Isamu Noguchi Design in Society Design Pioneers GRAP2919
INSPIRATION
Assesment Task 3 MILAN MOMIROSKI s3850224
1
CONTENTS: 1. Introduction 2. Section 1 3. Task 1: Poster 4. Reflection 5. Task 2: Essay 6. Section 2 7. Biography: Isamu Noguchi 8. Timeline: Isamu Noguchi 9. Task 3: Inspired Furniture Design
INTRODUCTION: The contents of this booklet are intended to document the process and final culmination of all three tasks undertaken within the last semester. The first task: a poster and supporting document was made to give an overview of Mid-Modernism, a time period between 1920 to 1945. The poster’s design and style is supposed to emulate the style of an assigned graphic designer, in our team’s case, Pentagram president: Paula Scher. Task 2 is an essay on a chosen artist, I chose JapaneseAmerican artist Isamu Noguchi. Task 3 is this booklet; my understanding and recognition of Noguchi’s work and producing a design based on those works.
2
SECTION 1:
The Self, Isamu Noguchi, 1956
3
TASK 1: POSTER For task 1, we worked in teams to produce a poster filled with information related to our assigned time period: Mid-Modernism (19201945). We were also tasked with producing a supporting document which outlined all of our design choices and gave further insight on the several artists we chose to include on the poster. An assigned graphical artist’s work (in our case, Paula Scher) would form the foundation for our poster, unto which we strived to emulate her specific style. Included in this section is; information from the poster relevant to the time period in which Noguchi would have lived through, and/or important to the general geist of the Mid-Modernist era.
Final Poster.
4
Benito Mussolini, Cesare Maria de Vecchi and Michele Bianchi in 1922.
In 1922, an event which became known as “The March on Rome� took place. Led by Benito Mussolini, The National Fascist Party held a mass demonstration on the streets of Rome which ultimately led to their gaining power in the Kingdom of Italy. Although outnumbered and unprepared, Mussolini and the Fascist Party realised that the existing government and the King would try to avoid any unnecessary bloodshed, thus easily forfeiting power over to them in an attempt to avoid a civil war. The memory of World War 1 was also still extremely fresh in their minds. This event is important as it paved the way for fascism in Europe, and was the first of many such nationalistically driven takeovers.
In 1929, The Great depression occurs. This was a global economic catastrophy caused by a stock market crash which sent Wall Street scrambling. As a result, hyper-inflation occurred which caused the prices of goods and ordinary essential items such as bread to rise dramatically. There are accounts and records of people paying for such items using wheelbarrows full of money. This event and the assumption that the freemarket would eventually correct itself caused the creation of the welfare state, which did very little to help the situation.
Migrant Mother, Dorothea Lange, 1936
5
Walker Evans, Alabama Tenant Farmer, 1936. 6
Adolf Hitler Giving a Speech.
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Party (NAZI) party, take power of Germany in a rigged election. Thus begins the era of Fascism in Germany. Hitler and the NAZI Party ban any form of art or expression deemed “degenerate�. As a result, in the same year, the Bauhaus School of Art is shutdown. Many artists fled from Germany at this time causing an influx of creative minds in places such as The United Kingdom and The United States, many of whom would make a name for themselves in their new homes.
German Soldier During WW2.
In 1939, The Second World War breaks out. German aggression against neighbouring nations and the invasion of Poland causes diplomacy to crumble as the Allied forces of Britain, France and others declare war on Germany.
7
POSTER DESIGNS AND INSPIRATION The work of Paula Scher was the basis for the final poster that was created. Paula Scher is famous for her use of typography, she has also designed logos for large companies such as Citi and Microsoft. Here are a few examples of the major inspirations which influenced the design process: Paula Scher; born, 6 October 1948; is a female graphic designer. She is currently one of the most influential graphics designers of our current era. Some of her most recognisable works were through the graphic consultancy company Pentagram (where she was the first female principal after joining in 1991).
Paula Scher.
Public Theatre 1995-96 poster
CBS poster
8
REFLECTION Task 1 enabled me to gain much insight into the era of Mid-Modernism. Through learning of key events which shaped that period, I was able to understand the mind set of the people that lived within it. The amount of information gathered and emplaced onto both the support document and the poster was substantial, and working in a team setting allowed that to be possible. No experience is without its faults however, as difficulty was found in coordinating team member roles and the centralisation of key information toward the task itself.
