IAFOR Keynotes Series Frieda Mangunsong

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Frieda M. Mangunsong Becoming A Self-Regulated Nation Through Excellence Education

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ACE-ID2015 The Asian Conference on Education and International Development 2015 Osaka,Japan Frieda M. Mangunsong University of Indonesia Becoming A Self-Regulated Nation Through Excellence Education Abstract The formation of the ASEAN Economic Community in 2015 will have strong impacts on ASEAN countries, including Indonesia, which is becoming highly competitive at the regional level.

The competition is open in all aspects, with trade in goods, services, investment, and capital markets. Indonesia plays an important role in the future development of ASEAN because it has huge potential, not only in natural resources but also human resources, with a productive population. In order to be competitive with other countries, the quality of human resources is crucial, including excellent knowledge, resilient wellbeing and competency. Therefore, education also plays an important role in shaping and preparing individuals for excellence in various fields.

Unfortunately, the data from the ASEAN Productivity Organization (APO) found that from 1,000 Indonesian people, only 4.3% were skilled labourers in their field, others were just workers at the subordinate, blue collar level. This is influenced by several things, namely education in Indonesia, which with an unevenly distributed growing population, struggles with the implementation of free-education-for-all policy, up to Junior High. Public awareness for education to a quality-leverage higher level needs to be increased, so that the level of work as labourers, skilled and professional, in the regional and international job market is still a big challenge. In addition, education is generally performed more on the development of the cognitive aspects by means of memorizing as a passive learner, not an active, critical, and selfregulated learner. The character of learners also needs to be developed to a metacognitive thinker level, so that they can become a person who has truly mastered their respective fields, has creative ideas and continues to develop science-oriented or open employment with such expertise.

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Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) is a theoretical model that is closest to the demands of current developments, in which the individual is required to set their own goals, be self-directed to pursue the goal, and work independently (Wolters, 2005; Wolters, 2010; Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Here are some of the characteristics of how an individual/learner is constructed through SRL: a. Self-starters who can work independently to achieve goals b. Adaptable or able to adjust efficiently to varied roles, responsibilities and contexts. This competency also emphasizes an individual’s ability to work effectively within contexts that are ambiguous or that have shifting demands. Individuals are viewed as flexible with regard to their ability to incorporate feedback effectively, and to understand and respond to diverse views and beliefs. c. Collaboration and communication. Because they are motivated and effective at managing their environment, self-regulated learners are able to work with others in the academic context in a way that will aid them in the achievement of their personal learning goals.

To the extent that it will serve to further these learning goals, SRL would include effective collaboration with others. d. Critical thinking and problem solving. Self-regulated learners must make decisions about where and when to study, must judge their own abilities, and must reason with which strategies will be most effective within a given context. Hence, some forms of effective reasoning and problem solving may underlie the process of SRL. e. Good achievements. Though it is still arguable, SRL can predicts the student’s learning result or learning. Previous research found that students engaging in SRL or who have been trained in self-regulation processes do tend to evidence greater academic achievement. Studies of the seven grade students and above showed that SRL promotes or increases students’ acquisition of knowledge and skills within core content areas such as mathematics, English, social studies, reading, writing, and science. f.

Engagement. In addition to academic achievement, SRL has also been studied as a predictor of students’ engagement, effort, or persistence in academic tasks. As might be expected, students characterized more as self-regulated learners tended to evidence greater effort, engagement or persistence in the short term.

g. Attainment. In particular, motivational components of SRL such as self-efficacy, value, and interest have been implicated as predictors of students’ intentions and actual educational attainment.

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Students characterized as self-regulated learners are seen as more effective, efficient, and productive students when compared to their peers who fail to self-regulate. Further, development as a self-regulated learner within academic contexts is thought to provide a foundation of volition, motivation, and self-management that can transfer to important contexts outside of school; moreover, it’s to prepare them becoming a life-long learner (Lapan, 2004; Wolters, 2010; Brak, Lan, & Paton, 2010).

