 15 dB/km as the oxygen molecule (O2) absorbs electromegnetic energy at around 60 GHz. The absorption rate by water vapor (H 2O) depends on the amount of water vapor and can be up to tens of dBs in the range of 164–200 GHz [2]. We exclude these bands for mobile broadband applications as the transmis-sion range in these bands will be limited. With a reasonable assumption that 40 percent of the remaining spectrum can be made available over time, millimeter-wave mobile broadband (MMB) opens the door for a possible 100 GHz new spectrum for mobile communication — more than 200 times the spectrum currently allocated for this purpose below 3 GHz.

Table 1. Current 2G,3G,4G and LTE-A spectrum and 2nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CURRENT TRENDS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH bandwidth allocations 100

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MILLIMETER-WAVE PROPAGATION

Attenuation (dB)

FREE-SPACE PROPAGATION Millimeter waves travel solely by line-of-sight, and are blocked by building walls and attenuated by foliage. Transmission loss of millimeter wave is accounted for principally by free space loss. A misconception among wireless general engineers is that free-space propagation loss depends on frequen-cy, so higher frequencies propagate less well than lower frequencies. The reason for this miscon-ception is the underlying assumption often used in radio engineering textbooks that the path loss is calculated at a specific frequency between two isotropic antennas or λ/2 dipoles, whose effective aperture area increases with the wavelength (decreases with carrier frequency). An antenna with a larger aperture has larger gain than a smaller one as it captures more energy from a passing radio wave. However, with shorter wavelengths more antennas can be packed into the same area. In addition, large numbers of antennas enable transmitter and receiver beamforming with high gains.[3] REFLETION, DIFFRACTION, FOLIAGE AND OTHER PENETRATION LOSSES Another common myth in wireless engineering community is that rain and atmosphere make mmwave spectrum useless for mobile communications. However, when one considers the fact that today's cell sizes in urban environments are on the order of 200 m, it becomes clear that mm-wave cellular can overcome these issues.

Material

Thickness (cm)

< 3 GHz [6, 8]

40 GHz [7]

60 GHz [6]

Drywall

2.5

5.4

–

6.0

Office whiteboard

1.9

0.5

–

9.6

Clear glass

0.3/0.4

6.4

2.5

3.6

Mesh glass

0.3

7.7

–

10.2

Chipwood

1.6

–

Wood

0.7

5.4

3.5

–

Plasterboard

1.5

–

2.9

–

Mortar

–

160

–

Brick wall

–

t178

–

Concrete

17.7

175

–

Table 2. Attenuations for different materials. For 3–300 GHz frequencies, atmosphere gaseous losses and precipitation attenuation are typically less than a few dB per kilometer [2], excluding the oxygen and water absorption bands. The loss due to reflection and diffraction depends greatly on the material and the surface. Although reflection and diffraction reduce the range of millimeter-wave, it also facilitates non-line-of-sight (NLOS) communication. While signals at lower frequencies can penetrate more easily through buildings, millimeterwave signals do not penetrate most solid materials very well. The indoor coverage in this case can be provided by other means such as indoor millimeter-wave femtocell or Wi-Fi solutions.

Figure 2. Atmospheric attenuation in dB/km as a function of frequency over the EHF band. Peaks in absorption at specific frequencies are a problem, due to atmosphere constituents such as water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)

Figure 3. Summary of penetration losses through various common building materials

Weissberger’s modified exponential decay model, or simply, Weissberger’s model, is a radio wave propagation model that estimates the path loss due to the presence of one or more trees in a pointto-point telecommunication link. This model belongs to the category Foliage or Vegetation models. Foliage losses for millimeter waves are signif-icant and can be a limiting impairment for prop-agation in some cases. Weissberger’s model is formally expressed as

where, L = The loss due to foliage. Unit: decibels (dB) f = The transmission frequency. Unit: gigahertz (GHz) d = The depth of foliage ‘’’along’’’ the path. Unit: meters (m)

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Figure 5. Atmospheric absorption across mmfwave frequencies in dB/km. nhe

attenuation caused by atmospheric absorption is 0.0l2 dB over 200m at 2, GHz and 0.0lw dB over 200m at 3, GHz.Frequecies from x0 to l00 GHz and l25 to lw0 GHz also have small losses

Figure 4. Rain attenuation in dB/km across frequency at various rainfall rates. nhe rain attenuation at 2, GHz has an attenuation of xdB/km for a very heavy rainfall of 25 mm/hr. If cell coverage regions are 200m in radius attenuation will reduce to l.4 dB

Therefore, a mechanism such as supporting emergency communications over cellular bands when millimeter-wave com-munications are disrupted by heavy rains should be considered as part of the MMB system design. COHERENCE TIME, DOPPLER SPREAD AND MULTIPATH In communications systems, a communication channel may change with time. Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse response is considered to be not varying. Such channel variation is much more significant in wireless communications systems, due to Doppler effects. The Doppler of a wireless channel depends on the carrier frequency and mobility. The Doppler shift values of incoming waves on different angles at the receiver are different, resulting in a phenomenon called Doppler spread. In the case of MMB, the narrow beams at the transmitter and receiver will significantly reduce angular spread of the incoming waves, which in turn reduces the Doppler spread. In addition, as the incoming waves are concentrated in a certain direction, there will be a non-zero bias in the Doppler spectrum, which will be largely compensated by the automatic frequency control (AFC) loop in the receiver. Therefore, the time-domain variation of an MMB channel is likely to be much less than that observed by omnidirectional antennas in a rich scattering environment. With narrow transmitter and receiver beams, the multipath components of millimeter waves are limited. Studies show that the root mean square (RMS) of the power delay profile (PDP) of a millimeter-wave channel in an urban environment is 1–10 ns, and the coherent bandwidth of the channel is around 10–100 MHz [4].

However, it is noted that the transmitter and receiver antenna gains used in these studies are higher than those used in MMB. Therefore, it is possi-ble that in an MMB system a longer path can be observed and the coherence bandwidth is small-er than those reported in these studies.

MMB NETWORK ARCHITECTURE A STANDALONE MMB NETWORK An MMB network consists of multiple MMB base stations that cover a geographic area. In order to ensure good coverage, MMB base sta-tions need to be deployed with higher density than macrocellular base stations. In general, roughly the same site-to-site distance as micro-cell or picocell deployment in an urban environ-ment is recommended. An example MMB network is shown in Fig. 6. The transmission and/or reception in an MMB system are based on narrow beams, which suppress the interference from neighboring MMB base stations and extend the range of an MMB link. This allows significant overlap of coverage among neighboring base stations. Unlike cellular systems that partition the geographic area into cells with each cell served by one or a few base stations, the MMB base stations form a grid with a large number of nodes to which an MMB mobile station can attach. The MMB base station grid eliminates the problem of poor link quality at the cell edge that is inherent in cellular system and enables high-quality equal grade of service (EGOS) regardless of the location of a mobile. With the high density of MMB base stations, the cost to connect every MMB base station via a wired network can be significant. One solution to mitigate the cost (and expedite the deployment) is to allow some MMB base stations to connect to the backhaul via other MMB base stations. Due to large beamforming gains, the MMB inter-BS backhaul link can be deployed in the same frequency as the MMB access link —

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Packet data server gateway

MBS_1

MBS_2

MBS_3 CBS_A MBS_6

MBS_5 MBS_4 50 0m

m 1k

MS1

MBS_8

Network

MS1

CBS_B

MS2 MBS_7 MBS_9

MBS_10 MS4

MBS_11

CBS_C MBS_14

MBS_12 MS3 Cellular base station (CBS)

MBS_13

MMB base station (MBS)

Fixed line between MBS and CBS

Cellular communication link MMB + 4G base station

MMB base station

Fixed line between CBS / MBS and packet data server / gateway

MMBcommunication link

(a)

(b)

Figure 6. MMB network: a) architecture; b) hybrid MMG + 4G system. the downlink to and uplink from an MMB mobile station — without causing much interference. This greatly increases the deployment flexibility of MMB and allows MMB to achieve higher-density deployment than femtocells or heterogeneous networks deployed in sub-3 GHz spectrum. Another challenge with millimeter-wave is the low efficiency of RF devices such as power amplifiers and multi-antenna arrays with current technology. A solution to avoid multi-antenna arrays at the MMB base station is to use fixed beams or sectors with horn antennas. Horn antennas can provide similar gains and beam widths as sector antennas in current cellular systems in a cost-effective manner [5]. The mobile station receiver still needs to use a multi-antenna array to form a beamforming pattern toward the base station. As the mobile station moves around, beamforming weights can be adjusted so that the beam is always pointing toward the base station.

HYBRID MMB + 4G SYSTEM It is expected that 4G systems will have good coverage and reliability when MMB systems start to deploy. A hybrid MMB + 4G system can improve coverage and ensure seamless user experience in mobile applications. In a hybrid MMB + 4G system, system information, control channel, and feed-back are transmitted in the 4G system, making the entire millimeter-wave spectrum available for data communication. One example of a hybrid MMB + 4G system is shown in Fig. 3b. Compared with millimeter waves, the radio

waves at < 3 GHz frequencies can better penetrate obstacles and are less sensitive to non-lineof-sight (NLOS) communication link or other impairments such as absorption by foliage, rain, and other particles in the air. Therefore, it is advantageous to transmit important control channels and signals via cellular radio frequencies, while utilizing the millimeter waves for high data rate communication.

MMB AIR INTERFACE DESIGN SPATIAL FILTERING Spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for directional signal transmission or reception. This is achieved by combining elements in a phased array in such a way that signals at particular angles experience constructive interference while others experience destructive interference. Spatial Filtering can be used at both the transmitting and receiving ends in order to achieve spatial selectivity. Spatial Filtering otherwise known as Beamforming is a key enabling technology of MMB. For MMB transceivers, the small size (λ/2 dipoles) and separation (also around λ/2) of millimeter-wave antennas allow a large number of antennas and thus achieve high beamforming gain in a relative small area (e.g., tens of antennas per square centimeter area at 80 GHz carrier frequency). Additionally, with a large number of antennas and high-gain (and thus narrow) beams, antenna technologies such as spatial-division multiple access (SDMA) can be implemented readily.

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Beamforming can be achieved in digital baseband, analog baseband, or RF front-end. With digital beamforming and multiple RF chains, it is possible to transmit multiple streams of data simultaneously, thus enabling SDMA or MIMO operation. However, the cost of implementing one RF chain per antenna can be prohibitive, especially given the large number of antennas in MMB. With analog baseband beamforming or RF beamforming, one or a few RF chains can be used. In that case, the number of data streams that can be transmitted is limited by the number of RF chains. These approaches require fewer RF components and are typically chosen for lowcost/low-power solutions. Transmit beamforming is generally more challenging, requiring either antenna weights feedback from the receiver or antenna calibrations. Moreover, due to low efficiency of millimeter-wave power amplifiers with the current technology, battery power consumption is another issue for mobile station transmitter beamforming. To reduce the cost and complexity of mobile stations, a phased approach where initial deployments are hybrid MMB + 4G systems with downlink-only transmission in the millimeter-wave band can be considered. This removesthe requirement for mobile stations to transmit in the millimeter-wave band. MULTIPLEXING SCHEME In MMB, we use OFDM and single-carrier waveform for flexibility in support multiple bandwidths, simpler equalizer and MIMO receiver, and ability to support efficient multiple access, etc.Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. A large number of closely spaced orthogonal sub-carrier signals are used to carry data on several parallel data streams or channels. Each sub-carrier is modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift keying) at a low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates similar to conventional single-carrier modulation schemes in the same bandwidth.

Figure 7. Idealized system model for Transmitter An inverse FFT is computed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex time-domain samples. These samples are then quadrature-mixed to passband in the standard way. The real and imaginary components are first converted to the analogue domain using digital-to-analogue converters (DACs); the analogue signals are then used to modulate cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency, These signals are then summed to give the transmission signal,

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Figure 8. Idealized system model for receiver

The receiver picks up the signal \scriptstyle r(t), which is then quadrature-mixed down to baseband using cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency. This also creates signals centered on low-pass filters are used to reject these. The baseband signals are then sampled and digitised using analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used to convert back to the frequency domain. This N parallel streams, each of which is converted to a binary stream using an appropriate symbol detector. These streams are then re-combined into a serial stream, which is an estimate of the original binary stream at the transmitter. Additionally, MMB also supports transmission with single-carrier waveform. Single-carrier waveform has lower peak-to-average-power ratio (PAPR) than OFDM. . For single-carrier transmissions with binary phase shift keying (BPSK) or quaternary PSK (QPSK), an ADC with 2â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4 bits would suf-fice, which greatly reduces the power consump-tion of the MMB receiver.

LINK BUDGET The key factors that determine the downlink link budget of an MMB system are the base station transmission power, transmitter and receiver beamforming gains, and path loss. Table 3 shows the link budget for four different MMB systems. A 20 dB margin is assumed to account for cable loss and losses due to penetration, reflection, or diffraction. A noise figure of 10 dB and an implementation loss of 5 dB are assumed at the receiver. As shown in Table 2, with 35 dBm transmission power, 1 GHz system bandwidth, 28 GHz carrier frequency, and realistic assumptions of transmitter and receiver antenna gains (case 1), more than 2 Gb/s can be achieved at 1 km distance.

CONCLUSION Given the worldwide need for cellular spectrum and the relativelylimited amount of research done on mm-wave mobile communications, we have discussed frequency range 3-300 GHz to gain insight on path loss, building penetration loss, Doppler spread and multipath for the design of future mmwave cellular broadband systems.

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Due to the narrow beam width of MMB transmissions, the interfer-ence among MMB base stations is a lot smaller than traditional cellular systems, and the cover-age of neighboring base stations significantly overlap. As a result, the MMB base stations form a grid that can provide communication with good link quality regardless of the mobile station’s location within the coverage of the grid. In order to operate in an urban mobile envi-ronment while keeping a low overhead, we chose the MMB subcarrier spacing to be 480 kHz and the CP to be 520 ns. We also designed the frame structure to facilitate hybrid MMB + 4G opera-tion. In the link budget analysis, we show that a 2 Gb/s data rate is achievable at 1 km distance with millimeter waves in an urban mobile environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to thank our college staffs and officials for providing us with constant support and encouragement. REFERENCES

[1] F.Khan, LTE for 4G Mobile Broadband,:Air Interface Technologies and Performance, Cambridge Univ. Press, 2009. [2] D.M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, 3rd ed., Wiley, 2005. [3]FCC, "Millimeterwave Propagation: Spectrum Management Implications," Office of Eng. and Tech., Bulletin no.70, July, 1997 [4]H.Xu et al., "Measurements and Models for 38-GHZ Point-to-Multipoint Radiowave Propogation," IEEE JSAC, col.18, no. 3, Mar.2000. [5]C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 3rd ed., Wiley, 2005.

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MMB link budget analysis

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

TX power (dBm)

35.00

25.00

TX antenna gain (dBi)

30.00

Carrier frequency (GHz)

28.00

72.00

28.00

72.00

Distance (km)

1.00

0.50

Propagation loss (dB)

121.34

129.55

115.32

123.53

Other losses

20.00

RX antenna gain (dBi)

15.00

Received power (dBm)

–61.34

–69.55

–65.32

–73.53

Bandwidth (GHz)

1.00

Thermal PSD (dBm/Hz)

–174.00

Noise figure (dB)

10.00

Thermal noise (dBm)

–74.00

SNR (dB)

12.66

4.45

8.68

0.47

Implementation loss (dB)

5.00

Data rate (Gb/s)

2.77

0.91

1.74

0.4

Table 3. MMB link budget.

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ELECTRIC ROAD CLEANER AVINASH PRABU, S.KAUSHIK, PRIYANKA PRAKASH, HARITHA HARIDASAN, S.BALAMURUGAN, S.VIGNESH Avinashprabu1993@gmail.com,sudarshan.ampli@gmail.com,priyankasun@gmail.com, harithaharidasan15@gmail.com, balasekar@ymail.com,vigneshsanman@gmail.com Ph.no:9941777029, 9841350409 PRINCE SHRI VENKATESHWARA PADMAVATHY ENGG COLLEGE, PONMAR

ABSTRACT Although conventional sweeping vehicles already exist, they are designed to operate on a small scale and use IC engines which are proving to be more and more expensive and polluting with increasing fuel costs and increasing global warming. The whole system comprises of three separate DC motor systems each of which control the vacuum system, the sweeping system and the overall propulsion system of the vehicle. The amount of carbon

Cleanliness is the most important aspect of every proper civilization. In this paper we look into the aspect of electric vehicles being used to maintain a cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cleanliness. We focus on the use of dc motors to create a vehicle that can be effectively used to maintain road cleanliness. This paper is aimed at designing a vehicle that can both maintain operational efficiency and stick to its task. The system comprises of dc motor systems and separate speed and current control circuits.

dioxide emitted is only 12.6 g/km while it is 60 to 130g/km in other internal combustion engine cars.

Keywords: Brushless DC motor (BLDC) , motor circuit (MC), sweeper circuit(SC), vacuum circuit(VC), ultrasonic sensor circuit(USC), Internal combustion(IC),BatteryElectric Vechicle(BEV).

II. SYSTEM DESIGN PROPULSION SYSTEM It is the system that is used to propel the entire vehicle and comprises of a single DC motor complete with a controller circuit that automatically varies the speed of the motor in accordance to control inputs.

I. INTRODUCTION With increasing vehicular traffic and road usage levels, it is necessary for a machine that can effectively maintain road related rubbish to be developed. The electric road cleaner aims to utilize the high torque that a DC motor can provide simultaneous vehicular propulsion and at the same time sweep and vacuum the road thereby combining the work conventionally done with different systems under one.

VACCUM SYSTEM It is the heart of the cleaning process and is used to suck in all the rubbish present on the road that is suitably swept in by the sweeper circuit. SWEEPER SYSTEM It is used to suitably push the rubbish towards the vacuum suction point. It

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consists of two DC motors coupled to four sweepers along with a stepper motor all of which work together as a unit.

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This battery system is used for propelling the main motor to drive the vehicle. The batteries produce an output of 120V and comprise of 5-24V batteries connected in series and have 6 rows of such batteries and the switch over between the rows is done by a micro-controller.

SENSOR SYSTEM The sweeping system is connected to a mount that can be raised or lowered depending on the gradient of the road and obstacles. The sensor and sweeper systems work in tandem.

Sub-system Battery: This is used to run the vacuum and sweeping sub-systems and produce an output of 12V and comprise of 5-12V batteries connected in parallel and again the discharging is controlled by a dedicated micro-controller.

STEPPER MOTOR SYSTEM It is used to lower or raise the sweepers according to the sensor inputs. It is controlled by a microcontroller and rotates 180 deg on each command pulse.

2. MOTOR The motor used is a BLDC motor. It can produce 10 HP output power with an input voltage of 120V. The current rating is 70A, maximum speed is 3450rpm. The motor gets its input from the controller. The motor is directly coupled to the wheels.

III. PROPULSION SYSTEM

3. CONTROLLER

The above shows the basic block diagram of a BEV. The battery acts as the power source and the controller modulates the power supplied to the motor in accordance to the control inputs.

1. BATTERY SYSTEM In place of an internal combustion engine, the proposed car has a bank of batteries -the battery system. The battery system is composed of two subsystems 1. For the propulsion motor 2. For the sweeping and vacuuming systems.

The controller used in this vehicle is a dcdc controller manufactured in the name CURTIS 1231c-86XX. The above shows

Propulsion Battery:

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Gear torque=motor torque*(input speed/output speed)*gear efficiency

the block diagram of the DC-DC controller, it works akin to a chopper but has inner feedback and reference loops. The pedal press is converted into voltage level by a suitable throttle potentiometer which is given as the reference input to the controller. It has five terminals namely,

Input speed=3000rpm Output speed=1000rpm Gear efficiency=0.85

B+: Positive terminal of the battery pack.

Gear torque=50*(3000/1000)*0.85

B-: Negative terminal of the battery pack.

=127.5Nm

M-: Motor ground connection. A2: Armature winding ground. A1 of the motor is connected to the battery positive while S2 is connected to A2 and S1 is connected to M-.KSI is switch that connects the reference voltage to the controller.

IV. SWEEPER SYSTEM The sweeping system is a set of four rubber sweepers that act to push the dust inwards to the vacuum system. The sweepers are actuated by two motors and are connected via a gear so as to ensure that enough torque can be produced for the operation. The motors are rated at 0.5HP and have can run over a range of input voltages with the preferred one being 24V.

Controller characteristics: Voltage (V): 96-144. Current (A): 500. 2 MIN RATING (A): 500. 5 MIN RATING (A): 375. 1 HOUR RATING (A): 225.

The above shows the block diagram of the sweeping system, the control input dictates the output speed of the DC motor thereby controlling the speed of the sweepers as needed.

Output torque calculation: P= (2*pi*N*T)/60. P: Motor Output power(rated)=20 HP.

1. CHOPPER CIRCUIT

T: Output torque. N: Operating speed of motor. Re-arranging: T= (60*P)/(2*pi*N). T=(60*20*765)/(2*3.1415*3000). T=50 NM(approx).

The chopper circuit is a buck-boost converter that is used to vary the output

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voltage in accordance with the inputs from the main control panel. By selecting the appropriate option, the control unit can be used to operate the chopper in buck/boost mode thereby varying the output speed of the motor. 1.1. OPERATION AS CONVERTER

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inductor L and via Tr2, directly back to the supply negative terminal charging up the magnetic field around L. Whilst this is happening D2 cannot conduct as its anode is being held at ground potential by the heavily conducting Tr2. For the duration of the on period, the load is being supplied entirely by the charge on the capacitor C, built up on previous oscillator cycles. The gradual discharge of C during the on period (and its subsequent recharging) accounts for the amount of high frequency ripple on the output voltage, which is at a potential of approximately VS + VL.

BUCK

In this mode Tr2 is turned off, and Tr1 is switched on and off by a high frequency square wave from the control unit. When the gate of Tr1 is high, current flows though L, charging its magnetic field, charging C and supplying the load. The Schottky diode D1 is turned off due to the positive voltage on its cathode.

2. CONTROL CIRCUIT

1.2. OPERATION AS A BOOST CONVERTER

The PWM wave is a square wave with varying duty cycles, the IC is six Schmitt trigger inverter circuit that produces high frequency variably duty cycle square output. This acts as the gate signal to the switches aiding in the conduction.

In Boost Converter mode, Tr1 is turned on continually and the high frequency square wave applied to Tr2 gate. During the on periods when Tr2 is conducting, the input current flows through the

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thyristor switch we can control the output voltage and thus the speed of the motor.

V. VACUUM SYSTEM

Vaccum-2: The second vacuum system acts as a suction/blower device based on the season. In summer when the moisture on the roads is minimal the setup is used as a vacuum device. During rainy seasons, the setup funnels hot air from the main motor toward the ground thus drying up moisture and enabling easier vacuuming and preventing sand from sticking to the ground. This is also a universal motor coupled to the fan controlled by a chopper and the field has a reversal circuit used to control the direction of rotation.

The vacuum system is used to suck in the dust present on the road that is swept toward it by the sweeping system. The vacuum system comprises of two different vacuum pumps each of which operate individually. The above diagram shows the block diagram of the two individual vacuum systems.

Vacuum-1: This a universal motor driven vacuum creator used to suck in the dust irrespective of the season and road conditions. The universal motor is coupled to the fan and is driven by a chopper which is fed from a lead acid battery source. The chopper used is a BOOST chopper. Boost Chopper: The above shows the block diagram of the reversal system. The motor has two windings one for forward operation and the other for reverse operation, by using a DPDT switch to switch between the windings, the direction of operation of the universal motor can be reversed. Universal motor: Universal motors can rotate at a speed of up to 20000 rpm. It is used for low torque applications. The motor used in the vacuum system is a 1400W 12v DC motor.

The above diagram is the boost chopper used; by varying the firing pulse of the

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Calculation of the radius of the impeller:

raised

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the

stepper

motor.

Suction Pressure=(1/2)*rho*V^2. rho-Density of air=1.225. Suction Pressure: 30 KPA. V-Velocity of the fan blade. Re-arranging: V=Sqrt((2*Suction Pressure)/rho). V=Sqrt((2*30*10^3)/1.225).

V=Sqrt(48,979.592). V=221.31 M/SEC. V=(R*W*2*pi)/60 Where, R-Radius of fan blade. W-Speed in RPM. Re-arranging: R= (60*V)/(W*2*pi). R= (221.31*60)/(10000*2*3.1415). R= 13278.6/62830. R=0.211M.

The ultrasonic ping sensor provides an easy method of distance measurement. Interfacing to a microcontroller is a snap. A single I/O pin is used to trigger an ultrasonic burst (well above human hearing) and then "listen" for the echo return pulse. The sensor measures the time required for the echo return, and returns this value to the microcontroller as a variable-width pulse via the same I/O pin.

VI. SWEEPER PROTECTION SYSTEM:

The sensor provides precise, non-contact distance measurements within a 2 cm to 3 m range. Ultrasonic measurements work in any lighting condition, making this a good choice to supplement infrared object detectors. Simple pulse in/pulse out communication requires just one I/O pin. Burst indicator LED shows measurement in progress. The 5V pin of the PING is connected to the 5V pin on the Arduino, the GND pin is connected to the GND pin, and the SIG (signal) pin is connected to digital pin 7 on the Arduino. The sensor output pin is connected to an arduino board which converts the analog signals from the sensor to digital values which act as input to the microcontroller. The microcontroller reads the output of the arduino and rotates the stepper motor according to the same. If the distance measured by the sensor is lesser than or

1. PING SENSOR: The ping sensor is an ultrasonic sensor which measures the distance from the vehicle and any obstacle. If the distance is lesser than 2m, the sweeper system will be

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equal to 2m, the input to the controller will ‘1’ otherwise the input will be ‘0’.

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VII. ADVANTAGES The principal advantages of this system involve its large adaptability and relative cost efficiency. Absence of regular fuelling reduces fuel costs and the design of the system with only a electric energy source means that there is no need for a separate oil fuel for the vehicle and additional electricity for the other systems.

2. FLOW CHART FOR STEPPER MOTOR CONTROL:

VIII. CONCLUSION The proposed paper deals with the use of a electric vehicle for sweeping and vacuuming purposes. An electric vehicle has the dual advantage of both being relatively eco-friendly as well as much more cost efficient. Instead of individual systems for the sweeper and cleaner using electric systems and operating the vehicle on combustion engine, the system’s use of pure electric propulsion means the unit can be designed as a whole. The entire vehicle can be modified and redesigned as needed for operation. The vehicle can save costs on fuel in the long run as well as the fact that electricity remains the only future resource for mankind. This vehicle can also reduce road pollution and thereby help reduce the amount of accidents that occur due to improper road maintenance.

3. ALGORITHM: Step 1: start the process Step 2: send trigger signals to the microcontroller

IX. REFERENCES

Step 3: read the output of the sensor

[1] en.wikipedia.org [2] http://www.evworld.com [3] http://www.saxton.org [4] http://www.fueleconomy.gov [5] http://auto.howstuffworks.com

Step 4(A) : if the output of the sensor is 0, goto step 4(B): Else goto step 5. Step 5: initialize the data pointer

[6] SERBIAN JOURNAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Step 6: push data 0C to the higher byte of data pointer and 00 to lower byte.

Vol. 8, No. 2, May 2011, 127-146 [7] Kueck, J.D., J.R. Gray, R. C. Driver and J. S. Hsu, “Assessment of Available Methods for Evaluating InService Motor Efficiency,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory, (Draft) January 1996. [8] McCoy, Gilbert A. and John G. Douglass, “Energy Efficient Electric Motor Selection Handbook,” U.S. Department of Energy, DOE/GO-10096-290, August 1996.

Step 7: move the data to R0. Step 8: initialize the out port and enable it. Step 9: move the data in R0 to out port C0. Step 10: give a delay of 5 seconds. Step 11: goto step 1.