9
TASK 2: ESSAY For task 2, working individually; we were tasked with producing an essay. The topic and title of the essay were at our own discretion, and I decided to write about Isamu Noguchi. I chose Noguchi as I was fascinated with his body of work and also himself as an individual; he being half Japanese and American. Isamu Noguchi (1904–1988) - Man of The Rising Sun? Considered one of the most important modernist designers of the 20th century, Isamu Noguchi’s legacy can still be felt today. Although best known as a sculptor; a decades long career filled with distinguished works in various fields of art such as furniture design and architecture prove that he is a multi-faceted and skilled artist. His most recognisable piece of furniture design: The Noguchi Table (1947), is still manufactured and sold today by furniture company, Herman Miller. Noguchi was a part of the Mid-Modernist era of Modern Art and was part of the “Biomorphism” movement. Isamu Noguchi’s evolution as an artist is almost story like as he learns to reconcile his relationship with a semi-present father and begins to embrace a Japanese art aesthetic. Born to a Japanese father and American mother, Isamu Noguchi began his life in Los Angeles, California in 1904. His father: Yonejiro Noguchi was an influential writer and poet. His mother: Leonie Gilmour, was Yonejiro Noguchi’s editor and translator during Yonejiro’s brief stay in New York. The couple met in 1901 although they never officially married. Hisako Matsui, director of the 2010 Leonie Gilmour biopic: Leonie, claims: “Yone (Yonejiro) was drawn to Leonie for her adamant professionalism, she was never a woman to let personal issues or problems interfere with work. You just didn’t find women like that, least of all in Japan. Yone may not have loved her in the conventional way but he respected her deeply.” (Matsui, 2010). Yonejiro later returned to his native Japan just 3 months prior to their son’s birth, where the couple maintained an epistolary correspondence. The infant Noguchi remained nameless for the first few years of his life; his mother awaiting input from his father via letters in which she refers to the infant Noguchi as, Yosemite, a possible nod to his father. In these letters, Gilmour and Yonejiro discuss plans to relocate the family to Japan. Despite initial reservations toward the move, Gilmour quickly reverses her decision; and by 1907, the move was complete. During the brief period between Isamu Noguchi’s birth and the relocation to Japan, Noguchi’s father begins a relationship with his house servant, Matsuko Takeda, with whom he had a child; Hifumi, Isamu Noguchi’s half-sister. Shortly after their arrival at the port of Yokohama, the infant Noguchi was finally given the name “Isamu” by his father. Despite the move to Japan however, Yonejiro rarely lived with his family, and spent most of his time working and living in Kamakura. The effects of Noguchi’s constant estrangement from his father; can be observed in the earlier years of Noguchi’s career in both the development of himself as a person and the development of his art as an artist. This could possibly be seen in Noguchi’s initial avoidance of a Japanese art style which could be interpreted as a rebellion against his father in the hopes of distancing himself from his Japanese side. Throughout Noguchi’s early years in Japan, his mother would teach English at various schools and institutions. In 1913, Isamu begins English language school at Saint Joseph’s College, a school for expatriates in Yokohama, under the name, Isamu (Sam) Gilmour, a reaction by his mother at the news that Yonejiro had married Matsuko
10
Takeda. During this time, Gilmour commissions a carpenter to build for them a house where Noguchi begins to learn Japanese wood working techniques by assisting the carpenter. This could be viewed as an early influence on Noguchi’s artistic lexicon and a contributing factor toward his knowledge of Japanese design aesthetics. In 1916, whilst corresponding with Catherine Bunnell, a friend; Noguchi’s mother hears of the progressive Interlaken School in Rolling Prairie, Indiana. She applies for Noguchi to attend and he is accepted soon after. The pair prepare for Noguchi’s travel back to the United States, while his mother stays in Japan to continue her work. The Interlaken School was a progressive boys’ school in which time spent outdoors and physical activity was encouraged. A quote from an informational booklet states: “Through many-sided work and through visits to factories and farms, excursions on foot and by wheel, the pupils learn to know and to appreciate real life.” (Indiana State Library, 2019). Noguchi’s short time spent at the school before it was converted into a military camp due to The First World War, could be a factor in Noguchi’s fascination with organic shapes, as can be interpreted in his artwork. Noguchi would later attend La Porte High School, with the assistance of Interlaken School founder Dr. Edward A. Rumely (1882–1964) whom he had befriended. After graduating from La Porte High School Dr. Rumely arranges for Noguchi