Components of Self-Regulated Learning Self-regulation is the control that students have over their cognition, behavior, emotions and motivation through the use of personal strategies to achieve the goals they have established. The components are: cognition (metacognition), behavior (what the student is actually doing to achieve the goals), emotion (students experience emotions while performing academic tasks or regulate negative emotions or generate positive emotions), and motivation control (being aware of one’s motivation and generating self-motivation, maintaining interest and attention during a task).

Theory of Self-Regulation, which is based on social cognitive theory Bandura, was introduced by Zimmerman in 2000 and continues to develop today. As research studies on self-regulation develop, the theoretical model of Zimmerman is considered more comprehensive than others (Clearly & Zimmerman, 2004; Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009; Panadero & Alonso-Topia, 2014).

Here is a conceptual model of the development that is done, which includes the stages and processes in the form of a cycle of self-regulation in more detail and how the three interact.

There are three phases in the cycle, i.e forethought, performance, and self-reflection (Clearly & Zimmerman, 2004; Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009; Panadero & Alonso-Topia, 2014).

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(Phases and processes of Self-regulation constructed by Zimmerman & Moylan, 2009) a. Forethought includes the process of setting goals and choosing appropriate strategies with confidence in his or her ability and personal interests. Forethought has two main processes to analyze the characteristics of the task based on the process and analysis of the value of the task for the individual. Self-regulation begins with the two main processes, namely the making and strategic planning purposes. The process of making the goal will be made based on the criteria to be achieved and the interest of individuals to achieve the desired criteria. Strategic planning is an attempt to choose appropriate strategies to determine what steps are necessary for desired achievements to be made. b. Performance includes work done to focus the students' attention and control the learning process. Performance consists of two main processes, namely self-observation and selfcontrol. Self-observation include self-monitoring and self-recording. Self-monitoring is a metacognitive process to assess the actions taken, while self-control is the process of controlling and supervising the behavior performed. c. Self-reflection includes a self-evaluation, self-satisfaction level towards the achievement obtained, investigation into the causes of the achievements, as well as the efforts that needs to be made next. Two main processes in self-reflection are self-judgment and selfreaction. Self-judgement is related to the performance of the student’s self-assessment that includes a self-evaluation based on the previous objectives and an explanation of the

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success achieved by themselves. The self-reaction includes cognitive and emotional responses associated with achieving the success or failure of acquired self.

Determining Factors Based on research conducted on students at various levels of education in various countries, it is known that self-regulation is formed by several factors both inside and outside of oneself (Ng, Lunar, Samsilah, Wong & Petri, 2005; Vohs and Baumeister, 2011; Pintrich, 2000). a. Internal Factors Neurological factor. Nervous system in the brain plays an important role in the process of cognitive, affective, and behavioral control in the SRL. Prefrontal cortex (PFC) covers a large area of the frontal lobe and is involved in many processes, such as working memory, attention control, inhibiting prepotent responses, and planning – all of which fall under the umbrella term ‘executive function’ (Miller & Cohen, 2001 in Vohs & Baumeister, 2011).The involvement of the PFC controls social behaviors, thoughts, emotions, and appetitive craving (e.g., food and drugs). There are three areas in PFC: ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), and anterior cingulate prefrontal cortex (ACC). VMPFC shares important reciprocal connection with subcortical regions involved in emotion and reward, and is critical for regulating behavior in the social, affective, and appetitive domain.

LPFC is important in core aspects in executive function and is necessary for planning behavior and maintaining regulatory goals. ACC is a region that is richly interconnected with cognitive, affective, and motor regions, motor our performance and signals the need for recruiting control systems to regulate our behavior.

Personality (temperament). The researchers found that greater temperamental fearfulness predicts greater early conscience development. Fearful children whose mothers made use of gentle socialization techniques also developed particularly highly internalized conscience, demonstrating an interaction between temperament and socialization in the development of internal control. Later in development, attentionally-based effortful control becomes particularly influential in the operation of children’s conscience. In further study of the link between self-regulatory temperament and the ability to consciously focus attention, the brain networks of executive attention might underlie effortful control. This hypothesis was also influenced by positive correlations found among attentional focusing, attentional shifting, and inhibitory control in self-reports of adults. Social influences on young children’s development of effortful control and the preschool and kindergarten years may prove to be a periods of particular plasticity for executive attention and effortful control (Vohs & Baumeister, 2011).

