Jacket illustration: St Gregory of Nazianzus, in monk’s garb, writing his liturgical homilies in a spectacular imaginary architectural composition. Manuscript illustration, Monastery of St Catherine, Sinai (Byzantine Cultural Museum Thessaloniki); (Back): St Saviour in Chora, Constantinople, East Elevation. Apse Semi-dome and Naos Dome (centre), Parekklesion (left) Annex (right) (Ebersholt & Thiers/The Dorian Press)
THE SACRED ARCHITECTURE OF BYZANTIUM
THE SACRED ARCHITECTURE OF BYZANTIUM ART, LITURGY A ND SYMBOLISM IN EAR LY CHR ISTI A N CHURCHES
ART, LITURGY AND SYMBOLISM IN EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCHES
NICHOL AS N PATRICIOS
www.ibtauris.com
THE SACRED ARCHITECTURE OF BYZANTIUM
ART, LITURGY AND SYMBOLISM IN EAR LY CHR ISTIAN CHURCHES
Nicholas N. Patricios is Professor of Architecture at the University of Miami. His previous books include Kefallinia and Ithaki: A Historical and Architectural Odyssey (2002).
NICHOLAS N PATRICIOS
The churches of the Byzantine era were built to represent heaven on earth. Architecture, art and liturgy were intertwined in them to a degree that has never been replicated elsewhere, and the symbolism of this relationship had deep and profound meanings. Sacred buildings and their spiritual art underpinned the Eastern liturgical rites, which in turn influenced architectural design and the decoration which accompanied it. Nicholas N. Patricios here offers a comprehensive survey, from the age of Constantine to the fall of Constantinople, of the nexus between buildings, worship and art. His identification of seven distinct Byzantine church types, based on a close analysis of 370 church building plans, will have considerable appeal to Byzantinists, lay and scholarly. Beyond categorizing and describing the churches themselves, which are richly illustrated with photographs, plans and diagrams, the author interprets the sacred liturgy that took place within these holy buildings, tracing the development of the worship in conjunction with architectural advances made up to the fifteenth century. Focusing on buildings located in 22 different locations, this sumptuous book is an essential guide to individual features such as the synthronon, templon and ambo and also to the wider significance of Byzantine art and architecture.
Nicholas N. Patricios is Professor and Dean Emeritus of Architecture at the University of Miami. His previous books include Kefallinia and Ithaki: A Historical and Architectural Odyssey (2002).
The Sacred Architecture of Byzantium Art, Liturgy and Symbolism in Early Christian Churches
Nicholas N. Patricios
Published in 2013 by I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd 6 Salem Road, London W2 4BU 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010 www.ibtauris.com Distributed in the United States and Canada Exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010 Copyright Š 2013 Nicholas N. Patricios The right of Nicholas N. Patricios to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Classical Studies: 4 ISBN: 978 1 78076 291 3 A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library A full CIP record is available from the Library of Congress Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: available Printed and bound in China by Everbest’
St Gregory of Nazianzus, in monk’s garb, writing his liturgical homilies in a spectacular imaginary architectural composition. Manuscript illustration, Monastery of St Catherine, Sinai
CONTENTS
Prologue Preface Acknowledgements
ix xi xvii
1
Church and State
2
Sacred Architecture
38
3
Splendid Churches
88
4
Spiritual Art
245
5
Places of Splendid Spiritual Art
278
6
Liturgy of the Eucharist
373
7
Symbolism in Architecture and Art
389
Epilogue Notes Further Reading Bibliography Illustrations, Credits and Sources Index
405 407 409 413 419 439
1
CHURCH AND STATE
11
he saw with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and bearing the inscription “In this sign, you shall conquer” (Εν Τούτω Νίκα).’ Constantine had his soldiers place the sign on their shields and in the ensuing battle successfully defeated Maxentius. He attributed his victory to the use of the sign. There is no agreement on what the sign was but it was a Christian symbol, either the simple cross or the monogram-like cross Chi Rho (ΧΡ, the first two letters of the greek spelling of the word Christ superimposed).