to study as an apprentice under sculptor Gutzon Borglum (1867–1941). Borglum is most famous for his work on the Mount Rushmore National Memorial project (19271941), which depicts in stone; four United States’ Presidents, (National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior). Dr. Rumely also raises funds for Noguchi to attend Columbia University in New York where he would undertake premedical studies. While attending performances of The Ballet Egyptien at The Capitol Theatre, New York, Noguchi befriends Doris Niles, a famed dancer, who would come to serve as one of Isamu Noguchi’s earliest portrait sculpt subjects. Noguchi’s mother (recently resettled into The United States after leaving Japan) encourages Noguchi to undertake evening sculpture classes at the Leonardo da Vinci Art School, where he would be taught by Onorio Ruotolo (1888–1966), a man referred to as the “Rodin of Little Italy” (Calandra Italian American Institute, 2004). This early period in Noguchi’s artistic career is characterised by a succession of western inspired portrait sculpts which would be commissioned by various important figures in society throughout Noguchi’s lifetime. Portrait commissions would serve as a major source of income for Noguchi throughout much of his career. In 1927, Noguchi is awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship (John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, n.d.) despite being short three years of the age requisite, which allowed him to travel to Paris on a grant. Upon arriving in Paris, Noguchi arranges himself a Meeting with Constantin Brancusi (1876–1937) after first seeing his work at an exhibition in the Brummer Gallery in New York. Brancusi is a Romanian born artist who made his career in France. He is considered a pioneer of modernism and is hailed as one of the most influential sculptors of the 20th century. Despite a mutual linguistic unintelligibility: Noguchi barely able to speak French and Brancusi unable to speak English, Noguchi becomes Brancusi’s fulltime studio assistant for the next half year. This is highly relevant considering Noguchi’s age; 23 at the time. He leaves Paris for New York in 1929. Similarities between Brancusi’s style and Noguchi’s style can be observed through their mutual gravitation toward utilising exaggerations of organic shapes in their artwork, especially in depictions of human faces. There are clear similarities in Noguchi’s work and Brancusi’s earlier work. Brancusi’s 1907 sculpt of a boy: “Suffering” in comparison to Noguchi’s 1929 sculpt of George Gershwin is an example. There is a clear derivation in Noguchi’s sculpts which pertain to Brancusi’s use of form and style. Exaggeration of facial elements and simplification of detail is more prominent in Brancusi’s later works, his 1913 sculpt of Mademoiselle Pogany being a prime example; could have influenced Noguchi’s style.
11
In 1930, after a brief stay in Paris, he plans to set sail for Japan, however, upon hearing that his father did not approve Noguchi’s visit using his surname (Duus, 2004); distraught, he travels to Beijing, China instead. Here he studies Chinese brush painting with Qi Baishi (1864-1957), “One of the most well-known contemporary Chinese painters” (China Online Museum, n.d.). The next year, Noguchi travels to Japan where he meets his father in a hotel in Tokyo, their first meeting in 14 years. Despite more than a decade of estrangement and Noguchi’s father’s previous attitude towards him, the pair get along well. This event could possibly signify a synthesis of Noguchi and his father’s relationship, thus serving to dispel any previous animosity the two may have shared for each other. This event could also possibly signify the start of a gradual embrace of a Japanese art aesthetic which can be observed in Noguchi’s later works thereafter. An example would be the Akari Light Sculptures (1951), which are heavily inspired by traditional Japanese paper lanterns. Noguchi would spend the remainder of his life experimenting with shape and form which would later culminate as part of the “Biomorphism” movement. Notable artists within the movement include: Joan Miró (1893-1983), Dame Barbara Hepworth (1903-1975) and Henry Moore OM CH FBA (1898-1986), (Tate, n.d.). As the name implies, Biomorphism seeks to morph and blend bio-organic shapes, (The Art Story, n.d.). Noguchi is notable for designing the Zenith Radio Nurse (1938), the first electronic baby monitor which he claims: “My only strictly industrial design” (Banham, 1997). The culmination of a decades long career and a vast body of work illustrates Isamu Noguchi’s gradual evolution as an artist and the eventual embrace of a Japanese design aesthetic, the possible result of reconciliation between himself and his estranged father. During a life lived through excellence, achievement and exploration, Noguchi collects a formidable array of influences which can be observed in his learned and varied work. Using his expertise as a sculptor amongst other talents, Isamu Noguchi has undoubtedly left a great impression on the world of modernist art.