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Additional research in this area will be of great importance in fostering effective early education.

Motivation, intrinsic value, and Self-Efficacy. Social cognitive learning theory framework view self-regulation as comprising three sub processes: self-observation, self-judgment, and selfreaction (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 1990). Students enter learning activities with such goals as acquiring knowledge, solving problems, and finishing workbook pages. Self-efficacy for goal attainment is influenced by abilities, prior experiences, attitudes toward learning, instruction, and the social context. As students work on tasks, they observe their performances, evaluate goal progress, and continue their work or change their task approach. Self-evaluation of goal progress as satisfactory enhances feelings of efficacy; goal attainment leads students to set new challenging goals. Here is the model:

(Social cognitive process involved in Self-regulated Learning, Schunk, 1990) Self-regulatory skills require that students' goals be challenging but realistically attainable.

With realistic goals, students can monitor progress and decide on a different task approach if their present one is ineffective. Motivation is also necessary to implement the goals and strategy selection. Self-motivation is influenced by self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interests and values of duty, and goal orientation (Schunk, 1990; Pintrich & Groot, 1990; Yulie, 2004, Andranita, 2013). Self-efficacy is related to the ability of self-confidence in the execution of the task. It is increased as students note progress, attain goals, and set new challenges. Goals set too high or too low do not enhance self-regulated learning or achievement beliefs. The understanding of goals and the benefit of them will encourage individuals to do their tasks. Students perceive little progress toward lofty goals, which lowers self-efficacy and leads them to work halfheartedly and give up readily when they encounter difficulty. Easy goals do not produce high self-efficacy because they do not inform students of

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what they are capable of doing. High confidence will reflect the motivation and the use of strategies to overcome the difficulties in the execution of the task. Expectations of success in the execution of the task will reflect the magnitude of individual efforts to achieve the expected results.

Creativity and Task commitment. Both allow people to manage themselves in learning (Nugroho, 2003). This has become one of the explanations as to why creativity is a major contribution to self-regulated learning. Another characteristic of creativity is the courage to not always be subject to the usual regularity, or also called the creative courage. This is an advanced foundation for any creative person to manage and direct oneself. Creativity does not have to be interpreted against the rules. Creativity should actually require a lot of discipline but not rigidity; it does not necessarily have to be according to the rules but should not break the rules. These findings suggest the importance of improving the creativity that later can contribute greatly to the increase in SRL. b. External Factors Learning environment. Both teachers and parents are the educator for their students or children. School, as a place where students spend their day-to-day life, has a significant contribution to shaping SRL skills collaborating with parents at home. Teaching should begin with learning how to set goals that are 'SMART' (Specific, Measurement, Attainable, Realistic, Time-bound), teaching strategies, and monitoring and evaluating the students' learning process. Teaching goal setting can be done in different ways. Upper and lower limits on students' goals should be set(Schunk, 1990; Zimmerman, 2000). Limits can be removed when students understand the nature of the task and their immediate capabilities.

Learning method: child-centered directed classroom. The children in child-centered classes demonstrated more attitudes and behaviors that associated with self-regulated learning than children in teacher-centered classes. Though research (Sun, 2014) found that teachers’ explanations have no strong correlation with students’ SRL, it found that how the teacher facilitates the students to interact with each other and provide a positive atmosphere to learn gave a strong contribution to their SRL. When students are willing to interact with peers, they have a chance to choose various activities and materials that are interesting and meaningful to them. In contrast, teacher-directed classrooms pay more attention to basic skills that were not applied in meaningful activities and only controlled by teachers (Pintrich, 2000; Sun, 2014). Besides that, non-threatening evaluation practices, involvement in complex 7

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reading and writing activities, the provision of autonomy related to what students read and write, and the ability to modify learning tasks to control challenge are all contextual features that improve self-regulated learning in elementary students.