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[9] von Jouanne, Annette, Alan Wallace, Johnny Douglass, Craig Wohlgemuth, and Gary Wainwright, “A Laboratory Assessment of In-Service Motor Efficiency Testing Methods” submitted for publication at the IEEEInternational Electric Machines and Drives Conference, Milwaukee, WI, May 1997. [10] U.S department of energy,“determination of electric motor load and efficiency”,USA, 2009 [11]chapter-21 digital potentiometers and controllable filters by jack.r.smith [12]Power Electronics by Dr.P.S.Bimbhra [13] http://www.learnaboutelectronics.org/PSU/psu33.php. [14]http://www.robotroom.com/PWM.html. [15]google-images. [16]google-books

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Analysis of Output DC Current Injection in 100kW grid connected VACON 8000 Solar inverter Sneha Sunny George PG Scholar, Dept of EEE Amal Jyothi College of Engineering Kanjirappally, Kottayam snehasunny2712@gmail.com

Robins Anto Head of Department Mar Baselios Christian College of Engineering and Technology Sreenath B Kuttikanam, Peermade Asst Professor, Dept of EEE robinsantoiitb@gmail.com Amal Jyothi College of Engineering Kanjirappally, Kottayam bsreenath@amaljyothi.ac.in efficiency of the system. H-bridge multilevel inverters are more suitable for renewable energy harvesting due to the presence of separate DC sources.

Abstractâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; Solar energy technologies have gained much importance in the recent scenario due to their ability to produce clean, reliable, useful power. Grid connected Photovoltaic system requires conversion from DC to AC to harness the useful energy produced. A Photovoltaic inverter directly connected to the grid can cause, besides the generation of several current harmonics, a DC current component injection. Excessive DC current injection into the AC network can result in problems such as increased corrosion in underground equipment and transformer saturation. The paper aims at evaluating the output DC-current injection in grid connected inverter used for a 100kW solar power plant installed at Amal Jyothi College of Engineering, Koovapally, through experimental analysis.

II.

Grid connected inverters are used to convert the DC power thus obtained into AC power for further utilization. They are directly fed solar electricity to the grid. As it does not have the battery component, the cost of the system is low. The main quality requirements / factors affecting these power converters are total harmonic distortion (THD) level, DC current injection and power factor, the Impulse Withstanding ratio (or BIL), High Frequency Noise / Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), Voltage Fluctuations and Flicker of Inverter System. Therefore, inverters connecting a PV system and the public grid are purposefully designed, allowing energy transfers to and from the public grid. [1-3]

Keywords: Grid connected inverter, DC offset current I.

Grid Connected Inverter and DC injections

Introduction Due to approximate short circuit characteristics of AC network, a little DC voltage component can accidently be produced by grid connected inverters which can create large DC current injections. If output transformers are not used, these inverters must prevent excessive DC current injection, which may cause detrimental effects on the network components, in particular the network transformers which can saturate, resulting in irritant tripping. This may also increase the losses and reduce the lifetime of the transformers, if not tripped. Moreover, the existence of the DC current component can induce metering errors and malfunction of protection relays and can create an adverse effect on the overall functioning of the solar power plant.

With the increase in energy crisis concerns growing during day by day, much recognition is being gained in the potential of solar energy as a sustainable energy source . Solar energy adds flexibility to the energy resource mix by decreasing the dependence on fossil fuels, but the greatest barrier to the technological expansion in this field is the costs of devices used for converting sun`s energy in the form of radiation into useful electrical energy, limited space and energy. Even though there has been a massive downward tendency in the price of PV modules, the price of grid connected inverters still remains high thereby increasing the overall cost. The efficiency of the plant plays a crucial role in the profit obtained from sustainable energy resources being harnessed. The major benefit of designing a reliable, stable, efficient and lower cost photovoltaic power electronics system is the availability of reliable and quality power without relying on the utility grid. It also avoids the major investment in transmission and distribution. To the nation, the major benefit lies in the fact that it reduces greenhouse gas emissions, responding to the increasing energy demands by establishing a new, high-profiled industry.Therefore, it is required to minimize the losses and improve the efficiency of power electronic devices used. Use of multilevel inverters has increased the quality of waveforms and thereby increasing

Therefore, there are stringent regulations in many countries to prevent the network from the large DC current injection. Since most Indian standards published by BIS are aligned to IEC standards, DC injections up to Âą1% is being proposed by the BIS in the Indian standard keeping with IEC 61727. The H-bridge or Multi Level inverter eliminates the DC component of the current by adding switches on the DC side to clamp the voltage during the zero voltage periods. This method could be also applied by clamping in the AC side.

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Both methods could not guarantee elimination of DC component as the unbalance due to forward power electronic switch voltages and PWM control can not be removed. [4-6]

III.

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In bright sunshine days, the beam and albedo radiations are greater . But that during cloudier days the diffused components are more. The data collection was made for sunny and rainymonths ie in the months of February, march, April and May. From, the analysis of the available data, it is found that the panel has different behavior for varying insolation,temperature etc. From the experimental Datas collected, the efficiency of the inverter has reached up to 87% during high radiation time i.e.the inverter is never operating near at its full capacity and the average DC to AC conversion is below 90%.The inverter efficiency very slowly declines after peak value is reached.PV system at its best is operating in the 20 to 40% range of rated output and hence is operating in the 87 to 91% efficiency range during the sunniest periods. Since the inverter is kept in a mechanical room under the roof and the temperature differences was not as drastic as they would be for inverters located outside.

Experimental Result

The main objective of the work is to conduct an analysis study of output DC injection in grid connected 100kW VACON 8000 solar inverter installed at the 100kW solar plant in Amal Jyothi College of Engineering, Kanjirappally, India. Technical analysis of the plant is done to evaluate the effect of environmental and climatic conditions on the performance of the system. The analysis also evaluates the effects DC offset to variations in its operating conditions. The International Energy Agency (IEA) Photovoltaic Power Systems Program describes, in its IEC Standard 61724, the parameters used to assess the performance of solar PV systems.

Fig 2. Solar insolation vs Time on a rainy day (a) and clear day (b) From the analysis done, on a clear day with bright sunshine the panel receives daily average solar radiation of about 4.56kW/m2 to 5.24kW/m2. During the rainy days the solar radiation is about 3.13kW/m2 to 4.3kW/m2. Thus from the data collection it can be classified into two groups. First, high solar radiation groups that is available from January to mid April. The average solar insolation available over the region from the online satellite data the solar radiation available is in the range of 5 to 6kW/m2 for sunny hours and is around 4kW/m2 for rainy hours. The plot describes the solar radiation for sunny and rainy days.

Fig 1: Block diagram of 100kW solar plant

The block diagram shown above represents the entire grid connected solar power plant installed at Amal Jyothi College of Engineering. 100kW solar panels are used to trap solar radiations. The energy obtained is converted to useful AC supply using a VACON built inverter.The energy harnessed from the sun is used to meet the requirements of an entire 7storey building block. When the energy harnessed is not sufficient the required amount is taken from the KSEB grid.

The main sources of DC injections are power supply, computer, network faults, geomagnetic phenomenon, cycloconverters, lighting circuits/ dimmers, embedded generators, AC and DC drives and photovoltaic grid inverters. Due to approximately short circuit characteristics of an AC network under a DC voltage excitation, a little DC voltage component that can be accidentally produced by the inverter will produce large DC current injection. This causes detrimental effects on the network components, in particular the network transformers which can saturate, resulting in irritant tripping. This may also increase the losses in and reduce the lifetime of the transformers, if not tripped.

Since Kerala is placed in the equatorial region, it has high solar insolation and temperature. The normal ambient temperature varies from 23-33degC. The variation in solar insolation and temperature affects the panel PV panel performance. Rise in temperature results in degradation of efficiency and power output of the solar panel. The solar insolation falling in the earth`s atmosphere has direct or beam radiation,diffused radiation and albedo or reflected radiation.

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Moreover, the existence of the DC current component can induce metering errors and malfunction of protection relays. The effect of DC currents on the accuracy of Domestic Electricity watthour meters is both an issue in relation to the type of meter used and its method of connection to the supply network. As a consequence, it is believed that the effect of DC components acting upon watt hour meters merits further investigation, (best undertaken by direct testing due to the reluctance of manufacturers to discuss operation).There are thus stringent regulations in many countries to prevent the network from the large DC current injection.The solar insolation Vs output DC injection graph for a period of 3months is shown in the following graph. Fig 3. Efficiency Vs output power on a rainy day & clear day The plots show the relation of DC inverter input power and inverter efficiency for clear and rainy day. The inverter is found to have a serious defect of frequent shutdown if the voltage drops to a low value that lasts only for a few seconds. The estimated fault is due to an error in one of the parameters coded in the software installed in the inverter. This defect is to be corrected and rectified otherwise it will result it complete failure of the system.Solar insolation or irradiance was measured using the pyranometer at an interval of 30 minutes along with other details collected. The total energy harnessed by the installed inverter upto 16th may 2014 is 123992kwh. Fig 4. solar insolation vs DC offset on a rainy day & clear day IV.

The VACON 8000 SOLAR inverters use special digital control techniques to limit the DC offset in the output obtained from the inverter. When solar insolation is below the required value ( i.e.DC output voltage of solar panels is less than 340V) or when a fault occurs the inverter shutdowns and starts only 5mins after the fault condition is restored. This results in an error the value (357.67 %)of DC offset measured using FLUKE power analyzing meter. During March - mid April 2014 time period, the DC o_set varies between 0.04 (during high solar insolation) -0.19(During low solar-insolation) percent and during mid April- May 2014 time period,the DC offset varies between 0.03 during high solar insolation to 0.15 during low solar radiation time period. The maximum allowed DC offset in India is 1 % of the output obtained.

Conclusion

The overall system efficiency can get effected if DC current injections are not limited to, the standards specified by Indian standards and IEEE standards. The installed control technique in the 100kW inverter limits the DC injection to standard values unless tripped. Performance evaluation conducted shows relation of solar insolation on DC offset and output power on the efficiency of the system

On analytic calculation of the PV inverter efficiency, it was found that between during the course of the experiment conducted between March to May on a sunny / clear day the efficiency of the 100 kW inverter was found to be 82.6%. Similarly for a rainy day the average efficiency of the inverter is calculated to be 80.23%. This can even drop if the solar insolation considerably drops. The daily average PV inverter output generation and efficiency can be noted to be 360kWh/day at 82.26% efficiency for a clear sky and about 200kWh/day at 80.23% efficiency for a rainy day.

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References [1] Yanqing Li, Cheng Chen, Qing Xie, “Research of An Improved Gridconnected PV Generation Inverter Control System,” 2010 International Conference on Power System Technology, pp.1-6, 0ctober 2010

[16]

[2] E. Koutroulis, F. Blaabjerg, “Methodology for the optimal design of transformerless grid-connected PV inverters,” IET Power Electron., Vol. 5, Iss. 8, pp. 1491–1499, 2012, June 2012

[17] Report on "CP4742 Grid Connected Renewable Energy System Technical Guidelines," pp. 1-18, October 2009

[3] Angelina Tomova, TU Sofia, “Grid connected pv inverter topologies: an overview,” Phd Seminar, DERlab Young researchers, Glasgow, UK, April, 2011

[18] Matthew Armstrong, "Auto-Calibrating DC Link Current Sensing Technique for Transformerless, Grid Connected, H-Bridge Inverter Systems," IEEE Transaction on power electronics Vol. 21 No. 5, 2006.

[4] Berba. F, Atkinson David, Armstrong. M, “Minimisation of DC current component in transformerless Grid-connected PV inverter application,” Environment and Electrical Engineering (EEEIC), 2011 10th International Conference, pp.1-4 May 2011

[19] V. Salas, M. Alonso and F. Chenlo, "Overview of the legislation of DC injection in the network for low voltage small grid-connected PV systems in Spain and other countries", Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 12, pp. 575-583, 2008.

[5] V. Salas, E. Olías , M. Alonso , F. Chenlo and A. Barrado, “DC current injection into the network from PV grid inverters,” Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, Conference Record of the 2006 IEEE 4th World Conference, pp. 2371 – 2374, May 2006

[20] Carrasco, J. M., Franquelo, L. G., and Alfonso, N. M., "Power Electronic systems for the grid integration of renewable energy sources: A survey," IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 10021016, 2006.

[6] Ashraf Ahmed, Ran Li, “Precise Detection and Elimination of Grid Injected DC from Single Phase Inverters,” International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing, Vol. 13, No. 8, pp. 13411347, August 2012

WWW.pvresources.com/balance

[21] Report on "An investigation of dc injection levels into low voltage ac powersystems" Distributed generation co-ordinating group, june 2005 [22] Instruction book for 10-200kW Standalone Drivers, Vacon 8000 Solar

[7] H. Wilk, D. Ruoss, and P. Toggweiler, "Report - Innovative electrical concepts," International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems, IEA PVPS, www.iea-pvps.org, 2002

[23] Guidlines for measurement, data exchange and analysis of PV system performance

[8] Soeren Baekhoej Kjaer, John K. Pedersen, Frede Blaabjerg, “A Review of Single-Phase Grid-Connected Inverters for Photovoltaic Modules” IEEE Trans. On Ind. Appl., Vol. 41, No. 5, Page(S): 1292-1306, SeptemberOctober 2005

[24] Frank Vignola, Fotis Mavromatakis and Jim Krumsick, "Performance of PV inverter",www.solardat.uoregon.edu/download/papers/performance of inverters.pdf [25] S. Pless, M. Deru, P. Torcellini, and S. Hayter, "Procedure for Measuring and Reporting the Performance of Photovoltaic Systems in Buildings,” Tech[25]nicalReport NREL/TP-550-38603, October 2005

[9] Claude Morris, “Report on , Grid-connected Transformerless Single-phase Photovoltaic Inverters: An Evaluation on DC Current Injection and PV Array Voltage Fluctuation”, Murdoch University perth Westen Australia- School of Engineering and Energy, 2009

[26] G.Chicco, R.Napoli and F.Spertino, "Experimental evaluation of the performance of grid-connected photovoltaic systems", Proc. IEEE Melecon 2004,Dubrovnik, Croatia 3, PP. 1011-1016 May 12-15, 2004.

[10] Guo Xiaoqiang,Wu weiyang, Gu Herong and San Guocheng, “DC injection control for grid connected inverter based on virtual capacitor concept”, International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems, 2008. ICEMS 2008, Page(s):2327 – 2330, October 2008

[27] B. Marion, J. Adelstein, and K. Boyle, H. Hayden, B. Hammond, T. Fletcher, B. Canada, and D. Narang, D. Shugar, H.Wenger, A. Kimber, and L. Mitchell and G. Rich and T. Townsend (2005), "Performance Parameters for Grid- Connected PV Systems”, 31st IEEE Photovoltaics Specialists Conference and Exhibition Lake Buena Vista, Florida, January 3-7, 2005

[11] R Sharma, “Removal Of Dc Offset Current from Transformerless Pv Inverters Connected to Utility”, Australasia Universities Power and Control Engineering Conference Proceedings, page(s): 136-144, October 1992 [12]

Photovoltaic Inverter, system/inverters.aspx

[28] Fluke 434-II/435-II/437-II Three Phase Energy and Power Quality Analyzer User Manual, Fluke Corporation, January 2012.

Kitamura. A, Yamamoto. F, Matsuda. H, Akhmad. K, Hamakawa,Yoshihiro,“Test results on DC injection phenomenon of grid connected PV system at Rokko test center”Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 1996, Conference Record of the Twenty Fifth IEEE, Page(s): 1377 - 1379 , 1996

[29] IEC standards for solar photovoltaic system,http://www.pvresources.com

[13] H. Wilk, D. Ruoss, and P. Toggweiler, "Report - Innovative electrical concepts," International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power Systems, IEA PVPS ,2002, www.iea-pvps.org [14] Yogi Goswami, Frank Kreith, Jan F.Krieder , Principles of Solar Engineering, Second edition, 1999.

[15] Singla and Vijay Kumar Garg, "Modeling of solar photovoltaic module & effect of insolation variation using matlab/simulink," International Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology, Vol IV Issue III Article 2 pp.05-09 July-Sept,2013

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Active Resource Provision in Cloud Computing Through Virtualization .

1 2

, .

Email:deepikatenepalli@gmail.com

Abstract— Cloud Computing is an emerging technology which provides effective services to the clients. It permits clients to scale up and down their resources usage depending upon their needs Because of this, under provision and over provision problems may occur. To overcome this migration of service utilization Our Paper focuses on overcoming this problem by distributing the resource to multiple clients through virtualization technology to enhance their returns. By using virtualization, it allocates datacenter resources dynamically based on applications demands and this technology also supports green technology by optimizing the number of servers in use. We present a new approach called “Skewness”, to calculate the unevenness in the Multi-tier resource utilization of a server. By optimizing Skewness, we can join different types of workloads adequately and we can improve the whole consumption of server resources. Keywords— Cloud computing, over provision, provision, virtualization, green computing, skewness.

Virtual machine monitors (VMMs) provide a mechanism for mapping virtual Machines (VM) to physical resources in Physical Machine (PM). But mapping is hidden from the cloud. Cloud provider should ensure that physical machine have sufficient resource to meet client need. When an application is running on VM mapping between VMs and PMs is done by migration technology. However policy issue remains in every aspect to decide the mapping adaptively so that the demands of VM were met and the number of PM used is minimized. Though it is a challenging one when the resource need of VM is heterogeneous due to the different set of applications their need might vary with time as the workloads goes ups and down. The capacity of PM can also be Heterogeneous because multiple generations of hardware coexist in a datacenter.

under

Here we have two main goals to provide dynamic resource allocation

1. INTRODUCTION Many of the organizations show interest on cloud, because with low cost we can access resources from cloud in a flexible and secure manner. Cloud shares their resource to multiple users. Cost of resources varies significantly depending on configuration for using them. Hence efficient management of resources is of prime interest to both Cloud Providers and Cloud Users. The success of any cloud management software critically depends on the flexibility, scale and efficiency with which it can utilize the underlying hardware resources while providing necessary performance isolation. Successful resource management solution for cloud environments needs to provide a rich set of resource controls for better isolation. Here dynamic resource allocation and load balancing is the challenging task to provide effective service to clients. Due to peak demands for a resource in the server, resource is over utilized by clients through virtualization. This may degrade the performance of the server. In under utilization usage of resource is very poor when compare to over utilization, for this we are migrate client processing from VM to other VM.

Optimize burdens: PM should provide all the necessary resources required to process applications on VMs. It satisfies VM needs based on its capacity. Green Computing: optimize unnecessary usage of PMs to save the energy

The work discussed below in our Paper makes discussions of how to overcome these two problems in cloud. First we have to share the work to servers in a balanced way depending upon their capacity. By sharing server we can perform their task effectively to optimize load on it. Next, we have to optimize the usage of resource then only we can give flexible and effective service to clients, for this usage of resource Monitor is necessary. By monitoring, we came to know underutilization and overutilization of resources in PM through VMs. So to calculate the usage of resource we introduce a new approach called “Skewness”. With the help of previously used resource logs, we have to forecast periodically for future resource needs. A client can demand for highly resource provision. At the time there may be a chance for insufficient resource, while providing

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that service to the intended client, resource as well as memory forecasting is necessary. For this we design “resource forecasting algorithm”.

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The Architecture represented in Fig. 1, Each PM runs with xen hypervisor Processor with domain 0 and one or more domain U in this system. In each domain U ‘n’ no. of resource are there to provide service to clients. All PM’s are connected to backend databases for storing information’s. Sharing of PM’s resources to VM’s is

2. SYSTEM OVERVIEW:

VM Scheduler Predictor

Hotspot

Coldspot

Migration List

Usher CTRL

Dom 0 U S H E R L N M

M M A L L O T E R

DomU W UU

DomU

E B S E R V E R

R M T D E S K T O P

Dom 0 U S H E R L N M

M M A L L O T E R

DomU UM

DomU UD

A P

N S

R E D U C E

S E R V E R

WS Xen Hypervisor

Dom 0 U S H E R L N M

M M A L L O T E R

DomU M A I L

DomU UL

S E R V E R

O G

S E R V E R

WS Xen Hypervisor

Xen Hypervisor

PM2

PMn

PM1

Fig. 1: System Architecture maintained by Usher center controller (Usher CTRL). Each processing on usher local node Manager (LNM) in domain 0 which gathers the resource usage information like CPU and network in each VM monitoring the action performing in xen. Memory usage in VM is largely hidden to hypervisor. Shortage of memory is indicated by swap activities.

Threshold or Cold Threshold”. We are shut downing PM’s to save the energy those are in under utilization list. Migrate all the listed VM to Usher CTRL for execution. 3. FORECASTING FUTURE RESOURCE BY CALCULATION: Smart service maintenance has some parameter like efficiency, security and flexibility. We have to take care by monitoring and analyze the service periodically then only we can provide effective services to clients. Depending upon demands we require some changes in VM to maintain it as effective service and demand for that service increases. Based on previous usage history we can adapt some services and make changes in hardware also. Here our main aim to utilize present resource in VM effectively by monitoring usage. This is possible by necessary calculation. For this we proposed exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) in TCP.

VM scheduler gathers the usage of resources information frequently from all PM’s; send it to Usher Center Control to schedule the VM. Predictor in VM scheduler predicts the feature resource needs by resource forecasting algorithm. Memory and CPU allocations are changing in xen, when a new demands came for processing LMN has to satisfy those requests by adjusting the old one. Hotspot solver in VM Scheduler identifies the usage of resources from PM. If its usage is high then we can call it as “Hot threshold”. VM scheduler migrate those VM to reduce the burden on PM. If the VM uses resources averagely from PM’s it is below the “Green Computing

E (t) = α * E (t - 1) + (1 - α) * O (t), 0 ≤ α ≤ 1.

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Where E (t): O (t):

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Estimate load at time t. Observed load at time t.

Forecast the CPU weights on DNS server by using the EWMA formula. We compute the weights periodically to reduce burden and estimate next weight on it. We show the CPU utilization in a graphical representation to adjust the weights on it. In Fig. 2a show the results for α = 0.7. Dot represents the observed value and curve represents the Predicted value in the Graph. Curve cuts the middle of the dots which indicates a quite precise prediction. This is also verified by table 1. Median errors are computed based on observed value: | E (t) – O (t)| / O (t). Even though it seems that it is suitable, but it was not getting resource usage fluctuation details. Unfortunately when α is between 0 and 1, the predicted value is always between historic value and observed one. So we required small changes to speed up we set α value as negative (-1 ≤ α ≤ 0).

Fig. 2 (b) FUSD: ↑ α = - 0.2, ↓ α = 0.7, W = 1

We have to balance the observed O (t) and estimated E (t) loads on time being. For example if observed resource usage is going down. Here we can to decrease the estimated load in some situations. Based on the situation we have to take precaution to maintain the server. For this we have two parameters ↑α and ↓α to balance the server. We can call this as Fast Up and Slow down (FUSD) algorithm. We can see in fig 2b show the effectiveness of the FUSD algorithm for ↑α = -0.2 and ↓α = 0.7 these values are obtained by doing experiment on online application. We keep a window W recently observed value and take O(t) as hight. We take W=8 and increase the percentage of resource demand to peak usage that is 90%th show in the Fig. 2c. Below

Fig. 2 (c) FUSD: ↑ α = - 0.2, ↓ α = 0.7, W = 8

Median error High error Low error

Fig.2, CPU load prediction for the DNS server at our university. W is the measurement window

ewma (0.7) W=1 5.6%

fusd (-0.2, 0.7) W=1 9.4%

fusd(-0.2, 0.7) W=8 3.3%

56% 44%

77% 23%

58% 41%

Table 1: Load Prediction Algorithms 4. SKEWNESS ALGORITHM Skewness can count underutilization and overutilization of multiple resources on a server. Let n be the no of resources, ri be the ith resource usage and p be the server. Skewness (p) = Where is the average usage of all resource for server p. we apply this calculation specifically on inconsistent servers to know the resource usage whether the resource is overutilization or underutilization. Migrate the workloads which is overly utilizes the resource from one server to another server. If the resources are underutilized from a server then we can joins some more workloads to improve the overall utilization of server resources smartly.

Fig. 2 (a) EWMA α = 0.7, W = 1

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(source server) to another server (Destination server). Source server has to check whether the destination server is suitable, if it provides all his resource or not and after accepting this VM it does not go to hotspot. While seeing all these a aspect then we are migrating the VM to another server. In this way we are optimizing the server temperature as low as possible. 4.3 Green Computing The main intension of “Green computing algorithm” is to utilize the maximum level of resources on server and also it optimize the number of active servers running with less weight it does not sacrifice its performance now or in future. Our aim is to optimize the server resources by migrating VM’s to another suitable server which are underutilized its resources. By doing this we can save the server’s energy. To avoid this green computing algorithm request’s periodically to get the information of underutilized resources which satisfies green computing threshold from all servers in cloud also known as cold spot. By collect this information we are migrating the VM’s in ascending order based on memory size.

Fig. 3, Comparison of SPAR and FUSD

4.1 Hot and Cold Spots We have explained previously about Hotspot and cold spot in section 2. Depending on the Load we are defining temperature of a server. If the utilization of resources in server is high then it is in hot threshold. This shows the server is highly busy with overload on it. By reducing burden on server, it performs its tasks nicely. We are diverting some VM’s to another PM’s which is suitable to fulfill their requirements. p is the temperature of hotspot.

CONCLUSION We have presented an approach for implementation and evaluation of a resource management system for cloud computing services. We have also shown in our paper of how we can multiplex virtual resource allocation to physical resource allocation effectively based on the fluctuating demand. We also make use the skewness metric to determine different resource characteristics appropriately so that the capacities of servers are well utilized. We can apply our algorithm to achieve both overload avoidance and green computing for systems which support multiresource constraints.

Temperature (p) = Where R is the set of overloaded resources in server p and rt is the hot threshold for resource r. if the temperature is zero then the server is in cold spot. if temperature is one server is in hot spot. If the utilization of resource is below average to its actual capacity then it is in cold threshold. Potentiality of server is wastage due to the server running idly, so it was not satisfying the green computing threshold, to save the energy we are show downing it. The utilization of all resources from server which satisfies the green computing threshold but not in risk stage then we can call it as warm threshold.

REFERENCES: [1] Zhen Xiao, Senior Member, IEEE, Weijia Song, and Qi Chen, “Dynamic Resource Allocation Using Virtual Machines for Cloud Computing Environment”, VOL. 24, NO. 6, JUNE 2013 [2] L. Siegele, “Let It Rise: A Special Report on Corporate IT,” The Economist, vol. 389, pp. 3-16, Oct. 2008.

4.2 Hot Spot Improvement

[3] P. Barham, B. Dragovic, K. Fraser, S. Hand, T. Harris, A. Ho,

Here our aim to remove hot spots in a server to provide smooth accesses flexibility to client. A client has authority to customize their service within his long run. While providing these services, server has to allocate high level of resources to satisfy their needs based on their demands. At this time server is busy (server temperature is high or Hot spot) while supplying those resources and give high priority for new demands, while providing these service a problem may arises for already using the same resource going down. Overcome this problem by migrating VM’s to another server’s. With the help of Skewness we are collecting the list of VM’s which are over utilizing the resources from server, similarly for remaining servers. A VM migration which depends on highest priority in hot spot list that is in descending order. Responsibility of server has to check before migrate the VM from one server

R. Neugebauer, I. Pratt, and A. Warfield, “Xen and the Art of Virtualization,” Proc. ACM Symp. Operating Systems Principles (SOSP ’03), Oct. 2003. [4] “Amazon elastic compute cloud (Amazon EC2),” http://aws. amazon.com/ec2/, 2012.

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[5] C. Clark, K. Fraser, S. Hand, J.G. Hansen, E. Jul, C. Limpach, I. Pratt, and A. Warfield, “Live Migration of Virtual Machines,” Proc. Symp. Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI ’05), May 2005. [6] M. Nelson, B.-H. Lim, and G. Hutchins, “Fast Transparent Migration for Virtual Machines,” Proc. USENIX Ann. Technical Conf., 2005. [7] M. McNett, D. Gupta, A. Vahdat, and G.M. Voelker, “Usher: An Extensible Framework for Managing Clusters of Virtual Machines,” Proc. Large Installation System Administration Conf. (LISA ’07), Nov. 2007. [8] T. Wood, P. Shenoy, A. Venkataramani, and M. Yousif, “Black-Box and Gray-Box Strategies for Virtual Machine Migration,” Proc. Symp. Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI ’07), Apr. 2007. [9] C.A. Waldspurger, “Memory Resource Management in VMware ESX Server,” Proc. Symp. Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI ’02), Aug. 2002.

