3. Results and discussion

Referencing buyouts, Young (2018) argues that managed retreat is often seen as a non-option for most landowners; he writes “retreat is the option that dare not speak its name” (Young, 2018, 527). Researchers such as Koslov (2016) and Gross (2019), note similar feelings amongst politicians and homeowners faced with a buyout.

The language used to describe buyouts, and managed retreat more generally, is a useful place to begin evaluating the social license of coastal adaptation strategies. What people say about buyouts often implies certain expectations and beliefs about actors, their roles and what the meaning of retreat means (Koslov, 2016; Maldonado et al., 2020). In both popular media and academic literature, it is relatively common to see coastal managers and property owners equating “retreat” with “failure” or defeat (Koslov, 2016; Young, 2018; Siders, 2019; Maldonado et al., 2020). During one interview, a participant said, “I look at retreat as running away, and fixing something as going head-on, and what’s best, right?” (Participant 3, 2021). Increasing the social license of a buyout program will therefore likely involve challenging deeply held beliefs about government’s responsibility to address hazards, the approaches that government ‘should’ take, and understandings of environmental processes, emotions and perceptions.

Several studies have sought to understand these beliefs, and the factors that drive people to accept or reject a buyout even in the face of repeated loss and tragedy. The academic literature is clear in noting that people resist or accept buyouts for many reasons and these reasons are heterogeneous across space and time (Robinson et al., 2018; Dachary-Bernard et al., 2019; Frimpong et al., 2019; Seebauer & Winkler, 2020). Researchers generally agree that attachment to place, property condition, relocation site characteristics, location in the floodplain, and distance to the coast can all impact the uptake of a buyout program (Frimpong et al., 2019). However, other issues also have influence, including repeated hazard/risk exposure, financial agency, real estate markets, access to information, and community ties (Bukvic et al., 2018; Frimpong et al., 2019; Bukvic, 2020). That said, the literature agrees that these factors are heavily context dependent (Bukvic et al., 2018; Frimpong et al., 2019; Bukvic, 2020). During interviews, multiple participants identified several of the above issues, including place attachment, return on investment, the political viability of retreat, and existing social tensions.

Figure 6: Damaged breakwall and armour stone revetment

As elsewhere, addressing place attachment is an important factor when considering the social license of a proactive buyout for ESD, and place attachment is difficult to overcome quickly. Given the emotional connection people have to land they inhabit, many homeowners are resistant to relocation (Lawrence et al., 2020; Seebauer & Winkler, 2020; Doberstein et al., 2019). Participant 6 noted that many of the dwellings along ESD have existed there for a significant amount of time, with multiple generations of a family inhabiting their property: “There are people who are like ‘I’ve had this cottage in my family for 70 years and I want to pass it on to my children’” (Participant 6, 2021).

In addition to emotional investment, place attachment is also related to the perceived value of a property and thus, acceptable levels of buyout compensation (Robinson et al., 2018). Houses and property often represent a significant proportion of homeowners’ wealth, so determining the value of a property and a “fair” buyout offer is a challenge for almost all buyout programs (Frimpong et al., 2019; Siders, 2019; Seebauer & Winkler, 2020; Thistlethwaite et al., 2020). Participants mentioned that many residents have invested heavily in their property, either through home purchase, repair/ renovation, or upgrades to protective infrastructure (see Figure 6). Participants 1, 2, 3 and 6 (2021) indicated that meeting property owners’ desire for a fair return on their investment, or otherwise convincing them to leave without fair compensation, would be extremely difficult. Participant 2 (2021) stated that, for homeowners, “walking away is akin to burning your money.” Typically, a homeowner’s need for compensation at fair market value contrasts sharply with the financial reality for Municipal or Provincial governments, neither of which usually have the funds set aside to finance a buyout and naturalization program (estimated at $55 million dollars for ESD) (Zuzek, 2020). As a result, justifying the expense and effort of buyouts to the public and elected municipal officials represents an important part of making a buyout socially viable.

Beyond funding the program, existing relationships and tensions between the government and residents are likely to have an impact on the social license of a buyout (Binder & Greer, 2016; Bukvic & Owen, 2017; Binder et al., 2020). Following Hurricane Sandy, some residents of Oakwood Beach, Staten Island in New York revealed that they felt abandoned by the government, and that the absence of support in Sandy’s wake was only the latest demonstration of an historic lack of regard for them (Binder & Greer, 2016). ESD residents displayed similar sentiments over the course of the study, and in both interviews and media comments. One participant mentioned:

“ … I don’t see Chatham-Kent working with any of the individual homeowners. And they know.

They’re well aware because they’ve put in spillways and they’ve put the rip rap down and they have temporary measures in place, so they already know the dedicated problem zones and instead of dealing with this problem head on they [implement reactive measures that are not on the homeowner level].”

Another resident said during a CTV interview, “Nobody’s ever cared about us… They love our taxes, don’t get me wrong. We pay top dollar to live on the lake. But when the lake is in your house, you know, different story…” (CTV Windsor, 2020).

Dealing with these issues – emotional attachment, finances, and existing tensions – as a backdrop to attempts to implement an acceptable and fair buyout program will require a significant, creative and sustained effort. The following sections present five elements derived from the buyout literature which, if combined, could help overcome these obstacles by improving the fit, transparency and relationships developed in a buyout program, and thus, the social licence of buyouts.