Modeling. Modeling is an effective means of building self-regulatory and academic skills and of raising self-efficacy. Achunk and Zimmerman (2007) did research that applied modeling to teach self-regulated learning to improve students' reading and writing in grades 4 and 5 SD. All children received 35-minute sessions each day for 15 consecutive school days. During these sessions an adult teacher modeled (explained and demonstrated) a strategy to answer questions involving main ideas. The strategy included five steps: read the questions; read the passage to find out what it is mostly about; think about what the details have in common; think about what would make a good title; reread the story if the answer isn't known to a question. Following the initial modeled demonstration, the model called on children to read and apply the strategy’s steps to passages they were reading.

Family. Children develop foundational skills for self-regulation in the first five years of life.

Significant others play an important role in helping them regulate thinking and behavior.

Teaching SR doesn’t require a separate curriculum. The most powerful way an adult helps a child learn SR is by modeling and scaffolding it during ordinary activities. Children must learn to evaluate what they see, hear, touch, taste, and smell and compare it to what they already know. Children must learn to use SR to communicate any number of systems to choose and carry out a response. Economic situation of the family also plays an important role in forming a child’s self-efficacy. Kim and Huang (2001) found that self-efficacy is strongly correlated with family income. It is also closely related to the mother’s obesity along with family income.

Learning infrastructure, levels of IT-integration. To optimise the learning process, IT-facilities and infrastructure in schools and society should be upgraded to produce a learning setting that supports self-regulation. Even though this may be costly, the returns will be worthwhile as there is the potential to produce independent, proactive and self-regulated learners.

Challenges for Indonesia’s Learners There are a number of challenges that exist in Indonesia which mean that self-regulation has not developed optimally. First, the curriculum in Indonesia still focuses on memorizing, not mastery.

On his dissertation Nugroho (2013) found that students at several favored schools in Central 8

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Java did not have critical thinking skills, but more emphasis on the acquisition of low-level cognitive abilities such as the ability to recall the taxonomy of Bloom in 1978. In addition, he mentioned that learning orientation in favored schools is generally the achievement of the final evaluation of a high value and the large number of students who can be accepted into college is famous through national admission test. As a result, learning to be more focused on content mastery alone, instead of learning how to learn it themselves.

In addition, government programs related to the determination of the educational curriculum has been less sustainable. The curriculum applied tends to vary depending on the leader so that teachers and students have to expend more effort to adapt with the changes in the curriculum within a fairly short time. Fortunately, the current government is following up on the preparation and implementation of the curriculum in 2013 as a new curriculum before it will be implemented throughout Indonesia.

Second, the awareness of self-regulation. Working independently with the goal, directing self to pursue the goal, and evaluating it is still uncommon in Indonesia. Research conducted by Andranita (2013) found that the assistance of parents when children learn and apply selfregulation strategies in the study greatly influenced the development of children's learning.

Parents who do not provide supervision or assistance make the SRL lesson that has been taught by the teacher unintegrated and untrained at home. It means that the learning process of SRL in students does not develop well. The learning processes at home, school, and society aren’t integrated.

Third, the opportunity to have excellence education. Indonesia is an archipelago whose population is scattered from Sabang to Merauke. A chance to get an excellence education was not fully spread evenly throughout the regions. Jakarta as capital city already shows concern for public health and education through several programs from government like “Kartu Jakarta Sehat” or “Kartu Jakarta Pintar”. But in other cities in Indonesia, it’s still not implemented. Not just throughout the regions, it is still limited and a barrier for learners, such as special learners, marginal people, and other high-risk people. For example, in Indonesia we are still struggling to implement the inclusive education for students with special needs. During this time, the emphasis on inclusive education is generally to give the opportunity for special students to learn in the same learning environment and lessons as other students.

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Conclusion The implementation of ASEAN Economic Community in 2015 demands the Indonesian people to be able to compete globally. The character of learners also needs to be developed so that they can become a person who has truly mastered their respective fields, has creative ideas, as well as continues to develop science-oriented or open employment with such expertise. A conceptual model called self-regulation is closest to the demands of current developments, in which the individual is required to set their own goals, be self-directed to pursue the goal (selfdirected, adaptive, flexible, able to collaborate), and work independently. In educational field, we call it self-regulated learning (SRL). SRL is a cycle process consisted of three phases: 1) Forethought phase (task analysis, goal setting, strategy planning), 2) Performance phase (selfcontrol, self-monitoring, self-observation), 3) Self-reflection phase (self-judgement, self-evaluation, self-satisfaction). Motivation and self-efficacy are involved in the whole processes. To develop a self-regulated learner, there are several internal and external determining factors which are significant to the student. The internal factors are neurological (brain development), personality included temperament, motivation, intrinsic value, self-efficacy, creativity and task commitment.