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CPLM: Cloud Facilitated Privacy Shielding Leakage Resilient Mobile Health Monitoring R.Jasmine Anita

A.Narayana Rao

(M. Tech)Dept. of CSE SITE Tirupati, India jasmineanitar@gmail.com

Asst. Professor, Dept. of CSE SITE Tirupati, India

Abstract— Cloud-assisted mobile health (mHealth) monitoring is a revolutionary approach to provide decision support in the health care sector. It employs mobile communications and cloud computing technologies to provide timely feedback. Its main objective is to not only improve the quality of healthcare service but also to decrease the healthcare expenditure. In spite of the benefits it offers, needless to say the acceptance of such a mobile health monitoring system is affected as it doesn’t shield the privacy of the patients’ data and also the data of the health care service providers. As a result of which the wide deployment of mHealth technology is hindered and the patients’ willingness to get involved in such a mobile health care monitoring program is abated. Cloud Facilitated Privacy Shielding Leakage Resilient Mobile Health Monitoring addresses the fore mentioned limitations by offering a privacy shield to the involved parties and their data in addition to handling the side channel attack. To take into consideration the resource constraints of the parties involved, the outsourcing decryption technique and a key private proxy re-encryption are implemented to shift the computational complexity of the privacy shielding scheme to the cloud without compromising the privacy of the clients and that of the service providers. The side channel attack is handled by implementing a Virtual machine policing approach.

data could be then transferred to a central server. The server in turn would then run various web medical applications on these data to return timely feedback to the patient. With the emergence and evolution of the cloud computing technologies, the Software as a Service(SaaS) model and pay as you go business model can be incorporated in cloud computing to provide a feasible solution. This would allow small health care service providers to perform well in the health care market. Cloud facilitated mHealth monitoring promises improved health care services and reduced health care costs. In spite of the many promises offered, to make this technology a reality one has to overcome a stumbling block. While collecting, storing, diagnosing, communicating and computing, there is a chance that the privacy of the patients is breached. This calls for proper addressing of the data management in a mHealth monitoring system. Statistics reveal that around 75% of the Americans attach utmost significance to the privacy of their personal health information [2]. A study also reveals [3] that patients’ concern regarding the privacy breach of their health data could deteriorate the willingness of the patients to be involved in such health care monitoring programs. This privacy apprehension will be inflamed owing to the increase in the privacy breaches involving electronic data. Many organizations collect patients’ personal health data [4] and the data is shared with insurance organizations, research organizations or even other government institutions. The activities of the health care service providers should be restricted efficiently to achieve real protection to patients’ personal data as a study reveals [5] that privacy laws could not guarantee a privacy shield to the patients’ personal health data. Conventional privacy protection techniques work by detaching personal identity information such as names or social security number or by using anonymization techniques. Such conventional techniques are not an effective means to deal with the privacy of mobile health care systems owing to the increase in the amount and diversity of personally identifiable information [6]. Personal Identifiable Information (PII) can be defined as any piece of information related to a uniquely identifiable individual [7]. In practice however any piece of information can be transformed in to personal identifiable information [6]. The mobile health monitoring system offers a tremendous opportunity to intruders to lay

Keywords— Key private proxy re-encryption, Privacy Shield, Outsourcing decryption, Virtual Machine Policing.

Introduction

Mobile devices especially smart phones attached with low cost sensors have found their application in every field in and around the world. Employing such smart phones improves the health care service quality in terms of time and effort. One of the successful examples of mobile health applications in the developing countries is the Remote Mobile Health Monitoring. MediNet is a successfully launched project which has been designed to be used in the remote places of the Caribbean countries. It was launched by Microsoft and has been employed to monitor the health condition of the patients suffering from diabetes and cardio vascular diseases [1].when such a remote mHealth monitoring system is used, various physiological data ranging from blood pressure to blood glucose could be collected by deploying detachable sensors in wireless body sensor networks. The collected physiological

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their hands on a large quantity of information which could be used to ultimately identify the corresponding individual. This calls for the utmost attention as an intruder may be able to identify the corresponding individual using such sensitive information [8], [9]. Conventional anonymization techniques have been used to handle the privacy issues. K-anonymity and l-diversity are instances of such anonymization techniques. It has been shown that such techniques are not sufficient to completely prevent re-identification [6]. It is our ardent belief that the proposed CPLM will not only serve as a feasible solution to the privacy related problems in a mobile health care system but also will serve as an alternative solution to the privacy-sensitive users. To address the security and the privacy, cryptography is a viable solution. While using cryptographic techniques, one significant problem that needs to be taken into consideration is the increased computational complexity. In the cloud computing environment, discretion calls for shifting intensive computations to the cloud servers from the mobile devices where resources are constrained. To successfully shift the computations from the mobile devices to the cloud server without compromising privacy and security is challenging and calls for a thorough investigation. The CPLM design emphasizes on the insider attacks. Such attacks could be carried out by insiders either with a malicious or a benign intent. It is very important to design a privacy shielding mechanism to counteract the insider attacks without failing to maintain equilibrium between implementing privacy constraints and maintaining the normal operations of the mobile health systems. The problem is aggravated in the case of cloud facilitated mobile health systems as it is extremely essential to not only ensure that the privacy of the clients’ data is shielded but also to ensure that the results are shielded from the cloud servers as well as the health care service providers aka the companies. The CPLM scheme enables the health care service provider aka the company to be offline after the initial stage and ensures that the data or programs delivered to the cloud is done securely. Outsourcing decryption technique [10] is incorporated in to the multi-dimensional range queries system in order to shift the computational complexity from the client to the cloud server. The proxy re-encryption scheme ensures that the computational complexity is shifted to the cloud from the company as the company has to perform encryption only once.

II.

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devices. The data is then transformed into tokens. The transformed tokens are delivered as inputs to the encrypted monitoring program stored in the cloud server through a mobile device. The responsibility of generating and distributing tokens or private keys lies with a semi trusted authority. The STA collects a service fee from the clients as per a business model for instance pay-as-you-go business model. The STA can be considered as a confederate or an ally for a company or multiple companies. The company and the STA can connive to obtain personal health data from the client tokens or input vectors. In this CPLM design it is assumed that the cloud server is neutral, in other words it is assumed that the cloud does not connive with the company or a client to cause damage to the other side. It is still possible for the cloud to connive with the other entities of the CPLM such as the STA and it is left for future consideration. It is also assumed that an individual client doesn’t connive with other clients. CPLM involves four major phases- SecParam, Setup, Store, TokenGen and Query. To start with, the cloud server determines the rate at which the Police VM is scheduled based on the inputs from the clients and the company. At the initialization step, the STA runs the Setup phase which results in the publishing of the system parameters. The next phase corresponds to the Store algorithm in which the mobile health monitoring program is expressed as a branching program. The branching program is encrypted. The resulting cipher text and the company index are delivered to the cloud by the company. When a client wants to access the cloud for a mobile health monitoring program, the j-th client in collaboration with the STA runs the TokenGen algorithm. The j-th client sends the company index and the private query input to the STA, the STA in turn inputs its master secret key to the algorithm. This results in the generation of tokens which are supplied to the client. In this entire process, the STA doesn’t obtain any nontrivial information about the submitted query. During the final phase, the tokens are delivered by the client to the cloud which in turn runs the Query phase. A major chunk of the computationally intensive task of decryption is performed by the client and the partially decrypted text is returned to the client. The client decrypts the partially decrypted text to obtain the decryption result. During the entire process the cloud can deduce no significant information in either the clients’ private query or the decryption result. The CPLM also prevents the cloud from obtaining significant information from either the clients’ private query or from the received information from the client.

SYSTEM MODEL

III.

The Cloud facilitated Privacy Shielding Leakage Resilient Mobile Health Monitoring system (CPLM) comprises of four parties- the cloud server aka the cloud, the health care service provider which provides the mobile health monitoring service aka the company, the clients and a semi trusted authority (STA). The monitoring data or program is encrypted prior to its storage in the cloud server. The clients collect their personal medical data and the data is stored in their mobile

SOME PRELIMINARIES AND BUILDING BLOCKS

A. Bilinear Maps Pairing is one of the building blocks of the CPLM design. An efficiently computable, non-degenerate function e: G×G→GT which satisfies the bilinearity property defines pairing. The bilinearity property states that e(gp,gq) = e(g,g,)pq for any p,q ∈ Z*q. Z*q is a finite field modulo q, G and GT are

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multiplicative groups of prime order q generated by g and e(g,g) respectively.

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original message. The STA deduces no useful information on the client’s identity id. The cloud also cannot deduce any useful information regarding the client identity id.

B. Branching Program A binary branching program is a triplet ({m1, …, mk}, L, R). The first element of the triplet is a set of nodes in the binary branching tree. The internal nodes represent the intermediate decision nodes while the leaf nodes represent the label nodes. A decision node is represented as an attributethreshold pair (ai, t i), where ai represents the attribute index and ti represents the threshold value. The attribute value supplied by the client vai is compared with the threshold value ti. At each decision node i, if vai ≤ ti then L(i) becomes the index of the next node. If vai > ti then R(i) becomes the index of the next node. The label nodes contain classification information. The nodes are traversed starting from the root node by comparing the value supplied by the client with the threshold value until one of the label nodes is reached.

F. Proxy Re-Encryption (PRE) The CPLM design also uses proxy re-encryption (PRE). It was first proposed by Blaze et al. [15]. Ateniase et al formalized it [16]. PRE enables a proxy server which cannot be trusted, having a re-encryption key (rekey) rk A→B to convert a first level cipher text into a second level cipher text without allowing the proxy to deduce any useful information about the message. In the CPLM scheme two relevant properties are emphasized: First is unidirectionality and the second is key privateness. Unidirectionality implies that the delegation from A → B does not allow delegation from B→ A. Key privateness means that given the re-encryption key rk A→B, the proxy obtains no information on either the delegator identity or the delegatee identity. In CPLM, the company delivers the health monitoring program which is encrypted using MDRQs to the untrusted cloud. The company also delivers many re-encryption key along with the cipher text to the cloud. The key private property ensures that no useful information about the underlying identities, corresponding to the thresholds of the internal decision nodes, is leaked to the cloud. PRE aids by reducing the encryption workload for the company. It should be ensured that the computation of the rekey generation should be lesser than that of the first level encryption in PRE.

C. Homomorphic Encryption In CPLM, additive homomorphic public-key encryption technique is used. In homomorphic encryption, if HE(p) and HE(q) are two encrypted messages, then the encryption of the addition of the two messages is obtained as follows HE(p+q) = HE(p) * HE(q), where * is an operation in the cipher text space. In CPLM homomorphic encryption is used to obtain tokens corresponding to the client attribute vector.

G. Virtual Machine Policing Sharing of resources among processes is a major contributor to the side channel attacks. One of the major objectives of using cloud computing is to share resources which calls for co-residence of virtual machines in a cloud computing environment. In the Virtual Machine Policing [17], the cloud server creates special virtual machines which are then launched by a physical host according to a police virtual machine scheduling policy. The attacking VM is then confused by the police VMs. This is done by running some clean up or resource sharing instructions. A police virtual machine is a VM which is launched by a physical host. Its responsibilities are to prevent and to handle the side channel attacks. A police VM consists of zero or more counter attack (CA) units as shown in Fig. 1. Each CA unit is a software component which handles the responsibility of preventing and handling a specific category of side channel attacks. Such CA units are installed dynamically depending on the situational need. The number of Police VMs executing and their scheduling policy is dictated by a number of factors such as the cloud server’s load, special security request of the client and performance requirements of the cloud server.

D. MDRQs Based Anonymous IBE Shi et al [12] first proposed Multi-Dimensional Range Queries (MDRQs). In the MDRQ system the sender encrypts a message using a range [er1, er2] or a C bit data v. A receiver with a private key which corresponds to the range [er1, er2] or a C bit data v can decrypt the message. The encrypted cipher text protects not only the privacy of the message but also the range or the data under which the message is encrypted. In MDRQs, a C-level binary is constructed to represent the C-bit data or the range. The root of the C-level binary tree is labelled as ┴. The left child node of an internal node s is labelled as s0 and the right child node is labelled as s1. The leaf nodes from the left to the right will be labelled with a string 0, 0, · · · , 0 to 1, 1, · · · , 1, corresponding to all the possible C-bit data. E. Decryption Outsourcing Pairing-based IBE systems [11] and attribute-based encryption systems [13], [14] are well known for expensive decryption workload. Decryption Outsourcing is used to decrease the computational complexity. It allows a client to convert his secret key to a transformation key. The transformation key is then delegated to an untrusted server which in turn uses it to convert the original cipher text to an el gamal encryption of the original message. The advantage is that the client only has to perform simple exponentiation operations to obtain the decrypted message. CPLM applies the outsourcing decryption technique with MDRQS based on the BF-IBE scheme. The advantage of the above scheme is that the client has to only perform one exponentiation to obtain the

Police VM CA unit1

CA unit2

CA unit3

…

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H1 : {0, 1}∗ → G, H2 : G × G → Z∗q , H3 : M×M → Z∗q , H4 : GT →M×M, and H5 : G×M×M→ G. The system parameter is included in the following steps implicitly. Store: This step is performed by the company. Let PRF(s0, i) and PRF(s1, i) denote two pseudo-random functions. They take as inputs a secret key sj , j ∈ {0, 1} and a i, defined by PRF : {0, 1} λ × [1,N ∗ k] → {0, 1}C+C′ , where N represents the maximum number of the clients accessing the company’s monitoring program in a particular time slot. For j ∈ [1, k], the company computes the identity representation sets S[0;tj+ δ ij ] and S[tj+ δ ij+1;Max′]. δ(0)ij = PRF(s0, (i−1)∗k+j), δ(1)ij = PRF(s1, (i − 1) ∗ k + j) and δij = δ(1)ij + δ(0)ij , where j ∈ [1, k]. Let Q represent a random permutation of the set [1, k] = (1, 2, · · · , k) where Q[1] = 1. The company distributes PRF(s0, ·), {tj + δij , aj |i ∈ [1,N], j ∈ [1, k]} and the random permutation Q to the STA. The STA computes the identity representation set. For j ∈ [1, k], the STA runs the ReKey(id1, id2, msk) algorithm on the identities id1 ∈ S[0;tj+ δ ij ] and id2 ∈ S[0;tj+ δ (i+1)j ], or the identities id1 ∈ S[tj+ δ ij+1;Max′] and id2 ∈ S[tj+ δ (i+1)j+1;Max′]. The STA then delivers all the generated re- encryption keys according to the permuted order to the cloud. The ReKey algorithm is as follows. ReKey(id1, id2, msk): This algorithm is performed by the STA. When a delegator D receives a request of re-encryption from id1 to id2, it first executes the Ext algorithm on id2 to produce skid2. Then it outputs the re-encryption key from id1 to id2: rkid1;id2 = (rk(1) id1;id2, rk(2) id1;id2)= (H1(id1)s · gH2(skid2||Nid1;id2 ) ,Nid1;id2 ) and Nid1;id2 is a random element from G. The Ext algorithm works as follows. Ext(id, msk): This algorithm is performed by the STA and a client. Upon receiving an identity id as input, the client first selects a random number z ∈ Z∗q, and computes the value u1 =H1(id)z and sends it to the STA. The STA outputs the transformation key corresponding to the identity id: u2 = us1 where s = msk and delivers it back to the client. Then the client calculates his private key skid =u1/z2 =H 1(id)zsz−1=H1(id)s. It is to be noted that the STA deduces no information on the client’s identity as H1(id)z is just a random group element under a random oracle model. Starting with the node p1, the company chooses two symmetric keys kQ[L(j)] and kQ[R(j)] for each decision node pj whose children are internal nodes. Then, it executes the encryption algorithm Enc(id1, kQ[L(j)]||Q[L(j)]) and Enc(id2, kQ[R(j)]||Q[R(j)]), where the identity id1 ∈ S[0;tj+ δ ij ] and the identity id2 ∈ S[tj+ δ ij+1;Max′], respectively, in order to produce two cipher text sets CQ[L(j)] and CQ[R(j)]. Let TCj be represented by {CQ[L(j)],CQ[R(j)]}. The cipher texts TCQ[L(j)] and TCQ[R(j)] are encrypted using kQ[L(j)] and kQ[R(j)] for the two child nodes, using a semantically secure symmetric key encryption scheme. When pj represents the parent node of the leaf nodes, the information attached to the two leaf nodes are encrypted using the two symmetric keys.

Fig. 1 Police VM

IV.

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CPLM DESIGN

The system time is divided into time slots. Each time slot can range from a week to a month. It is assumed that a maximum of N users can access the monitoring program during a given slot. Whenever a client tries to access a monitoring program, it is assigned an index i by the STA, where i ∈ [1,N]. CPLM with an efficient Privacy Shield reduces not only the computational burden on the company but also the communication overhead for the cloud. As shown in Fig. 2, the high level idea is as follows. Key private re-encryption scheme is employed as an underlying tool. The company produces a single set of cipher text and delivers it to the cloud, instead of generating a cipher text for each client. The company then obliviously delivers the identity threshold representation sets to the STA for the thresholds of the decisional branching nodes and the indices of the concerned attributes so that the STA can produce the re-encryption keys corresponding to the rest of the clients in the system by making use of the key private re-encryption scheme. The produced re-encryption keys are then distributed to the cloud. The cloud then runs the re-encryption scheme using the rekeys and the single set of cipher text delivered by the company to produce the cipher texts for the rest of the clients. The key private re-encryption scheme assimilates the outsourcing decryption to ensure that the CPLM scheme incorporates security and efficiency characteristics. As a result of the decryption algorithm of the proxy re-encryption scheme, the interactions between clients and the cloud is also decreased. CPLM with an efficient Privacy Shield consists of the following five steps. SecParam: This step is performed by the cloud server by taking into consideration the security parameters provided by the client. If the client opts for special security request, the regular VM and the Police VM are scheduled alternatively. If the performance of the VM is a priority and if the number of clients accessing the monitoring program is less than 300, the police VM is scheduled after ten regular VMs. If the number of clients accessing is between 300 and 600, the police VM is scheduled after 15 regular VMs else it is scheduled after 20 regular VMs. If the performance of the VM is not a priority, then the police VM is scheduled after 15, 20, 30 regular VMs for the above corresponding range of clients accessing the monitoring program. Setup: This step is performed by the STA. The STA takes as input the security parameter 1 λ, and outputs the system parameter SP = (G,GT , q, g,Hi, i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5), the key pair for the STA (pk, msk) = (y, s) = (gs, s). G and GT are bilinear groups of prime order q, g represents a random primitive root in G, Hi, (i ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}) represents cryptographic hash functions.

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The company then distributes the resulting cipher texts and δ(1)ij to the cloud. The cipher texts for each node are aligned to the permuted order Q[j] in the cloud. The Enc algorithm works as follows. Enc(id,m): This algorithm is run by the company. Upon the input of a message m ∈M, and an identity id, the company outputs the ciphertext C = (c1, c2, c3), Where r = H3(m||σ), c1 = gr, c2 = (σ||m) ⊕ H4(e(H1(id), y)r) and c3 = H5(c1||c2)r, σ being a random element from M, the message space. For i ∈ [1,N], the cloud produces the cipher texts corresponding to the i-th client as follows: starting with the node p1, the cloud executes the ReEnc(Cid1 , rkid1;id2 ) algorithm to re-encrypt the cipher texts by making use of the rekey from the STA with identity id1 ∈ S[0;tj+ δ ij ] and the identity id2 ∈ S[0;tj+ δ (i+1)j ], or the identity id1 ∈ S[tj+ δ ij+1;Max′] and the identity id2 ∈ S[tj+ δ (i+1)j+1;Max′] here. The set of cipher text sets for the i-th client are a concatenation of the resulting public key cipher texts and the original symmetric key cipher texts. The ReEnc algorithm works as follows. ReEnc(Cid1 , rkid1;id2 ): This algorithm is run by the proxy server. It takes as inputs an original cipher text Cid1 = (c1, c2, c3) under the identity id1, and a re-encryption key from id1 to id2 rkid1;id2. If the equality e(c1,H5(c1||c2)) = e(g, c3) holds good, then the algorithm outputs the re-encrypted cipher text Cid2 =(c′1, c2, c′3, c4) where c′1 = e(g, c1), c′3 = e(c1, rk(1)id1;id2), and c4 = rkid1;id2 . If the above equality doesn’t hold good, it outputs ⊥. TokenGen: The process of generating a private key for the attribute vector v=(v1, · · · , vn) is initiated when the i-th client first produces a public/ private key pair of a homomorphic encryption scheme. The public key and the value HEnc(vj) are then sent to the STA. The STA computes the value HEnc(vaj + δ(0)ij ) from the values HEnc(δ(0)ij ) and HEnc(vaj ). Then the STA permutes the resulting cipher text according to Q and sends the permuted cipher text according to the order of Q[aj ] where j ∈[1, k] to the cloud. The cloud will then return the value HEnc(vaj+δ(0) ij + δ(1) ij )=HEnc(vaj + δij) to the client. The client then decrypts the returned cipher text and obtains vaj +δij for j ∈ [1, k]. The client then computes the identity representation set for each Svaj+ δ ij . For every identity id ∈ Svaj+ δ ij , the client executes the Ext(id, msk) algorithm with the STA to produce the transformation key. The transformation key is directly delivered to the cloud.

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entire process, the client needs to access the cloud multiple times which is directly proportional to the length of the path. The cloud need not make any computations during its interaction with the client as the client is capable of completing all the necessary decryption steps on its own. The client does not have to generate any bilinear map as the bilinear operation has already been done by the cloud owing to the pre-processing step in the ReEnc(Cid1 , rkid1;id2 ) algorithm.

Randomness data Attribute STA

Tokens

Company

Re-Keys

Client Encrypted Branching Program

Decrypted Label

Outsourcing Decryption Algorithm

Cloud Server Re-Encrypted Branching Program

Fig. 2 CPLM with an efficient Privacy Shield

The Dec algorithm works as follows. Dec(skid,C id): This algorithm is executed by a client. It takes as inputs a cipher text Cid under id, along with a private key skid . 1) If C id represents an original cipher text (c1, c2, c3), calculate the value c2 ⊕ H4(e(skid, c1)) = (σ||m) ⊕ H4(e(H1(id), y)r)⊕H4(e(H1(id)s, gr) = σ||m If c1 = gH3(σ ||m) and c3 = H5(c1||c2) H3(σ ||m) both hold good, it outputs m; otherwise it outputs ⊥. 2) If Cid represents a re-encrypted cipher text (c′1, c2, c′ 3, c4 ) , Calculate the value H4(c′3/c′1H2(skid′ ||c4))⊕ c2 = H4(e(y,H1(id)r) · e(g, g)r·H2(skid′ ||Nid;id′ )/(e(g, g)r)H2(skid′ ||Nid;id′ ))⊕(σ||m) ⊕ H4(e(H1(id), y)r) = σ||m If c′1 = e(g, g)H3(σ ||m) holds good, it outputs m; otherwise, it outputs ⊥.

Query: The client’s index i is delivered by the client to the cloud. The cloud will then return the respective cipher text. The client can either opt to download all the cipher texts and the transformation key and perform the rest of the decryption steps, or to start executing the Dec(skid ,Cid) algorithm, where the identity id ∈ S[0;t1+ δ i1] or S[t1+ δ i1+1;Max′] in order to decrypt from the node p1 and then download the cipher text along with the transformation key for the subsequent node based to the decryption result. If the client chooses the latter approach, then only the cipher text that corresponds to a path from the root node to a leaf node needs to be accessed instead of cipher texts for all nodes in the binary branching tree. However, in this

Conclusion

CPLM is a cloud facilitated privacy shielding leakage resilient mobile health monitoring system, which can effectively not only shield the privacy of the clients but also the intellectual property of the mobile health service providers. In order to shield the privacy of the clients, the anonymous Boneh-Franklin identity based encryption (BF-IBE) has been applied in the medical diagnostic branching programs. As the IBE comes in with a high decryption complexity, the decryption outsourcing has been applied to shift the

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computation complexity from the clients to the cloud server thus resulting in a reduction in the decryption complexity. The Branching program tree has been extended by using random permutations and by randomizing the thresholds at the branching nodes in order to shield the Heath service providers’ monitoring programs. In order to enable and motivate small health care service providers, for whom resource constraint is a major problem, the CPLM design provides a way for shifting the computational burden to the cloud server by applying the key private proxy re-encryption technique. The side channel attacks are effectively prevented and handled by using VM policing. The CPLM scheme has been shown to achieve the design goals.

References [1] P. Mohan, D. Marin, S. Sultan, and A. Deen, “Medinet: personalizing the self-care process for patients with diabetes and cardiovascular disease using mobile telephony.” Conference Proceedings of the International Conference of IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, vol. 2008, no. 3, pp. 755–758. [Online]. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19162765 [2] L. Ponemon Institute, “Americans’ opinions on healthcare privacy, available: http://tinyurl.com/4atsdlj,” 2010. [3] A. V. Dhukaram, C. Baber, L. Elloumi, B.-J. van Beijnum, and P. D. Stefanis, “End-user perception towards pervasive cardiac healthcare services: Benefits, acceptance, adoption, risks, security, privacy and trust,” in PervasiveHealth, 2011, pp. 478–484. [4] N. Singer, “When 2+ 2 equals a privacy question,” New York Times, 2009. [5] E. B. Fernandez, “Security in data intensive computing systems,” in Handbook of Data Intensive Computing, 2011, pp. 447–466. [6] A. Narayanan and V. Shmatikov, “Myths and fallacies of personally identifiable information,” Communications of the ACM, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 24– 26, 2010. [7] A. Cavoukian, A. Fisher, S. Killen, and D. Hoffman, “Remote home health care technologies: how to ensure privacy? build it in: Privacy by design,” Identity in the Information Society, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 363–378, 2010. [8] X. Zhou, B. Peng, Y. Li, Y. Chen, H. Tang, and X. Wang, “To release or not to release: evaluating information leaks in aggregate human-genome data,” Computer Security–ESORICS 2011, pp. 607–627, 2011. [9] R. Wang, Y. Li, X. Wang, H. Tang, and X. Zhou, “Learning your identity and disease from research papers: information leaks in genome wide association study,” in Proceedings of the 16th ACM conference on Computer and communications security. ACM, 2009, pp. 534–544. [10] M. Green, S. Hohenberger, and B. Waters, “Outsourcing the decryption of abe ciphertexts,” in Usenix Security, 2011. [11] D. Boneh and M. K. Franklin, “Identity-based encryption from the weil pairing,” in CRYPTO, 2001, pp. 213–229. [12] E. Shi, J. Bethencourt, H. T.-H. Chan, D. X. Song, and A. Perrig, “Multidimensional range query over encrypted data,” in IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, 2007, pp. 350–364. [13] A. Sahai and B. Waters, “Fuzzy identity-based encryption,” in EUROCRYPT, 2005, pp. 457–473. [14] V. Goyal, O. Pandey, A. Sahai, and B. Waters, “Attribute-based encryption for fine-grained access control of encrypted data,” in ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, 2006, pp. 89– 98. [15] M. Blaze, G. Bleumer, and M. Strauss, “Divertible protocols and atomic proxy cryptography,” in EUROCRYPT, 1998, pp. 127–144. [16] G. Ateniese, K. Fu, M. Green, and S. Hohenberger, “Improved proxy reencryption schemes with applications to secure distributed storage,” ACM Trans. Inf. Syst. Secur., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–30, 2006. [17] Tzong-An Su, “A mechanism to prevent side channel attacks in cloud computing environments”.

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DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS USING HV CLASS-F POWER AMPLIFIER Jeyasree Tagore1, M. E.Applied Electronics, Sriram Engineering College, Perumalpattu, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India jeyatag@gmail.com

V.Vidhya2, M. E.Applied Electronics, Sriram Engineering College, Perumalpattu, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India vidhyasreeeee@gmail.com. critical building blocks in low power SoC integration.

ABSTRACT This paper provides an integrated, high efficiency, high voltage, class-F Power Amplifier (PA) for increasing the efficiency of Ultrasonic Transducer. It also provides harmonic termination technique for high efficiency class F PA’s. The effect of different output harmonic terminations on the Power- Added Efficiency (PAE) of the PA has also been analyzed. Theoretically, high efficiency can be attained in classF operation by maximally flattening the current and voltage waveforms at the drain of active device.

II.

DPD TECHNIQUE

CPU

TRANSMITTER

OBJECT

Keywords: Ultrasound transmitter, Class-F PA, Power Added Efficiency, Harmonic Termination Network.