The following year, on 13 June 313, the co-emperors Constantine and Licinius met in Milan to discuss matters pertaining to the ‘benefit and security of the state’ following which they issued their ‘Edict of Milan’ also known as the Edict of Tolerance. The first action in the edict was to ‘grant to Christians (christianis) and all others free authority to follow whatever religion anyone chooses … and everyone who bears a desire to observe the religion of the Christians may now finally and plainly do just that without annoyance or molestation’. The Edict went on to order the return to Christian corporations, that is, their churches (ecclesiarum), properties previously confiscated and the restoration of ‘places at which they were formerly accustomed to assemble’. Despite their joint action relations between the two co-emperors deteriorated. In 324 Constantine defeated Licinius and went on to reunite the eastern and western halves of the Roman Empire. He declared himself the sole Augustus ruler. In the domain of Christian doctrine Constantine convoked a Council of all the bishops of the Empire at Nicaea in 325. He presided over
16. Mummy panel, Hawara
17. Funeral portrait, Egypt
12
the sacred architecture of byzantium
deliberations to resolve doctrinal disputes that raged in Christendom. Constantine thus helped move Christianity from the fringe to the mainstream of Roman religions. With imperial recognition of the Christian Church bishops were accorded the status of senior officials. Like them, bishops wore the dress of the Roman upper classes and came to be preceded by candles and incense in official processions. In the catacombs of Rome, carved into the soft tufa rock, the earliest Christian images appear. Not surprisingly Christian wall paintings in the small chapels and tombs shared the pagan art style of the time but in content the subject matter consisted of meaningful spiritual images, one of the most popular being that of the ‘Good Shepherd’.
18. Tomb of the Aurelii, Rome. Christ and apostles shown without halos at early stage of Christian art
20. Catacomb SS Pietro e Marcellino, Christ between SS Peter and Paul
19. Catacomb Coemeterium Majus, Rome. Mary and Christ Child with Chi Rho symbol (on the left)
21. Catacomb fresco of Christ
church and state
22. Catacomb Commodila, Rome. Enthroned Virgin Mary and Christ Child flanked by the widow Turtura and SS Adauctus (left) and Felix (right)
24. Santa Maria Antiqua in Forum, Rome. Fresco remains of Virgin Mary and Christ Child
13
23. Santa Maria Nova, Rome. Virgin Mary
25. Santa Maria Antiqua in Forum, Rome. Crucifixion fresco
14
the sacred architecture of byzantium
26. Santa Maria Domnica Apse, Rome. Mosaic with Virgin Mary and Christ Child
27. Good Shepherd statue, Rome. Lateran Museum
After the Edict of Milan was issued Christians were now free to worship in public. Up to this time Christians had assembled in private houses and in converted buildings. Now they could gather in large, purpose-built buildings – churches – without fear. Constantine began a programme of building Christian churches that was continued by his successors. Imperial resources from money to architects, masons and artists were made available to build magnificent churches in capitals and leading cities. Christianity became the sole and official religion of the Empire under the pious Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) when he closed down the pagan temples and made the Christianity as practiced in Rome the state religion. From then on imperial patronage had profound consequences due to the influence exerted by the emperor on both church architecture and worship. The authority of the emperor on the Christian religion became all-encompassing, which is at odds with the modern idea in the West of separation of church and state. With Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, state and church became intertwined as never before. In 381, Theodosius called together bishops and leading theologians to meet as a Council in Constantinople to define orthodox (‘right-thinking’) Christian belief. Although Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire it absorbed its liturgy from Antioch primarily through the transfer of several bishops to the capital. Other centres of liturgical influence in the fourth century besides Antioch were Rome, Alexandria and Jerusalem. But Constantinople as the New Rome eventually became the centre of architectural and liturgical influence. The liturgical rite of the main church in
church and state
15
New Rome, the Great Church of the Holy Wisdom, gradually spread to become by the twelfth century virtually the only rite in what came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox churches. Theodosius I and his dynastic successors spent large sums building churches, including in places such as Milan and Ravenna, and adorning them on a lavish scale. Although these cities benefitted the most from imperial generosity, towns such as Thessaloniki, Ephesus, Alexandria and those in Syria and elsewhere in the Near East also gained.