Furthermore, the external factors are learning environment, learning method, modeling, family, and learning infrastructure including the integration of IT. To achieve a nation that has a community with self-regulation, there are still some challenges to be solved in Indonesia, such as the curriculum and teaching methods that still focus on the mastery of content and how to get a good result, rather than the mastering of the material in depth and mastering the learning processes; public awareness of the importance of developing self-regulation early is still minimal where the approach taken by teachers at school, parents at home, and the community has not been integrated; and the last is the limited chance for special or high-risk population in Indonesia to get an excellence education.

Recommendation What should be done to become a self-regulated nation by increasing self-regulated learners through excellence education?

First, educate all the parties (school, family, and society), creating self-regulated spheres through the life of the learners, to understand the importance of becoming a self-regulated learner from the early stages of a child’s life, to have goal orientation, to be adaptive, flexible, collaborative, to be highly motivated, persistent in completing tasks, to face challenges, and be successful. It is important to involve all parties in an excellence education, starting from early childhood education, including education that starts early from home, continuing and integrating to formal 10

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education, collaborating with parents and communities engagement for community education.

Integrated also with the media to build a culture of learners with good self-regulation, such as goal-oriented, critical thinking, able to establish strategies to achieve goals, problem solving, manage themselves, reflect and evaluate the learning process. All parties could also implement these several methods with direct instruction and modeling, especially for children with special needs, guided and independent practice, and social support from teachers and peers (giving positive feedback or progressive feedback). Self-regulated learning intervention are also effective, not just for the general student population, but also for various groups of learners who are at risk for academic performance of students with learning difficulties. For example, government collaborating with the practitioners, school or society organization could develop modules and training for teachers and parents to increase their awareness and knowledge about self-regulated learning. Therefore, they could implement their skills to their children or students and together creat an atmosphere that enhances a self-regulated learner’s character.

Second, self-regulated learning and self-efficacy can’t be separated. To develop an excellence education, it is important to enhance a student’s self-efficacy to applicate self-regulation in learning. To build students’ self-efficacy teachers (or even parents) should ensure that students experience learning progress and success, expose them to successful models, and provide encouraging feedback substantiated by success. Teachers can incorporate these sources of selfefficacy information into classrooms by teaching self-regulation strategies to use during reading and writing activities, employing adult and peer models, and providing persuasive information (i.e., progress feedback). Although actual performance success constitutes the best source of selfefficacy information, vicarious and persuasive sources also are effective. When using models it is often advantageous to expose students to multiple models, which can increase the likelihood that the students will perceive themselves as similar to at least one model. Teachers often do this, for example when they form students into groups to work on projects. Students who have encountered previous learning difficulties may also benefit from observing models who initially experience some problems but through effective coping methods gradually become successful.

When students perceive the peer models as similar to themselves they are apt to feel selfefficacious for learning, believing that if the peers could learn they can as well.

Third, the educational equity for every region in Indonesia and renewing the curriculum are very important. It should be developed according to the uniqueness and characteristics of every region. The current government has a good improvement plan that aims to mag, approach, increase, and assess the students in Indonesia. It is important that the curriculum should be 11

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emphasize the mastery, not just memorize the entire subject matter without regard to students' interests and talents. The government needs to not only consider of area differences, but also needs to consider the different needs of high risk population such as poor children, children with special needs, and unemployment. Furthermore,we need to develop sustainable programs, such as the curriculum is not merely change where teachers and students have to start a new curriculum from the beginning just like happened before. Identification of an advanced student interest talents important because students can start practicing to set goals ranging from simple based on what he likes or he is capable of doing. Therefore, the introduction of a career to children from an early age can also be done so that he has a goal orientation and know the benefits of what he learned today of the everyday life and on the lives of his profession available, either it is in the local, national, geographical and global context.