RECEIVER I.

BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

INTRODUCTION

THE ULTRASOUND transmitter, which generates high voltage (HV) signals to excite the transducers, is one of the most critical components in the entire medical ultrasound imaging system. Most of today’s commercial medical ultrasound machines use HV digital pulsers (unipolar or bipolar) as the transmitters. These digital pulsers, in spites of being simple, usually contain high harmonic components with a second-order harmonic distortion (HD2) between −30 and −40 dB. Real time ultra-sound imaging systems have been available for more than thirty years. Nonetheless, considerable advancement in the function of ultrasound systems and output display is presently underway. Integration and advanced electronics play a key role in ultrasound imaging. The advancement in deep sub-micron CMOS technology is easily achievable for digital signal and low-frequency signal processing. However, in order to reach the final goal of System-on-a-Chip (SoC) solution, the final piece of puzzle is still missing – the RF front end. In fact, being the most power hungry component of the RF front end is the RF power amplifier (PA). It is one of the most

POWER AMPLIFIER

APPLICATION

Different PA classes can be divided into two major groups: linear and non-linear PAs. Class A, AB, B and C PA are some of the well-known linear PAs, which are distinguished primarily by their bias condition. Linear PAs have the advantage of high linearity that is important for variable envelope modulation schemes (e.g. p/4-QPSK). However, linear amplifiers suffer from poor maximum power efficiency which limits their applications in low power devices. In practice, an efficiency of only below 20% can be achieved in those systems. In contrast, non-linear PAs (also known as switched mode PAs) can achieve better efficiency. As suggested by its name, non-linear PAs have poor linearity performance. Nevertheless, it is still acceptable for constant envelope modulation schemes (e.g. FSK). To overcome the problem of linearity to adapt to variable envelope systems, many linearization techniques have been proposed

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bands and provide terminations for up to three harmonic. A method for terminating higher number of harmonics is shown in Fig. 1(a). The drain and gate bias lines are embedded in the HTNs. This obviates the need for the RF choke that commonly is realized using a large inductor or a quarterwavelength transmission line (TL). Thus, the bias lines are reused by the HTNs and the chip area is reduced. The HTNs ideally provide open-circuit impedance at the frequency of operation, ωo, while the matching networks transform the load/source resistance into the optimum load/source impedance of the transistor ( ZL,opt and ZS,opt ) that maximizes the output power or efficiency. At the harmonics of ωo, the matching networks exhibit open circuit, while the HTNs are designed to provide open circuit at the odd-order harmonics and short circuit at the even-order harmonics. The open-circuit condition of impedance matching networks at harmonics of can be achieved by using multiple parallel LC networks inserted in series with each other, each resonating at one of the harmonics. However, this method requires a large number of elements that their loss, especially at the output matching network, degrades efficiency of the PA. Another method is to adopt a series LC network resonating at ωo. This network exhibits short circuit impedance at frequency of operation, while at the nth harmonic of ωo it provides reactive impedance of (n-1/n) ωoL . The inductance should be chosen large enough that this impedance can approximately provide an open-circuit condition, i.e., it should be much larger than other impedance levels in the circuit. It should be noted that this impedance increases with the order of harmonic, indicating that it is enough to provide the opencircuit condition at the second harmonic. This series LC network can also be reused in the matching network for impedance transformation. In practice, the impedance matching network at harmonics of introduces large impedance in parallel with parasitic capacitance of the transistor that should also be absorbed into the HTN. The effects of this impedance can be accounted for using circuit simulations. The equivalent circuit of the HTN is shown in Fig. 1(b), where Cp denotes the output/input parasitic capacitance of the transistor. The network order is n+1 , where n is an odd number. Depending on frequency of operation and the transistor physical layout and packaging, the parasitic inductances in series with the gate and drain terminals can also have sensible effect on the PA performance. The output/input series parasitic inductance of the transistor can be accounted for by Ln.

for non-linear amplifiers. Therefore, due their high efficiency and the development of linearization techniques, non-linear PAs have received more attention over linear topologies in mobile communication in the last decade. Class E and F are the most common classes of non-linear PAs. In comparison, Class E PA requires fast switching driver signal that is not required for Class-F PA. Moreover, because of relatively large switch stresses to active devices, Class E amplifiers do not scale gracefully with the trend toward lower-power technology with lower breakdown voltage. For these reasons, Class-F PA has drawn more attention for its easier implementation and better integration with sub-micron CMOS technology. This project proposes a clear cut idea of increasing the efficiency and resolution of ultrasound images by the use of Class F RF Power Amplifier. III.

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HARMONIC TERMINATION OF CLASS F POWER AMPLIFIER

Several design methods have been proposed to enable multi-band operation of various circuits such as impedance transformers low-noise amplifiers (LNAs), mixers, and PAs. The design of multi-band PAs is challenging as stringent requirements on the efficiency, output power, and linearity have to be satisfied. In modern transmitters, harmonic-tuned PAs (e.g., class-F) are preferred to their linear counterparts to achieve higher efficiencies. The harmonic termination network (HTN) should provide open-circuit impedance in the drain of the transistors at oddorder harmonics and the short-circuit impedance at the even-order harmonics for class-F operation. Most of the proposed HTNs for class-F PAs are limited to terminating up to three harmonics. Three general approaches have been developed for multiband operation of PAs [9]. Several PA units can be connected in parallel and optimized for each band, while the band selection is performed using switches or diplexers. Another approach is based on using reconfigurable components, e.g., varactors, in the matching networks. The third approach is based on employing multi-band impedance matching networks. This approach enables concurrent operation of the PA at multiple frequency bands and also avoids the use of switches or reconfigurable elements with control voltages. Achieving multi-band operation for classF PAs is more challenging than linear PAs as the HTN should provide proper impedance terminations for fundamental frequencies as well as their harmonics at several distinct frequency bands. The HTNs reported for concurrent multi-band class-F PAs are mostly limited to two frequency

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IMPLEMENTATION AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of a Class AB that is modified to a Class- F power amplifier.

Fig. 1. (a) Proposed technique for class-F PAs (b) Equivalent HTN.

harmonic

The class-F amplifiers with the nonlinear capacitor are investigated. To validate the voltage waveform shaping by the nonlinear output capacitor and the highly efficient operation of the saturated amplifier, we designed and implemented the amplifier at 2.655 GHz using the Cree GaN HEMT CGH40010 packaged device containing a CGH60015 bare die. Since the commercial device model includes the package effects such as the bonding wires, package leads, and parasitic, the simulation is carried out using the bare-chip model to explore the inherent operation of the saturated amplifier. In addition, the saturated amplifier is compared with the class-F amplifier using the bare-chip model. For the implementation, the packaged device containing the bare chip is employed for simulation and to build the amplifier. Fig.3 shows the simulated efficiencies and power gains of the class-F and saturated amplifiers using the bare-chip model. As expected, the saturated amplifier delivers the improved gain and efficiency characteristic compared to the class-F amplifier. However, the gain compression is not that fast. The efficiency curves for the two PAs are also similar to the previous simulation result. Fig. 4 shows the second harmonic load–pull contours and timedomain voltage and current waveforms of the saturated amplifier using the bare-chip model. During the simulation, the fundamental and third harmonic loads are set to and, respectively. Due to the harmonic generation of the nonlinear output capacitor, the high efficiency is maintained across the wide second harmonic impedance region. Moreover, even if the input power is low, the half sinusoidal voltage waveform is generated, proving the harmonic generation by the nonlinear output capacitor.

termination

IV.

DIGITAL PREDISTORTION TECHNIQUE To reduce the harmonic distortions from the transmitter, a DPD linearization technique is designed and implemented. The DPD system is composed of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), an analog-to-digital converter, and a field programmable gate array (FPGA) where the digital components for the DPD algorithm, the delay synchronization unit, and the lookup table memory are implemented. The DPD linearization is divided into two stages: calibration and evaluation. At the beginning of the calibration stage t0, the DPD FPGA and the DAC send an ideal input sinusoidal calibration signal u(t) to the input, where the output of the amplifier o(t) can be expressed as a Taylor expansion in terms of u(t), i.e., o(t) = A1 ・ u(t) + A2 ・ u(t)2 + A3 ・ u(t)3 +… where A1, A2, and A3 are the first-, second-, and third order gains of the amplifier. As discussed in [15], the output signal of the amplifier is attenuated, fed back into the DPD FPGA, delay adjusted, and then subtracted into the ideal input signal to equalize the input containing the inverse response of the power amplifier nonlinearities. During the evaluation stage, the equalized amplifier output signal becomes oeq(t + tD) =A1 ・ eq(ωt)+A2 ・ eq(2ωt)+A3 ・ eq(3ωt)+… =A1 ・ u(ωt) + residue, where tD is the amplifier group delay, eq(ωt) is the equalized input signal with ω being the angular frequency, and residue is the remaining harmonic components above the fourth order.

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enhanced imaging quality is designed. A current feedback technique, a DPD technique, and a dynamic biasing current modulation technique are used to improve the power amplifier’s bandwidth, output signal linearity, and power efficiency. The HV power amplifier is fabricated using a 1-μm HV process. Measurement results indicate that the linear power amplifier is capable of driving a load of a 100-Ω resistor in parallel with a 300-Pf capacitor with a signal voltage swing up to 180 Vpp and an HD2 as low as −50 dB. Measurement results also show that the amplifier achieves a maximum slew rate of 4 V/ns and a power efficiency of 60%.

Fig.3. Simulated efficiencies and power gains of the class-F and saturated amplifiers using a real device.

REFERENCE 1.

Fig. 4. Simulated and measured output power, drain efficiency, PAE and power gain.

VI. Amplifier

CONCLUSION

Pout (dBm)

Gain (dB)

Efficiency (%)

Class AB

33.89

17.89

40.09

Class F

34.66

17.86

65.17(appro x)

Table I. Comparison between Class AB and Class F Power Amplifier.

8. 9.

Thus an integrated HV power amplifier for medical ultrasound transmitters to be used in advanced ultrasonic imaging modes such as THI for

An Integrated High-Voltage Low-Distortion CurrentFeedback Linear Power Amplifier for Ultrasound Transmitters Using Digital Pre-distortion and Dynamic Current Biasing Techniques Zheng Gao, Ping Gui, Senior Member, IEEE, and Rick Jordanger, IEEE Transactions on circuits and systems—ii: Express briefs, vol. 61, no. 6, June 2014. Analysis and Design of a High Voltage Integrated Class-B Amplifier for Ultra-Sound Transducers, IEEE Transaction on Circuits and system, July, 2014. A Harmonic Termination Technique for Single- and Multi-Band High-Efficiency Class-F MMIC Power Amplifiers, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MICROWAVE THEORY AND TECHNIQUES, VOL. 62, NO. 5, MAY 2014. Characterization of Class-F Power Amplifier With Wide Amplitude and Phase Bandwidth for Outphasing Architecture, IEEE MICROWAVE AND WIRELESS COMPONENTS LETTERS, VOL. 24, NO. 3, MARCH 2014. A Class F-1/F 24-to-31GHz Power Amplifier with 40.7% Peak PAE, 15dBm OP1dB, and 50mW Psat in 0.13μm SiGe BiCMOS, 2014 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, 978-1-4799-09209/14/$31.00 c2014. Digitally Modified Filter-less Receiver for 2D Digital Pre-distortion Of Concurrent Dual-Band Power Amplifiers, 978·1-4799-3869-8/14/$31.00 ®2014. Behaviors of class F and class F¯¹ Amplifiers, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, June 2012. Design of a Class F Power Amplifiers, PIERSONLINE, VOL.6, NO.2, 2010. High efficiency Class F Power Amplifier Design, 07803- 8246- 1/ 04/ $20.00 2004, IEEE.

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STUDY AND IMPLEMENTATION OF 3 STAGE QUANTUM CRYPYOGRAPHY IN OPTICAL NETWORKS Lakshmi Narayanan1, Libi i2 and Srikrishnan3 2

PG Student- M.Tech. Communication system 1,3 Assitant Professor Dept. Electronics and Communication Engineering Dr.MGR Educational and Research Institute, University Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India.

libi.sudeep@rediffmail.com Abstract This paper presents a quantum protocol based on public key cryptography for secure transmission of data over a public channel. The security of the protocol derives from the fact that Alice and Bob each use secret keys in the multiple exchange of the qubit. Unlike the BB84 protocol and its many variants where the qubits are transmitted in only one direction and classical information exchanged thereafter, the communication in the proposed protocol remains quantum in each stage. In the BB84 protocol, each transmitted qubit is in one of four different states; in the proposed protocol, the transmitted qubit can be in any arbitrary state. Disparate and heterogeneous networks will be a growing reality in the future. Additionally, some of the regulatory, national interest, and security requirements might force a geographic boundary between networks.

OBS is considered the most promising form of optical switching technology. OBS can provide a cost effective means of interconnecting heterogeneous networks regardless of the lower-level protocols used in these networks For example, an OBS network is able to transport 10 Gigabit per second Ethernet traffic between two sub-networks without the need to interpret lower level protocols or to make two geographically distant wireless networks to act as an integrated whole without protocol translations. Unfortunately, OBS networks suffer from security vulnerabilities . Although IPSec can be used to secure IP networks, OBS networks can provide security services to traffic that do not necessarily have an IP layer, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Keywords: Optical Network, Quantum computing

INTRODUCTION

The Internet is rapidly becoming a ‘network of networks’ as a logical outcome of the growth of a global information economy where geographically or functionally distinct networks ‘owned’ by functionally distinct networks ‘owned’ by identities can cooperate to provide high speed, high performance, and cost effective service, on demand ,to their customers. We obtain the highest level of interconnection at the optical level. Optical switching technologies can be categorized into optical circuit switching, optical packet switching, and optical burst switching (OBS). Optical circuit switching, also known as lambda switching, can only switch at the wavelength level, and is not suitable for bursty Internet traffic. Optical packet switching which can switch at the packet level with a fine granularity is not practical in the foreseeable future. The two main obstacles are the lack of random access optical buffers, and optical synchronization of the packet header and payload.

Fig.1 Illustration of OBS network This will likely be the case for the majority of traffic served by the OBS layer. For example, native Ethernet traffic can be transported directly over OBS networks. There is no single security measure that can accommodate the security needs of different modalities of traffic that interface with the OBS networks. It is clear that the security of communication within the OBS

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network has to be sufficiently addressed in order for OBS to fulfil its promise. In addition, as computing power increases in the future, classical cryptography and key management schemes based on computational complexity become increasingly susceptible to brute force and cryptanalytic attacks.

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burst header. Data bursts can stay in the optical domain and pass through OBS routers transparently. This eliminates the need for optical buffers in such networks. In addition, since burst headers and data bursts are sent on separate WDM channels, there is no stringent synchronization requirement. Figure 1 illustrates an OBS network interconnecting heterogeneous networks. OBS ingress edge routers are responsible for assembling packets into data bursts according to the egress edge router addresses and possibly quality-of-service (QoS) levels. A burst is formed when it either reaches the predefined maximum burst size, or the burst assembly time reaches the timeout value. Adaptive burst assembly schemes can be used as well. Once a burst is formed, the ingress edge router generates a burst header which is sent on a separate control channel. The burst header specifies the length of the burst, and the offset time between the burst header and the data burst. The data burst is then launched on one of the WDM data channels. When the burst header reaches the OBS core router, it is converted to electronic signal and processed electronically. Since burst headers carry complete information about data bursts, the OBS core router can make efficient scheduling decisions in selecting the outgoing WDM channels for data bursts by simply processing burst headers. If at least one outgoing WDM channel is available for the duration of the burst, a channel will be selected to carry the data burst. Otherwise, the data burst will be dropped. Before the data burst reaches the OBS core router, the optical interconnects in the OBS core router will be configured to route the optical data burst to the desired output channel. The data burst can traverse the OBS core network as an optical entity transparently without encountering O/E/O conversion. When data bursts reach the egress edge router, data bursts will be disassembled back to packets and forwarded to proper network interfaces. Note that burst assembly/disassembly functionality is only provided at OBS edge routers. There is no burst reassembly in the OBS core network. There is a one-to-one correspondence between the burst header and its associated burst. Burst headers are responsible for setting up optical data paths for their data bursts. Data bursts will simply follow the light paths set up by burst headers and are transparent to OBS core routers.

On the other hand, quantum cryptography uses the quantum mechanism to provide security, which is theoretically unbreakable. Given the optical modality Fig. 1. Illustration of optical burst switching (OBS) network.of all information within the OBS network, introducing quantum cryptography in OBS networks appears to be a natural choice. Since the OBS network itself allows a one-to-one correspondence between a header and its associated burst, the same relationship could be exploited to tie the same key to the header and the burst. The quantum-based methodology will allow a secure distribution of keys which could be potentially used to encrypt and decrypt each burst with a unique key. However, it must be stressed that classical cryptography and key distribution schemes will co-exist with quantumbased techniques for a long time. Therefore, we propose an integrated security framework for OBS networks which exploits the strengths of both classical and quantum cryptography schemes, and allows a seamless migration to quantum techniques as as the technology evolves. In addition, by embedding security components in the OBS native router architecture and incorporating quantum techniques for key distribution, the proposed approach can achieve a robust level of security while combining the strengths of both quantum and classical technologies. The integrated framework will make it possible to offer different levels of security for different applications. The proposed security architecture is also consistent with the potential use of quantum data encryption in the future, as one can envisage the possibility of using a quantum technique to encrypt such as by using a Vernam cipher to make the encryption theoretically unbreakable. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides the background of OBS networks. In Section 3, we describe security vulnerabilities in OBS networks, discuss the embedded security services to secure the OBS network.

III. PROPOSED EMBEDDED SECURITY SERVICES AND INTEGRATED SECURE OBS ROUTER ARCHITECTURE

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides the background of OBS networks. In Section 3, we describe security vulnerabilities in OBS networks, discuss the embedded security services to secure the OBS networks, and propose the integrated secure OBS router architecture which allows both classical and quantum cryptography techniques..

3.1.Security vulnerabilities in OBS networks OBS networks show great promise in providing cost effective interconnection solutions to the ever growing Internet. However, OBS network is not free of security concerns . In this section, the need to bring security measures to OBS networks is discussed.

II. OPTICAL BURST SWITCHING (OBS)BACKGROUND

Orphan Bursts: The burst header is responsible for making the WDM channel reservation for its corresponding burst. If the scheduling request is rejected at one of the OBS core routers, there will be no valid optical path set up for the arriving burst. Since the burst has been launched, it is going to arrive at the input of the core router in any case. At this point, the burst is no longer connected with its header and becomes an orphan

In OBS networks, data are aggregated into variable size data bursts, and are transported directly over wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) links. A burst header is generated for each data burst, and is sent on a separate control channel ahead of the data burst. The OBS routers will set up a light path for the duration of the data burst according to the information carried in the

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burst as shown in Figure 2(a). As a result, orphan data bursts can be tapped off by some undesirable party, compromising its security.

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channel can be found for the upcoming burst, the burst is discarded. Note that all scheduling decisions are made by processing burst information carried in burst headers onthe-fly. The OBS core routers have no ability to verify if indeed the scheduled optical burst arrived at the designated time. This can be used to launch a denial-ofservice attack by simply injecting malicious burst headers, causing the core routers to mark WDM channels ‘busy’ and thus blocking real traffic passing through the OBS network. As we can see, an OBS network is under severe security threats. Effective security measures must be implemented in order to make the OBS network a viable solution for the future Internet.

FIG2(a)

3.2 Embedded Security Services In the section, we propose to embed security services which integrate classical and quantum cryptography in the OBS network architecture, as opposed to a layer on top of it. End-to-end data burst confidentiality: In OBS networks, data bursts assembled at the ingress edge router stay in the optical domain in the OBS core network, and are only disassembled at egress edge router. Since data bursts switch transparently across the OBS core routers, the end-to-end confidentiality of data bursts within the OBS domain can be provided by encrypting data bursts at the ingress edge router and decrypting at the egress edge router. An effective encryption scheme for securing data bursts can be implemented using the advanced encryption standard (AES) since it can function at high speed while also providing a high degree of cryptographic strength. The keys can be transferred using either classical techniques, or quantum-based key distribution schemes.

Redirection of Data Bursts: The one-to-one correspondence between the burst header and its associated burst is implied by the offset time carried in the burst header. Such one-to-one correspondence can be violated by injecting a malicious header corresponding to the same burst, as shown in Figure 2(b). As a result, the route and the destination for the burst can be altered by the malicious header, even though a legitimate path has been set up by the authentic header.

FIG:2(b)

Per-hop burst header authentication: Unlike data bursts, which retain optical modality in the core OBS network, burst headers are converted back to an electronic form and are processed at every OBS core router along the path. Therefore, per hop burst header authentication is needed to ensure that no malicious headers are injected into the network. Authenticating burst headers at each hop can mitigate several active attacks such as misdirection of data bursts, replay, and denial of service. Burst integrity with burst retransmission: In OBS networks, when there is no outgoing WDM channel available, the burst will be dropped. In order to ensure the integrity of burst transmission, we propose to implement the following mechanism. In case a burst is dropped due to lack of WDM resources, the burst integrity service will trigger burst drop notification with optional burst retransmission at the ingress edge router. Burst integrity service also ensures that no injection or replay occurs during burst transportation. Such service is dependent upon direct access to the burst transmission control, and can only be implemented as an embedded service.

Replay: Replay attack can be launched by capturing a legitimate but expired burst and transmitting at a later time, or by injecting a expired burst header to cause the optical burst to circulate in the OBS network, delaying its delivery to the final destination. Fig. 2. (a) Example of an orphan burst, (b) example of violation of one-to-one correspondence in redirected burst. Denial of Service: OBS core routers make scheduling decisions based on the availability of their outgoing WDM channels. When a burst is scheduled, the core router will mark the WDM channel ‘busy’ for the duration of the burst. In the case where no ‘idle’ WDM

Integrated classical and quantum cryptography: Classical cryptography relies on the assumption that performing certain mathematical functions is intrinsically hard using available computing resources. However, as computing power will inevitably increase in the future,

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such an assumption is increasingly questionable. In contrast, quantum cryptography, or quantum key distribution (QKD) built upon the principles of quantum mechanics is theoretically unbreakable since observing the state of a transmitted photon will corrupt its state. However, quantum cryptography still faces technical challenges and will not completely replace classical cryptography in the near future. Therefore, we propose to provide a security framework which entails both classical and quantum components.

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Fig 3 Secure edge router architecture: The OBS edge router aggregates traffic into bursts based on destination edge router addresses, and possibly QoS parameters. The basic operation of an edge router can be found in Reference [10]. We extend the basic OBS edge router architecture to support embedded OBS security services as shown in Figure 4. At the point of ingress direction, the assembled bursts and their corresponding headers are encrypted before transmission onto the optical link. At the point of egress direction, the received burst headers are authenticated before their corresponding bursts are decrypted and disassembled. The key management functions include both classical and quantum components. The classical key distribution protocol uses the control channel, while the QKD is via Q-channels. The burst integrity control interacts with the burst assembly process in the burst transmitter and retransmits bursts as necessary.

3.3 INTEGRATED CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY SERVICES Supervisory security protocol: The supervisory protocol manages security in the OBS network on a per user basis. Specifically, it assigns keys to users and stores their hash values and sets up the sequence that needs to be followed to authenticate the users by password authenticated key exchange (PAKE) or some other procedure. Once the users have identified themselves for a session, a session key is generated either by a classical or QKD techniques for different levels of security guarantees. Such a service will affect the burst assembly process, and has to be implemented as an embedded service in the OBS network architecture. The supervisory security protocol is essential for the prevention of man-in-the middle attacks.

Secure core router architecture: OBS core routers electronically process the burst headers sent on the control channel while allowing optical bursts to pass transparently [10]. The integrated secure OBS core router architecture shown in Figure 5 supports Q channels for QKD, as well as classical key distribution protocols. The key manager in the core router architecture is for burst header authentication, and is transparent to the burst encryption key exchanged on an end-to-end basis. The burst scheduling process is only executed when the burst header is authenticated. When bursts cannot be scheduled due to lack of available outgoing WDM channels, the burst scheduling process interacts with the burst integrity control unit to inform the ingress router, and trigger burst retransmission.

3.3 Integrated Secure OBS Router Architecture In this section, we show how to embed the proposed security services as part of the native OBS network architecture. The integrated router architecture to support both classical and quantum cryptography is also presented. sQ-channel for quantum key distribution: The proposed realization of QKD in OBS networks is as follows. As mentioned earlier, OBS preserves the photonic modality of information within its domain. We additionally introduce the constraint of optical passivity within the OBS boundary, specifically, so far as the channel that carries the quantum key Fig. 3. Creating a Q-channel between edge routers. information (called the Q-channel in this paper) is the photon on the Q-channel on an endto-end basis. Since WDM technology is used for interconnecting the edge and the core routers, one (or several) of these channels (wavelengths) would carry the photon whose polarization would convey information regarding the key. Figure 3 shows the creation of a Qchannel between a pair of edge routers. The support for Q-channels in OBS routers is further explained below.

High performance electronics such as field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) can be used to implement the proposed embedded security services in the secure edge and core routers, in much the same way as the burst assembly and burst scheduling blocks are implemented

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We first describe how BB84 quantum cryptography protocol works. Unlike classical states, a quantum state is a superposition of several mutually exclusive component states. The weights of the component states are complex and their squared magnitude represents the probability of obtaining that specific component state. The quantum state X, if it is a two component state, or a qubit, will be written as: |X_ = a |0_ + b |1_ where |a|2 + |b|2 =1. Suppose, Alice and Bob each has two polarizers, with 0/90 degrees and with 45/135 degrees. If Alice and Bob use the same basis frames, then they can communicate different binary states with each transmission. The two bases may be represented two bases may be represented graphically as + and x, respectively. We assume that Alice sends the string 0101100 using the two bases. Since Bob does not know the bases used by Alice, he chooses random bases as shown in Figure 6(b) and makes measurements. Bob sends the chosen basis vectors to Alice who can now estimate as to which measurement bases chosen by Bob were correct; this is communicated by Alice to Bob through a classical communication channel. Bob discards un-matched bits, and the resultant bits . Since only the polarizers at locations 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 correspond to the choices made by Alice, Bob obtains the raw key of sub-string 00100. The steps of BB84 protocol are summarized as follows:

Fig 4.Integrated secure OBS edge router architecture IV.

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY FOR ENHANCED SECURITY

4.1.Quantum Cryptography Background Step 1: Alice randomly chooses polarizers to generate photons and sends them to Bob. Step 2: Bob receives those photons with randomly chosen polarizers. Step 3: Alice and Bob match their bases and discard the data for un-matched polarizers.