12
(Noguchi, Noguchi Table, 1947)
(Noguchi, George Gershwin, (Brancusi, Suffering, 1907) 1929)
(Brancusi, Mlle Pogany, 1913)
(Noguchi, Akari Light Sculptures, 1951)
13
References -Banham, J. (Ed.). (1997). Encyclopedia of Interior Design. -Brancusi, C. (1907). Suffering. Suffering. Art Institute Chicago, Chicago. Retrieved from https://www.artic.edu/artworks/106540/suffering -Brancusi, C. (1913). Mlle Pogany. Mlle Pogany. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Retrieved from https://www.moma.org/collection/works/80744 -Calandra Italian American Institute. (2004, February 23). The Art of Freedom: Onorio -Ruotolo and the Leonardo da Vinci School. Retrieved from Calandra Italian American Institute: https://calandrainstitute.org/product/the-art-of-freedomonorio-ruotolo-and-the-leonardo-da-vinci-school/ -China Online Museum. (n.d.). Qi Baishi. Retrieved from China Online Museum: https://www.comuseum.com/painting/masters/qi-baishi/# -Duus, M. (2004). The life of Isamu Noguchi : journey without borders. Princeton, N.J. : -Princeton University Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/ lifeofisamunoguc00duus/page/128/mode/2up -Indiana State Library. (2019, May 17). Isamu Noguchi and the Interlaken School. Retrieved from Indiana State LiWbrary: https://blog.library.in.gov/isamu-noguchiand-the-interlaken-school/ -John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. (n.d.). About The Fellowship. Retrieved from John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation: https://www.gf.org/ about/fellowship/ -Matsui, H. (2010, November 5). Portrait of the artist’s mother as a young woman. (K. Shoji, Interviewer) The Japan Times. Retrieved from https://www.japantimes. co.jp/culture/2010/11/05/films/portrait-of-the-artists-mother-as-a-youngwoman/#.XrfldGVR0uU -National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.usa-ti.com/South%20Dakota/Mt_Rushmore_NM/brochures/Sculptor%20 Gutzon%20Borglum.pdf -Noguchi, I. (1929). George Gershwin. Smithsonian, Washington, D.C. Retrieved from https://npg.si.edu/blog/george-gershwin-and-isamu-noguchi-1929 -Noguchi, I. (1947). Noguchi Table. Coffee Table. The Noguchi Museum, Queens. -Noguchi, I. (1951). Akari Light Sculptures. Akari Light Sculptures. Gifu, Japan. Retrieved from https://shop.noguchi.org/collections/akari-light-sculptures -Noguchi.org. (n.d.). Biography. Retrieved from Isamu Noguchi: https://www. noguchi.org/isamu-noguchi/biography/biography/ -Noguchi.org. (n.d.). Chronology. Retrieved from Isamu Noguchi: https://www. noguchi.org/isamu-noguchi/biography/chronology/ -Tate. (n.d.). Biomorphic, Art Term. Retrieved from Tate.org: https://www.tate.org.uk/ art/art-terms/b/biomorphic -The Art Story. (n.d.). Isamu Noguchi Artworks. Retrieved from The Art Story: https:// www.theartstory.org/artist/noguchi-isamu/artworks/
REFLECTION Through task 2, I was able to learn much about Isamu Noguchi, my chosen artist. He is a very fascinating individual and it is reflected in his artwork. Through making parallels between Noguchi as an artist and Noguchi as a person and by extension; his relation with his father, I was able to more insight into his character. By understanding Noguchi as a person, I am further able to understand his work which would be beneficial for task 3 of the assignment; in which I have to design a piece based on Noguchi’s work.
14
SECTION 2:
Grey Sun, Isamu Noguchi, 1967
15
16
BIOGRAPHY: ISAMU NOGUCHI Isamu Noguchi was born on November 17, 1904 to a Japanese father and American mother. His mother, Leonie Gilmour worked as an editor and translator for Isamu Noguchi’s father, Yonejiro Noguchi. The couple never officially married, and Yonejiro was absent most of Noguchi’s early life. Isamu Noguchi is considered one of the 20th century’s most important sculptors. As well as sculpture. Noguchi was well versed in various other forms of art such as: furniture design, set design and architecture. Noguchi was also part of an art movement known as “Biomorphism” which sought to blend organic shapes.
Isamu Noguchi Sculpting Abraham Lincoln.