Finally, all parts who involved in the development of a child's life, ranging from family, school, peers, community, and other organizations need to keep an eye on policies held by the government and give constructive feedback as well as the creation of a culture of self-regulation, actively contribute and cooperate each other.

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References Andranita, Marchantia. (2013). Self-regulation empowerment program to enhance self-regulation skill of coasting underachiever. Thesis. Magister Program of Educational Psychology of University of Indonesia.

Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st century skills and competences for New Millennium Learners in OECD countries. Paris, France: Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) – New Millennium Learners.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Brak, L. B., Lan, W. Y., & Paton, V. O. (2005). Profiles in Self-Regulated Learning in the Online Learning Environment. (2010). The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 11 (1).

Cleary, T. J., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Self-regulation empowerment program: a school-based program to enhance self-regulated and self-motivated cycles of student learning. Psychology in the Schools, 41(5), 537-550 Ng, L., Kamariah, A. B., Samsilah, R., Wong, S. L., & Petri, Z. M. Predictors of self-regulated learning in Malaysian smart schools. International Education Journal, 2005, 6(3), 343-353 Nugroho. (2003). Model increase in self - regulated learning: the study of the relationship between the constructivism learning process, emotional intelligence, creative thinking and critical thinking and self-regulated learning in favorite public high school students in Semarang.

Dissertation. Doctoral Program of Faculty of Psychology of University of Indonesia.

Panadero, E., & Alonso-Tapia, J. (2014). How do students self-regulate? Review of Zimmerman’s cyclical model of self-regulated learning. Anales de Psicología, 30, 450-462.

Pintrich, P.R., De Groot. E.V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning component of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 1, 33-40.

Pintrich, P.R. (2000). The role of goal orientation in self-regulated learning. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Ed.). Handbook of Self-Regulation. San Diego: Academic Press.

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 23, 7-25.

Sun, Liping. (2014). Promoting self-regulation in the classroom: effects of teacher, academic tasks, and peers. Thesis. Master’s Degree Programme in Learning, Education and Technology of University of Oulu.

Wolters, C., Pintrich, P., & Karabenick, S. (2005). Assessing academic self-regulated learning. In K. Moore & L. Lippman (Eds.), What do children need to flourish?: Conceptualizing and measuring indicators of positive development. New York, Springer.

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Wolters, Ch. (2010). Self-regulated learning and the 21st-century competencies. University of Houston, Department of Educational Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.hewlett.org/ uploads/ Self_Regulated_Learning__21st_Century_Competencies.pdf Yulian, Tan. (2004). The differentiation of self-regulation in learning among students in University of Indonesia. Thesis. Magister Program of Developmental Psychology of University of Indonesia.

Zimmerman, B. J., & Moylan, A. R. (2009). Self-regulation: Where metacognition and motivation intersect. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky& A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Handbook of Metacognition in Education. New York: Routledge.

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Frieda Mangunsong has been a lecturer at the Faculty of Psychology of University of Indonesia since 1980. She has also been a senior staff member in the Department of Educational Psychology since 1984. In her academic field of expertise she is wellknown for her concern for the education of children with special needs, demonstrated in her work as a consultant in many of the school’s educational programs and institutions, as well as her research, program development and evaluation on inclusive education, women empowerment and well-being involving children, youth and families.

She was formerly the Chairperson of the Crisis Center Faculty of Psychology, University of Indonesia (Pusat Krisis Fakultas Psikologi Ul), between 2005-2008, then continued as a board member. She served as one of the leadership team and trainers for Crisis Center, with extensive experience in conflict areas such as Ambon, Lhoksemauwe, etc. Her training topics ranged from conflict resolutions to psychosocial training and classroom management for teachers in conflict and natural disaster areas. After serving as the Head of the Educational Psychology Department in 2009, she was a coordinator of the postgraduate Program of Disaster Psychology & Trauma in the Faculty of Psychology until 2011, and from 2011, she has been a head of Undergraduate (Regular, Parallel & International) Program in the Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia; and since 2014 in charge as a Head of Professor’s Committee This keynote address was delivered at The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2015 held in Osaka, Japan. iafor keynotes ISSN: 2187-4905 www.iafor.org