It is proven that should the length of a random key equal the length of the message (in other words, if the rate at which the key can be transported equals the data speed), the encryption performed on the message through a simple technique such as the exclusive OR operation will lead to a theoretically unbreakable cipher Since there is no secure way of sending the random key over a public channel, the use of quantum cryptography can be envisaged as matching the performance of the theoretically unbreakable cipher.The first quantum-based scheme for exchanging secure keys was made by Bennett and Brassard in 1984 and it is called the BB84 protocol , which is the most popular QKD method. QKD is effective because of the no-cloning theorem that identical copies of an arbitrary unknown quantum state cannot be created. The BB84 protocol and its variants use qubits (quantum bits) in one pass and this is followed by two additional passes of classical data transmission. If Eve tries to differentiate between two non-orthogonal states, it is not possible to achieve information gain without collapsing the state of at least one of them . Proofs of the security of quantum cryptography are given variously in References pactical issues have been considered in References, and optical implementations are discussed in References . The issue of using attenuated lasers rather than single photon sources is considered .. In short, quantum cryptography is ideally suited for OBS since it is fundamentally based on the quantum properties of a photon. Besides leading to a theoretically unbreakable encryption scheme, the quantum-based encryption technology is well matched for use in an end-to-end photonic environment, which the OBS environment typifies. 4.2. BB84 Quantum Cryptography Protocol and Siphoning Attacks

However, BB84 is susceptible to siphoning attacks. The unconditional security of BB84 and its variants can only be guaranteed if oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s light source emits nothing but single photons. Since this is not possible with current light sources, eavesdropping attacks are possible. In particular, the eavesdropper siphons off individual photons and measures them to determine what the legitimate receiver has obtained. To reduce the probability that pulses will contain multiple photons, current implementations of BB84 and its variants limit the intensity of each pulse and reduce the bit rate at which they are sent. But the weaker a pulse is, the less distance it can travel, and a slower bit rate reduces the speed at which keys can be distributed. The problem of siphoning attack plagues all variants of the BB84 protocol and, therefore, it is essential to have a new quantum cryptography protocol where the siphoned photons do not reveal any information about the transmitted bit. 4.3. 3-Stage Quantum Cryptography Protocol for Secure Optical Burst Switching Quantum cryptography allows one to go beyond the classical paradigm and, therefore, overcome the fundamental limitations that the classical techniques suffer from. However, it also faces new challenges related to performance in the presence of noise and certain limitations of the single-photon generators. Our

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sin θ cos θ is clear from the relation R(θ) ·R(φ) = (cos θ −sin θ) (sin θ cos θ ) x (cos φ −sin φ) ( sin φ cos φ)

proposed integrated secure OBS architecture is fully compatible with the well-known BB84 protocol. However, to deal with the technical challenge of siphoning attack on the practical multi-photon sources in the BB84 protocol, we propose to use a new 3-stage quantum cryptography protocol for the secure OBS framework. Unlike BB84 and its variants, the 3-stage quantum cryptography protocol is immune to siphoning attacks and therefore, multiple photons can be safely used in the quantum key communication. 3-stage quantum cryptography protocol is based on random rotations which can better protect duplicate copies of the photons than in non-single qubit transmissions of the BB84 protocol. This also means that the new protocol can use attenuated pulse lasers rather than single-photon sources in the quantum key exchange, which will potentially extend the transmission distance. The 3-stage quantum cryptography protocol for security services in OBS is described as follows. Consider transferring state X from Alice to Bob. The state X is one of two orthogonal states and it may represent 0 and 1 by prior agreement of the parties. To transmit the quantum cryptographic key, Alice and Bob apply secret transformations UA and UB that are commutative. The protocol can be summarized as follows:

cos (θ + φ) sin(θ + φ)

−sin(θ + φ) cos (θ + φ)

unlike the BB84 protocol which is vulnerable to siphoning of photons in an attenuated pulsed laser system, the proposed 3-stage protocol is immune to such an attack since the actual quantum state of the key is never revealed in the communication. This property is of significant importance in terms of using quantum cryptography in a practical network environment where an optical path can potentially be extended beyond trusted routers.

IMPLEMENTATION:

In this section, we discuss the implementation aspects of the protocol and practical realization of the rotation operators, which are crucial to providing secure data transfers. The section also highlights the use of transformations that apply on multiple qubits simultaneously. One possible implementation is to apply Pauli transformations. They are convenient to use, and entail less precision requirements. The only condition for applying any new transformation in the operation of the three-stage protocol is that the transformations should map into the |0> and |1> states with equal probability so that the requirement for cryptographic security remains intact. The simplest group consist of the basic single-qubit operators X, Y, Z.

Step 1: Alice applies a unitary transformation UA on quantum information X and sends the qubits to Bob. Step 2: Bob applies UB on the received qubits UA(X), which gives UBUA(X) and sends it back to Alice. Step 3: Alice applies U†A (transpose of the complex conjugate of UA) on the received qubits to get U†AUBUA(X) = U†AUAUB(X) = UB(X) (since UA& UB are commutative) Fig. 7. Illustration of recommended quantum cryptography protocol for security services in OBS networks .and UB commutate, UBUA(X) = UAUB(X))

X= 0 1

1 Z= 0

Y 1

0 -i

i 0 0 -1 “QCAD” is a windows-based environment for quantum computing simulation which helps in designing circuits and simulating them. QCAD can simulate the designed the circuits and show results (states Of qubits).

Fig 7.Illustration of cryptography protocol .

recommended

Here Alice is sending four qubits 0110 to Bob.Alice is sending 0 bit in 0 degree polarization & 1 bit in 90 degree polarization. After that each bit undergoes Pauli transformation(x) .Then the status is measured. Bob will use the same polarization & transformation on each bit. After measuring the status it is found that both the measured values are same.

quantum

and sends it back to Bob. Bob then applies U†B on UB(X) to get the quantum information X. The use of random transformations, which Alice and Bob can change from one qubit to another, guarantees that from the perspective of the eavesdropper, the probability of collapsing into |0_ and |1_ states has equal probability, which is desirable for cryptographic security. An example of the proposed new protocol is illustrated in Figure 7. As we can see, while the actual quantum state of X is never exposed on the link, Bob is able to restore X and receives key 0 successfully. The commutative of the rotation operator R(θ) = cos θ −sin θ

The output obtained after doing this in QCAD is shown below. For the same qubits with different polarization for each bit has done and measured the qubits status .The output is shown below.The measured values is different in both the cases.

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communication followed by two hops of communications through classical channels, all three hops of communication in the new protocol are quantum, providing more security; (3) the newprotocol never reveals the actual quantum state of the key on the communication link, allowing the protocol to be extended beyond trusted routers. REFERENCES: 1.

VI.

Conclusion

Practical implementations of BB’84 protocol are not secure with the presence of Eve. In contrast, the proposed implementation of the three-stage protocol allows multiple photons to be used in the secure communication, even with the presence of Eve.This paper has proposed an approach to embed a security framework in the native OBS network architecture, providing a means to secure the future Internet from the ground up. The proposed embedded security architecture allows the most suited classical and quantum cryptography techniques to be deployed, making it possible to offer robust security. While the proposed integrated security framework is fully compatible with the well-known BB84 quantum cryptography protocol, we recommend a new 3-stage quantum cryptography protocol based on random rotations of the polarization vector for the OBS security framework. Compared to the BB84 protocol, the 3-stage quantum cryptography protocol for security services in OBS networks has the following advantages: (1) it does not require single photon sources as required in the BB84 protocol (since practical photon sources produce many photons some of which may be siphoned off to break the protocol). Instead, multiple photons can be used in communication, increasing potential transmission distances, and reducing the protocol’s sensitivity to noise; (2) while the BB84 protocol has one hop quantum

10.

11.

12.

13.

Farahmand F, Jue J. Supporting QoS with look-ahead window contention resolution in optical burst switched networks.ProceedingsoftheIEEEGlobalTeleco mmunications (GLOBECOM), San Francisco, CA, December 2003; 2699-- 2703. Qiao C, Wei W, Liu X. Extending generalized multiprotocol label switching (GMPLS) for polymorphous, agile, and transparent optical networks (PATON). IEEE Communications Magazine 2006; 44(12): 104--114. Phuritatkul J, Ji Y, Zhang Y. Blocking probability of a preemption-based bandwidthallocation scheme for service differentiation in OBS networks. IEEE/OSA Journal of Lightwave Technology 2006. Chen Y, Turner J, Mo P. Optimal burst scheduling in optical burst switched networks. IEEE/OSA Journal of Lightwave Technology 2007. O’Mahony MJ, Politi C, Klonidis D, Nejabati R, Simeonidou D. Future optical networks. IEEE/OSA Journal of Lightwave Technology 2006; 24: 4684--4696. Chen Y, Verma PK. Secure optical burst switching (S-OBS)- --framework and research directions. IEEE Communications Magazine 2008; 46(8): 40--45. Stallings W. Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice (4th edn), Prentice Hall: NJ, 2006, ChenY,TurnerJ,ZhaiZ.Designandimplementatio nofanultra fast pipelined wavelength scheduler for optical burst switching. Photonic Network Communications 2007; 14: 317--326. Wang L, Chen Y, Thaker M. Virtual burst assembly at ingress edge routers---a solution to out-of-order delivery in optical burst switching (OBS) networks. Proceedings of the IEEE Devetak I, Winter A. Relating quantum privacy and quantum coherence: an operational approach. Physical Review Letters 2004;. Kak S. A three-stage quantum cryptography protocol. Foundations of Physics Letters 2006; 19: 293--296. Yuhua Chen,Pramode K Verma. Embedded security frame work for integrated classical & quantum cryptography services in optical burst switching networks Security and communication networks -2009 Sayonha Mandal ,James Sluss. Implementation of secure quantum protocol using multiple photons for communication2012.

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Detection, Recognition and Localization of Partial Discharge Sources Using Acoustic Emission Method 1

DEETI SREEKANTH. Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering-JNTUH college of engineering,Jagityal, Karimnagar investment of the power system. As Partial Discharges (PD) measurement is an efficient tool for diagnosis purposes, there have been extensive efforts to analyze various aspects of PD such as measurement, recognition and localization. PD measurement on transformer in operation is very difficult because it is necessary to make the discrimination between PD and different sources of noise. PD are usually detected acoustically or electrically. The system for acoustic measurement cannot be calibrated because in its way the acoustic wave passes through different barriers with various acoustic impedances and is exposed to the reflection phenomenon. The acoustic method is used only for monitoring and localization. In contrast, the electric methods offer both a determination of the apparent charge and PD localization. The acoustic emission method, which is widely used in: (i) diagnostics of cutting tools and machine cutting process, (ii) machinery and civil structures condition assessment, (iii) fatigue and fracture materials research, (iv) detection of material defects, (v) orogenic and earthquake prediction research, (vi) rockbursts prediction in deep mines and (vii) in chemical reactions and phase transitions research. At present, there are a few methods, which allow to monitor the development of partial discharges, such as: DGA - Dissolved Gas in oil Analysis, UHF - Ultra High Frequency and AE -Acoustic Emission. Each method is characterized by certain advantages and disadvantages, which were summarized in Table 1. From the listed methods, the most applicable and least expensive seems to be the AE method. The main advantages of the AE method are: (i) tests can be taken when the transformer is online (during applied voltage or induced voltage tests), (ii) simple test procedure, (iii) susceptibility to external electrical disturbances is relatively low, and (iv) possibility of partial discharge recognition, location and on-line monitoring (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers [IEEE], 2007; Kuffel et al., 2000; Lundgaard, 1992a, 1992b; Markalous et al., 2003). In order to develop and optimize the acoustic emission for power transformer diagnostics, the author followed the approach outlined below: selection of optimal AE signal processing methods and parameters for efficient PD detection and recognition, laboratory research of PD’s parameters generated in properly prepared models of oil/paper insulating systems (imitating real PD sources in power transformers),

 Abstract-Partial discharge (PD) can be detected using acoustic emission (AE) method to increase the detection threshold and to improve the performance of on-line measurement of PD in noise environment. The PD emitted energy as electromagnetic emission, acoustic emission and ozone and nitrous oxide gases. PD source localization supports a better diagnosis and the decrease of the repair time. The acoustic emission (AE) is a group of phenomena involving generation of transient elastic (acoustic or vibro-acoustic) waves, resulting from liberation of intermolecular bond energy (deformation, cracking, phase transitions). This method is also applied in electrical power engineering for detection and location of partial discharge (PD) sources in insulationsystem of large power transformers andGIS/GIL(Gas insulated substation).The systematic evaluation of transformer insulation systems has become a necessity in order to avoid the sudden outages of the power transformers that generate great financial losses. Partial discharge (PD) measurement brings objective information on the nature and risk degree of transformer faults.The goal of this research work is the location of the source in order to assess the condition of paper-oil insulation systems. The PD is measured with at least one acoustic sensor (ultrasonic PZT) and one electric sensor . The paper presents a PD source localization method that combines the results of the PD electrical measurement with the ones of the PD acoustic measurement.

Index Terms—Partial discharges(PD), electrical and acoustic combined detection, pattern recognition, power transformers, diagnosis.

1.INTRODUCTION

artial discharges (PD) are stochastic electric phenomena that cause a large amount of small shortcoming of the isolation. These discharges are generated inside the isolation system and are of small magnitude (pC) [1]-[3]. PD are present in the transformers due to the gas dissolved in the oil, the humidity and other faults inside the equipment. PD cannot be avoided since the transformer is in service, but the problem appears when PD are generated by a localized fault in the isolation or are very frequent. These are signs of an imminent failure of the power equipment. Thus, the detection and location of the PD is an important tool of diagnosis. Power transformers are very expensive and form a high percentage of the

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completion and developing of PD-patterns database Possibilities

METHODS UHF

DGA

Detection

yes

Detection sensitivity

High(~10p C, depending on time of PD activity) No

High(~1-10pC, depending on distance and location of the PD source )

Moderate(>300 pC, depending on location of the PD source )

Limited

yes

Location

Limited

yes

Installation difficulty

Moderate (transform er must be turned off)

Moderate(through oil valve,transformer under load/ through dielectric window, transformer must be turned off and opened)

Low( transformer under load)

Limited by number of valves or dielectric windows

Open structure, typically 1-16

Intensity measurement Identification

sensors

1 (due to high costs)

based on laboratory results and selected parameters, verification tests on real power transformers. Table 1. The comparison of the PD monitoring methods for large power transformers

2. AE measurement system for partial discharge detection A typical measurement system for partial discharges detection based on acoustic emission method is composed of: (i) piezoelectric sensors, (ii) preamplifiers, (iii) signal conditioning unit, (iv) signal acquisition unit and (v) specialized software for digital signal processing. The most advanced systems dedicated for power transformer on-line monitoring are additionally adjusted to work in difficult weather conditions (embedded climate control unit, waterproof chassis/enclosure) and they are equipped with an expert system software for automatic PD detection and recognition. The system for power transformer online monitoring, which was in detail described in (Sikorski&Walczak, 2010), was presented in Fig 1.

Fig.1. system for large power transformer online monitoring based on AE method.

The choice of the optimal type of acoustic emission sensor for PD detection is difficult, because it involves the need for finding a compromise between the required sensitivity and bandwidth. Some experts recommend the use of narrowband sensors, emphasizing their high sensitivity in the lower frequencies (20-100 kHz) (Bengtsson&Jรถnsson, 1997). These sensors provide high efficiency of detection of surface discharges (generating acoustic emission signals with frequencies from 20 to 110 kHz), which generally have high energy and can cause accelerated degradation of the insulation system. In turn, other experts suggest the choice of broadband transducers (up to 1 MHz) with the resonance frequency in the range from 60 kHz to 150 kHz .Theoretically, they enable the detection of all types of partial discharges that may occur in transformers with oil/paper

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insulation. The only disadvantage of this solution is smaller sensitivity of surface discharge detection. A fundamental importance in the detection of partial discharges in a power transformer is a proper acoustic coupling between the sensor and the surface of the tank (American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM], 2007). For this purpose one can use silicone grease or gel dedicated for ultrasonic applications. A lack of direct contact of acoustic sensor with the tank causes a strong attenuation of the AE amplitude signal, and thus a strong decrease in sensitivity of partial discharges detection. A practical solution facilitating the mounting of AE sensor to the tank wall with a constant force is the use of special handles equipped with permanent magnets (Fig. 2).

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discharge source and AE sensor (Sikorski et al., 2007c). The acoustic field inside the tank is very complex due to wave reflection and diffraction in different materials(pressboard, copper, pressboard, paper, oil). The acoustic wave propagates in materials, from which the transformer is made, with different velocity: 1413 m/s in transformer oil, 1500 m/s in impregnated pressboard, 3570 m/s in copper and 5100 m/s in steel. The velocity of the AE wave propagation in oil strongly depends on its temperature. When the oil temperature equals 20ºC the velocity of wave propagation amounts to 1413 m/s. For higher oil temperatures the velocity falls and equals: 1300 m/s by 50ºC, 1200 m/s by 80ºC and 1100 m/s by 110ºC. The velocity in metal is greater than in oil, therefore very often the wave, which most of its way travels in tank wall (structure-borne path), arrives at the sensor first. Afterwards the sensor registers the wave, which propagated in oil slowly (direct acoustic path). The problem of structure-borne waves may be minimized by placing the acoustic sensor inside the tank. In order to achieve this goal, hydrophones or optical fibre sensors are used (IEEE, 2007; Lundgaard, 1992a, 1992b). The model of AE waves propagation in power transformer tank and its influence on signal acquisition outcomes was presented in Fig. 3.

(a)

Fig.3. The propagation of AE waves in power transformer tank.

The correct interpretation of measurement results may be made difficult by disturbances during on-site PD detection. The main sources of the disturbances are: switching of on-load tap changer, thermal faults of transformer's active part, high-voltage switchgear operations near the investigated transformer, environmental noises (thunderstorms, rain, wind), coremagnetostriction noise (Barkhausen effect), loose shielding connection in transformer tank. In order to interpret the results of the AE method correctly, mostly the comparative analysis with additional parameters of the transformer during the test,

(b) Fig.2. General view of the AE sensor’s water proof enclosure with permanent magnets (a); typical AE sensors placement on transformer tank (b).

3. Possibilities and limits of acoustic emission in power transformer diagnostics In case of large power transformers the main problem is an environmental heterogeneity between partial

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such as: load, voltage, oil/windings temperature, information on time and number of switching operations of onloadtap changer and cooling fans etc., is conducted. However the best results are achieved by simultaneous use of the AE and electrical method. The conventional electrical PD detectors conformable with IEC-60270 standard are not suitable for on-site measurement (due to corona discharges and other electrical disturbances), but it is possible to use the UHF probe inside the transformer tank installed through a drain valve or Rogowski coil (HFCT/RFCT sensors as well) installed on the transformer tank ground wire (IEEE, 2007). 4. Selected methods of AE signals processing The first stage of the research was related to the selection of signal processing methods which would support both the detection and recognition of PDs. The parameters used for software selection included immunity to disturbances and wide- and narrow-band noises, minimum computing time, and overall efficiency. Based on results of numerous computer simulations anda widespread literature study, highresolutionspectral analysis (HRSA) and joint timefrequency analysis (JTFA) were chosen as the optimum methods for establishing the AE-based PD-patterns (Antoniadis & Oppenheim,1995; Holschneider, 1998; Kia et al., 2007; Lobos et al., 2000, 2001; Ma et al., 2002; Shim et al., 2000; Yang & Judd, 2003; Zhang et al., 2003). 4.1 High-resolution spectral analysis (HRSA) High-resolution spectral analysis methods, also known as subspace methods, generate the frequency component estimates for a signal based on eigenanalysis or eigendecomposition of the correlation matrix (Hayes, 1996; Marple, 1987). These methods exploit the noise subspace to estimate unknown frequency parameters of a random process and are very effective in the detection of sinusoids (a PD signal can be approximated as an exponentially attenuated sinusoidal oscillation) buried in noise, especially when the signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) are low. This property makes the analysis method particularly attractive for efficient detection of PD signals recorded under conditions of strong external disturbances. Due to this fact, the detection of internal discharges occurring in power transformer in which the acoustic signal is damped by pressboard barriers is also possible. It is worth mentioning that such efficient detection with the use of classic Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is not possible. Among available subspace methods Multiple Signal Classification (MUSIC) was chosen (Schmidt, 1986). The MUSIC method very precisely identifies harmonic components .This property is illustrated below by the results of simulation in which two waveforms were used (Fig. 4). The first waveform analysed (Fig. 4a) was registered in an electrode system, which enabled the generation of different types of multisource discharges. In this case PD in an internal gas void and surface discharges were generated simultaneously (at ~30 mV noise level). The second

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waveform analysed (Fig. 4b) has the same PD signal, but it is buried in additive white Gaussian noise. One can see that the MUSIC method, independent of the noise level, efficiently detects all the dominant harmonic components (in this case ~100 kHz and ~280 kHz). Fast Fourier Transform allows detection of PD signals only in the absence of other noise sources, because all the noise components are also visible in the spectrum. Therefore, in a case of measurements under industrial conditions (e.g. in power substation), it is advantageous to replace the classic FFT analysis with the MUSIC algorithm, or similar highresolution spectral method. This results in enhanced PD detection sensitivity and fault recognition efficiency.

(a)

(b)

Fig.4.Time waveform, Continuous Wavelet transform (CWT)spectrogram, normalized FFT spectrum and normalized MUSIC spectrum, determined for:a) PD pulses b) PD pulses buried in additive with Gaussian noise.

4.2 Joint Time-Frequency Analysis (JTFA) Joint Time-Frequency Analysis is also an effective tool for acoustic emission signal processing (Boczar&Zmarzly, 2004). The application of JTFA allows one not only to observe the changes in amplitude spectrum, but also makes possible detecting in investigated signal narrow-band noises and disturbances. A given type of PD can be described as a three dimensional image (time-frequency-amplitude). For joint time-frequency analysis of acoustic emission signals originating from partial discharges, the Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) was chosen. 5. Partial discharges recorded in oil-paper insulation models Properly planed and performed investigations conducted on models are important sources of information on

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electrical withstand of parts of transformer insulation, such as coil-to-coil insulation, clearance to core, space at the bushings etc. But if the conducted investigations should have a cognitive and scientific value, it is necessary to fulfil some basic postulates, such as: the construction of models should have the same material structure, shape and proportional geometrical dimensions as the part of the insulation that is modelled; it should reproduce the same mechanism of initiation and development of partial discharges, the construction of models should reproduce real distribution of electric field, the oil in the model should have similar composition as the real one – content of water, dissolved gases and solid impurities.The model investigations performed with utilizing the above mentioned conditions, allowed to register the waveforms of AE signals generated by partial discharges typical for oil/paper insulation system of a power transformer (Bengtsson&Jönsson, 1997; Boczar, 2002; Lundgaard, 2000; Elborki et al., 2002; Harrold, 1975; Massingue et al., 2006) (Table 2). PD1

PD2

Surface discharges in non-uniform electric field with large normal component of field strength vector

PD4

Partial discharges in internal gas void

PD5 PD6

Partial discharges in gas bubbles in oil Pressboard penetrating discharges (puncture)

PD7

Partial discharges from a needle in oil (point-to-plane electrode system)

PD8

Partial discharges from a needle on free potential in oil

PD9

Partial discharges in oil wedge at the oil-pressboardelectrode triple junction Turn-to-turn insulation discharges (interturn)

PD10

The location of partial discharges with the use of acoustic emission method may be conducted by: (i) measurement of AE pulses amplitude in different distances from PD source (auscultatory method), or (ii) AE pulses arrival timings at sensors fixed in various places of the transformer tank (triangulation method) (Markalous et al., 2008). The auscultatory method applied in this investigation is the easiest way to locate the PD sources (IEEE, 2007). Despite the fact that its accuracy is lower than that of triangulation method’s, it may be very efficient and useful in cases, when (i) the measurement time is limited by the time of voltage tests, (ii) during the voltage test the phase with PD source has been detected with the use of wideband electrical method, (iii) acoustic measurement is conducted with one-channel-setup, (iv) the detail construction of the investigated transformer is known, (v) the investigated transformer is relatively small.To avoid the measurement errors and increase the PD amplitude measurement accuracy, the measurement channel calibration was conducted each time after fixing the sensor on the tank wall. 7. Conclusions The example of efficient detection and recognition of partial discharge sources using acoustic emission method with advanced signal processing was presented in the chapter. High-resolution Multiple Signal Classification (MUSIC) method, chosen for the frequency analysis, effectively detects in registered AE signal (also buried in noise) frequency components corresponding to partial discharges. In turn, joint timefrequency analysis using Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) allows to detect multi-source discharges of different types, as well as narrowband noises. On the basis of selected digital signal processing methods and complex model research, the database with PD-Patterns was prepared. An important conclusion of this model research is that each of the investigated insulation defects (PD sources) generates repeatable and characteristic (unique) acoustic emission signals. Moreover, it was shown that the shape of PD-Patterns strongly depends on the type of the applied sensor. Due to that, a high sensitivity of measurement with a possibility of detecting all PD types is combined.The measurements performed in the power transformer factory showed that PD-patterns acquired during a laboratory research can be successfully employed in detection and recognition of discharges occurring in real power transformers.PD source localization is of main concern in the application of acoustic emission. 8. References 1.Antoniadis, A. & Oppenheim, G. (1995). Wavelets and Statistics, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 9780387945644, New York, USA 2.ASTM E650-97 (2007). Standard Guide for Mounting Piezoelectric Acoustic Emission Sensors, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2007 3.Bengtsson, T. &Jönsson, B. (1997). Transformer PD diagnosis using acoustic emission technique, 10th

Surface discharges in uniform electric field, where the normal component of field strength vector is insignificant Surface discharges in moderate non-uniform electric field with small normal component of field strength vector

PD3

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Table.2. The investigated types of partial discharges. During the laboratory research the influence of some factors on AE signals frequencyparameters was investigated. The factors, among other things, were: (i) moisture content, (ii) aging degree of pressboard/paper samples, (iii) test voltage polarity, (iv) electrode and insulation samples geometry, as well as (v) type of applied AE sensor (narrow/wideband) (Sikorski, 2006). Furthermore, the pressboard barriers influence on AE attenuation effects and their frequency parameters was examined (Sikorski et al., 2007b). 6. Partial discharge detection, recognition and location – acoustic emission method

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Evasive Security Using ACLs on Threads Using firewall-like rules to prevent malware Saifur Rahman Mohsin Executive Raaj Construction Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India mohsin92@me.com

Abstractâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; This document describes a new architecture for security systems, which greatly improves system performance and at the same time enforces veritable security to it. Conventional anti-virus systems that exist in the market today consume massive amount of memory (both physical as well as permanent) and cannot be relied upon by power users who need to tap into the full potential of their devices. Also, these systems cannot be employed in thin clients, which have limitations in quality and capacity of hardware. The document describes a better architecture for the detection and prevention of malware with an escalated improvement in overall performance of the system. It also discusses new concepts that may be ported into existing security systems to improve the efficiency of those systems.

!! !

confidentiality, integrity or availability of a system. Regardless of whether a given malware is a virus, worm, or Trojan, it always requires a thread to execute. Like any program, it consists of several code statements and also has a single point of entry to execute. This means that like any program, a virus requests the operating system for memory and processor cycles (as shown in Fig. 1) to execute. It also contains a process table and is associated with a Process ID (pid) and handle ID.

Index Termsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Computer Security, Just-in-time Detection, Malware Prevention, Security Architecture

I. INTRODUCTION Antivirus systems have been in use for a long time now since the numbers of virus has been increasing in the past few years. Different anti-virus systems provide a variety of distinctive features that offer to make systems highly secure from malware. However, the fundamental way they function is always consistent. Conventional anti-viruses scan recursively burrowing into file systems as well as connected peripherals identifying files that contain malware signatures either in plain text or obfuscated formats. The problem is that this process is a high energy consuming process and also requires a bulk of memory in order to function. These systems also require to be updated frequently to update the malware definitions (i.e. the signatures) of new malware that are created every hour. This paper describes a more efficient architecture to overcome the problems of the existing conventional systems. This is done by looking at malware in their most primitive form to understand the basic process that any malware involves itself in--from hooking itself into the operating system to executing stealthily. We also look at as how anti-virus systems detect these malicious files so that we can create a more intuitive and real-time system that handles malware effectively before it attacks the system.

Fig. 1. How a process begins to execute

Most viruses are targeted towards a certain kind of resource. The intended resource may range from private information, confidential data, illegal use of computational power, or even to serve ads (in case of adware). The code that is written in a virus program must be well hidden from the anti-virus system as well as other programmers who might reverse engineer the code for their own deeds. A good virus therefore is encrypted in a format that makes it hard for anti-virus systems to neither detect nor reverse engineering to be feasible. This process is known as obfuscation and most good viruses that are existent today are well obfuscated.

In addition to obfuscation, most viruses are attached to legitimate files so that they are more concealed. There is a higher chance of a virus being installed as a sub component of an infected program rather than as an individual program itself. This ensures that the virus program does not appear to be malicious thereby preventing anti-virus (AV) systems to flag it. Such a program that is highly invisible to an AV is considered to be Fully UnDetectable (FUD). There are several FUD viruses in existence today. These are no longer just

II. HOW VIRUSES WORK Malware come in many different forms. It ranges from commons viruses, to malicious scripts, worms, Trojans, rootkits, etc. A virus is anything that can cause havoc to the

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targeted towards computers but are aimed towards national infrastructure like power grids, nuclear plants, automation plants, etc. Therefore, the conventional AV systems do not provide the necessary security that is required and hence we must look for better solutions. Our goal is to develop such a system and which detects and informs the end user about the existence of these new threads (or processes) which the user never intended to execute. A user may decide whether he really wants to execute a given process and the system can mark these choices as trusted processes (in a similar fashion as websites are marked as trusted by firewalls and browsers). Everything else can be blocked (these will include the threads created by malicious programs), as it seems as an unnecessary overhead for the system to execute these processes regardless of whether these are malicious or not.