Noguchi lived most of his pre-teen years in Japan until the age of 12 when he set sail for America where he would enrol in the progressive Interlaken School in Rolling Prairie, Indiana. Noguchi would later finish his education and go on to be taught sculpture by sculptor Gutzon Borglum (1867–1941), the man responsible for the Mount Rushmore Project. In 1927, Noguchi is awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship despite being 3 years short of the age requisite. Later in the same year he becomes the studio assistant of Romanian Born, French artist; Constantin Brancusi, considered a pioneer of modernism and known as “The Patriarch of Modern Sculpture”.
Noguchi Coffee Table, 1947
Noguchi would go on living a rewarding life and designing many iconic pieces. His most recognisable furniture design being the Noguchi Coffee Table (1947). Noguchi would also design the Zenith Radio Nurse (1937), the first electronic baby monitor. Noguchi passed away in 1988 at the age of 84. Zenith Radio Nurse, 1937
17
TIMELINE: ISAMU NOGUCHI
18
TASK 3: INSPIRED FURNITURE DESIGN
(Noguchi, Noguchi Table, 1947)
Cyclone Table, Isamu Noguchi, 1957
The final part of assessment task 3 required us to have an understanding of our chosen artist’s design style thus allowing us to design a piece of furniture based around his or her work. Isamu Noguchi’s most famous furniture design, the Noguchi Coffee Table (1947) seen above is what I shall be basing the part of my furniture design on as well as Noguchi’s Cyclone Table (1957) What struck me about these pieces were the elegant forms and smooth shapes employed in the construction of this table. The minimal aesthetic helps to draw out the hidden details within these designs, despite them being so simple. These pieces are a good example of Biomorphism as they use primarily organic forms in their construction.
19
IDEATION
20
21
22
FINAL CONCEPT
23
3D DESIGN
24
Using a free and open source 3D software known as Blender, I set about modeling the table which I had Imagined in my head and drawn out on paper. I also modeled an entire living room/kitchen with which to set the table inside, to give an estimation as to its natural size and to give a better idea as to how it should look; had the product been real. Industry ready ray-tracing software was used to simulate the materials such as the glass and steel. The teapot and glass mug is also there to give an estimation of its size. This is the final design.
25
Render View
3D model View 26
EXPLODED VIEW This table design uses a combination of glossy painted wood, glass, and metal; as these were common materials employed in Noguchi’s own furniture design. I have always personally been attracted and fascinated with glass and its light refracting properties. This is why I have made the wood table element slightly hollowed out so that this small detail is visible through the clear glass. This hollowed out cavity may be used to store decorative items. I have also incorporated small rubberised pads in the design of the table to ensure the glass does not slide off its base.
Glass Pane Semi-Transparent Rubber Pad
Glossy Painted Wood Table
Stainless Steel Thick Wire
Stainless Steel Screws
Glossy Painted Wood Base
27
PLAN VIEW
28
SUMMARY
I decided to use triangles as the main geometric shape in the design of this table. I did this as I was heavily inspired by the triangular shape of Noguchi’s Coffee Table. I chose to use thick wire as the support structure of the table as I found it to be visually appealing and was also inspired by Noguchi’s aforementioned Cyclone Table.
29
REFLECTION Througout all the tasks I have thus far, I have learnt many things. I have learnt about various aspects of aspects of design and also art history. Within art; I have learnt a great deal about the different time periods associated with Modernism, more so with the era of Mid-Modernism, which a bulk of my learning efforts was targeted towards. By doing this, I have learnt the fundamentals of the art and design of this period and have acquired an extended knowledge on the general geist and thinking of the era. Through studying my chosen artist Isamu Noguchi, I discovered more about his life and his art style. This new found knowledge allowed me to better design a piece of furniture in the vain of his work. This task was most enjoyable for me as I enjoy 3D modeling and rendering. The combined efforts of tasks 1 through 3 helped me to practice the use of Adobe Indesign and allowed me to sharpen my skills with this often confusing software.