28. Thessaloniki, early Christian cemetery. Tomb relocated to the Byzantine Museum, Thessaloniki
29. Thessaloniki, early Christian cemetery. Chi Rho symbol
30. Thessaloniki, early Christian cemetery. The cross as a dominant symbol in tomb iconography
31. Thessaloniki, early Christian cemetery. Ancient motifs as Christian symbols of paradise
16
the sacred architecture of byzantium
While the Eastern Empire remained stable and provided a continuously safe environment for the building of churches the same cannot be said for the Western Empire which experienced periods of uncertainty. In 410 Rome was sacked by Alaric the Visigoth, and by the Vandals in 425 and 455. According to tradition Roman authorities pleaded with the Visigoth leader not to destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants. Alaric agreed and the gates of Rome were thrown open to him and his men spared the apostolic churches and allowed people to seek asylum in them. The Vandals in their second raid did, however, plunder the city and looted great amounts of treasure. A new group of Goths entered imperial territory in 473. They were the Ostrogoths from across the Danube but they had good relations with Byzantine authorities. Emperor Zeno (r. 474–491) in fact adopted their leader Theodoric who spent a decade living in Constantinople. In the meantime, in 476, the last Western Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by another Ostrogoth, Odoacre. The year 476 is thus considered by most scholars as the end of the Western Roman Empire. Due to the unsettled situation in the West Theodoric was sent to Italy in 488. After a four year struggle he managed to gain the upper hand and brought peace, order, and security to Italy – something unknown for decades. He engaged in an extensive public works programme in Ravenna, Rome and elsewhere. The Ostrogoths were Christian converts and showed respect for the city’s churches and shrines. With the Roman secular administration dismantled the Bishop of Rome assumed a central role in the preservation of Romanitas. Revenues from the church’s holdings in North Africa enabled it to continue to build new churches and to convert ‘house churches’ into large churches. In 590 Gregory I (the Great) became pope and within five years he reorganized the western liturgy into the socalled Gregorian Sacramentary and introduced singing that is known today as the ‘Gregorian Chant’. In the Eastern Roman Empire the sixth century was a golden age in Byzantine history. It was the ‘Age of Justinian’ that included the reigns of Justin I (518– 527), Justinian I (527–565) and Justin II (565–578). Justinian I ruled for 38 years and his reign is regarded as the most illustrious of any Byzantine Emperor. As Emperor of the Eastern Empire he conquered Italy to reunite the western part to achieve his vision of a unified Roman Empire. He extended the areas of the Empire to North Africa and Spain turning the Mediterranean into an imperial lake. He was served by very able and loyal generals and ministers and advised by a remarkable wife, Theodora. His very capable general, Belisarius, between 532 and 534, destroyed the Vandal kingdom that had lasted for a number of decades. Justinian I, seeing himself as a new Constantine, initiated a vast building programme, including many churches, that are described by Procopius of Caesarea (c.500–c.565) in his book Edifices (‘Peri Ktismaton’) 32. Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565)
church and state
written between 553 and 555. Although the book was more a flattering work on the building programme of the emperor it is no exaggeration that the ‘Age of Justinian’ still represents the high point of Early Byzantine church architecture. When most of Constantinople was destroyed by fire during the Nika Rebellion (from shouts of ‘Victory’ by rebels) in 532 Justinian himself was nearly toppled. He, however, seized the opportunity and rebuilt the city with astonishing speed that included rebuilding churches and adding new ones, 33 according to Procopius. Besides the riots the other dramatic event of Justinian’s reign was the plague that raged in Constantinople from 542 to 544, which it is estimated killed half the city’s population. Justinian himself was infected and was gravely ill for some time but he was fortunate to be one of the few to recover. His reign also saw a concerted attack against the remnants of Hellenistic paganism in the empire. The University of Athens was closed in 529 and exclusively Christian learning and culture was promoted.