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website / hostname must be blocked or allowed. Such a list specifies the limitation of the access and is known as an Access Control List (ACL). We implement this concept into anti-virus detection systems to realize a more effective architecture. The efficiency of this lies in the fact that there is no scanning mechanism to search for viruses. Instead, the detection is done just at the moment a program requests the OS (As shown in Fig. 2) to provide resources for it. This means that we are performing a Just-In-Time Detection (JITD) and that is why this architecture is more effective compared to the existing ones that are in use today.

III. HOW ANTI-VIRUS SOFTWARE WORKS There are several AVs available in the market today. A lot of them offer special features, which have a certain edge over other systems. Regardless of these features, a typical AV system consists of few common components – A database of virus signatures, a scanner and few auxiliary modules to make it easy for the user to customize the way the AV system behaves. A definition repository (a file or database) contains several code signatures that may be used to identify if a file is infected / infectious. These signatures need to be frequently updated as time progresses and new viruses are manufactured every hour. This becomes an overhead to the user to update the system every now and then. Also, the AV system tends to become larger and larger as time progresses due to the vastness of the definition file and the enormity of the new signatures that keep getting added. To complicate this further, the AV system itself contains a scanner module, which sweeps through the file system, testing each file if it may contain plain text or obfuscated forms of the virus signature. The entire search process requires a substantial amount of memory and slows down the overall performance of the system. It has been observed that a system is much faster when an AV system is not present than otherwise. Thus, it is possible to conclude that an anti-virus system, which uses the conventional architecture, cannot be a realtime system and the success rate and efficiency depends on the number of virus signatures present as well as the kind of obfuscation algorithms that it can detect. Our goal is to describe a better architecture that prevents this overhead and also serves a higher success rate. Such a system is described in the next section.

Fig. 2. How the proposed system intervenes process startup

In order to increase the efficiency much further, we need not rescan a process if it has already been scanned. However, this causes a risk because a user may decide to update the clean file with a malicious one. For this reason, we take the hash of the file contents and store it in the ACL along with the process name. There is no need to store the path as the hash ensures that a particular file is always uniquely identified. Every time the process starts our system will ensure that the present hash is identical to the stored hash in ACL. If so, it will not scan the file. If not, it should scan the file as it has been altered. This technique is highly effective because it is extremely difficult even for any skilled programmer to write a malware program whose hash value exactly coincides with an existing program. V. ACCESS CONTROL LISTS ACLs have been in use in operating systems for decades. They are generally used to specify file rights to provide authority for who has access to a particular file. An ACL may be a simple text file that contains mappings of process names along with their permissions and hashes. Processes that start are first checked as to whether an entry for the process exists in the ACL. If it does, then it is checked whether it has been modified using the computed hash. If it does not match, the anti-malware system is invoked to process the initiated process and determine whether it is safe to execute or not. We use a standard hash like MD5 or SHA-1 to uniquely identify the file. The reason being that some files tend to change when a user updates the file by replacing it. The architecture explained her strongly enforces that files /

IV. THE IMPROVED ARCHITECTURE It has already been described in Section II that any malware requires a space in the process table in order to run and therefore has an entry point. Exploiting this fact, we can design an architecture that ensures that each process that starts must be filtered using a set of rules that can be pre-defined as well as user-defined. This is very much alike to the system used by “firewalls”--where a list is used to decide whether a

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programs need not be processed unless its data has been modified. Hence, by using a computed hash we can easily detect changes.

Fig. 4. Memory usage statistics of the proposed system against other applications—browser and another AV system

initiation. By suspending the thread until the process completes, it was possible to prevent the system to get infected in processing time itself. Also, it was identified that this architecture is self-preserving as it prevented even the ACLs to be directly modified by a process. The implementation was targeted towards the Windows operating system, as it is the most widely used system and has more viruses when compared to other systems. An analysis was also taken (As shown in Fig. 4) which determined that our system was highly efficient in memory consumption as it was comparatively nothing to other AV systems or even other programs. Hence, it was determined that this architecture is the best approach for malware prevention as it saves a lot of resources.

Fig. 3. How the proposed system blocks malicious processes

An ACL therefore contains program names, their computed hashes and the access levels. If upon execution of a new process, the process exists in ACL and is marked as a blocked process then the system prevents the execution of the process (See Fig. 3) and this prevents malicious code from infecting the system. VI. JUST-IN-TIME DETECTION It has already been well explained in Section III that most AVs are pretty slow. They not only take a lot of time to run but also consumes a large amount of physical memory. This causes a lot of lag in other programs and slows down the overall performance of the system. By detecting the processes exactly at the time of their execution, we remove the need for a scanner to traverse through the hard drives as well as connected peripherals. It enables the program to run at a very low memory cost and high efficiency with momentary bursts of memory usage when a process is caught. We call this technique as Just-in-time detection simply because it detects just before the time of execution. This means that it is absolutely allowed for a malicious file to sit in a hard drive as long as it’s not harmful. The moment it is executed, our system kicks in to prevent it from causing harm to the system.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

VII. IMPLEMENTATION Using C# an implementation was made using the Diagnosis namespace in the .NET framework to intercept process

Fred B. Schneider, Cornell University “Least Privilege and More” [IEEE Computer Society 1540-7993/03, 2003]. "Managing Authorization and Access Control". Microsoft Technet. 2005-11-03. Retrieved 2013-04-08. Cynthia E. Irvine, Naval Postgraduate School “Teaching Constructive Security” [IEEE Computer Society 1540-7993/03, 2003 under Security & Privacy]. "Access Control Lists". MSDN Library. 2012-10-26. Retrieved 2013-04-08. Elias Levy, Architect & former CTO, Symantec “Approaching Zero” [IEEE Computer Society 1540-7993, 2003 under Attack Trends, 2004].

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BONE QUALITY ASSESSMENT USING MEMS ACCELEROMETER MR.G.MANIKANDAN 1 , MR. M. SURESH 2, K.ANURADHA3 , SIJO MATHEW4 1,2

Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kodaikanal Institute of Technology,Tamilnadu, India 3 Assistant Professor, Department of Computer science and Engineering, Kodaikanal Institute of Technology,Tamilnadu, India 4 Student, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kodaikanal Institute of Technology,Tamilnadu, India

mrg.manikandan@gmail.com,2suresh.bnec@gmail.com,3akadarkarai@yahoo.com, 4 sijomathew@hotmail.com ABSTRACT Bone Mineral Density (BMD) is the

collected the data from ten subjects with

amount of mineral per square centimeter of

two different age groups and sex and

bone.

found that the acceleration value obtained

Osteoporosis is defined

as a

systemic skeletal disease characterized by

low bone mass and micro architectural

accelerometer of above 35 age is higher

deterioration of bone tissue, with a

compared with the subjects below 35 years

consequent increase in bone fragility and

old. From the acquired and analyzed data,

susceptibility to fracture The prime motive

we found there is a significant change

of our work is to produce a cost effective

exists among the different age groups.

medical instrument of the Bone Mineral Density

(BMD).The

the

y-axis

second

MEMS

1. INTRODUCTION

developed

Bone quality is a

instrumentation for assessing bone quality

composite of

utilizes the principle of impulse response

properties that make bone resist fracture

method.

such as its micro architecture accumulated

Our device

consists of an

automated hammer which knocks in the

microscopic

damage

the

quality

medial side of the proximal tibia. The

collagen mineral crystal size and bone

stress wave is propagated through the bone

turnover. The most prevalent sequence is

and it is picked up by two triaxial MEMS

compression fractures of the vertebral

accelerometers. Using this setup

the

bodies and fractures of the ribs, proximal

acceleration magnitude has been measured

femur (hip), humerus and distal radius.

for various subjects and the corresponding

These fractures lead to deformity, loss of

signals were obtained. The acquired

mobility, independence and even death.

signals are fed into the computer. We have

With increasing population of elderly

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women, the assessment and treatment of

switches. When the hammer hits the

osteoporosis has become an important

Medialisis Condolosis region, the impulse

problem in clinical gynecology. Bone

response travels through the bone of the

mineral

aging,

leg. The MEMS accelerometers are placed

menopause, and disuse. The decrease in

below the lower portion of the leg. The

biomechanical strength of bone with age is

experiment has been carried out for 10

much more pronounced than the loss of

women and men (age 40-50 years) and

bone mass due to perforations during the

from men under the age group of 15-20

remodelling process [3].

years.

loss

occurs

with

BMD measurements in conjunction

Informed consent was obtained from

with information about the structure and

all the subjects and they were found to be

elastic properties of bone will result in a

in good health from clinical evaluation and

good

mechanical

based on the answers to questionnaire. The

condition and susceptibility to fracture.

subjects were excluded from the study if

Moreover, during accidental impact, our

any of the mechanical strength of the

bones arc subjected to high strain rate

following

loading. Since bone is a viscoelastic

inactivity or bed rest longer than 4 weeks

material [4], its response to this type of

within the past 12 months, subjects with

loading cannot be assumed to be the same

fragility and atraumatic fractures, medical

as predicted by a static analysis. Therefore,

conditions

dynamic

metabolism, and the subjects who are

characteristics of bone under normal and

taking oral contraceptives or undergoing

diseased state in order to understand its

hormone replacement therapy. The stress

response

waves are generated by the impact of

condition

[5].

indication

important

its

study

realistic

The

change

loading in

conditions

affecting

were

normal

present:

bone

Peak

hammer on the medial side of the proximal

acceleration magnitude with age is also

tibia at a distance of 4 cm from medial

evaluated.

condoyle.

The

impact

force

applied

through impulse hammer is standardized

2. MATERIALS AND METHOD

between 2-2.5N for each impact which is The automated hammer that runs by the

motor

hits

the

Medialisis

the

leg.

Condolosis

region

automated

hammer

controlled

automatically done. The data is acquired into a computer after digitization using

The

ADC through software

at a sampling

frequency of 100 KHZ per channel. The

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data is sampled for 5 seconds in which 4

acquiring

impulses are applied and corresponding

generating signals

response

data

are

and

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displaying

data

and

acquired.USB-1208

Series modules are low-cost, PC-based analog

and

TracerDAQ速

digital

I/O

software

devices.

included

for

Schematic block diagram of the hardware setup

Camera view of the hardware setup

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3. RESULTS In

this

study,

ten

subjects

Sl.n o

Subjects Details

Accelero meter-1 output (Max) 3.0986

Accelero meter-2 output (Max) 1.4351

Men (15-20)

Women (15-20)

1.7428

0.9744

Men (45-50)

2.5747

1.0590

Men (Dia.-4550) Women (45-50)

1.6174

1.5279

2.0781

1.1746

Women (Dia.4550)

3.2633

0.5723

had

participated with different age group such as below 35 and above 35 age group. The following parameters are made constant for all the subjects at the time of acquisition of reading. 

Sampling rate: 0.15



Sampling count: 230



Sampling interval: 0.01

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Tabulation A typical impulse response of tibia of

It was found that the variation is observed

normal subject

more clearly in the Y-axis than X-axis

From the results obtained, we can conclude

that the

acceleration

since the vibration from the automated

value

hammer is transmitted vertically through

obtained in terms of mille volts in channel

the bone than in horizontal direction.

2 (Y-Axis of second accelerometer) is

This data obtained from ten

found to be high in Case of the above 35

subjects is a preliminary work where for

age group compared to the below 35 age

the determination of the abnormality, more

group. In general, four channels of the

number of data has to be collected from

DAQ card are used to acquire the X, Y

subjects. As a future work, the samples

axes

need to be obtained from around 50

reading

accelerometer.

from The

the

Channel

MEMS 0,

and

subjects of varying age group and the

Channel 1 acquires X, Y axis of first

statistical analysis to be done. Then the

MEMS accelerometer and Channel 2 and

output will highly reliable and can be used

Channel 3 acquires the X, Y axis reading

also as a diagnosing tool for bone quality

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Biological Evolution, Plenum Press, New

4. CONCLUSION The impulse response technique for

York, 1991

monitoring the stress wave propagation in tibia bone has been effectively used in the

[4] R.S. Lakes and S. Saha, ―Long term

assessment of bone quality. The technique

torsional creep in compact bone. Biomech.

gives a better understanding of the

Engng. 102, 178- 180, 1980.

dynamic behaviour of bone under impact force. The study is non-invasive, reliable,

[5I R.R. Pelker and S. Saha, ―Stress wave

easy to operate, inexpensive and has

propagation in bone. Biomechanics, 18,

diagnostic potential in the assessment of

745-753, 1983.

bone quality. For this careful analysis and comparison of the data obtained from the

[6] Evaluation and Assessment of

subjects has to be done for distinguishing

Osteoporosis by Quantitative Ultrasound

osteoporotic and diabetic conditions. If

(Kaufman and Einhorn, 1993

this is achieved, our novel diagnostic tool [7] S. Cheng, J. Timonen and H.

will be a multi-purpose diagnosing tool

Suomincn ―Elastic wave propagation in

which will be capable of diagnosing bone

bone

quality as well as diabetes non-invasively.\

vivo:

methodology

Biomechanics 28,471-478, 1995 6. REFERENCES [8] P.D. Delinas, A. Schlemmer, E. [1]

World

International

Health

Gineyts, B. Riis and C.Christiansen (1991)

Organization:

Classification

―Urinary excretion of pyridinoline cross

links correlates with b tic turnover

Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps.

measured on iliac crest biopsy in patients

WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, 1980.

with vertebral osteoporosis, J. of Bone Min. Res., 6,639-644, 1991

[2] N. Dorothy, R. Molloy and M. Kleerekoper, ―Prevalence of osteoporosis

[9] J. A. McGowan ―Osteoporosis:

in women referred for bone density testing,

assessment of bone loss and remodeling,

J. Clin. Densitometer, 1, 5- 11, 1998.

Aging

Clinical

and

Experimental

Research, 5, 81-93, 1993.

[3] Li. Mosekilde, Bone remodeling, pp.343-356, in Le Mosekilde and Li Mosekilde (Ed.) Complexity Chaos and

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[10] M.S. Holi and S. Radhakrishnan, â&#x20AC;&#x2022;Comparison of ultrasound and dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) methods in estimation of low bone mass for the assessment of osteoporosis fracture risk in Indian men and women, Acta of Bioeng. And Biomech. 4, 396-397, 2002.

[11] In vivo Assessment of Osteoporosis by Impulse Response and Stress Wave Propagation Technique (M.S.Holi, 2003) .

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ALTERNATE ENERGY IN THE TRACTIONS L.SARAVANAN#, P.SIVA SANKARI*, J.P.ANISH JABIN@ #*@

Department of Electrical and Electronics Jayaram College of Engineering and Technology, Trichy, India # lrsnpng@gmail.com *tulasi.vt@gmail.com @ jobin899anish@gmail.com

Abstract— The fuel requirements of the world are increasing at an alarming rate and the source demand has been running ahead of supply. Due to the population and development activities increases, the requirement of the fuel will also increase. So we need to look for the alternative of conventional sources and the best alternative of conventional sources are the nonconventional sources of energy which are also called renewable source of energy. In this paper, the alternate potential in tractions AET is investigated. The innovative method of generating wind energy in a fast moving traction is one of the best methods and it eliminate lot of problems facing in railways today. Keywords— Fuel demand, Population growth, Conventional sources, Non-conventional sources, AET, Wind energy in traction. I. INTRODUCTION The wind is a free, clean, and inexhaustible energy source. By generating wind energy in a fast moving traction in one of the new innovation in wind power production and also alternate energy to traction. By placing the wind turbine on the traction it will very efficient method to produce the energy which has been used for inter purpose also. The main aim of this innovation is to provide a method and a system for generating electricity by using high wind pressure generated in moving vehicles, using free renewable input namely air. Wind energy is cheap, non-polluting, and capable of providing enough electricity. II. WIND ENERGY The wind has been used to power sailing ships for many centuries. many countries owed their prosperity to their skill in sailing. the new world was explored by wind powered ships. indeed, wind was almost the only source of power for ships until watt invented the steam engine in the 18th century. denmark was the first country to use the wind for generation of electricity. the danes were using a 23 m diameter wind turbine in 1890 to generate electricity. by 1910, several hundred units with capacities of 5 to 25 kw were in operation in denmark. other countries also continued wind research for a longer period of time. the worldwide wind capacity reached 282’275 megawatt, out of which 44’609 megawatt were added in 2012, more than ever before. wind power showed a growth rate of 19, 2%, the lowest rate in more than a decade. Altogether, 100 countries and regions used wind power for electricity generation. Since many years, the wind industry has been driven by the Big Five markets: China, USA, Germany, Spain, and India.

Table.1 Top Wind generation countries These countries have represented the largest share of wind power during the last few decades. The available potential of wind energy in India is 45000 megawatt out of which 1367mw has been exploited till august 2012. Table provides the top five wind energy generator countries in the world. Wind power is one of the most efficient alternate energy sources. There has been good deal of development in wind turbine technology over the last decade with many new companies joining the fray. Wind turbines have become larger, efficiencies and availabilities have improved and wind farm concept has become popular. The economics of wind energy is already strong, despite the relative immaturity of the industry. The downward trend in wind energy costs is predicted to continue. As the world market in wind turbines continues to boom, wind turbine prices will continue to fall. India now ranks as a "wind superpower" having a net potential of about 45000 MW only from 13 identified states. III. WIND ENERGY IN TRACTION In this method the wind turbine has been placed on the sides of the traction. By this way we can eliminate the aero dynamical problems cause in traction. When train runs above the rail wind turbine starts to rotate due to kinetic energy of the wind. The speed of rotation of wind turbine depends on the speed of train. When train moves at high speed the wind flow also cross the turbine blades at high speed, hence it makes the large power output. But if very high speed flows of train danger to wind turbines because it damage the wind turbines. The wind turbines are covered by protection shield, the speed of wind also continuously measured by Propellertype wind-speed sensor or Cup-type wind-speed sensor.

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The opposing force produced in this method is more than normal diesel engine train. It has been eliminated by made some modification in the traction design.

Fig. 1 Wind Turbine position on sides of the traction By using a limited number of blocks for passengers, by using a light weight metals for construction. The amount of power production depends on wind turbine capacity, train speed and other some factors. Because of the method we also want to done some modification around the area near to train roots. The size of system depends on how plan to use the power that is generated. Small wind turbines can range in size from 20 watts to 100 kilowatts (kw) with a 20-500 watt system being used to charge batteries 5 to 15 kw. Normally wind systems consist of a rotor or blades, a generator mounted on a frame, a tower, the necessary wiring and the balance of system components: controllers, inverters, and possibly batteries. Through the spinning Blades, the rotor trap the kinetic energy of the wind and convert it into rotary motion to drive the generator, which produces electricity. But in this method the tower has been not necessary. The diameter of the rotor and the maximum wind speed determine the amount of power that can be produced.

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IV.AERODYNAMICS Aerodynamics is the science and study of the physical laws of the behaviour of objects in an air flow and the forces that are produced by air flows. The shape of the aerodynamic profile is decisive for blade performance. Even minor alterations in the shape of the profile can greatly alter the power curve and noise level. Therefore a blade designer does not merely sit down and outline the shape when designing a new blade. The aerodynamic profile is formed with a rear side, is much more curved than the front side facing the wind. Two portions of air molecules side by side in the air flow moving towards the profile at point A will separate and pass around the profile and will once again be side by side at point B after passing the profile’s trailing edge.

Fig. 3 Wind flow across blade As the rear side is more curved than the front side on a wind turbine blade, this means that the air flowing over the rear side has to travel a longer distance from point A to B than the air flowing over the front side. Therefore this air flow over the rear side must have a higher velocity if these two different portions of air shall be reunited at point B. Greater velocity produces a pressure drop on the rear side of the blade, and it is this pressure drop that produces the lift. The highest speed is obtained at the rounded front edge of the blade. V. POWER PRODUCTION A. Wind Energy in electric power

Fig 2: Windmill position above roof of the traction In above specified figure 2, the windmills are placed above the traction. This is another method of producing wind energy in traction. The small size windmills are placed above the traction. The electric train run over railroad tracks, the alternative form of wind energy produced by train is very unique. If the wind is properly directed towards the wind turbine blades, optimum electricity may be generated. The desired direction of wind is obtained by a means for channelling wind, in the direction of the wind turbine.

Atmospheric pressure is differences accelerate and impart kinetic energy into the air. Wind energy conversion machines (WEC) convert wind energy into electrical or mechanical forms.

K.E. 1 2 (mass)  (velocity) 2 Power   time time mass  density  area  velocity time

AV 3 Power  2 (density )  area  (velocity )  2 1

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Example: V = 10 m/s A = (2 m)2 = 4 m2  = 1.2 kg/m3

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The wind turbine is position above the traction reduce the speed of train and it over come by placing it on the sides traction.

P=2400 w Theoretical solution.

VII. GROWTH OF WIND ENERGY

B. Power production A train moving at 125mph would generate a wind speed equivalent to 60 feet/second. Wind blowing with such speed will let a normal wind power generator harness about 3500w of power. If a train is about 656 feet long, running at the pace of 187mph, and it moves along a 0.62 mile railway track in about 18 seconds, the power generated in this small period by the turbine laid on the tracks will be 2.6kW. The kinetic energy of the wind is the source of the driving force of a wind turbine. That kinetic energy can be depicted by the formula E = f. mspec .v3 E = the kinetic energy mspec =the specific mass (weight) of air v = the velocity of the moving air (the wind) f = a calculating factor without any physic meaning The power in the wind is proportional to: a) The area of windmill being swept by the wind b) The cube of the wind speed c) The air density - which varies with altitude. The formula used for calculating the power in the wind is shown below: Power = (density of air x swept area x velocity cubed)/2 P = ½. ρ (A) (V)3 Where, P is power in watts (W) ρ is the air density in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) A is the swept rotor area in square meters (m2) & V is the wind speed in meters per second (m/s). IV. PROBLEMS TO FACE The major problem occurring in this system is some alternation has want to made in train design the train not able to move on the overflows or bridges, because mass of Windmill producing opposing force toward the train. Similar the train subjected to meet some problems related to aerodynamically.

These methods are implementing to produce energy and induced new way for producing clean energy in train. There are 14,300 trains operating daily on 63,000 route kilometers of railway in India. This technique would be capable of producing 1,481,000 megawatt (MW) of power in India alone. But some changes are needed in Indian rail roots, in tractions. It required long time to achieve above specified range of power production.

Fig 5: Growth of wind power production VIII. CONCLUSIONS The process of implementing AET we are able to produce an alternate fuel, thus we are not only finding up a new way of energy but also the way to protect the natural world from fossil fuel (pollution). Thus using this new concept and project we can expect a greener and pollution free tomorrow. The whole project demands to call wind energy not only used from supplying power to consumer but also alternative fuel in transportation also. This project is still in research stages but if it well implemented, it goes to very big milestone in the engineering history. REFERENCES [1]

[2] [3]

Stephane Sanquer, Christian Barre, Marc Dufresne de Virel and Louis-Marie Cleon (2004), “Effect of cross winds on high-speed trains: development of new experimental methodology”, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 92(2004), 535-545. Wilson, R.E. and Lissaman, P.B.S. (1974), “Applied Aerodynamics of Wind Power Machines”, Oregon State University, NTIS PB 238594. Friends of Earth, “Briefing Anaerobic Digestion” (2004) Retrieved 17.08.07. Anaerobic digestion Briefing Paper, www.foe.co.uk.

Fig 4: Traction facing aerodynamic problems

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[4]

[5]

[6]

[7] [8] [9]

[10] [11] [12] [13]

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E. Muljadi and C.P. Butterfield, “Pitch-Controlled VariableSpeed Wind Turbine Generation”, 1999 IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, Phoenix, Arizona, October 3-7, 1999. Grauers, A., “Direct driven generators .Technology and development trends”, Proceedings of the Nordic Wind Power Conference 2000 (NWPC 2000), Trondheim, Norway, Mars 1314, 2000. Shyam Lal Verma, Ajay Bangar, Ankit Soni, Shravan Gajendragadkar-2012 “Renewable and Non-Conventional Energy Sources and Engineering System” ISSN No. 2231 –6477, Volume-1, Issue-3. BJ Furman, K Youssefi - Wind Power and Wind Turbines WWW/K-12/airplane/short.html. Emrah Kulunk- Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology USA. Ramler, J. R. and R. M. Donovan: Wind Turbines for Electric Utilities: Development Status and Economics, Report DOE/NASA/1028-79/23, NASA TM-79170, AIAA-79-0965, June 1979. WWW.world wind energy association report 2012. Www.wwindea.org. http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/short.html. http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/prs/hghdef.rxml.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine_design.

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ADS-B Technology With GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation Tanmay Senapati [1], Mahesh Ramachandran [2], Shivam Sharma[3] Kalimuthu.K [4]

*Department of Electronics and Communication, SRM University [1]

Intra College Rd, Potheri, Guduvancheri, Tamil Nadu-603203 senapatitanmay@gmail.com,[2]mahesh.ramachandran.9@gmail.com, [3]shvmsharma017@gmail.com kalimuthu.k@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in[4]

Abstract: - Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) is being rolled out as the next generation air transportation systems for communication protocol. The ADSB will play an essential role in protecting the two billion people travelling across by 2015 as estimated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). With the emergence of proven concept attacks, there is an exigent need for its mandatory implementation in the airspace. The main focus of this paper is on the critical need for practical implementation of the ADS-B technology and how it can be used to monitor the air traffic over Indian Air Space. The launch of the GAGAN Satellite (INDIA’s Satellite Based Air Traffic Management System) by ISRO and Airport Authority of India (AAI) is the first step towards fully incorporating this technology. In this paper, the authors seek to emphasize the urgent need for transition from the currently used radar based navigation system to ADS-B technology using GAGAN for making air travel safer and efficient.

towards 2020. Developed and certified as a viable low-cost replacement of conventional radar, ADS-B allows ATC to control and monitor airplanes with greater precision over a larger percentage of earth’s surface than has ever been possible before. For example, large expanses of Australia, Hudson Bay in Canada, currently without any radar coverage are now visible on ATC screens due to strategic replacement by low cost ADS-B receiving stations. ADS-B is one of the most important underlying concepts in the plan to transform ATC from the current radar- based surveillance to satellite- based global positioning system (GPS) surveillance. The acronym can be broken as, Automatic- always ON and requires no operator intervention, Dependent - it depends on an accurate GNSS signal for position data, Surveillance- It provides “Radarlike” surveillance services. ADS-B allows aircrafts to determine their exact location through GPS Satellite. That information is broadcast to other nearby ground stations and ADS-B ground stations which relay the information back to the Air Traffic Controllers. Additionally, a signal with flight, weather and data is broadcast to the plane.

Keywords:- ADS-B,GNSS, GAGAN, Radar, FAA, NextGen.

I. INTRODUCTION The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) estimates that the rising number of flights and passengers will overwhelm the current Air Traffic Control (ATC) by 2015 leading to increase in delays, higher costs and greater environmental impact. With increased traffic, very light jets, unmanned aerial vehicles and commercial space flight in the near future, the national airspace system must be upgraded to function efficiently. To meet this challenge the FAA is rolling out the NextGen- Air Traffic Control system called the Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADSB). ADS-B enables the widespread use of Satellite Based GPS technology. It provides air traffic controllers information that will facilitate the efficient navigation of an air craft through the congested airspace.

The increase in number of passengers, air-accidents, delays and fuel consumption necessitates the shift from Radar-Based Navigation to Satellite Based Navigation. ADS-B provides an update 12 times faster than that of radar. Hence, there is an dire need to bring Satellite Based navigation technology and ADS-B helps us in achieving this. There are clear benefits of using ADS-B technology over Radar Based Navigation. It includes surveillance in non-radar areas, more direct routes which save fuel, better coordinated take-offs and landings. The 1978 crash of Air India Flight 855, 1996 CharkhiDadri midair collision, 2010 Mangalore crash, disappearance of MH370 are some of the incidents which further demands the usage of a GPS-based navigation system . The first step towards incorporating this type of surveillance in India is the GAGAN (GPS aided GEOAugmented Navigation system) by ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) along with AAI (Airport Authority of India). GAGAN is India’s first GPS satellite, which puts India on the 4th position globally after USA, Russia and

The backbone to the Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B) system lies in communications between aircrafts and also between the aircraft and ground. Both are vital in terms of ensuring safe flights, efficient fuel usage, time of travel and emissions. ADS-B is an integral part of the planned efficiency drive

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Source:- Aero_Q2-10_article02.pdf

Europe. GAGAN will provide air traffic management over the Indian Air Space stretching from Australia to South Africa.