30
REFERENCES 130 Years After Hitler’s Birth, He Continues to Live as a Symbol of Evil. (2019, December 12). Retrieved from TIME: https://time.com/5573720/hitler-world-influence/ Banham, J. (Ed.). (1997). Encyclopedia of Interior Design. Brancusi, C. (1907). Suffering. Suffering. Art Institute Chicago, Chicago. Retrieved from https://www.artic.edu/artworks/106540/suffering Brancusi, C. (1913). Mlle Pogany. Mlle Pogany. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Retrieved from https://www.moma.org/collection/works/80744 Britannica. (2020). DICTATOR OF GERMANY, Adolf Hitler. Retrieved from ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-Hitler Calandra Italian American Institute. (2004, February 23). The Art of Freedom: Onorio Ruotolo and the Leonardo da Vinci School. Retrieved from Calandra Italian American Institute: https://calandrainstitute.org/product/the-art-of-freedom-onorioruotolo-and-the-leonardo-da-vinci-school/ China Online Museum. (n.d.). Qi Baishi. Retrieved from China Online Museum: https://www.comuseum.com/painting/masters/qi-baishi/# Duus, M. (2004). The life of Isamu Noguchi : journey without borders. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/ lifeofisamunoguc00duus/page/128/mode/2up Evans, W. (1936). Alabama Tenant Farmer. Alabama Tenant Farmer. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved from http://arthistorynewsreport.blogspot. com/2012/04/walker-evans-photographs.html Great Depression History. (2009, October 29). Retrieved from history: https:// www.history.com/topics/great-depression/great-depression-history History Learning. (2018). The March on Rome. Retrieved from History Learning: https://historylearning.com/modern-world-history/italy-1900-to-1939/march-onrome/ Indiana State Library. (2019, May 17). Isamu Noguchi and the Interlaken School. Retrieved from Indiana State Library: https://blog.library.in.gov/isamu-noguchi-andthe-interlaken-school/ John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. (n.d.). About The Fellowship. Retrieved from John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation: https://www.gf.org/ about/fellowship/ Karsh. (n.d.). Isamu Noguchi. Retrieved from Karsh: https://karsh.org/ photographs/isamu-noguchi/ Lange, D. (1936). Migrant Mother. Nipomo. Retrieved from https://memory.loc. gov/ammem/awhhtml/awpnp6/migrant_mother.html Matsui, H. (2010, November 5). Portrait of the artist’s mother as a young woman. (K. Shoji, Interviewer) The Japan Times. Retrieved from https://www.japantimes. co.jp/culture/2010/11/05/films/portrait-of-the-artists-mother-as-a-young-woman/#. XrfldGVR0uU National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.usa-ti.com/South%20Dakota/Mt_Rushmore_NM/brochures/Sculptor%20 Gutzon%20Borglum.pdf Noguchi, I. (1929). George Gershwin. Smithsonian, Washington, D.C. Retrieved from https://npg.si.edu/blog/george-gershwin-and-isamu-noguchi-1929 Noguchi, I. (1937). Zenith Radio Nurse. Zenith Radio Nurse. Zenith Radio Corporation. Retrieved from https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/ search/490889 Noguchi, I. (1947). Noguchi Table. Coffee Table. The Noguchi Museum, Queens. Noguchi, I. (1951). Akari Light Sculptures. Akari Light Sculptures. Gifu, Japan. Retrieved from https://shop.noguchi.org/collections/akari-light-sculptures Noguchi, I. (1956). The Self. Tate. Retrieved from https://www.tate.org.uk/art/ artworks/noguchi-the-self-t00338 Noguchi, I. (1967). Grey Sun. Grey Sun. Smithsonian American Art Museum, Northwest Washington. Retrieved from https://americanart.si.edu/exhibitions/noguchi
31
Noguchi.org. (n.d.). Biography. Retrieved from Isamu Noguchi: https://www. noguchi.org/isamu-noguchi/biography/biography/ Noguchi.org. (n.d.). Chronology. Retrieved from Isamu Noguchi: https://www. noguchi.org/isamu-noguchi/biography/chronology/ Pentagram. (n.d.). Paula Scher. Retrieved from Pentagram: https://www. pentagram.com/about/paula-scher Scher, P. (1995). Public Theatre Poster. The Public Theatre, New York. Retrieved from https://www.creativeboom.com/features/paula-scher/ Scher, P. (n.d.). CBS Poster. CBS. Tate. (n.d.). Biomorphic, Art Term. Retrieved from Tate.org: https://www.tate.org. uk/art/art-terms/b/biomorphic Tate. (n.d.). Constantin Brancusi. Retrieved from Tate: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/ artists/constantin-brancusi-800 The Art Story. (n.d.). Isamu Noguchi Artworks. Retrieved from The Art Story: https://www.theartstory.org/artist/noguchi-isamu/artworks/
32