17
33. Empress Theodora, wife of Justinian I
Monasticism A major feature of the Byzantine world was monasticism. In Egypt at the beginning of the fourth century St Anthony (250–357) became the inspiration for embracing an ascetic life. As not many could follow his difficult way St Pachomius (c.292–346) founded the first community based arrangement, known as cenobitic monasticism, in which monks lived in religious hamlets, the first monasteries proper. Each of these monasteries had a church, a refectory, huts and an enclosing wall. In their hamlets the Pachomian monks arranged separate huts in parallel lines separated by a space. This arrangement became known as the lávra, the ancient Greek word for lane or passage. St Basil of Caesarea (330–379) was the great monastic founder in the East and prominent as one of the greatest church fathers. He wrote the rules for a community monastic life that became the standard in the Byzantine and later Eastern Orthodox world. After the expansion of hundreds of monasteries in the late fourth and during the fifth centuries in the Nile Valley in Egypt monasticism spreading to Palestine, Syria and Anatolia. By the sixth century the idea of religious communities living in monasteries was widespread with hundreds of monasteries being founded in Asia Minor and Greece. In Constantinople alone there were about 100 monasteries. Monasticism was about individuals who sought withdrawal from the urges of worldly society to lead a truly religious life. Underlying monasticism was the desire of the monk (mónos or alone in Greek) for union of mind and heart with God through prayer. To achieve this aim a monk sought separation from the attractions and distractions of the world. Spiritual solitude could be achieved in
18
the sacred architecture of byzantium
one of three ways – the physical solitude of a hermit (‘one who dwells in the desert’), isolation of an anchorite (‘one who retires or withdraws’), or the communal life of a monastery which most preferred known as the cenobitic (koinóvion) way of life. Justinian encouraged monastic life and founded the famous Monastery of St Catherine in the Sinai desert, built between 550 and 565. An example of the new emphasis on Christian values was the book Ladder of Divine Ascent written in the seventh century by John Klimakos, a monk at the monastery of St Catherine at Sinai. This work became one of the most widely read books of the time and not only among monks. The Ladder, with Jacob’s Ladder as an analogy, describes how to raise one’s body and soul to God through acquiring ascetic virtues. In Byzantine monasticism an abbot, called igoúmenos or kathegoúmenos, headed each monastery. A foundation charter (typikόn) laid down the procedures for his election which was normally confirmed by the local bishop. Monks in the monasteries lived under fixed practices and the rule of a superior, the igoúmenos, and centred their lives on day and night services of the Divine Liturgy. Time was also set aside for instruction and private devotion. Each monk, in addition, shared in the monastery’s daily tasks of administration and special duties. These obligations included care of the poor or supervision of medical services. Monasticism in the Eastern Church began and remains today a lay movement. In the West St Benedict of Nursia (480–547) wrote the rules for Latin-speaking monasteries. The sixth-century monastery of St Catherine in the Sinai is of great significance as it is one of the oldest and is well preserved. Mount Athos, however, was and remains today the major monastic centre of Eastern Orthodoxy. In 885 Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) issued a chrysobull that proclaimed the peninsula in northeast Greece as a Holy Mountain and a place for monks. The monk Athanasios arrived on Mount Athos in 958 and built the first monastery of Megistis Lavra. Over the following centuries many other monasteries were built and 20 still function today. Many monasteries were funded by emperors and wealthy individuals. Megistis Lavra was built in a fortified manner with monks’ cells and other functions forming a perimeter defensive like wall.
34. Heavenly ladder of St John Klimakos
35. St Athanasios. Founder of Megistis Lavra Monastery, Mount Athos
church and state
36. Emperor Nikephoros Phokas (r. 963–969). Patron of Megistis Lavra Monastery, Mount Athos (Painting by Theophanes)
38. Monastery of Megistis Lavra, Mount Athos. Imaginary representation of the walled complex with the katholikon in the middle (Watercolour)
37. Emperor John Tzimiskes (r. 969– 976). With a model of the katholikon (main church) of the Megistis Lavra Monastery (Painting by Theophanes)
39. Monastery of Panteleimon, Mount Athos. Katholikon and two other churches in the central courtyard (Lithograph)
19
I. Typical Domed Byzantine Church. Artist’s concept of Holy Apostles, Constantinople
II. Rome, Sant’Agnese Fuori le Mura. Nave looking toward triumphal arch and semi-dome of bema apse
III. Rome, San Lorenzo Fuori le Mura. Nave looking toward triumphal arch and raised sanctuary
IV. Rome, Santa Sabina. Nave looking toward triumphal arch and semi-dome of sanctuary apse
V. Ravenna, San Apollinare in Classe. Semi-circular sanctuary apse and semi-dome
VI. Constantinople, Hagia Sophia. Mosaic of the Theotokos with Emperors Constantine and Justinian over south door of inner narthex