A. WORKING OF ADS-B

This paper gives an overview of using GAGAN along with ADS-B technology to manage the Indian Air Space. This will make the expanding aviation industry more efficient and safer .Since ADS-B technology is already being adopted in some countries, it is thus feasible and practical to employ ADS-B technology in India, along with its first GPS satellite-GAGAN.

ADS-B uses a combination of satellites, transmitters, and receivers to provide both flight crews and ground control personnel with very specific information about the location and speed of airplanes in the area. From the airplane perspective, there are two aspects to ADS-B. ADS-B Out signals are sent from the transmitting airplanes to receivers located on the ground or in other airplanes. The ADS-B Out signals travel line-of-sight from transmitter to receiver ADS-B Out signals are received by ATC ground stations for display of traffic to air traffic controllers. ADS-B Out signals are also received by other airplanes in the vicinity of the transmitting airplanes. After Reception of the ADS-B signals by the receiving airplane, the lateral position (latitude and longitude), altitude, velocity, and flight number of the transmitting airplane are presented to the receiving airplane pilot on a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI). The received ADS-B Signal is called ADS-B In. The maximum range between the transmitting Andre planes is greater than 100 nautical miles (nmi), allowing the CDTI to display traffic both near and far. Navigation satellites send precise timing information that allows airplanes equipped with global navigation satellite system (GNSS) or GPS receivers to determine their own position and velocity. Airplanes equipped with ADS-B Out broadcast precise position and velocity to ground ADS-B receivers and to other airplanes via a digital data link (1090 megahertz) along with other data, such as the airplaneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s flight number and emergency status. ADS-B Receivers that are integrated into the ATC systems on the ground or installed aboard other airplanes (i.e., ADS-B In) provide users with an accurate depiction of real time aviation traffic. Unlike conventional radar, ADS-B works at low altitudes and on the ground so that it can be used to monitor traffic on the taxiways and runways of an airport. ADS-B is also effective in remote areas where there is no radar coverage or where radar coverage is limited.

II.ADS-B

The Federal Aviation Administration and the European Administration EUROCONTROL has named ADS-B as the successor of radar. ADS-B is a new surveillance technology designed to help modernize the air transportation system. It provides foundational technology for improvements related to the Next Generation Air Transportation System (or NextGen). NextGen refers to the effort of the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to transform the air traffic control (ATC) system to support a larger volume of airplanes more efficiently. Every aircraft projects its velocity and position using the on-board GPS. The information is broadcasted in message form periodically by the ADS-B OUT. The message broadcasted will be received by the Air Traffic Control Systems on the ground level and other aircrafts by ADS-B IN.

ADS-B uses two data links, a 978 MHz UAT (Universal Access Transmitter) and a 1090 MHz extended Squitter. UAT involves installation of a hardware, therefore, general aviation in EUROCONTROL and Federal Aviation Administration use this whereas commercial aircrafts use 1090 MHz There are three modes currently in use in the civil aviation i.e. Mode (A, C and S). Parameters Message Length

MODE A 12 Bit

MODE C 12 Bit

MODE S 56/112 Bit

ADS-B 112 Bit

Fig.1 Working of ADS-B

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Frequency Uses

1030/1090 MHz Identifying

1030/1090 MHz 1030/1090 MHz Altitude Multiple Determination

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1090 MHz Multiple

Table 1 Comparison of different modes

Aircraft localisation has been relying on radar based systems. There are two conventional methods for the radars i.e. primary surveillance radars and secondary surveillance radars. Primary Surveillance Radars (PSRs) are independent and work without the cooperation from the aircrafts with high frequency signals. In contrast to PSR’s secondary Surveillance Radars were used in the Air Traffic Control before ADS-There are three modes in case of SSR i.e. Mode A, Mode C and Mode S. Table 1 compares the characteristics of the three modes with the ADS-B.

Fig. 2 Architecture of ADS-B

In case of Mode S, there are two message lengths 56 bit and 112 bit whereas ADS-B uses only 112 bit message length, surveillance of Mode S is priced at $5.5 million and the cost of ADS-B is around $3 million.

B. ARCHITECTURE ADS-B OUT needs: • •

In case of ADS-B, every aircraft collects their own data such as velocity and position using the measurement devices. The ADS-B infrastructure is very cost effective when compared to the conventional Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) which is currently being used.

•

ATC transponders AT D0-260 standards. Additional wiring associated with peripheral equipment, MMR in hybrid architecture with GPS capability.

CURRENT STATUS: - Aircraft currently flying in Europe are generally well equipped for the transition to ADS-B OUT as the prerequisite ATC transponders Mode S (DO260) are already required to meet the former enhanced surveillance mandate. Aircraft greater than five years of age and operating outside of Europe are more likely to need a new transponder in order to Achieve ADS-B capability.

There are three benefits of ADS-B. Firstly, the GPS positions reported by ADS-B are more accurate than the current radar positions and more consistent. This means that in the Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) closer aircraft spacing can be used than the present, which provides much needed capacity improvements in congested spaces. Secondly, ADS-B surveillance is much easier and less expensive to deploy than the ground radar. This means that the airspace which previously had no radar and only procedural services can now have the benefits of ATC services.And finally, since ADS-B is a broadcast service and can be received by other aircrafts as well as the ATC on the ground, it offers the aircraft to have an accurate and inexpensive traffic awareness of other nearby aircrafts.

ADS-B IN: • • • • •

TCAS capable Additional wiring Traffic selector in cockpit EIS2 capable On-Board Airport Navigation System.

C.APPLICATIONS OF ADS-B

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ADS-B GROUND APPLICATION:- ADS-B Out offers several benefits to ground-based ATC. In radar areas, it can be used by ATC to supplement 5- and 3-nmi en-route separation services. Where no other radar or surveillance is available, it can be used by ATC to provide that separation services .For airport surface surveillance, ADS-B Out provides ground control with a picture of all airplanes and vehicles on the ground. In the terminal area, ADS-B Out could enable 2.5-nmi separation in-trail approaches, 2-nmi separation for dependent parallel approaches, and separation during independent parallel approaches for runways spaced more than 4,300 feet apart.

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the help of MODE C transponder the controllers could assign a four digit code to the dot on the screen allowing them to identify each dot as a particular aircraft. This was known as Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR). Adding MODE S transponder gave each dot an aircraft-specific identifier tied to the aircraft registration number as well its altitude. All of this technology was to locate the aircraft from the point of the Air Traffic Controllers, who could then manage the traffic. This approach worked well for areas under air traffic control but did nothing for areas without radars. As the skies are becoming more congested, a system for real traffic awareness for the pilots became a necessity. Hence there a need to shift from the present radar based navigation to a new system. Hence it leads to the advent of new technology which is satellite - based navigation which is ADS-B technology.

ADS-B IN BORNE APPLICATION:- ADS-B In offers potential benefits across all domains of flight, from departure to arrival (see “ADS-B in various domains of flight” on this page). It provides situational awareness of other airplanes and vehicles on the airport surface and situational awareness of other airborne traffic, such as assistance in finding targets outside the cockpit window using the CDTI. ADS-B In could also enhance situational awareness on approach, allowing continued approaches using the CDTI after initial visual acquisition. Airborne spacing applications facilitate increased capacity and efficiency in a number of ways. Enhanced sequencing and merging enable precise delivery of airplanes to the meter fix for subsequent continuous descent approaches; in trail procedures assist airplanes in moving to optimal operational altitudes in remote areas; and enhanced crossing and passing operations assist airplanes in flying optimal flight routes and speeds. ADS-B In also enables airplane crews to assume responsibility for separation from up to two other airplanes through delegated enroute separation. In this scenario, the controller retains responsibility for separation from other airplanes beyond the two the crew has assumed responsibility for.

TYPE Independent Cooperative Primary Surveillance data Does not depend on Surveillance received by radar aircraft equipment Radar Secondary Surveillance data Requires aircrafts to Surveillance received by have a working a Radar aircraft ATCRBS transponder Automatic Surveillance data Requires aircrafts to Dependent received by have a working ADS-B Surveillance(AD aircraft function S-B)

TABLE II Analysis of Radar and ADS-B technology

ADS-B AROUND THE WORLD: - ADS-B activity is increasing around the world. ADS-B benefits the aviation industry by means of the decreasing the cost of providing services and increasing the operational efficiency and capacity of the regional air transportation system. It also reduces the risk of lives of billions of people flying across the world daily.

Primary surveillance radar does not require any cooperation from the aircraft. It is robust in the sense that surveillance outage failure modes are limited to those associated with the ground radar system. Secondary surveillance radar depends on active replies from the aircraft. Its failure modes include the transponder aboard the aircraft. Typical ADS-B aircraft installations use the output of the navigation unit for navigation and for cooperative surveillance, introducing a common failure mode that must be accommodated in air traffic surveillance systems.

III. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RADAR and ADS-B SURVEILLANCE. Before the widespread use of radar for air traffic control in the 1950s, an aircraft’s position was calculated by the crew and the information was relayed to ATC by radio. As radar technology came into existence it gave controllers a picture of the airspace around them. The Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) showed the aircrafts as dots on screen. With

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regions which increases the efficiency of the aviation industry. The cost of setting up a ADS-B ground station is much lesser than any of the existing radar technology. With ADS-B technology, we can have more direct routes that shorten flight times and fewer delays. The technology provides more information in the hands of the pilots who will have air traffic control data on their display screen right in the cockpit and the pilots will only guide them whereas in radar the information is in the hands of the controllers which then again have to send this information to pilots through data links. This leaves a lot of work to be done by the controllers and also leads to confusion between the pilots and controllers.

IV. GAGAN (GPS AIDED GEO â&#x20AC;&#x201C;AUGMENTED NAVIGATION)

To Provide Satellite Based Augmentation System Services over India and neighbouring regions the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) - a Satellite Based Navigation System (SBNS) is being launched by the Union Ministry for Civil Aviation. This system is expected to provide enhanced navigation performance for critical applications like Civil Aviation, Marine Navigation, Train & Road Transport, Precision Farming, Search and Rescue (SAR) operations, Surveying and Mapping (Geodetic and Geodynamic), Mining etc. GAGAN is a planned implementation of a Satellite Based Navigation System developed by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), to deploy and certify an operational SBAS for the Indian Flight Information Region, with expansion capability to neighbouring Flight Information Regions (FIRs). When commissioned for service, GAGAN is expected to provide a civil aeronautical navigation signal consistent with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) as established by the Global Navigation Satellite System Panel (GNSSP). ICAO has endorsed Global Navigation Satellite System as Future Air Navigation System (FANS) for civil aviation. The project involves establishment of a full complement of Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) consisting of 15 Indian Reference Stations (INRES), 3 Indian Navigation Land Uplink Stations (INLUS), 3 Indian Mission Control Centreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (INMCC), 3 Geo-stationary Navigation in C and L bands and with all the associated Software and Communication links.

Fig. 3 Difference between ADS-B and RADAR Far different from radar, which works by bouncing radio waves from fixed terrestrial antennas off of airborne targets and then interpreting the reflected signals, ADS-B uses conventional Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) technology and uses a relatively simple broadcast communication link. Also unlike radar, ADS-B accuracy does not degrade with range, atmospheric condition or target altitude and update intervals do not depend upon the rotational speed or the reliability of mechanical antennas. The time taken by these mechanical antennas to accept and send the signals from the transponders is approximately 12 sec which leads to loss of real time information. With ADSB technology, the information from the GNSS about its position and other data is constantly broadcasted to the air traffic controllers and the nearby aircrafts which leads to real time awareness for the pilots and the controllers. The ADS-B technology also provides coverage in non- radar

A. NEED FOR AUGMENTATION:-

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• • •

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Mid-air collisions are one of the deadliest disasters that can happen in the aviation industry. The 1996 Charkhi Dadri Mid-Air Collision is one such incident. It occurred on the 12th November 1966 over the village of Chakri Dadri to the west of New Delhi, India. The aircraft involved were a Saudi Arabian Airlines Boeing 747-100B en route from New Delhi to Dhahran, Saudi Arabia and Kazakhstan Airlines IIyushin II-76 en route from Shymkent Kazakhstan, to New Delhi. The collision took place at 14,000 feet over the Indian Air space which claimed the lives of 349 people on board which included 289 passengers and 23 crew members in all. Both the aircrafts were being guided by the Delhi ATC.

Current GPS constellation cannot support requirements for all phases of flight. Accuracy is not sufficient (even with Selective Availability off, vertical accuracy>10m). Availability and continuity must be met.

There are a series of events which lead to such this disaster. The Kazakhstan Airlines was flying into New Delhi at an altitude of 23,000 feet initially whereas the Saudi Arabian Airlines was flying at an altitude of 10,000 feet over the same airspace. The Delhi ATC asked the Kazakhstan airlines to descend to an altitude of 15,000 feet and maintain it till any further notice whereas the SaudiArabian airlines was asked to climb to 14,000 feet and maintain it. But the Kazakhstan Airlines kept descending below 15,000 feet to 14,500 feet, 14,000 feet and lower. This leaves us with two aircrafts which are at the same altitude and heading in the opposite direction over the same airspace. The radio operator of the Kazakhstan Airlines realized then that they had flown much below their assigned altitude of 15,000 feet and hence asked the pilot to climb to climb to 15,000 feet. Had the radio operator not asked the pilot to climb up, the Kazakhstan Airlines would have flown below the Saudi Arabian airlines. But it was rather too late and then the left wing of Kazakhstan Airlines crashed into the two engines of Saudi Arabian Airlines which lead to third- deadliest air disaster ever. The flight data recorders of Kazakhstan Airlines and Saudi Arabia Airlines were decoded by investigators in Moscow and Farnborough, England respectively. The investigators cite many reasons for such a fatal accident. The ultimate cause was held to be the failure of Kazakhstan Airlines pilot to follow ATC instructions, cloud turbulence and communication problems. The report also suggested a serious breach in operating procedure to the lack of English language skills on the part of Kazakhstan pilots. This lead to communication problems between the ATC and the pilots. Furthermore, Indira Gandhi International Airport did not have a Secondary Surveillance Radar which provides additional information regarding aircrafts identity and altitude by reading transponder signals. The aircrafts were also not equipped with the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) which alerts the pilot of a possible collision.

Fig.4 Operations of GAGAN.

B. Working of GAGAN The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data is received and processed at widely dispersed INRES which are strategically located to provide coverage over the required service volume. Data is forwarded to the INMCC, which process the data from multiple INRES to determine the differential corrections and residual errors for each monitored satellite and for each predetermined ionosphere grid point (IGP). Information from the INMCC is sent to the INLUS and uplinked along with the GEO navigation message to the GAGAN GEO satellite. The GAGAN GEO satellite downlinks this data to the users via two L-band ranging signal frequencies (L1 and L5), with GPS type modulation, to improve the accuracy and availability and provide integrity. GAGAN will provide augmentation service for GPS over India, Bay of Bengal, South-East Asia, and Middle East expanding into Africa. GAGAN will be compatible and interoperable with other SBAS systems such as the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) of USA, the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) of European Union (EU) and the Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) of Japan. It will fill the gap between the European EGNOS and the Japanese MSAS to provide seamless air navigation service across regional boundaries. V. 1996 CHARKHI DADRI MID-AIR COLLISION

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Radar system. The limitation is that the frequency is shared with all Mode A, Mode C and Mode S transponders as well as TCAS and other users. The frequency is already near saturation in the busiest airspaces, yet the "Extended Squitter" message is twice the length (112 bits) of a standard 1090 response (56 bits), and it can take up to 5 transmissions per second to send a fully populated 1090ES ADS-B Message. 1090 ES is not bidirectional and therefore cannot support Flight Information Services (FIS) or aircraft-to-aircraft TCAS-like services. Furthermore, the 978 MHz which is used in ADS-B technology is the least profitable technology for manufactures. UAT requires a dedicated transceiver in each aircraft, while 1090ES only requires software modification to existing Mode-S transponders. Line of sight (LOS) is also one of the major drawbacks in the ADS-B technology. For this ADS-B Link Augmentation System (ALAS) is being introduced which is alternative flight path for the ADS-B.

Fig. 5 1996 Dadri-Chakri incident could have been avoided with ADS-B technology. VIII.CONCLUSIONS As we reflect upon that fateful day18 years ago, we need a new technology which does not lead to such accidents in the future. The technology that can be adopted is ADS-B with GAGAN satellite. This incident could have been avoided by using this technology. Both the flights could have known their position from the GAGAN satellite and with the help of ADS-B technology and information regarding its position, altitude and velocity could have been broadcasted to both the aircrafts and the Delhi ATC.Hence this would have led to avoidance of collision as both the aircrafts could have about each otherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s altitude, position and altitude and hence pilots could have easily adjusted their altitude. This could eliminate the problem of the language of English which was cited one of the major reasons of collision as the pilot of Kazakhstan airlines would have known about the approaching Saudi-Arabian airlines by the GAGAN satellite in its Cockpit Display System(CDS) and would have conveniently adjusted its position say for example, to 16000 feet. The reason of cloud disturbance being a factor could be easily avoided as the aircraft would know about it and all its nearby position, altitude by GAGAN satellite and hence acted accordingly. Hence with see that, by adopting ADS-B technologies with GAGAN satellite the lives of 349 passengers could have been saved. Thus, the usage of ADSB technology with GAGAN has been substantiated with ample proof.

The paper suggests the ADS-B technology is intended to transform ATC by providing more accurate and reliable tracking of airplanes in flight and on the ground. The ADSB technology will make air travel safer, efficient and greener for the environment. ADS-B is in the upstages of a roadmap vision up until 2020 and has been updated by NextGen.It is clearly seen that ADS-B technology is much better than the currently used Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) as it provides better accuracy, cheaper cost and give a more up to date picture of the airspace. The launch of the GAGAN satellite by ISRO along with AAI adds benefits to this technology as it can be used be together to reduce the conjunction over the Indian airspace. The paper highlights the urgent need of incorporating all the flights operating over the Indian airspace and elsewhere to equip their fleets with the ADS-B technology which along with the GAGAN will make the skies a lot safer to travel. The authors have made an attempt to point out the benefits of this technology by describing the 1996 Charkhi Dadri Mid-Air Collision which could have been avoided by the ADS-B technology along with the GAGAN satellite. Hence we can say that with the increasing number of passengers travelling by flights it is required to make our air travel more efficient and safer and at the same time ecofriendly. ADS-B technology provides us with this and hence it necessary to upgrade to this technology so that no other air disaster occurs and lives of billions of people are safe. Countries like Australia have already adopted this. Many Accidents can be avoided if India uses it in the future and it also reduces fuel which helps in having a greener environment.

VII.LIMITATIONS ADS-B provides a lot more beneifts than the presently used

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[4]. A. Daskalakis and P. Martone, “A technical assessment of ADS-B and Multilateration technology in the Gulf of Mexico,” in Proceedings of The 2003 IEEE Radar Conference. IEEE, 2003, pp. 370–378. [5].K. Samuelson, E. Valovage, and D. Hall, “Enhanced ADS-B Research,” In 2006 IEEE Aerospace Conference. IEEE, 2006, pp. 1–7. [6].The(ISRO)website. [Online].Available:http://www.isro.org/pressrelease/scripts/pressrelea sein.aspx?Jan03_2014 [7] The-just-the80website. [Online].Available:http://isp.justthe80.com/space-applications/gagan [8] The-Air-Service-Australia-website.[Online].Available: http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/projects/ads-b/how-ads-b-works/ [9].The-wikipedia-website. [Online].Available:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charkhi_Dadri_midair_collision [10].The-Indiatoday-website. [Online].Available:http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/saudi-kazakh-aircollision-boeing-747-crashes-into-il-76-over-indian-skies-killing-351people/1/282693.html [11] The-NextGen-website. [Online].Available:https://www.faa.gov/nextgen/implementation/prog rams/adsb/ [12]The-ADS-B-website.[Online].Available:http://www.ads-b.com [13].The-independent-website. [Online].Available:http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/theindian-air-crash-tapes-point-blame-at-kazakh-pilot-1352266.html [14].The-wikipedia-website. [Online].Available:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_dependent _surveillance-broadcast [15]The-aopa-website. [Online].Available:http://www.aopa.org/Advocacy/Air-TrafficServices-,-a-,-Technology/Air-Traffic-Services-Brief-AutomaticDependent-Surveillance-Broadcast-ADSB [16]The-trig-avionics-website.[Online].Available: http://www.trigavionics.com/adsb.html [17]Dennis Roddy, Satellite Communication,3rd Ed. [18]Anil Kumar, satellite Communication, 1st Ed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering and all the Faculty Mentors of SRM University for their constant motivation and guidance in this project. We also wish to thank Prof. Shanti Prince and Prof. Kalimuthu of Electronics Department for reviewing our progress and their constructive feedback. Finally, we are grateful to Prof. Samita Kher, Sinhgad University for his/her continued support and encouragement for the project.

REFERENCES [1]. C. Rekkas and M. Rees, “Towards ADS-B implementation in Europe, “in 2008 Tyrrhenian International Workshop on Digital Communications - Enhanced Surveillance of Aircraft and Vehicles. IEEE, Sep. 2008, pp. 1–4. [2]. K. Sampigethaya and R. Poovendran, “Security and privacy of future Aircraft wireless communications with off board systems,” in 2011 Third International Conference on Communication Systems and Networks (COMSNETS 2011). IEEE, Jan. 2011, pp. 1–6. [3]. W. Y. Ochieng, K. Sauer, D. Walsh, G. Brodin, S. Griffin, and M. Denney, “GPS Integrity and Potential Impact on Aviation Safety,” Journal of Navigation, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 51–65, Jan. 2003.

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NETWORK SECURITY BASED ON TRACEBACK APPROACH BY USING TRACER Mr.K.Sanjai, Mr.K.Sowbarani SSM College of Engineering,

ABSTRACT :

Namakkal.

and such activity tends to cause a great problem.

At present, the number of unauthorized access incidents on the Internet is

At present, the access control

growing, and the current access control

technologies including firewalls are

technologies cannot stop specific way

commonly

of access. We had proposed a hop-by-

unauthorized access, but some specific

hop IP traceback method that can be

way of access cannot be stopped by the

used to trace a source of an attack.

access control technologies. Nowadays

In this paper, we are going to propose

installing Intrusion Detection Systems

a prototype system. The main features

(IDS) coupled with firewalls, and

of our proposed method are the packet

monitoring networks enables us to

feature, which is composed of specific

quickly

packet information contained in a

unauthorized access. The following

packet

figure shows a current dealing with

the

unauthorized access.

for

unauthorized

identification packet,

and

algorithm using datalink identifier to

Server

identify a routing of a packet. We are also

proposing

distributed

used

detect

and

prevent

react

Attacker

Internet

management approach that controls the tracing process and information within a particular group of networks.

INTRODUCTION : While the Internet as a business

LAN

Firewall

infrastructure increases its importance, the number of unauthorized access incidents on the Internet is growing,

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However, even if these tools can

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Proactive tracing:

detect unauthorized activities, their

This prepares information for

sources cannot be identified. The

tracing when packets are in transit. In a

reason is that denial of service (DoS)

case where packet tracing is required,

attacks, which have recently increased

the

in number, can easily hide their

information and identifies the source

sources and forge their IP addresses.

of the packets.

Thus, it is not possible for the access

Reactive Tracing:

control alone to be a factor of

the

attack

refers

tracing when required. Here, we have

unauthorized access, it is necessary to

selected reactive tracing that does not

pinpoint the source in order to prevent

increase network traffic at normal

the unauthorized activity. For this

times and generates traffic for tracing

reason, we are proposing a prototype

only when actual tracing is required.

system.

The Trend of the Reactive

TRACEBACK METHOD : ability

required

Tracing Methods:

perform

The majority of reactive tracing

traceback is “to identify the true IP

methods trace the attack path from the

address of the terminal originating

target back to the source. The challenges involved in this type of

attack packets.” If we can identify the

method are traceback algorithm and

true IP address of the attacker’s

packet matching technique.

terminal, we can also get information about the organization (e.g. name or

(1)Hop-by-Hop Tracing :

telephone number) involved in the

This method is to trace an IP

attack or the attacking terminal. As the

packet from the target back to the

method of the source pursuit of

source hop-by-hop, and trace the

unauthorized access, some researches using

This “reactive tracing” starts

unauthorized access. As the measure of

The

target

(Internet

Protocol)

source based on the incoming

are

packets

performed. The source pursuit using IP

that

arrive

one

after

another during a flood type attack.

is called IP traceback. IP traceback

The following figure shows a flow

methods can be divided into two

of trace to detect the source hop-

groups.

by-hop.

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Another proposed technique is that when unauthorized access is detected, a Security association (SA) Attacker of the IPsec is created dynamically,

IP N/W

and authenticating the packet with IPsec identifies the travel path and the source of the packet. Since this technique uses existing IPsec protocol, it has an advantage that it is not Target (2) Hop-by-Hop Tracing with

necessary

Overlay Network :

implement

new

protocol.

(4) Traffic Pattern Matching :

The particular problems involved in tracing routers hop-by-hop are that if

Another proposed technique

there are too many hops, the number of

traces the forwarding path of the traffic

necessary processing for tracing will

by comparing traffic patterns observed

be increased. As the result, it will take

at the entry and exit point of the

a longer time to trace, and information

network based on the network map.

for tracing can be lost before trace processing is completed. Therefore, a

Traceback Approaches:

method to build the overlay network

In the field of reactive tracing

for tracing purposes that involves a

study, several methods that identify a

less number of hops is proposed. With

source of a packet with forged source

this method, IP tunnels between the

edge routers and the special tracking

address

Although

routers are created, and the IP packets

have most

been of

proposed.

the

existing

techniques deal with flood type DoS

are rerouted to the tracking router via

attacks, there are more attacks using

IP tunnel. Hop-by-hop tracing is

only one or a few IP packets such as

performed over the overlay network

attacks exploiting IP fragment. It is

that consists of IP tunnels and tracking

important

routers.

unauthorized

be access

able

using

trace single

packet. Based on the above, we have proposed

hop-by-hop

traceback

method. We are developing a system

(3) IPsec Authentication :

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implementing our method even if the

forwarded packet that corresponds to

attacker forges its source IP address.

an attack packet.

Our system performs real-time tracing

Beginning with the forwarding

and exactly identifies the source of the

unit closest to the sensor that has

specific packet along the attack path.

detected

unauthorized

access,

identify each adjacent forwarding unit along the attack path, and ultimately

Our Traceback Architecture:

reach the source of the attack packet

In general, the source IP address of

even if a forged source IP address is

a packet can easily be forged at the

used.

source of the packet. On the other

Our Traceback Model:

hand, it is difficult for a sender of a

In this section, we describe our

packet to forge the datalink-level packets,

trace back architecture that identifies

because, in the event of frame or cell

the source of a packet with forged

transfer, forwarding unit (such as

source IP address. The architecture

router) in turn converts the datalink-

consists

level

components:

identifier

when

identifier

sending

the

interface

the

following

three

(1)Sensor :

identifier of the unit. Therefore, at each forwarding unit, we can identify its

This component is deployed at

adjacent unit having forwarded a

target site has two functions. One is to

particular packet based on the datalink-

detect unauthorized access from the

level identifier of the adjacent unit and

network another is to request a

the

manager to start tracing.

datalink-level

identifier

corresponding to the packet. (2)Tracer :

In our approach, forwarding

This component implements a

nodes, or tracers, keep data about an incoming packet and its datalink-level

function

identifier such as source MAC Address

maintain information about forwarded

address

IP packets as well as a function to trace

corresponding to their datalink-level

the source of the forwarded packet

identifier in each forwarding unit and

along the attack path on forwarding

identify the adjacent unit by searching

unit.

buffer

memory

forwarding

nodes

for the datalink-level identifier of the

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the packet. The propose architecture

(3)Monitoring Manager : In response to a request from a

of our traceback model is shown

sensor, this component controls tracers

below. In which all the monitoring

and manages the entire tracing process.

managers are coupled with the tracer in

We can install a tracer and a

order to trace the source of the

manager on each unit or install a single

forwarded packet. And a sensor is

manager as a central manager of the

coupled with the monitoring manager

entire network.

and target network in order to detect the unauthorized access and also for the purpose of requesting the tracer to

Process Method:

start the process of tracing.

Process Flow:

Basic model of our traceback method in practical terms, particularly

Our traceback approach involves

network policy may restrict tracing a

several Steps, from attack detection to

packet with certain limitation. We

source identification,

cannot trace a packet beyond our own network

boundary

neighboring

Step 1: Sensors are deployed at each

networks impose different policy. We

therefore

suggest

target network. When a sensor detects a

attack, it creates data containing

distributed management approach that

features of the attack packet and sends

controls

a tracing request to the monitoring

the

tracing

process

and

information within a particular group

manager deployed in its AMN.

of networks. This control section is called as Autonomous Management

Step 2: The monitoring manager

Network (AMN). The

order the AMN’s tracer to trace the

monitoring

manager,

attack packet. The tracer identifies

which is deployed in each AMN,

the adjacent node and returns the

executes a tracing process within its tracing process goes beyond AMN’s

boundary,

the

result to the monitoring manager.

the

monitoring

Step 3: Based on the result

manager of the AMN that initiated the

returned, the process described above

tracing process asks the monitoring

continues until the tracer identifies

manager in the adjacent AMN to trace

the attack packet’s source.

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The image cannot be display ed. Your computer may not hav e enough memory to open the image, or the image may hav e been corrupted. Restart y our computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, y ou may hav e to delete the image and then insert it again.

Step 4: If a tracing process goes beyond

the

AMN’s

boundary,

processing is handed over to the relevant monitoring manager that controls that AMN.

Step 5: The monitoring managers in each AMN traces the packet in their AMN and sends the tracing result to the monitoring manager that

Packet Feature :

initiated the traceback request.

Our traceback method uses a

Step 6: The requester monitoring

packet feature as a parameter for Trace

manager sends the final results to the

Request and Trace Order. In order to

sensor that requested the trace.

uniquely identify the individual packet, we extract several fields of the IP packet that are not altered by tracers

Traceback Protocol:

and create a packet feature. The

The basic functions of the traceback

extracted fields are as follows:

protocol define the following tasks:

• Version

 A trace request from a sensor

• Header Length

and a notice of the tracing

• Identification

result to the sensor.  A

trace

order

from

• Protocol

•Source and Destination

monitoring manager to a tracer

• A part of IP data

and a notice of the processing result

the

IP addresses

monitoring

manager.  A trace request and a notice of the tracing result exchanged between monitoring managers.

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If we create a packet feature consisting

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Versi

Header

Type of

Length

Service

of only IP header fields, identical

Total Length

Identification

packets may exist. Therefore, in order

TTL

Flags

Protocol

to improve the precision of packet

Fragment

Header Checksums

Source IP Address

identification, we decide to include a

Destination IP Address

part of IP data field (maximum 20

Options

bytes).The following figure shows the

Padding

IP Data Part ---- MAX( 20 Bytes)

structure of the packet feature.

Trace and Search process has two modules: Packet Search module

Implementation

Our

and

Upstream

Network

Interface

Traceback System:

Decision

The heart of our trace back approach is

module accepts Trace Order and

the tracer. The following section

searches for the specified packet

describes how to implement a tracer,

feature from Packet Information Area.

which is one of the major functions in

If a record matching with the trace

tracing tasks.

packet is found, Upstream Network

Implementation of Tracer:

Interface Decision module decides the

module.

Packet

upstream network interface and notices

The tracing function consists of

this trace result to the monitoring

2 modules.

manager

(1) Packet Conversion and Store

using

Notification

Processing Result.

process After routing process, Packet Conversion and Store process gets a packet to forward and creates a record containing the address of the

Routing Process

Packet store

Packet Info Area

Trace Informa tion

upstream unit (MAC address) and a packet feature extracted from the packet. This record is stored into Packet Information Area in the tracer. Every incoming packet is processed through this procedure. Packet Search module

(2) Trace and Search process

N/w interface Decision module

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Information Management: Protocol process

There are two types of information used in tracers. One is the packet

Structure of tracer

information that converts traversed packets

Trace algorithm:

information

into

packet

features and stores them, and the other is the network interface information

We have developed the algorithm that

that

processes Trace Order reception, trace

information

execution for upstream path decision

connected each other.

stores

network between

interface two

units

and trace report. Below we describe our algorithm.

(1) Packet Information Area Packet Information Area contains

Step 1: Start the Tracing process.

packet

Step 2: Receive the packet feature

network interface information and

and passed it to packet search module.

forwarding

Step 3:

necessary information for tracing. On

Check Packet Information

features

time

which

includes

the

packet

Area with packet feature received.

our implementation, records are stored

Step 4: If any match found then let

in the memory area of the tracer for the

matched record as target record.

purpose of real-time processing. If the

Step

volume of Packet Information Area

Compares

the

Address

exceeds the memory capacity, the

Information (i.e. MAC address) in target record

oldest record will be deleted and the

with the address

latest one will be stored in turn.

Information (i.e. MAC address &IP address) of the connected tracer stored

(2) Network interface Information

in trace information.

We are having three methods for

Step 6: If match found decide IP

obtaining

address and return to the monitoring

network

interface

information from the unit connected

manager as trace result.

with the tracer.

Step 7: Repeat step 3 to step 6 until

Method 1: Trace table method

source of the attack is detected.

Checking

Step 8: Stop the Tracing Process.

the

network

interface

number, IP addresses and physical

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addresses (e.g. MAC address on LAN)

Conclusion :

of the connected tracers in advance,

We proposed a traceback system that

and storing them in the unit.

can pursue the source even if an IP address

Method 2: ARP table method

forged,

and

have

demonstrated the effectiveness of the

Using the ARP table stored in the unit

traceback processing. We will consider

to look up the IP address and physical

the relationship among the network

address of the connected tracer when

load, and the number of tracers. In the

Trace Order is received.

viewpoint of the introduction of the traceback, we have 2 subjects. First

Method

Order-driven

query

subject is the method to identify

method

matching packets and identify the

Without providing a obtaining

fixed

network

table,

sources under DOS attack where

interface

identical

packets

are

sent

from

information using the lower layer

different sources. Second subject is to

protocols (e.g. RARP protocol) in

introduce

response to Trace Order.

However, in the mean time we will

the

tracer

function.

implement our proposed model in The above methods leads to the

future to assure security in network

following conclusion, As network

communications.

interface information is temporarily stored

the

ARP

table,

some

Authors :

information may be changed when

1.K.Sanjai, IV-CSE, SSM college of

searching the table; Although the

Engineering

order-driven query method is suitable for

obtaining

the

latest

2.K.Sowbarani, IV-CSE,SSM college

network

of Engineering

interface information, the process is complicated and takes longer time

REFERENCES :

because the query task to the adjacent

1.Mr.Ragav,

node is called every time a trace order

Technical

Lead-

NIIT,Chennai

is issued. Therefore, we select the trace

2.Mr.D.Namachivayam,

table method that provides real-time,

Assistant

Professor SSM college of engineering.

reliable, and efficient tracing.

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EVALUATION: OFDMA & SC-OFDMA PERFORMANCE ON WIRELESS COMMUNICATION G. MANIKANDAN1, T. JENISH2, S. PRASHANTHY3 1

Research Scholar St. Peter’s University St. Peter’s Institute of Higher Education and Research Avadi, Chennai-600 054 2

Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Kodaikanal Institute of Technology,Tamilnadu, India 3

UG Student , Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Kodaikanal Institute of Technology,Tamilnadu, India Keywords- Single carrier frequency division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA); Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA); Multiple input multiple output(MIMO); Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR); (UMB) Ultra-Mobile Broadband; Long Term Evolution(LTE)

Abstract— This paper investigates OFDMA and SCFDMA techniques combined with the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). Single carrier frequency Division Multiple Access(SC-FDMA) is a notable application of Multiple Input Multiple Output(MIMO) system. SC-FDMA is one of the most promising techniques aiming at solving the capacity problem of wireless communication systems and achieving higher spectral efficiency, depending on multiplexing signals based on their spatial signature. On the other hand most third generation mobile phone systems are using Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) as their modulation technique. CDMA is not so complicated to implement as OFDM based systems. As CDMA has a wide bandwidth, it is difficult to equalize the overall spectrum - significant levels of processing would be needed for this as it consists of a continuous signal and not discrete carriers. Not as easy to aggregate spectrum as for OFDM. For this reason, CDMA is also investigating so that the performance of OFDM-SC-FDMA can be compared. Various OFDMA techniques are investigated including LTE or Long Term Evolution is the brand name given to the efforts of 3GPP 4th Generation technology development efforts mostly in Europe and UMB (Ultra-Mobile Broadband) is the brand name for similar efforts by 3GPP2, linear detection schemes, minimum mean square error, ordered successive cancellation, and maximum likelihood methods. Promising results are obtained to enhance spectral efficiency on the expense of computational complexity which needs to be addressed.

Wireless Technology Overview

Wireless technologies enable one or more devices to communicate without an actual wired connection. Radio frequency is used to transmit the data. Such technologies are rapidly evolving to meet a variety of communications needs, from simple to complex wireless communications needs can all be classified in one of three ways, based on the distance they are meant to cover. These include: wireless personal area networks (WPAN), wireless local area networks (WLAN), and wireless wide area networks (WWAN). The evolution is stated in figure: 1.1 [9]

Figure: 1.1 Evolution of wireless technology

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Figure: 3.1 LTE frame structure[1] II.

Verizon Wireless and LTE Mobile Broadband Technology

Wireless carriers are keenly interested in choosing the best technology for their customersâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;for both today and tomorrow. For Verizon Wireless, selecting the right technology is imperative. As a leader in the wireless industry, Verizon Wireless is committed to the potential technology advances offered by LTE. Verizon Wireless is currently conducting laboratory and field tests using LTE technology and plans to launch its 4G mobile network in 2010. This deployment will help the company realize its goal of delivering improved wireless Internet connectivity and mobility to its customers. For the mobile user, connectivity means an un tethered experience and true mobility.[7] Users can work and communicate almost whenever and wherever they want. LTEâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s improved speeds will allow wireless carriers to offer a number of business-specific applications and services, such as video conferencing, direct connectivity, and mobile applications that bring the desktop experience to mobile devices.[8] III.

Figure: 3.2 LTE frame structure [2]

IV.

Evolution of LTE

As mentioned previously in this paper, LTE is a 4G wireless technology that Verizon Wireless and numerous leading wireless carriers have chosen as their upgrade path beyond 3G technologies. Verizon Wireless will operate LTE in the 700 MHz spectrum, which translates to unprecedented performance and data access.[8] The 3GPP body began its initial investigation of the LTE standard as a viable technology in 2004. In March 2005, 3GPP began a feasibility study whose key goals were to agree on network architecture and a multiple access method, in terms of the functional split between the radio access and the core network[5]. The 3GPP decided to use OFDMA in the downlink direction and use SC-FDMA in the uplink direction. The specifications for the LTE standard were approved by 3GPP in January 2007. The specifications are now under change control, leading to their inclusion in 3GPP Release 8. While the LTE requirements are finalized, the standard is not fully completed. LTE Release 8 was completed by late 2008 as shown in figure 4.1[8]

LTE frame structure

Figure: 4.1 Evolution of LTE

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quality, variable rates of information transfer can be used to maximize system resource utilization with high quality of user experience.

MIMO-OFDMA

Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) is one of the most popular Advanced Antenna Technologies which is supported both by LTE and UMB. The salient features of MIMO is that it offers higher throughput for a given bandwidth and higher link range for a given power value. A detailed discussion of the MIMO technology is beyond the scope of this survey and we provide a cursory glance at the key features of the technology. In MIMO the transceiver and receiver have multiple antennas giving MIMO multiple flavors based on the number of antennas present on each side. However, the key idea is that a transmitter sends multiple streams on multiple transmit antennas 9 of 15 and each transmitted stream goes through different paths to reach each receiver antenna .The different paths taken by the same stream to reach multiple receivers allow canceling errors using superior signal processing techniques. MIMO also achieves spatial multiplexing to distinguish among different symbols on the samefrequency. MIMO thus helps in achieving higher spectral efficiency and Link reliability.[9] VI.

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One particular interest for SNR estimation is to use it for Adaptive Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (AOFDM) based wireless communication systems. Adaptive modulation that employs different level of modulation for each (or a group) of sub-carriers depends strongly on accurate estimation of SNR value [1]-[3]. There are many other applications that can exploit SNR information, like channel estimation through interpolation and optimal soft information generation for high performance decoding algorithms[4],[ 5]. In previous SNR estimation techniques, the SNR measurement is considered as an indication of long-term fading statistics due to shadowing and log-normal fading. This long-term SNR estimate is often calculated using regularly. Transmitted training (or pilot) sequences. Instead of using training sequences, the data symbols can also be used for this purpose. For example, Balachandran, who uses SNR information as a channel quality indicator for rate adaptation, exploits the cumulative Euclidean metric corresponding to the decoded trellis path for channel quality information [6]. Jacobsmeyer describes another method for channel quality measurement. He proposes the use of the difference between the maximum likelihood decoder metrics for the best path and the second best path [7]. In a sense, he uses some sort of soft information for channel quality indication. But, this approach does not provide any information about the strength of the interferer or the desired signal. There are several other SNR measurement techniques which can be found in [8] and reference listed therein.[12]

SNR-OFDMA

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is broadly defined as the ratio of the desired signal power to the noise power. SNR estimation indicates the reliability of the link between the transmitter and receiver. In adaptive system design, SNR estimation is commonly used for measuring the quality of the channel. Then, the system parameters are change adaptively based on this measurement. For example, if the measured channel quality is low, the transmitter adds some redundancy or complexity to the information bits (more powerful coding), or reduces the modulation level (better Euclidean distance), or increases the spreading rate (longer spreading code) for lower data rate transmission. Therefore, instead of fixed information rate for all levels of channel

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VII.

subcarriers are allowed in OFDM since orthogonality will ensure the subcarrier separation at the receiver, providing better spectral efficiency and the use of steep band pass filter was eliminated. OFDM transmission system offers possibilities for alleviating many of the problems encountered with single carrier systems. It has the advantage of spreading out a frequency selective fade over many symbols. This effectively randomizes burst errors caused by fading or impulse interference so that instead of several adjacent symbols being Completely destroyed, many symbols are only slightly distorted. This allows successful reconstruction of majority of them even without forward error correction. Because of dividing an entire signal bandwidth into many narrow sub-bands, the frequency response over individual sub-bands is relatively flat due to sub-band are smaller than coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, equalization is potentially simpler than in a single carrier system and even equalization may be avoided altogether if Differential encoding is implemented.[3]

Comparison of parameters of UMTS, HSPA, HSPA+ and LTE

Figure:4.1 Comparison of UMTS, HSPA, HSPA+ and LTE VIII.

What is OFDM?

Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is a widely used modulation and multiplexing technology, which has become the basis of many telecommunications standards including wireless local area networks (LANs), digital terrestrial television (DTT) and digital radio broadcasting in much of the world.[3] In the past, as well as in the present, the OFDM is referred in the literature as Multi-carrier, Multi-tone and Fourier Transform. The OFDM concept is based on spreading the data to be transmitted over a large number of carriers, each being modulated at a low rate. The carriers are made orthogonal to each other by appropriately choosing the frequency spacing between them. A multicarrier system, such as FDM (aka: Frequency Division Multiplexing), divides the total available bandwidth in the spectrum into sub-bands for multiple carriers to transmit in parallel.[15] It combines a large number of low data rate carriers to construct a composite high data rate communication system. Orthogonality gives the carriers a valid reason to be closely spaced with overlapping without ICI. [16] IX.

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Principle of OFDM

In digital communications, information is expressed in the form of bits. The term symbol refers to a collection, in various sizes, of bits [17]. OFDM data are generated by taking symbols in the spectral space using M-PSK, QAM, etc, and convert the spectra to time domain by taking the Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT). Since Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) is more cost effective to implement, it is usually used instead [16]. The main features of a practical OFDM system are as follows: ď&#x201A;ˇ

Why OFDM?

In contrast to conventional Frequency Division Multiplexing, the spectral overlapping among

Some processing is done on the source data, such as coding for correcting errors, interleaving and mapping of bits onto symbols. An example of mapping used is QAM.

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

 

XI.

The symbols are modulated onto orthogonal sub-carriers. This is done by using IFFT. Orthogonality is maintained during channel transmission. This can be achieved by adding a cyclic prefix to the OFDM frame to be sent. The cyclic prefix consists of the L last samples of the frame, which are copied and placed in the beginning of the frame. It must be longer than the channel impulse response. Synchronization: cyclic prefix can be used to detect the start of each frame. This is done by using the fact that the L first and last samples are the same and therefore correlated. Demodulation of the received signal by using FFT. Channel equalization: the channel can be estimated either by using a training sequence or sending known so-called pilot symbols at predefined sub-carriers. Decoding and de-interleaving. Basic OFDM system

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The basic principle of OFDM is to split a highrate data stream into a number of lower rate streams that are transmitted simultaneously over a number of subcarriers. The block diagram showing a simplified configuration for an OFDM transmitter and receiver is given in Fig.1 & Fig. 2. [3] XII.

Orthogonality

The main aspect in OFDM is maintaining orthogonality of the carriers. If the integral of the product of two signals is zero over a time period, then these two signals are said to be orthogonal to each other. Two sinusoid with frequencies that are integer multiples of a common frequency can satisfy this criterion.

The OFDM signal generated by the system in Fig 1 & 2 is at baseband ; in order to generate a radio frequency (RF) signal at the desired transmit frequency filtering and mixing is required. OFDM allows for a high spectral efficiency as the carrier power and modulation scheme can be individually controlled for each carrier. However in broadcast systems these are fixed due to the one-way communication.

Therefore, orthogonality is defined by: Where n and m are two unequal integers; fo is the fundamental frequency; T is the period over which the integration is taken. For OFDM, T is one symbol period and fo set to 1/T for optimal effectiveness [15][16]. XIII.

OFDM Applications:

OFDM technique is the most prominent technique of this era .Some of its applications is given below. 

DAB: DAB - OFDM forms the basis for the Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB)

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       XIV.

standard in the European market [18]. Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) using OFDM has been standardized in Europe [19] and is the next step in evolution beyond FM radio broadcasting providing interference free transmission. HDTV Wireless LAN Networks 5.3.1 HIPERLAN/2 IEEE 802.11g IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access System. Wireless ATM transmission system IEEE 802.11a SC-FDMA

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and thereby ensure power-efficient transmission. This approach is often referred to as blocked or localized SC-FDMA.[9] XV.

SC-FCDMA & OF-DMA in LTE Physical Layer

The multiple access scheme in LTE downlink uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access and uplink uses Single Carrier Frequency. These multiple access solutions provide orthogonality between the users, reducing the interference and improving the network capacity. The multiple access schemes are illustrated in Figure 15.1.

Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) was chosen to reduce Peak to Average Ratio (PAR), which has been identified as a critical issue for use of OFDMA in the uplink where power-efficient amplifiers are required in mobile devices. Another important requirement was to maximize the coverage. For each time interval, the base station scheduler assigns a unique timefrequency interval to a terminal for the transmission of user data, thereby ensuring intracell orthogonality. Slow power control, for compensating path loss and shadow fading, is sufficient as no near-far problem is present due to the orthogonal uplink transmissions. Transmission parameters, coding, and modulation are similar to the downlink transmission.

Figure:15.1 Physical layer in LTE

Date Rate: For 20 MHz spectrum, the target for peak data rate is 50 Mbps (for uplink) and 100 Mbps (for downlink). Bandwidth: In 3GPP technology family, there were considered both the wide band(WCDMA with 5MHz) and the narrowband (GSM with 200 kHz). Therefore, the new system is now required to facilitate frequency allocation flexibility with 1.25/2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz allocations [7].

The chosen SC-FDMA solution is based on using a cyclic prefix to allow high-performance and low-complexity receiver implementation in the e-Node B. As such, the receiver requirements are more complex than in the case of OFDMA for similar link performance, but this is not considered to be a problem in the base station. The terminal is only assigned with contiguous spectrum blocks in the frequency domain to maintain the single-carrier properties

Peak Spectral Efficiency: The peak spectral efficiency requirement for downlink Is 5 bps/Hz or higher, and for uplink is 2.5 bps/Hz or higher. Spectral Efficiency of Cell Edge: The requirement for spectral efficiency of cell edge is 0.04-0.06 bps/Hz/user for downlink and 0.02-

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0.03 bps/Hz/user for uplink, with assumption of 10 users/cell.

XVII.

Average Cell Spectral Efficiency: The average cell spectral efficiency required for downlink is 1.6-2.1 bps/Hz/cell and for uplink it is 0.66-1.0 bps/Hz/cell.

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BER vs SNR of OFDMA and SCFDMA

The BER vs SNR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA are shown in Figures 17.1 & 17.2 and the corresponding values in Tables 4.2 and 4.3 respectively. In Tables 18.1 and 18.2, the observations are taken for a specific value of BER (1e-3). In both OFDMA and SCInternational

Latency: The LTE control-plane latency (transition time to active state) is less than 100 ms (for idle to active), and is less than 50 ms (for dormant to active). The user plane latency is less than 10 ms from UE (user end) to server.

FDMA, the BPSK and QPSK have same SNR values of 6.8 and 6.5 respectively, but a sudden change occur in 16 (16.4) which shows that 64

Security & Mobility: Security and mobility in 3GPP technology is used at good level with the earlier systems starting from GSM and it is sustained at that level and higher.[19] XVI.

Transceiver result

This simulates model of OFDMA and SCFDMA in Matlab. The block diagrams of OFDMA and SC-FDMA are shown in Figure 16.1 and Figure 16.2 respectively, below. The block diagrams of OFDMA and SC-FDMA are similar to OFDM system, except the additional subcarrier mapping and the position of some blocks.[19] Figure 17.1: BER vs SNR of OFDMA with Adaptive Modulation.

Figure:16.1 Transmitter

Figure: 16.2 Receiver Figure: 17.2 BER vs SNR of SC-FDMA with Adaptive Modulation

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XVIII.

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BER VS SNR for OFDMA

Error Probability of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for Adaptive Modulation The error probability graphs of OFDMA and SC-FDMA are shown in Figures 18.1 and 18.2, and the corresponding values in Tables 18.3 and 18.4 respectively.

Table 18.3: Error probability of OFDMA

Table 18.4: Error probability of SC-FDMA The 64-QAM has higher SNR values in both OFDMA and SC-FDMA XIX. Figure 18.1: Power Spectral Density of OFDMA

Power Spectral Density of OFDMA and SC-FDMA:

The power spectral density of OFDMA and SCFDMA are shown in figure 19.1and figure 19.2 respectively.

Table 18.3: Error probability of OFDMA Table 18.4: Error probability of SC-FDMA From Tables 18.3and 18.4, it can be seen that for a specific value of Pe (1e-0.5) the BPS modulation has less value of SNR as compared to other modulations.

Figure 19.1: Power Spectral Density of OFDMA

Figure 18.2: Power Spectral Density of SCFDMA

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Figure20.2: PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for QPSK Figure 19.2: Power Spectral Density of SCFDMA

Figure 19.1 and 19.2 shows the power spectral density of the OFDMA and SCFDMA respectively. We can observe that the average power of all SC-FDMA symbols (512) is nearly -375dB, whereas, in case of OFDMA the average power of all symbols is nearly -400dB. This shows that the SC-FDMA symbols have inherently more average power as compared to OFDMA at all frequencies. This result also shows the transmit power requirements of OFDMA and SC-FDMA symbols which is covered in next section of PAPR. XX. a)

16-QAM and 64-QAM: The PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for 16-QAM and 64-QAM are shown in Figures 20.4 and 20.4 respectively.

Figure 20.3: PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for 16-QAM

PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for Adaptive Modulation BPSK and QPSK: The PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for BPSK and QPSK modulations are shown in Figure 20.1 and Figure 20.2 respectively.

Figure 20.4: PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for 64-QAM. From Figures 4.11 and 4.12, it can be observed that by increasing the order of modulation, the PAPR of SC-FDMA increases from 7.5 dB to 8 dB (in case of 16-QAM) and becomes 9.8 db (in

Figure20.1:PAPR of OFDMA and SC-FDMA for BPSK.

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case of 64-QAM). Thus, for SC-FDMA the PAPR increases for higher order modulation

XXI.

scheme i.e. BPSK, QPSK and 16-QAM for uplink in order to have less PAPR at user end. In nutshell, SC-FDMA is more power efficient. Here our future work is focused toward the study of achievable "Enhancement Survey on Security in 4G".

Conclusion

LTE and BER is a key parameter for indicating the system performance of any data link. From the simulated results, it can be observed that for a fix value of SNR, the BER increases for high order modulation (16-QAM and 64-QAM) in both the multiple access techniques (OFDMA and SC-FDMA) used in LTE system. On the other hand, the lower order modulation schemes (BPSK and QPSK) experience less BER at receiver thus lower order modulations improve the system performance in terms of BER and SNR. If the bandwidth efficiency of these modulation schemes is considered, the higher order modulation accommodates more data within a given bandwidth and is more bandwidth efficient as compared to lower order modulation. Thus, there exists a tradeoff between BER and bandwidth efficiency among these modulation schemes used in LTE. It is also concluded from the results that, the error probability increases as order of modulation scheme increases. Therefore, the selection of modulation schemes in adaptive modulation is quite crucial based on these results. The power consumption at the user end such as portable devices is again a vital issue for uplink transmission in LTE system. From the simulation results, it can be concluded that the higher order modulation schemes have an impact on the PAPR of both OFDMA and SC-FDMA. The PAPR increases in SC-FDMA and slightly decreases in OFDMA for higher order modulation schemes. The overall value of PAPR in SC-FDMA is still less than that of OFDMA in all modulation schemes, and that is why it has been adopted for uplink transmission in LTE system. Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded to adopt low order modulation

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XXII. REFERENCES [1] Broadband MIMO-OFDM Wireless Communications : PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 92, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2004 [2] Design and BER Performance of MIMOOFDM for Wireless Broadband Communications, International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) Vol.3, Issue.3, May-June. 2013 pp-1382-1385. [3] A Review on OFDM: Concept, Scope & its Applications, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSRJMCE) ISSN : 22781684 Volume 1, Issue 1 (May-June 2012), PP 07-11 [4] IMPLEMENTING SC-FDMA &OFDMA IN MATLAB: International Journal of Computing and Corporate Research ISSN (Online) : 2249-054X Volume 3 Issue 6 November 2013 International Manuscript ID : 2249054XV3I6112013-05 1 [5] A Modified Fast FFT Algorithm for OFDM Based Future Wireless Communication System: International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering (IJSCE) ISSN: 2231-2307, Volume-1, Issue-6, January 2012 [6] Fairness Aware Group Proportional Frequency Domain Resource Allocation in LSC-FDMA Based Uplink*: Int. J. Communications, Network and System Sciences, 2011, 4, 487-494 doi:10.4236/ijcns.2011.48060 Published Online August 2011 (http://www.SciRP.org/journal/ijcns) [7] Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Based Wireless Communication System for Digital Broadcast Applications: IP Multimedia Communications A Special Issue from IJCA www.ijcaonline.org

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[8] white paper: LTE: The Future of Mobile Broadband Technology [9] Long Term Evolution (LTE) & Ultra-Mobile Broadband (UMB) Technologies for Broadband Wireless Access [10] LTE: The Future of Mobile Broadband Technology [11] Theory of Frequency Division Multiplexing: http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/ph/p/id/269 [12] Noise Power and SNR Estimation for OFDM Based Wireless Communication Systems Acosta, Guillermo. “OFDM Simulation Using MATLAB” 2000 [13] Litwin, Louis and Pugel, Michael. “The Principles of OFDM” 2001 [14] Understanding an OFDM transmission: http://www.dsplog.com/2008/02/03/understandin g-an-ofdm-transmission/ [15] Minimum frequency spacing for having orthogonal sinusoidal http://www.dsplog.com/2007/12/31/minimumfrequencyspacing-for-having-orthogonalsinusoidal [16] G. Fay, "Wireless Data Networking," International Journal of Network Management, 8 March 1992, pp. 8-17. [17] ETSI, "Radio Broadcast Systems: Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) to mobile, portable and fixed receivers," ETSI final draft ETS 300 401, Nov 1994. [18] A Modified Fast FFT Algorithm for OFDM Based Future Wireless Communication System: International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering (IJSCE) ISSN: 2231-2307, Volume1, Issue-6, January 2012.

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